An Introduction: Eddycurrent Testing Pa Rt-2 O F 2

Ed d y Cu rre n t
Te s tin g
-An In tro d u ctio n
Part-2 o f 2
2014-November
My ASNT Level III
Pre-Exam
Preparatory Self Study
Notes
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Fion Zhang
2014/November
http://meilishouxihu.blog.163.com/
Shanghai 上海
看不了”YouTube”学习视频.
我是一个聪明的梯子, 用来干什么你懂的

Movie Time
 http://www.giniko.com/watch.php?id=216

Introduction to Eddy Current Theory – 涡流原理
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djFvnFy3rJc

Eddy Current Math – 涡流公式
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-IW6cFIt9E

Standard depth penetration – 标准渗透率
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2Yh7tZpKbo

Eddy Current Curve – 涡流曲线
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bojm5F_4ay4

Introduction to Eddy Current Machine – 涡流设备
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S34yt8-zgns

Conductivity Measurement - 电导率测量
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvTUomSYEt8

Crack Detections - 裂缝探测
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YUSn___VxQ

4.0 Probes (Coils)
4.1 Impedance Matching
Eddy current testing requires us to determine the components of the
impedance of the detecting coil or the potential difference across it. Most
applications require the determination only of changes in impedance, which
can be measured with a high degree of sensitivity using an AC bridge. The
principles of operation of the most commonly used eddy current instruments
are based on Maxwell's inductance bridge, in which the components of the
impedance of the detecting coil, commonly called a probe, are compared with
known variable impedances connected in series and forming the balancing
arm of the bridge. Refer back to Bridges.

Maxwell inductance bridge

The input to the bridge is an AC oscillator, often variable in both frequency
and amplitude. The detector arm takes the form of either a meter or a storage
cathode-ray oscilloscope, a phase-sensitive detector, a rectifier to provide a
steady indication, and usually an attenuator to confine the output indication
within a convenient range. Storage facilities are necessary in the oscilloscope
in order to retain the signal from the detector for reference during scanning
with the probe.
The highest sensitivity of detection is achieved by properly matching the
impedance of the probe to the impedance of the measuring instrument.
Thus, with a bridge circuit that is initially balanced, a subsequent but usually
small variation in the impedance of the probe upsets the balance, and a
potential difference appears across the detector arm of the bridge.
Question:
Is it the potential difference appears in the CRT?

Although the Maxwell inductance bridge forms the basis of most eddy current
instruments, there are several reasons why it cannot be used in its simplest
form (i.e. Hague, 1934), including the creation of stray capacitances, such as
those formed by the leads and leakages to earth. These unwanted
impedances can be eliminated by earthing devices and the addition of
suitable impedances to produce one or more wide-band frequency (i.e. low Q)
resonance circuits. Instruments having a wide frequency range (i.e. from 1
kHz to 2 MHz) may possess around five of these bands to cover the range.
The value of the impedance of the probe is therefore an important
consideration in achieving proper matching and, as a result, it may be
necessary to change the probe when switching from one frequency band to
another.

“Q” Values for frequency (applicable to mechanical sonic or electrical)
The word “Q” does not

have any impact on the
quality elements in a
specific testing method
(UT, ET etc.), it is simply a
term used to describes
the bandwidth of a
frequency in questioned.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://community.calrec.com/q-in-60-seconds/

“Q” Values for frequency (applicable to mechanical sonic or electrical)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.eeweb.com/blog/rodney_green_2/a-history-of-hf-radio-receivers-part-2

4.2 Coil (Probe) Design
The most important feature in eddy current testing is the way in which the
eddy currents are induced and detected in the material under test. This
depends on the design of the probe. As discussed in the previous pages,
probes can contain one or more coils, a core and shielding. All have an
important effect on the probe, but the coil requires the most design
consideration.
A coil consists of a length of wire wound in a helical manner around the
length of a former. The main purpose of the former is to provide a sufficient
amount of rigidity in the coil to prevent distortion. Formers used for coils with
diameters greater than a few millimeters (i.e. encircling and pancake coils),
generally take the form of tubes or rings made from dielectric
materials. Small-diameter coils are usually wound directly onto a solid former.

The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a
solid material or just air. When the core is air or a nonconductive material,
the probe is often referred to as an air-core probe. Some coils are wound
around a ferrite core which concentrates the coil's magnetic field into a
smaller area. These coils are referred to as "loaded" coils.
The wire used in an eddy current probe is typically made from copper or other
nonferrous metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The winding usually
has more than one layer so as to increase the value of inductance for a given
length of coil. The higher the inductance (L) of a coil, at a given
frequency, the greater the sensitivity of eddy current testing.
Keywords:
Air core
Loaded core
Magnetic hysteresis effects

Magnetic hysteresis effects

It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high
a current may produce:
 a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the

value of L.
 magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is
used.
The simplest type of probe is the single-coil probe, which is in widespread

use. The following applet may be used to calculate the effect of the inner and
outer diameters, length, number of turns and wire diameter of a simple probe
design on the probe's self inductance. Dimensional units are in millimeters.

Eddy current inspection
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/ProbesCoilDesign/Popups/applet1/applet1.htm

A more precise value of L is given by:
ro is the mean radius of the coil.

rc is the radius of the core.
l is the length of the coil.
n is the number of turns.
µr is the relative magnetic permeability of the core.
µo is the permeability of free space (i.e. 4 pi x 10-7 H/m).
K is a dimensionless constant characteristic of the length and the external and internal
radii.

4.3 Probes - Mode of Operation
Eddy current probes are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes. In
fact, one of the major advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes
can be custom designed for a wide variety of applications. Eddy current
probes are classified by the configuration and mode of operation of the test
coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or
coils are packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. An example of
different configurations of probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted
into a piece of pipe to inspect from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in
which the coil or coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the outside in. The
mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface
with the test equipment.
The mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories:
(1) absolute, (2) differential, (3) reflection and (4) hybrid.
Each of these classifications will be discussed in more detail below.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.vegastel.eu/index.php/en/sukuriniu-sroviu-metodas-en/eddy-current-probes/693-eddy-current-probe-selection-information

Keywords:
Configurations of probes
(1) Bobbin probes,
(2) Encircling probes,
Mode of operation
(1) absolute, (2) differential, (3) reflection and (4) hybrid.

4.3.1 Absolute Probes
Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the
eddy currents and sense changes in the eddy current field. As discussed in
the physics section, AC is passed through the coil and this sets up an
expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the coil. When the
probe is positioned next to a conductive material, the changing magnetic field
generates eddy currents within the material.
The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this
appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy
currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic
field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil.
By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much

information can be gained about the test material.

Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements,
liftoff measurements and thickness measurements. They are widely used due
to their versatility. Since absolute probes are sensitive to things such as
conductivity, permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be taken to
minimize these variables when they are not important to the inspection being
performed. It is very common for commercially available absolute probes to
have a fixed "air loaded" reference coil that compensates for ambient
temperature variations.

Absolute Probes (Single-Coil Probes)
The earliest form of eddy current instruments operated with a single-coil
probe that was wound to a specific value frequency. Many newer models of
eddy current instruments have kept this circuitry as a popular option for users
while also incorporating more sophisticated functions. When these probes are
used, a balance coil is also required which may be set from within the eddy
current instrument or is commonly found within the probe housing, the cable
connector or in a separate adapter. A problem can arise when the probe
inductance value is not close enough to the value of the balance coil causing
the instrument not to balance correctly. The result is poor performance (noisy
or insensitive) or no response at all (signal saturation).
Balancing coil

The Principle:
The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this
appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy
currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of
the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil.
Variations:
The change in inductive reactance could be increasing or decreasing
depending on the magnetic permeability of material.
Commons:
Irrespective of magnetic permeability, the resistance always increase.

4.3.2 Differential Probes
Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition,
although they could be wound in addition with similar results. When the two
coils are over a flaw-free area of test sample, there is no differential signal
developed between the coils since they are both inspecting identical material.
However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over good material,
a differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being very
sensitive to defects yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such
as gradual dimensional or temperature variations. Probe wobble signals (摆动
信号) are also reduced with this probe type. There are also disadvantages to
using differential probes. Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret.
For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing between the two coils, only
the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when
both coils sense the flaw equally.

Differential Probes – with two coils wound in different directions

Differential (Bridge Type) Probes
In this configuration the probe coils are located in an electrical "bridge" (see
fig. below). The instrument balances the bridge and any change in balance is
displayed as a signal. In this arrangement, the same coil produces the eddy
currents and detects the impedance changes caused by the defects (or any
other variables). Almost all instruments are able to operate with this type of
coil arrangement.

4.3.3 Reflection Probes
Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is
used to excite the eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in
the test material. Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as
driver/pickup probes. The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and
pickup coils can be separately optimized for their intended purpose. The
driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and uniform flux field in the
vicinity of the pickup coil, while the pickup coil can be made very small so that
it will be sensitive to very small defects.

Reflection Probes

Reflection Type Probe
These probes are also known as send-receive or driver-pickup. In this
configuration, the eddy currents are produced by a coil connected to the
instrument's oscillator (driver). The signals received back in the probe are
detected by separate coils called pickups (see Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). All new
impedance plane instruments and also many older models are able to
operate in both differential (bridge) and reflection modes.

4.3.4 Hybrid Probes
An example of a hybrid probe is the split D, differential probe shown below.
This probe has a driver coil that surrounds two D shaped sensing coils. It
operates in the reflection mode but additionally, its sensing coils operate in
the differential mode. This type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks.
Another example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a conventional coil to
generate eddy currents in the material but then uses a different type of sensor
to detect changes on the surface and within the test material. An example of a
hybrid probe is one that uses a Hall effect sensor to detect changes in the
magnetic flux leaking from the test surface. Hybrid probes are usually
specially designed for a specific inspection application.

4.3.5 Differential (Bridge) or Reflection?
This is a common question asked by those involved in trying to select the best
probe for an inspection. The answer is "It depends." Let us consider both
systems.
Gain: Reflection probes will give a higher gain, particularly if they are "tuned"
to a specific frequency, but normally the difference is on average about 6 dB.
It is true that this doubles the signal, but if you consider that the instruments
are able to give this increase of gain easily, it is not so important.
Nevertheless, in critical applications this increase is very welcomed.
Frequency range: Reflection probes do not need to balance the driver to the
pickup coils. This means that they will give a wider frequency range. As long
as the driver produces eddy currents, the pickup will detect them and some
signal will be displayed. This may not provide good information at certain
frequencies, but the probe is still working!

Bridge type probes used to give a limited frequency span in the older
instruments, as these had to balance an electrical bridge using its other arms
(X and R controls). In modern instruments, the bridge is normally formed with
fixed precision resistors, or a fixed transformer inside it. The signals detected
in this manner are electronically processed without any "mechanical"
adjustments, and this means a greater ability to balance over a wider
frequency range.
Drift: Probe drift is mostly caused by temperature change in the coils. This
may be caused by varying
ambient temperature, or the heat produced by the oscillator current, or both.
There are design parameters that can be optimized to reduce drift, such as
wire diameter and ferrite selection, but reflection probes are normally a good
choice to avoid this problem even more.

In a reflection probe, the driver current does not flow through the pickup coils;
in fact, the magnetic field received back from the specimen is normally much
smaller and, consequently, the current flowing in the pickups is also reduced.
Most probe types (pencil, spot, ring, bolt hole, etc.) can be made as bridge or
reflection. Keep in mind that a reflection probe is almost invariably more
difficult to manufacture and therefore more expensive.

4.3.6 Absolute, Differential (Bridge) and Reflection Probes
This is an area where some confusion exists. Many users have called a probe
"differential" when the signal displayed gives an up and down movement or a
figure 8 type signal. This is caused by the two coils sensing the defect in
sequence. When both sensing coils are on the probe surface, they
compensate for lift-off and as a result no line is visible (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5
In contrast, an absolute or bridge display is produced by a single sensing coil
(see Fig. 1 through Fig. 4), giving a single, upward movement with a near
horizontal lift-off line. Others have called a probe "differential" simply when
the coils were connected differentially such as in a bridge circuit. The problem
with this definition is that probes can be connected differentially in a reflection
system as well as when using two pickups (such as most scanner-driven bolt
hole probes). In this case, the two pickup coils are positioned close to one
another and contained within a driver coil (see Fig. 6).
The best way out of this confusion is
often to specify the probe as
absolute, bridge, reflection, bridge
differential or reflection differential as
needed. It makes more sense to
qualify the description according to
the displayed signal, since this is
what really matters and not many
people are concerned as to how the
coils are connected internally.
Fig. 6

4.3.7 Shielded and Unshielded Probes
Probes are normally available in both shielded and unshielded versions;
however, there is an increasing demand for the shielded variety.
Shielding restricts the magnetic field produced by the coils to the physical
size of the probe. A shield can be made of various materials, but the most
common are: ferrite (like a ceramic made of iron oxides), Mu-metal, and mild
steel. Ferrite make the best shielding because they provide an easy path for
the magnetic field but has poor conductivity. This means that there is little
eddy current loss in the shield itself. Mild steel has more losses but is widely
used for spot probes and ring probes due to its ease of machining when
ferrite is not available in certain sizes or shapes. Mu-metal is sometimes for
pencil probes as it is available in thin sheet; however, it is less effective than
ferrite.
Note: Mu-metal (高导磁合金) is a nickel-iron alloy, composed of

approximately 77% nickel, 16% iron, 5% copper and 2% chromium or
molybdenum, that is notable for its high magnetic permeability.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-metal

Shielding has several advantages: first, it allows the probe to be used near
geometry changes, such as edges, without giving false indications; next, it
allows the probe to touch ferrous fastener heads with minimal interference;
last, it allows the detection of smaller defects due to the stronger magnetic
field concentrated in a smaller area.
On the other hand, unshielded probes allow somewhat deeper penetration

due to the larger magnetic field. They are also slightly more tolerant to lift-off.
Unshielded probes are recommended for the inspection of ferrous materials
(steel) for surface cracks, and in particular with meter instruments. The
reason for this is that the meter response is too slow to allow the signal from a
shielded probe to be displayed at normal scanning speeds due to the smaller
sensitive area.

4.3.8 Adapters
To connect a probe with a connector different from the type used on the
instrument, it is necessary to use an adapter. An adapter consists of two
different connectors joined and wired to match the inputs and outputs as
necessary. It is normally housed in a short body that can be positioned at the
instrument's input. Sometimes, it is also possible to have a "cable adapter,"
which is made to match a connector located at the probe body. Depending on
the instrument's wiring, it may be possible to have a single adapter for both
bridge and reflection probes. In other cases, it is necessary to have two
separate adapters or use a switchable type.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.vegastel.eu/index.php/en/sukuriniu-sroviu-metodas-en/eddy-current-probes/693-eddy-current-probe-selection-information

4.4 Probes - Configurations
As mentioned on the previous page, eddy current probes are classified by the
configuration and mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the
probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best
"couple" to the test area of interest. Some of the common classifications of
probes based on their configuration include surface probes, bolt hole probes,
inside diameter (ID) probes, and outside diameter (OD) probes.

Eddy current probes

Eddy current inspection display
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ibgndt.com/eddyliner-s-eddy-current-testers-hardness-case-depth-structure.php

Eddy current inspection system
http://idea-ndt.en.alibaba.com/product/488266329-212374104/Automatic_ERW_pipes_eddy_current_and_ultrasonic_testing_systems_and_equipments.html

4.4.1 Surface Probes
Surface probes are usually designed to be handheld and are intended to be
used in contact with the test surface. Surface probes generally consist of a
coil of very fine wire encased in a protective housing. The size of the coil and
shape of the housing are determined by the intended use of the probe.
Most of the coils are wound so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the
test surface. This coil configuration is sometimes referred to as a pancake coil
and is good for detecting surface discontinuities that are oriented
perpendicular to the test surface. Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that
are in a parallel plane to the test surface will likely go undetected with this coil
configuration.

Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large
defects. They sample a relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration.
Since they do sample a large area, they are often used for conductivity tests
to get more of a bulk material measurement. However, their large sampling
area limits their ability to detect small discontinuities.
Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender
housing to permit inspection in restricted spaces. They are available with a
straight shaft or with a bent shaft, which facilitates easier handling and use in
applications such as the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes
are prone to wobble due to their small base and sleeves are sometimes used
to provide a wider base.
Keywords:
Wide surface- deeper penetration
Narrow probe – detect smaller discontinuities
Narrow probe – prone to wobble

Surface Probe
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://advantech.my/Products%20-%20ET.htm

Surface Probe

Surface Probe

Surface Probe

4.4.2 Bolt Hole Probes
Bolt hole probes are a special type of surface probe that is designed to be
used with a bolt hole scanner. They have a surface coil that is mounted inside
a housing that matches the diameter of the hole being inspected. The probe
is inserted in the hole and the scanner rotates the probe within the hole.

Bolt Hole Probes
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.phtool.com/pages/eddy.asp

Bolt Hole Probes
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/eddy-current-probes-guide/

Birring NDT Series, Eddy Current Testing # 5,
Inspection of Fastener Holes using a Rotary Probe
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4yqOLUYrBs

4.4.3 ID or Bobbin Probes
ID probes, which are also referred to as Bobbin probes or feed-through
probes, are inserted into hollow products, such as pipes, to inspect from the
inside out. The ID probes have a housing that keep the probe centered in the
product and the coil(s) orientation somewhat constant relative to the test
surface. The coils are most commonly wound around the circumference of the
probe so that the probe inspects an area around the entire circumference of
the test object at one time.

Configuration: Bobbin Probe

Configuration:
Bobbin Probe

4.4.4 OD or Encircling Coils
OD probes are often called encircling coils. They are similar to ID probes
except that the coil(s) encircle the material to inspect from the outside in. OD
probes are commonly used to inspect solid products, such as bars.

Configuration: Encircling probes



Eddy current inspection: Calibration

Eddy current inspection: Calibration


Eddy Current testing – Encircling configuration
 http://www.tudou.com/programs/view/html5embed.action?type=0&code=tCK2R4PRoGk&lcode=&resourceId=30911220_06_05_99" allowtransparency=

4.5 Probes - Shielding & Loading
4.5.1 Why Shielding?
One of the challenges of performing an eddy current inspection is getting
sufficient eddy current field strength in the region of interest within the
material. Another challenge is keeping the field away from non-relevant
features of the test component. The impedance change caused by non-
relevant features can complicate the interpretation of the signal. Probe
shielding and loading are sometimes used to limit the spread and concentrate
the magnetic field of the coil. Of course, if the magnetic field is concentrated
near the coil, the eddy currents will also be concentrated in this area.
Keywords:
 Non-relevant indication
 Probe shielding
 Field is concentrated
 Eddy current also is concentrated

4.5.2 Probe Shielding
Probe shielding is used to prevent or reduce the interaction of the probe's
magnetic field with nonrelevant features in close proximity of the probe.
Shielding could be used to reduce edge effects when testing near
dimensional transitions such as a step or an edge. Shielding could also be
used to reduce the effects of conductive or magnetic fasteners in the region of
testing.
Eddy current probes are most often shielded using magnetic shielding or
eddy current shielding. Magnetically shielded probes have their coil
surrounded by a ring of ferrite or other material with high permeability and low
conductivity. The ferrite creates an area of low magnetic reluctance and the
probe's magnetic field is concentrated in this area rather than spreading
beyond the shielding. This concentrates the magnetic field into a tighter area
around the coil.

Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic
material, usually copper, to surround the coil. The portion of the coil's
magnetic field that cuts across the shielding will generate eddy currents in the
shielding material rather than in the non-relevant features outside of the
shielded area. The higher the frequency of the current used to drive the probe,
the more effective the shielding will be due to the skin effect in the shielding
material.
Question:
“The portion of the coil's magnetic field that cuts
across the shielding will generate eddy currents in
the shielding material rather than in the non-relevant
features outside of the shielded area.”
How does the above provide shielding effect?

Keywords:
 reduce the interaction non-relevant features
 reduce edge effects with step or an edge.
 reduce the effects of conductive or magnetic fasteners nearby.
 Shielded using magnetic shielding or eddy current shielding.

 Magnetically shielded probes surrounded the coil by a ring of ferrite or
other material with high magnetic permeability and low conductivity.
 Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic

material, usually copper, to surround the coil.

Discussion
Topic 1: What is plus point for not shielding?
Topic 2: discuss this sentence
“The higher the frequency of the current used to drive the probe, the more
effective the shielding will be due to the skin effect in the shielding material.”

4.5.3 Probe Loading with Ferrite Cores
Sometimes coils are wound around a ferrite core. Since ferrite is
ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux produced by the coil prefers to travel through
the ferrite as opposed to the air. Therefore, the ferrite core concentrates the
magnetic field near the center of the probe. This, in turn, concentrates the
eddy currents near the center of the probe. Probes with ferrite cores tend to
be more sensitive than air core probes and less affected by probe wobble and
lift-off.

5.0 Procedure Issues
5.1 Reference Standards
In eddy current testing, the use of reference standards in setting up the
equipment is particularly important since signals are affected by many
different variables and slight changes in equipment setup can drastically alter
the appearance of a signal. As with most other NDT methods, the most useful
information is obtained when comparing the results from an unknown object
to results from a similar object with well characterized features and defects. In
almost all cases, eddy current inspection procedures require the equipment to
be configured using reference standards.
For crack detection, corrosion thinning and other material damage, reference
standards are used to setup the equipment to produce a recognizable signal
or set of signals from a defect or set of defects. In many cases, the
appearance of a test signal can be related to the appearance of a signal from
a known defect on the reference standard to estimate the size of a defect in
the test component. Signals that vary significantly from the responses
produced by the reference standard must be further investigated to the
determine the source of the signal.

The reference standards
The reference
Standards











Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://radio.rphf.spbstu.ru/a263/eddy.htm

The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If
this is not possible or practical, it should be of material that has the same
electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. Component features
(material thickness, geometry, etc.) should be the same in the reference
standard as those in the test region of interest. If the reference standard is the
type with intentional defects, these defects should be as representative of
actual defects in the test component as possible. The closer the reference
standard is to the actual test component, the better. However, since cracks
and corrosion damage are often difficult and costly to produce, artificial
defects are commonly used. Narrow notches produced with electron
discharge machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to represent
cracks, and drilled holes are often used to simulate corrosion pitting.

Common eddy current reference standards include:
 Conductivity standards.
 Flat plate discontinuity standards.
 Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).
 Tube discontinuity standards.
 Tube metal thinning standards.
 Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards.

5.2 Signal Filtering
5.2.1 Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate
unwanted frequencies from the receiver signal. While the correct filter settings
can significantly improve the visibility of a defect signal, incorrect settings can
distort the signal presentation and even eliminate the defect signal completely.
Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of signal filtering.

Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, is not directly related
to the probe drive frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a
time versus signal amplitude display. With this display mode, it is easy to see
that the signal shape is dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil
is sensing something. For example, if a surface probe is placed on the
surface of conductor and rocked back and forth, it will produce a wave like
signal. When the probe is rocked fast, the signal will have a higher frequency
than when the probe is rocked slowly back and forth.
The signal does not need a wavelike appearance to have frequency content
and most eddy current signals will be composed of a large number of
frequencies. Consider a probe that senses a notch for 1/60th of a second. In
a period of one second the probe could (in theory) go over the notch 60 times,
resulting in the notch signal having a frequency of 60 Hz. But, imposed on this
same signal, could be the signal resulting from probe wobble, electronic noise,
a conductivity shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.

Unfiltered signal with low
Signal filtering frequency variation and
high frequency noise
Low frequency variation
High pass filter employed

to remove low frequency
variation
High frequency noise
Low pass filter employed to

remove high frequency noise
Filter signal

5.2.2 Filters Effects
The two standard filters found in most impedance plane display instruments
are the ‘High Pass Filter’ (HPF) and ‘Low Pass Filter’ (LPF). Some
instruments also have a‘Band Pass Filter’ (BPF), which is a combination high
and low pass filter. Filters are adjusted in Hertz (Hz).
The HPF allows high frequencies to pass and filters out the low frequencies.
The HPF is basically filtering out changes in the signal that occur over a
significant period of time.
The LPF allows low frequency to pass and filters out the high frequency. In
other words, all portions of the signal that change rapidly (have a high slope)
are filtered, such as electronic noise.
Keywords:
■ HPF
■ LPF
■ BPF

In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered
out with a HPF and then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a
LPF to leave a clearly visible flaw indication. It should also be noted that since
flaw indication signals are comprised of multiple frequencies, both filters have
a tendency to reduce the indication signal strength. Additionally, scan speed
must be controlled when using filters. Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF
might filter out the flaw indication. Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF
might eliminate the flaw indication.
Keywords:
 Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF might filter out the flaw indication.
 Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF might eliminate the flaw indication.

Unfiltered signal with low
Signal Reduction frequency variation and
high frequency noise
Low frequency variation
High pass filter employed

Original Signal to remove low frequency
variation
Filtered Signal
Low pass filter employed to

remove high frequency noise

5.2.3 Filter Settings
If the spectrum of the signal frequency and the signal amplitude or attenuation
are plotted, the filter responses can be illustrated in graphical form. The
image to the right shows the response of a LPF of 20Hz and a HPF of 40Hz.
The LPF allows only the frequencies in yellow to pass and the HPF only allow
those frequencies in the blue area to pass. Therefore, it can be seen that with
these settings there are no frequencies that pass (i.e. the frequencies passed
by the LPF are filtered out by the HPF and visa versa).

Rejected by LPF

Rejected by HPF

To create a window of acceptance for the signals, the filters need to overlap.
In the image to the right, the LPF has been adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to
10Hz. The area shown in gray is where the two frequencies overlap and the
signal is passed. A signal of 30Hz will get through at full amplitude, while a
signal of 15Hz will be attenuated by approximately 50%. All frequencies
above or below the gray area (the pass band) will be rejected by one of the
two filters.
Overlap area-
Accepted signal

5.2.4 Use of Filters
The main function of the LPF is to remove high frequency interference noise.
This noise can come from a variety of sources including the instrumentation
and/or the probe itself. The noise appears as an unstable dot that produces
jagged lines on the display as seen in the signal from a surface notch shown
in the left image below. Lowering the LPF frequency will remove more of the
higher frequencies from the signal and produce a cleaner signal as shown in
the center image below. When using a LPF, it should be set to the highest
frequency that produces a usable signal. To reduce noise in large surface or
ring probes, it may be necessary to use a very low LPF setting (down to
10Hz). The lower the LPF setting, the slower the scanning speed must be and
the more closely it must be controlled. The image on the right below shows a
signal that has been clipped due to using a scan speed too fast for the
selected HPF setting.

Signal Filtering
signal that has been clipped due to
using a scan speed too fast for the
Unfiltered signals selected HPF setting
Lowering the LPF frequency will remove

more of the higher frequencies from the
signal and produce a cleaner signal as
shown in the center image
The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow
changes, such as conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an
edge while scanning parallel to it, or out-of-round holes in fastener hole
inspection. The HPF is useful when performing automated or semiautomatic
scans to keep the signal from wandering too far from the null (balance) point.
The most common application for the HPF is the inspection of fastener holes
using a rotating scanner. As the scanner rotates at a constant RPM, the HPF
can be adjusted to achieve the desired effect.

Use of the HPF when scanning manually is not recommended, as
keeping a constant scanning speed is difficult, and the signal deforms and
amplitude decreases. The size of a signal decreases as the scan speed
decreases and a flaw indication can be eliminated completely if the scan is
not done with sufficient speed. In the images below, it can be seen that a
typical response from a surface notch in aluminum without HPF (left image)
looks considerably different when the HPF is activated (right image). With the
HPF, looping signals with a positive and similar negative deflection are
produced on the impedance plane.

The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manually
scanning, provided the operator can largely control the scan speed and
becomes familiar with the indication signal changes as scan speed is varied
slightly. An good example of such an application would be the manual scan of
the radius of a wheel that is rotated by hand, but the speed of rotation can be
kept relatively constant.

6.0 Applications
6.1 Surface Breaking Cracks
Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of applications such as the
detection of cracks (discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness,
detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and erosion, determination of
coating thickness, and the measurement of electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability. Eddy current inspection is an excellent method for
detecting surface and near surface defects when the probable defect location
and orientation is well known.

Surface breaking cracks






Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.assda.asn.au/component/rsblog/category/13?start=20

Defects such as cracks are detected
when they disrupt the path of eddy
currents and weaken their strength.
The images to the right show an eddy
current surface probe on the surface of
a conductive component. The strength
of the eddy currents under the coil of
the probe ins indicated by color. In the
lower image, there is a flaw under the
right side of the coil and it can be see
that the eddy currents are weaker in
this area.
weaker

Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface finish and condition of
the material, the design of the probe, and many other factors can affect the
sensitivity of the inspection. Successful detection of surface breaking and
near surface cracks requires:
1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.

2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the
part and the coil must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the
flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the
frequency should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high
sensitivity. For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary to get
the required depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity.
Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even
lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration.
4. Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being
inspected and with features that are representative of the defect or
condition being inspected for.

6.1.1 Selection of probe frequency:
Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency.
 For surface flaws, the frequency should be as high as possible for
maximum resolution and high sensitivity.
 For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary to get the required
depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity.
 Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even
lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration.

The basic steps in performing an inspection with a surface probe are the
following:
1. Select and setup the instrument and probe.
2. Select a frequency to produce the desired depth of penetration.
3. Adjust the instrument to obtain an easily recognizable defect response
using a calibration standard or setup specimen.
4. Place the inspection probe (coil) on the component surface and null the
instrument.
5. Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide
complete coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to
maintain the same probe-to-surface orientation as probe wobble can affect
interpretation of the signal. In some cases, fixtures to help maintain
orientation or automated scanners may be required.
6. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance (R, XL) that will occur
as the probe moves over a discontinuity.

 Resistance is essentially friction against the motion of electrons. It is present in all
conductors to some extent (except superconductors!), most notably in resistors.
When alternating current goes through a resistance, a voltage drop is produced
that is in-phase with the current. Resistance is mathematically symbolized by the
letter “R” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).
 Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present

anywhere electric or magnetic fields are developed in proportion to applied voltage
or current, respectively; but most notably in capacitors and inductors. When
alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a voltage drop is produced that
is 90o out of phase with the current. Reactance is mathematically symbolized by
the letter “X” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).
 Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to

electron flow, including both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits,
and in all components. When alternating current goes through an impedance, a
voltage drop is produced that is somewhere between 0o and 90o out of phase with
the current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “Z” and is
measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_5/1.html

Reactance phasor diagram (Impedance plane respond)

Surface probe testing – Crack

The applet below depicts a simple eddy current probe near the surface of a
calibration specimen. Move the probe over the surface of the specimen and
compare the signal responses from a surface breaking crack with the signals
from the calibration notches. The inspection can be made at a couple of
different frequencies to get a feel for the effect that frequency has on
sensitivity in this application.
Keywords:
■ Surface breaking crack
■ Calibration notches
■ Effect of frequency on sensitivity

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/surfaceBreakingCracks.swf
Eddy Current Crack Detection – 涡流裂缝检测
 www.youtube.com/embed/1YUSn___VxQ?feature=player_detailpage

Eddy Current Crack Testing by Criterion NDT–
涡流裂缝检测
 www.youtube.com/embed/9A5fQtOwnzw

6.2 Surface Crack Detection Using Sliding Probes
Many commercial aircraft applications involve the use of multiple fasteners to
connect the multi-layer skins. Because of the fatigue stress that is caused by
the typical application of any commercial aircraft, fatigue cracks can be
induced in the vicinity of the fastener holes. In order to inspect the fastener
holes in an adequate amount of time, sliding probes are an efficient method of
inspection. Sliding probes have been named so because they move over
fasteners in a sliding motion. There are two types of sliding probes, fixed and
adjustable, which are usually operated in the reflection mode. This means
that the eddy currents are induced by the driver coil and detected by a
separate receiving coil (Mode: reflection coils).

Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of
fastener holes. They are capable of detecting surface and subsurface
discontinuities, but they can only detect defects in one direction. The probes
are marked with a detection line to indicate the direction of inspection. In
order to make a complete inspection there must be two scans that are
orthogonal (90 degrees) to each other.

Aircraft applications

Aircraft applications

6.2.1 Probe Types (configuration- surface probe)
(i) Fixed Sliding Probes
These probes are generally used for thinner material compared to the
adjustable probes. Maximum penetration is about 1/8 inch (3mm). Fixed
sliding probes are particularly well suited for finding longitudinal surface or
subsurface cracks such as those found in lap joints. Typical frequency range
is from 100 Hz to 100 kHz.

(ii) Adjustable Sliding Probes
These probes are well suited for finding subsurface cracks in thick multi-layer
structures, like wing skins. Maximum penetration is about 3/4 inch (19mm).
The frequency range for adjustable sliding probes is from 100 Hz to 40 kHz.
Adjustable probes, as the name implies, are adjustable with the use of
spacers, which will change the penetration capabilities. The spacer thickness
between the coils is normally adjusted for the best detection. For tangential
scans or 90 degree scanning with an offset from the center, a thinner spacer
is often used.
The spacer thickness range can vary from “0” (no spacer) for inspections
close to the surface and small fastener heads to a maximum of about 0.3 inch
for deep penetration with large heads in the bigger probe types. A wider
spacer will give more tolerance to probe deviation as the sensitive area
becomes wider but the instrument will require more gain. Sliding probes
usually penetrate thicker materials compared to the donut probes.

6.2.2 Reference Standards
Reference/calibration standards for setup of sliding probes typically consist of
three or four aluminum plates that are fastened together within a lap joint type
configuration. EDM notches or naturally/artificially- induced cracks are located
in the second or third layer of the standard.
Reference standards used should be manufactured from the same material

type, alloy, material thickness, and chemical composition that will be found on
the aircraft component to be inspected. Sizes and tolerances of flaws
introduced in the standards are usually regulated by inspection specifications.

Reference Standards

Reference Standards
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.phtool.com/asntpics.htm

6.2.3 Inspection Variables
6.2.3.1 Liftoff Signal Adjustment
Liftoff is normally adjusted to be relatively horizontal. The term "relatively
horizontal" is used here because the liftoff signal often appears a curved line
rather than a straight line. Sometimes liftoff can be a sharp curve and may
need to be adjusted to run slightly upwards before moving downwards. See
Figures 1 and 2.
Dotted line Ideal

adjustment
The best liftoff

adjustment

Lift-off Signal Adjustment before testing
 www.youtube.com/embed/1YUSn___VxQ?feature=player_detailpage

6.2.3.2 Scan Patterns
A typical scan is centralized over the fastener head and moves along the axis
of the fastener holes. This scan is generally used to detect cracks positioned
along the axis of the fastener holes. For detecting cracks located transverse
or 90 degrees from the axis of the fastener holes, a scan that is 90 degrees
from the axis of the fastener holes is recommended.

Scan Patterns with differential probes
Differential coils have the attraction of built-in lift-off compensation. This has
made them useful for many applications. The older types of coils had no
ferrite shield and they were built just by placing two coils side-by-side (Figure
3). Later types added individual shields (Figure 4), but the greatest
improvement to the sensitivity was achieved when both coils were placed
within a common shield (Figure 5). Differential type probes are mostly used in
small sizes for surface crack detection only.
Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/eddy-current-probes-guide /

In a probe of this type both coils are wound in opposition. Consequently,
signals that affect both simultaneously will cancel out (such as liftoff).
Normally the air point and the working point will be close, but some difference
is present due to small coil variations.

Normal scan direction is as shown (Figure 6), giving the typical display
presentation. The double indication is, in fact helpful, as it doubles the size of
the defect in the screen (Figure 7).
Figure 6 Trailing
signal
Figure 7 Leading
signal

Sometimes it is necessary to scan in the same direction as the cracks (Figure
8). This is permissible and the result will be similar for a very short defect. A
larger defect affecting both coils will tend to cancel out because they are in
opposition, but in practice there are enough differences in angle and depth for
this not to happen totally. In any case, the ends of the crack will show
normally.
Figure 6

6.2.3.3 Signal Interpretation
When the probe moves over a fastener hole with a crack, the indication
changes and typically will create a larger vertical movement. The vertical
amplitude of the loop depends on the crack length, with longer cracks giving
higher indications.
If the crack is in the far side of the fastener, as the probe moves over it, the
dot will follow the fastener line first but will move upwards (clockwise) as it
goes over the crack. If the crack is in the near side, it will be found first and
the dot will move along the crack level before coming down to the fastener
level. If two cracks on opposite sides of the fastener hole are present, the dot
will move upwards to the height by the first crack length and then come back
to the fastener line and balance point. If the second crack is longer than the
first one, the dot will move even higher and complete the loop (clockwise)
before going down to the balance point. See Figures 3 and 4.

Signal Interpretation

6.2.3.4 Probe Scan Deviation
Most probes are designed to give a narrow indication for a good fastener hole
so that the loops from the cracks are more noticeable. Some probes and
structures can give wider indications and a similar result can be obtained if
the probe is not straight when it approaches the fastener. It is important to
keep the probe centralized over the fastener heads. Doing this will give you a
maximum indication for the fastener and a crack.
If the probe deviates from the center line, the crack indication will move along
the loop that we saw in Figure 5 and is now present in Figure 6. The crack
indication is at "a" when the probe is centralized and moves toward "b" as it
deviates in one direction, or "c" as it deviates in the opposite direction. Point
"b" gives an important indication even if it loses a small amount of amplitude it
has gained in phase, giving a better separation angle. This is because we
deviated to the side where the crack is located.

Probe Scan Deviation

6.2.3.5 Crack Angle Deviation
A reduction in the crack indication occurs when the crack is at an angle to the
probe scan direction. This happens if the crack is not completely at 90
degrees to the normal probe scan or changes direction as it grows. Both the
fixed and adjustable sliding probes are capable of detecting cracks up to
about 30 degrees off angle. See Figures 8 and 9.

Crack Angle Deviation

6.2.4 Electrical Contact
When inspecting fasteners that have just been installed or reference
standards that have intimate contact with the aluminum skin plate, it is not
unusual to obtain a smaller than normal indication. In some extreme cases,
the fastener indication may disappear almost completely. This is due to the
good electrical contact between the fastener and the skin. This condition
allows the eddy currents to circulate without encountering a boundary, and
therefore, no obstacle or barrier. Because of this effect, it is recommended to
paint the holes before fastener installation.

Discussion
Topic: Reasons on the different in phase angles θ for different notch depths
θ2
θ3
θ1

Discussion
Topic: Why the impedance change on traversing toward the crack and
leaving the cracking does not match perfectly on top of each others?
θ2
θ3
θ1

6.3 Tube Inspection
Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion, cracking
and other changes in tubing. Heat exchangers and steam generators, which
are used in power plants, have thousands of tubes that must be prevented
from leaking. This is especially important in nuclear power plants where
reused, contaminated water must be prevented from mixing with fresh water
that will be returned to the environment. The contaminated water flows on one
side of the tube (inside or outside) and the fresh water flows on the other side.
The heat is transferred from the contaminated water to the fresh water and
the fresh water is then returned back to is source, which is usually a lake or
river. It is very important to keep the two water sources from mixing, so power
plants are periodically shutdown so the tubes and other equipment can be
inspected and repaired. The eddy current test method and the related remote
field testing method provide high-speed inspection techniques for these
applications.

A technique that is often used involves feeding a differential bobbin probe into
the individual tube of the heat exchanger. With the differential probe, no
signal will be seen on the eddy current instrument as long as no metal
thinning is present. When metal thinning is present, a loop will be seen on the
impedance plane as one coil of the differential probe passes over the flawed
area and a second loop will be produced when the second coil passes over
the damage. When the corrosion is on the outside surface of the tube, the
depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the phase lag. The size of the
indication provides an indication of the total extent of the corrosion damage.
A tube inspection using a bobbin probe is simulated below. Click the "null"
button and then drag either the absolute or the differential probe through the
tube. Note the different signal responses provided by the two probes. Also
note that the absolute probe is much more sensitive to dings and the build up
of magnetite on the outside of the tube than the differential probe is.

Tube Inspection

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/DifferentialvsAbsoluteAnim.swf
Tube Inspection
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.nde.com/ect.htm

Tube Inspection
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.titanmf.com/photo-gallery/heat-exchangers/

6.4 Conductivity Measurements
One of the uses of eddy current instruments is for the measurement of
electrical conductivity. The value of the electrical conductivity of a metal
depends on several factors, such as its chemical composition and the stress
state of its crystalline structure. Therefore, electrical conductivity information
can be used for sorting metals, checking for proper heat treatment, and
inspecting for heat damage.
Applications:
 sorting metals,
 checking for proper heat
treatment,
 inspecting for heat damage.

Heat Damage

Heat Treatment

The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing
the probe in contact with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the
change in impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity
of the material.
The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from

nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects
from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are
limited to nonmagnetic materials. It is important to control factors that can
affect the results such as the inspection temperature and the part geometry.
Conductivity changes with temperature so measurements should be made at
a constant temperature and adjustments made for temperature variations
when necessary.
The thickness of the specimen should generally be greater than three

standard depths of penetration. This is so the eddy currents at the back
surface of the sample are sufficiently weaker than the variations in the
specimen thickness that are not seen in the measurements.

Heat Treatment
Discuss on:
The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from
nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects
from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are
limited to nonmagnetic materials

Generally large pancake type, surface probes are used to get a value for a
relatively large sample area. The instrument is usually setup such that a
ferromagnetic material produces a response that is nearly vertical. Then, all
conductive but nonmagnetic materials will produce a trace that moves down
and to the right as the probe is moved toward the surface. Think back to the
discussion on the impedance plane and these type of responses make sense.
Remember that inductive reactance changes are plotted along the y-axis and
resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis. Since ferromagnetic materials
will concentrate the magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive reactance
of the coil will increase. The effects on the signal from the magnetic
permeability overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much
stronger.

Reactance Phasor Diagram
Least conductive material
As the conductivity of
the materials being
tested increases, the
resistance losses will
be less and the
inductive reactance
changes will be
greater.
Most conductive material

Comments on: As the conductivity of the materials being tested increases,
the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will
be greater.
Note: the underlined statement may not be true universally. (?)

When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the
coil's inductive reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy
currents opposes the magnetic field of the coil. The resistance in the coil
increases since it takes some of the coil's energy to generate the eddy
currents and this appears as additional resistance in the circuit. As the
conductivity of the materials being tested increases, the resistance
losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be greater.
Therefore, the signals will be come more vertical as the conductivity
increases, as shown in the image above.

Reactance due to conductivity
As the conductivity of the materials being tested increases, the resistance
losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be greater. (see
the brown dotted lines)

To sort materials using an impedance plane device, the signal from the
unknown sample must be compared to a signal from a variety of reference
standards. However, there are devices available that can be calibrated to
produce a value for electrical conductivity which can then be compared to
published values of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent IACS
(International Annealed Copper Standard). Please be aware that the
conductivity of a particular material can vary significantly with slight variations
in the chemical composition and, thus, a conductivity range is generally
provided for a material. The conductivity range for one material may overlap
with the range of a second material of interest, so conductivity alone can
not always be used to sort materials. The electrical conductivity values for
a variety of materials can be found in the material properties reference tables.

The following applet is based on codes for nonferrous materials written by
Back Blitz from his book, "Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive
Testing", 2nd ed., Chapman & Hill (1997). The applet demonstrates how an
impedance plane eddy current instrument can be used for the sorting of
materials.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Applications/Popups/applet2/applet2.htm

Discuss on the plane impedance diagram
Lead
Aluminum
Copper
Quoted from text: “As the conductivity of the materials being tested
increases, the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance
changes will be greater.”

Quoted from text: “As the conductivity of the materials being tested increases,
the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be
greater.”
Discussion: With increase conductivity the resistance component of reactant
was decrease. However the inductive reactance component was not increase
as compared with that of Aluminum (X1>X2).
X2 X1

Discussion on : Material Conductivity, standard penetration and its
effect on resistive reactance.
The standard depth of penetration (δ) is the depth where eddy current density
drops to 1/e (37%) of its value measured at the surface. This depth of
penetration is affected by the operating frequency (ƒ), and conductivity (µ)
and permeability (σ) of the material to inspect. This is what we call the skin
depth effect.

6.5 Heat Treatment Verification
6.5.1 Conductivity Measurements for the Verification of Heat Treatment
With some materials, such as solution heat treatable aluminum alloys,
conductivity measurements are often made verifying that parts and materials
have received the proper heat treatment. High purity aluminum is soft and
ductile, and gains strength and hardness with the addition of alloying
elements. A few such aluminum alloys are the 2000 series (2014, 2024, etc.),
6000 series (6061, 6063, etc.), and 7000 series (7050, 7075, etc.). The 2xxx
series aluminum alloys have copper, the 6xxx series have magnesium, and
the 7xxx have zinc as their major alloying elements.

Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is accomplished in two phases - solution
heat treatment and then aging. In the solution heat treatment step, the alloys
are heated to an elevated temperature to dissolve the alloying elements into
solution. The metal is then rapidly cooled or quenched to “freeze” the atoms
of the alloying elements in the lattice structure of the aluminum. This distorts
and stresses the structure, making electron movement more difficult, thereby
decreasing the electrical conductivity. In this condition, the alloys are still
relatively soft but start to gain strength as the alloying elements begin to
precipitate out of solution to form extremely small particles that impede the
movement of dislocations within the material.

The formation of the precipitates can be controlled for many alloys by heating
and holding the material at an elevated temperature for a period of time
(artificial aging). As the alloying elements precipitate out of solid solution, the
conductivity of the material gradually increases. By controlling the amount of
precipitated particles within the aluminum, the properties can be controlled to
produce peak strength or some combinations of strength and corrosion
resistance. Sometimes, the material must be annealed or put into the softest,
most ductile condition possible in order to perform forming operations.
Annealing allows all of the alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to
form a coarse, widely spaced precipitate. The electrical conductivity is
greatest when the material is in the annealed condition.
Keywords:
Annealed condition: ↑Electrical conductivity

Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components can
be made using less material. A lighter or more compact design is often of
great importance to the designer and well worth the cost of the heat treating
process. However, think of the consequences that could arise if a component
that was supposed to be solution heat-treated and aged somehow left the
manufacturing facility and was put into service un-heat-treated or annealed.
This is a real possibility since heat-treated aluminum parts look exactly like
unheat-treated parts. Consider 2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile
properties and its electrical conductivity for various heat treatment conditions
are given in the following table.

Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum
Heat Treatment Ultimate Strength Yield Strength Electrical

Condition Conductivity
Annealed (O) 26 ksi (180 MPa) 11 ksi (75 MPa) 50 % IACS
Solution Heat 64 ksi (440 MPa) 42 ksi (290 MPa) 30 % IACS

Treated and
Naturally Aged (T42)
Solution Heat 70 ksi (485 MPa) 66 ksi (455 MPa) 30 % IACS

Treated, Cold
worked and
Artificially Aged
(T861)
IACS: The International Annealed Copper Standard

It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilopounds/square
inch (ksi) (290 MPa) in the solution heat-treated and naturally aged condition
(T42 condition). The yield strength can be increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa)
when cold worked and artificially aged (T861 condition). But in the annealed
condition, the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi (75 MPa). If an annealed part
were accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it
would likely fail prematurely. However, a quick check of the conductivity using
an eddy current instrument of all parts prior to shipping would prevent this
from occurring.


6.6 Thickness Measurements
6.6.1 Thickness Measurements of Thin Material
Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a number of dimensional
measurements. The ability to make rapid measurements without the need for
couplant or, in some cases even surface contact, makes eddy current
techniques very useful. The type of measurements that can be made include:
 thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of metallic coatings on metallic
and nonmetallic substrate,
 cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods,
 thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates.

Thickness Measurements

6.6.2 Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins
One application where the eddy current technique is commonly used to
measure material thickness is in the detection and characterization of
corrosion damage on the skins of aircraft. Eddy current techniques can be
used to do spot checks or scanners can be used to inspect small areas. Eddy
current inspection has an advantage over ultrasound in this application
because no mechanical coupling is required to get the energy into the
structure. Therefore, in multi-layered areas of the structure like lap splices,
eddy current can often determine if corrosion thinning is present in buried
layers.

Eddy current inspection has an advantage over radiography for this
application because only single sided access is required to perform the
inspection. To get a piece of film on the back side of the aircraft skin might
require removing interior furnishings, panels, and insulation which could be
very costly. Advanced eddy current techniques are being developed that can
determine thickness changes down to about three percent of the skin
thickness.

Corrosion thinning is present in buried layers.

6.6.3 Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Sheet, Strip and Foil
Eddy current techniques are used to measure the thickness of hot sheet, strip
and foil in rolling mills, and to measure the amount of metal thinning that has
occurred over time due to corrosion on fuselage skins of aircraft. On the
impedance plane, thickness variations exhibit the same type of eddy current
signal response as a subsurface defect, except that the signal represents a
void of infinite size and depth. The phase rotation pattern is the same, but the
signal amplitude is greater. In the applet, the lift-off curves for different areas
of the taper wedge can be produced by nulling the probe in air and touching it
to the surface at various locations of the tapered wedge. If a line is drawn
between the end points of the lift-off curves, a comma shaped curve is
produced. As illustrated in the second applet, this comma shaped curve is the
path that is traced on the screen when the probe is scanned down the length
of the tapered wedge so that the entire range of thickness values are
measured.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/thinningMeasurement1.swf
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/thinningMeasurement2.swf
When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth
of penetration of the eddy currents must cover the entire range of thicknesses
being measured. Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one
standard depth of penetration at the maximum thickness. Unfortunately, at
lower frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary penetration,
the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity.
Thus, the effects of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is
important to verify that any variations of conductivity over the region of
interest are at a sufficiently low level.
Keywords:
 Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one standard
depth of penetration at the maximum thickness.
 at lower frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary
penetration, the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in
electrical conductivity.

6.6.4 Measurement of Cross-sectional Dimensions of Cylindrical Tubes
and Rods
Dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods can be measured with either OD
coils or internal axial coils, whichever is appropriate. The relationship
between change in impedance and change in diameter is fairly constant,
except at very low frequencies. However, the advantages of operating at a
higher normalized frequency are twofold. First, the contribution of any
conductivity change to the impedance of the coil becomes less important and
it can easily be phased out. Second, there is an increase in measurement
sensitivity resulting from the higher value of the inductive component of the
impedance. Because of the large phase difference between the impedance
vectors corresponding to changes in fill-factor and conductivity (and defect
size), simultaneous testing for dimensions, conductivity, and defects can be
carried out.
Keywords:
■ Impedance vectors
■ Fill-factor and conductivity (and defect size)

Typical applications include measuring eccentricities of the diameters of
tubes and rods and the thickness of tube walls. Long tubes are often tested
by passing them at a constant speed through encircling coils (generally
differential) and providing a close fit to achieve as high a fill-factor as possible.
An important application of tube-wall thickness measurement is the detection
and assessment of corrosion, both external and internal. Internal probes must
be used when the external surface is not accessible, such as when testing
pipes that are buried or supported by brackets. Success has been achieved in
measuring thickness variations in ferromagnetic metal pipes with the remote
field technique.
Keywords:
■ Fill-factor
■ Remote field technique.

6.6.5 Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Layers
It is also possible to measure the thickness of a thin layer of metal on a
metallic substrate, provided the two metals have widely differing electrical
conductivities (i.e. silver on lead where s= 67 and 10 MS/m, respectively). A
frequency must be selected such that there is complete eddy current
penetration of the layer, but not of the substrate itself. The method has also
been used successfully for measuring thickness of very thin protective
coatings of ferromagnetic metals (i.e. chromium and nickel) on non-
ferromagnetic metal bases.
Depending on the required degree of penetration, measurements can be
made using a single-coil probe or a transformer probe, preferably reflection
type. Small-diameter probe coils are usually preferred since they can provide
very high sensitivity and minimize effects related to property or thickness
variations in the underlying base metal when used in combination with
suitably high test frequencies. The goal is to confine the magnetizing field,
and the resulting eddy current distribution, to just beyond the thin coating
layer and to minimize the field within the base metals.

6.7 Thickness of Coatings
6.7.1 Thickness Measurements of Non-conducting Coatings on
Conductive Materials
The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined
simply from the effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread
use for measuring thickness of paint and plastic coatings. The coating serves
as a spacer between the probe and the conductive surface. As the distance
between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current
field strength decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can
interact with the base metal. Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 µm can be
measured to an accuracy between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher
values. Contributions to impedance changes due to conductivity variations
should be phased out, unless it is known that conductivity variations are
negligible, as normally found at higher frequencies.
Keywords:
conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw
detector and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the
direction of the lift-off signal is established. The location of the signal is
marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in
areas of decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the test
surface, the position of the signal will move from the air null position to a point
that can be correlated to the calibration markings.

Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and
are often pocket-sized with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are
usually operated by a small battery and provide a digital read-out in the
appropriate units. Calibration adjustments, some of which are laid down by
standards such as BS EN 2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376, may be
assisted by the use of an inbuilt microprocessor.

Eddy current thickness gage

7.0 Advanced Techniques
7.1 Scanning
Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to
improve the quality of the measurements and to construct images of scanned
areas. The most common type of scanning is line scanning where an
automated system is used to push the probe at a fixed speed. Line scan
systems are often used when performing tube inspections or aircraft engine
blade slot inspections, where scanning in one dimension is needed. The data
is usually presented as a strip chart recording. The advantage of using a
linear scanning system is that the probe is moved at a constant speed, so
indications on the strip chart can be correlated to a position on the part being
scanned. As with all automated scanning systems, operator variables, such
as wobble of the probe, are reduced.
Keywords:
■ Line scan system
■ Strip chart recording
■ Wobble of probe

Two-dimensional scanning systems are used to scan a two-dimensional area.
This could be a scanning system that scans over a relatively flat area in a X-Y
raster mode, or it could be a bolt hole inspection system that rotates the
probe as it is moved into the hole. The data is typically displayed as a false-
color plot of signal strength or phase angle shift as a function of position, just
like an ultrasonic C-scan presentation. Shown below is a portable scanning
system that is designed to work on the skins of aircraft fuselage and wing
sections.

Eddy current Line Scanner
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang /

http://www.inspectech.ca/products/OnLine_Eddy_Current
Listed below are some automated scanning advantages:
1. minimizes changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble,
uneven surfaces, and eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture
or damage,
2. accurate indexing,
3. Repeatability,
4. high resolution mapping.

7.2 Multiple Frequency Techniques
Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at
several different frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data
in some way.
Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information. The
impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:
 variations in operating frequency,
 variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a
object or structure, caused by structural changes such as grain structure,
work hardening, heat treatment, etc.,
 changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces,
and eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or damage,
 the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects
such as voids and nonmetallic inclusions,
 dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion,
deposition of metal deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting,
 the presence of supports, walls, and brackets,
 the presence of discontinuities such as edges.

Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case
where interest is confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in
geometry, a differential probe can be used to eliminate unwanted factors,
providing they vary in a gradual manner. For example, variations in electrical
conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a differential probe
simultaneously. However, if unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are
affecting the measurements, they can sometimes be negated by mixing
signals collected at several frequencies.
An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in
heat exchanger tube inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a
collection of tubing that have support brackets on the outside. When
attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal from the
mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collecting a signal at the frequency
necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a second
signal collected at a lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to the
bracket but less sensitive to features in the tubing), the effects of the bracket
can be reduced.

Discussion
Subject: Discuss and reasoning on the following sentences;
“When attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal
from the mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collecting a signal at the
frequency necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a
second signal collected at a lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to
the bracket but less sensitive to features in the tubing), the effects of the
bracket can be reduced.”

Heat Exchanger Tube Bundles

There are a number of commercially available multi-frequency eddy current
instruments. Most operate at only two frequencies at a time but some units
can collect data at up to four frequencies simultaneously. Multi-frequency
measurements can also be made using an impedance analyzer but this
equipment is generally not suitable for field measurements. A typical
impedance analyzer system is shown below. The interest in pulsed eddy
current instruments is largely due to their ability to, in essence, perform multi-
frequency measurements very quickly and easily.

7.3 Swept Frequency
Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data
at a wide range of frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialized
piece of equipment such as an impedance analyzer, which can be configured
to automatically make measurements over a range of frequencies. The
swept-frequency technique can be implemented with commercial equipment
but it is a difficult and time-consuming measurement. The advantage of a
swept frequency measurement is that depth information can be obtained
since eddy current depth of penetration varies as a function of frequency.
Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring
the thickness of conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating
between flaws in surface coatings and flaws in the base metal and
differentiating between flaws in various layers of built-up structure. An
example application would be the lap splice of a commercial aircraft. Swept
frequency measurements would make it possible to tell if cracking was
occurring on the outer skin, the inner skin or a double layer. Below is an
example of the type of data that can be obtained from swept-frequency
measurements.

Data from swept-frequency measurements on two heats of material.
It can be seen that in the
etched condition, the
material labeled "good"
exhibits a much different
signal response than the
material labeled "bad." It
can also be seen that a
frequency of around 2.2
MHz provides the largest
separation in the curves.
2.2 MHz Therefore, this frequency
should be used if a single
frequency is used to sort
the parts made from the
two metals.

7.4 Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection
Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating
electrical current of a particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed
eddy current technique uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The
advantage of using a step function voltage is that it contains a continuum of
frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to several different
frequencies can be measured with just a single step. Since the depth of
penetration is dependent on the frequency of excitation, information from a
range of depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the
time domain (that is by looking at signal strength as a function of time),
indications produced by flaws or other features near the inspection coil will be
seen first and more distant features will be seen later in time.

To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference
signal is usually collected, to which all other signals are compared (just like
nulling the probe in conventional eddy current inspection). Flaws, conductivity,
and dimensional changes produce a change in the signal and a difference
between the reference signal and the measurement signal that is displayed.
The distance of the flaw and other features relative to the probe will cause the
signal to shift in time. Therefore, time gating techniques (like in ultrasonic
inspection) can be used to gain information about the depth of a feature of
interest.

7.5 Background on Pulsed Eddy Current
(adapted from Blitz, 1997)
The use of pulsed eddy currents has long been considered for testing metals
(Libby, 1971) and it has been applied to operations in specialized areas, such
as in the nuclear energy industry, where testing equipment is often
constructed to order. However, significant progress in this direction has taken
place only recently after appropriate advances in technology (Krzwosz et al.
1985; Sather, 1981; Waidelich, 1981; Wittig and Thomas 1981), but at the
time of writing, commercial equipment was not yet available. The method has
the potential advantages of greater penetration, the ability to locate
discontinuities from time-of-flight determinations, and a ready means of multi-
frequency measurement. At present, it does not generally have the precision
of the conventional methods. The apparatus is somewhat complicated in
design and not readily usable by the average operator who is experienced
with the conventional eddy current equipment. Its main successes are in the
testing of thin metal tubes and sheets, as well as metal cladding for
measuring thickness and for the location and sizing of internal defects.

When comparing the pulsed method with the conventional eddy current
technique, the conventional technique must be regarded as a continuous
wave method for which propagation takes place at a single frequency or,
more correctly, over a very narrow frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods,
the frequencies are excited over a wide band, the extent of which varies
inversely with the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. As
found with ultrasonic testing, the total amount of energy dissipated within a
given period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than for continuous
waves having the same intensity. For example, with pulses containing only
one or two wavelengths and generated 1000 times per second, the energy
produced is only about 0.002 of that for continuous waves having the same
amplitude. Thus, considerably higher input voltages can be applied to the
exciting coil for pulsed operation than for continuous wave operation.

Pulsed waves can reasonably be expected to allow penetration of
measurable currents through a metal sample to a depth of about 10 times the
standard penetration depth, provided a suitable probe is used (i.e. a shielded
ferrite-cored coil, see section 5.3). Therefore, penetration is possible through
a 2 mm thick plate at frequencies of 1-3 kHz for non-ferromagnetic metals
having corresponding electrical conductivities ranging from 60 down to
20MS/m. However, with an unmagnetized steel plate 2 mm thick, where
sigma = 5 MS/m and µr = 100, the maximum frequency for through-
penetration is only 100 Hz.
Pulsed eddy currents may be generated by a thyratron connected in series
with the exciting coil through a capacitor (e.g. Waidelich, 1981). A direct
voltage, on the order of 1200 V, slowly charges the capacitance and when the
thyratron conducts there is an abrupt discharge through the coil in which free-
damped harmonic oscillations occur. This is repeated periodically (i.e. at 1
kHz), so as to propagate the eddy current pulses through the metal.

The currents are detected by a receiving probe located either adjacent to or
on the opposite side of the metal sample from the exciting probe when access
is possible. The range of propagated frequencies depends on the logarithmic
decrement of the exciting circuit, and because the speed of the waves is a
function of frequency, dispersion takes place and the pulse changes in shape
as it progresses through the metal. As one would expect, the height of the
peak and its time delay can be related to the thickness of the metal. Waidelich
reports a maximum penetration of 90 mm for aluminum sheet and 10 mm for
steel. For 6 mm thick sheets, the peak value of the received pulse voltage
was 13 V for aluminum but only 20 mV for steel. Krzwosz et al. (1985) has
shown how pulses that result from the presence of internal simulated defects
produce broadening with an increase in depth.

The frequency content of the pulses depends on their lengths, and in the
extreme, contains continuous spectra ranging from less than 100 Hz to 1 or 2
kHz. By performing a Fourier transformation, the pulse obtained by the
receiving probe can be displayed in the form of the variation of amplitude (or
phase) with frequency. By sampling different delay times within a pulse,
different parts of the spectrum can be evaluated (Sather, 1981). If both
amplitude and phase are measured, two parameters (i.e. presence of defects,
variations in tube thickness, and changes in fill-factor or liftoff) can be
evaluated for each frequency selected in the same way as with the multi-
frequency method, although, at present, with a lower degree of precision.
Dodd et al.(1988) has designed and developed a pulsed magnetic saturation
method for the eddy current testing of ferromagnetic metals. The DC field
pulses are generated by passing a high-current pulse through an
electromagnet so as to produce saturation in the metal object; the pulse
length is made equal to the thickness of the object, thus ensuring complete
eddy current penetration where feasible. The DC pulse, on the order of 1 ms
duration, simultaneously produces an eddy current pulse, which is detected
by a probe; the output of the probe is characteristic of the material being
tested.

This technique has the advantage of producing high magnetic peak powers
with low average powers, thus keeping any heating of the test sample down
to an acceptable level. It has been applied successfully to the internal testing
of the walls of steel steam generator tubes, and tubes of diameter 10.9 mm
and wall thickness 5 mm have been examined with peak powers of 500 kW.
Small defects close to the external surfaces can be detected, and by taking
advantage of the multi-frequency properties of pulsed eddy currents, their
indications can be resolved from those that originate from other
characteristics of the tubes.
More recent work on the use of pulsed eddy currents has been reported by
Gibbs and Campbell (1991), who inspected cracks under fasteners in
aluminum aircraft structures. Here, a Hall element was used as a receiver.
Radial position, approximate depth, and relative size of defects hidden under
fastener heads could be determined in countersunk areas for defect depths of
up to 7 mm for nonferrous fasteners and 14 mm for ferrous fasteners.

Lebrun et al. (1975) reported the detection of deep cracks in ferromagnetic
samples using an emission coil excited by square pulses of high intensity and
employing highly sensitive magneto-resistive sensors to measure the
resultant magnetic fields. Defects of 1 mm x 1 mm could be detected at a
depth of 5 mm and 3 mm x 4 mm at a depth of 20 mm.

7.6 Remote Field Sensing
Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes where external access is not
possible (e.g. buried pipelines), is conducted using internal probes. When
testing thick-walled ferromagnetic metal pipes with conventional internal
probes, very low frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel pipe 10 mm thick) are
necessary to achieve the through-penetration of the eddy currents. This
situation produces a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of
penetration can, in principle, be increased by the application of a saturation
magnetic field. However, because of the large volume of metal present, a
large saturation unit carrying a heavy direct current may be required to
produce an adequate saturating field.

The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can
be greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current
method. This method provides measurable through penetration of the walls
at three times the maximum frequency possible with the conventional direct
field method. This technique was introduced by Schmidt in 1958. Although it
has been used by the petroleum industry for detecting corrosion in their
installations since the early 1960s, it has only recently evoked general
interest. This interest is largely because the method is highly sensitive to
variations in wall thickness, but relatively insensitive to fill-factor changes. The
method has the added advantage of allowing equal sensitivities of detection
at both the inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. It cannot,
however, differentiate between signals from these respective surfaces.
For more information on Remote Field Testing can be found in the Next
separate section.
8.0 Remote Field Testing (RFT)
8.1 Remote Field Testing or "RFT" is one of several electromagnetic testing
methods commonly employed in the field of nondestructive testing. Other
electromagnetic inspection methods include magnetic flux leakage MFLT,
conventional eddy current ET and alternating current field measurement
ACFM testing. Remote field testing is associated with eddy current testing
and the term "Remote Field Eddy Current Testing" is often used when
describing remote field testing. However, there are several major differences
between eddy current testing and remote field testing which will be noted in
this section.
Keywords:
■ MFLT
■ ET
■ ACFM
■ RFT

Corroded Pipe

RFT is primarily used to inspect ferromagnetic tubing since conventional
eddy current techniques have difficulty inspecting the full thickness of the tube
wall due to the strong skin effect in ferromagnetic materials. For example,
using conventional eddy current bobbin probes to inspect a steel pipe 10 mm
thick (such as what might be found in heat exchangers) would require
frequencies around 30 Hz to achieve the adequate I.D. to O.D. penetration
through the tube wall. The use of such a low frequency results in a very low
sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can, in principle, be
increased by the use of partial saturation eddy current probes, magnetically
biased probes, and pulsed saturation probes. However, because of the large
volume of metal present as well as potential permeability variations within the
product, these specialized eddy current probes are still limited in their
inspection capabilities.

The difficulties encountered in the testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be
greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field testing method. The RFT
method has the advantage of allowing nearly equal sensitivities of detection
at both the inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. The method is
highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness and tends to be less sensitive
to fill-factor changes between the coil and tube. RFT can be used to inspect
any conducting tubular product, but it is generally considered to be less
sensitive than conventional eddy current techniques when inspecting
non-ferromagnetic materials.
Keywords:
Ferromagnetic material
Fill factor

8.2 RFT Theory of Operation
A probe consisting of an exciter coil and one or more detectors is pulled
through the tube. The exciter coil and the detector coil(s) are rigidly fixed at
an axial distance of two tube diameters or more between them. The exciter
coil is driven with a relatively low frequency sinusoidal current to produce a
magnetic field.
Exciting
coils
This changing magnetic field induces strong circumferential eddy currents

which extend axially, as well as radially in the tube wall.

Exciting
coils
Concentration of eddy current
These eddy currents, in turn, produce their own magnetic field, which
opposes the magnetic field from the exciter coil. Due to resistance in the tube
wall and imperfect inductive coupling, the magnetic field from the eddy
currents does not fully counterbalance the magnetic exciting field. However,
since the eddy current field is more spread out than the exciter field, the
magnetic field from the eddy currents extends farther along the tube axis. The
interaction between the two fields is fairly complex but the simple fact is
that the exciter field is dominant near the exciter coil and the eddy
current field becomes dominant at some distance away from the exciter
coil.
They are placed at a distance where they are unaffected
by the magnetic field from the exciter coil but can still
adequately measure the field strength from the secondary
magnetic field.
Exciting
Receiving coils
coils
Magnetic field due to

Attenuated magnetic field due to
eddy current
exciting coils

The receiving coils are positioned at a distance where the magnetic field from
the eddy currents is dominant. In other words, they are placed at a distance
where they are unaffected by the magnetic field from the exciter coil but can
still adequately measure the field strength from the secondary magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction occurs as the changing magnetic field cuts across
the pick-up coil array. By monitoring the consistency of the voltage induced in
the pick-up coils one can monitor changes in the test specimen. The strength
of the magnetic field at this distance from the excitation coil is fairly weak but
it is sensitive to changes in the pipe wall from the I.D. to the O.D.

8.3 The RFT Zones
Exciting
coils

8.3.1 Direct Couple Zone
The region where the magnetic field from the exciter coil is interacting with the
tube wall to produce a concentrated field of eddy currents is called the direct
field or direct coupled zone. This zone does not contribute a great deal of
useful data to the RFT inspection due to problems with rather high noise
levels due to the intense varying magnetic field from the excitation coil.

8.3.2 Transition Zone
The region just outside the direct couple zone is known as the transition zone.
In this zone there is a great deal of interaction between the magnet flux from
the exciter coil and the flux induced by the eddy currents. As can be seen in
the graph, the interaction of the two opposing fields is strongest near the ID of
the tube and fairly subtle at the OD of the tube. The "resultant" field strength
(the magnetic field at the sum of the two fields) in this region tends to change
abruptly on the ID due to the interaction of the fields with differing directional
characteristics of the two fields.
The receiver coil's signal phase, with respect to the exciter coil, as a function
of distance between the two coils is also shown in the graph. When the two
coils are directly coupled and there is no interference from a secondary field,
their currents are in phase as seen at location zero. In the transition zone, it
can be seen that the phase swiftly shifts, indicating the location where the
magnetic field from the eddy currents becomes dominate and the start of the
remote field.

8.3.3 Remote Field Zone
The remote field zone is the region in which direct coupling between the
exciter coil and the receiver coil(s) is negligible. Coupling takes place
indirectly through the generation of eddy currents and their resulting magnetic
field. The remote field zone starts to occur at approximately two tube
diameters away from the exciter coil. The amplitude of the field strength on
the OD actually exceeds that of the ID after an axial distance of approximately
1.65 tube diameters. Therefore, RFT is sensitive to changes in material that
occur at the outside diameter as well as the inside diameter of the tube.
Keywords:
The remote field zone starts to occur at approximately two tube diameters
away from the exciter coil.
The amplitude of the field strength on the OD actually exceeds that of the ID
after an axial distance of approximately 1.65 tube diameters.

8.4 RFT Probes
Probes for inspection of pipe and tubing are typically of the bobbin (ID) variety.
These probes use either a single or dual excitation coil to develop an
electromagnetic field through the pipe or tube. The excitation coils are driven
by alternating current. The sensing coil or coils are located a few tube
diameters away in the remote field zone. Probes can be used in differential or
absolute modes for detection of general discontinuities, pitting, and variations
from the I.D. in ferromagnetic tubing. To insure maximum sensitivity, each
probe is specifically designed for the inside diameter, composition, and the
wall thickness of a particular tube.

8.5 RFT Instrumentation
Instruments used for RFT inspection are often dual use eddy current / RFT
instruments employing multi-frequency technology. The excitation current
from these instruments is passed on to the probe that contains an exciter coil,
sometimes referred to as the driver coil. The receiving coil voltage is typically
in the microvolt range, so an amplifier is required to boost the signal strength.
Certain systems will incorporate a probe excitation method known as
multiplexing. This utilizes an extreme high speed switching method that
excites the probe at more than one frequency in sequence. Another method
of coil excitation that may be used is simultaneous injection. In this coil
stimulation technique, the exciter coil is excited with multiple frequencies at
the same time while incorporating filter schemes that subtract aspects of the
acquired data. The instrument monitors the pickup coils and passes the data
to the display section of the instrument. Some systems are capable of
recording the data to some type of storage device for later review.

RFT Instrumentation

8.6 RFT Signal Interpretation
The signals obtained with RFT are very similar to those obtained with
conventional eddy current testing. When all the proper conditions are met,
changes in the phase of the receiver signal with respect to the phase of the
exciter voltage are directly proportional to the sum of the wall thickness within
the inspection area. Localized changes in wall thickness result in phase and
amplitude changes. These changes can be indicative of defects such as
cracks, corrosion pitting or corrosion/erosion thinning.

8.7 RFT Reference Standards
Reference standards for the RFT inspection of tubular products come in many
variations. In order to produce reliable and consistent test results, the material
used for manufacturing calibration standards must closely match the physical
and chemical properties of the inspection specimen. Some of the important
properties that must be considered include conductivity, permeability and
alloy content. In addition, tube dimensions including I.D., O.D. and wall
thickness must also be controlled.
The type of damage mechanisms that are expected to be encountered must
also be carfully considered when developing or selecting a reference
standard. In order to get accurate quantitative data, artificial discontinuity
conditions are typically machined into the standards that will closely match
those conditions that may be found in the tubing bundle.

RFT Reference Standards

Good Luck!

Good Luck!

An Introduction: Eddycurrent Testing Pa Rt-2 O F 2

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Ed d y Cu rre n t

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The word “Q” does not

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 a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the

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ro is the mean radius of the coil.

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By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much

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Note: Mu-metal (高导磁合金) is a nickel-iron alloy, composed of

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On the other hand, unshielded probes allow somewhat deeper penetration

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