Electromagnetic Testing-EMT-ACFM Chapter 10b-Libre

Ele ctro m agn e tic Te s tin g
MFLT/ ECT/ Microwave/RFT

Chapter 10B – ACFM
Alternating Current Field Measurement
10th Feb 2015
My ASNT Level III Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Expert at Works - The alternative NDT Method




ACFM- The alternative NDT Method

Experts at Work - The alternative NDT Method




Experts at Work - The alternative NDT Method

Experts at Work - LRUT



Expert at Works - The alternative NDT Method for surface
breaking crack of significant dimensions

Experts at Works - The alternative NDT Method for surface
breaking crack of significant dimensions

NDT Level III Examinations
Basic and Method Exams
ASNT NDT Level III certification candidates are required to pass both the NDT Basic
and a method examination in order to receive the ASNT NDT Level III certificate.
Exam Specifications
The table below lists the number of questions and time allowed for each exam.
Clicking on an exam will take you to an abbreviated topical outline and reference page
for that exam. For the full topical outlines and complete list of references, see the
topical outlines listed in the American National Standard ANSI/ASNT CP-105,
Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.
ET
Electromagnetic Testing
135 Questions 4 hrs Papers Certification: NDT only

Fion Zhang at Shanghai
2015 February
苏州太湖 2014
The Reading Magic

The Reading Magic – The Journey Start Here



Alternating Current Field Measurement ACFM
- Reading Session Two
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang Note: ACFM is a trade mark owned by TSC Inspection Systems, Milton Keynes, England
Reading 1: Article on ACFM application for Interail (TSC)
Keypoints:
ACFM is a non-contact electromagnetic technique for the detection of small surface
breaking cracks in metals. A coil generates an electromagnetic field across the
surface of a metal sample, (this electromagnetic field induced a constant electric field
on the metal penetrating to a depth depending on the frequency of the inducing coil.)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.interailproject.eu/files/Workshop/05%20-%20TSC.pdf

The Me

In a basic alternating
current field measurement
system, a small probe is
moved along the toe of a
weld. The probe contains an
exciter coil, which induces
an AC magnetic field in the
material surface aligned to
the direction of the weld.
This, in turn, causes
alternating current to flow
across the weld. – ASTM
E2261-12

If the induced currents encounter a surface breaking crack they are forced to
flow around or underneath the defect
Flow around
Underneath the defect
Linear Defect
Small sensor coils are placed a few millimeters above the surface. These
detect the changes in the magnetic field caused by the crack.
Pick-up sensor coils
Underneath the defect

Flow around
More Reading on the principle of ACFM
The A.C. field measurement (ACFM) technique was developed from the A.C. potential
drop (ACPD) technique which has been used for crack sizing and crack growth
monitoring. ACPD has been used underwater even though electrical contact has to be
maintained between the probe and the component being inspected. The ACFM
technique is simpler in operation as it depends on the measurement of the near-
urface magnetic fields rather than the surface electric fields, thus requiring no
electrical contact. Theoretical work carried out at the Wolfson NDE Centre in the
Mechanical Engineering Department of University College London determined the
relationship linking these two fields. Thus existing models of electric fields around
cracks can be used to size cracks using magnetic field measurements. This
nonontacting sizing capability relies on the use of unidirectional input current in the
region under inspection, similar to that required for the ACPD technique.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://erikatchison.com/userfiles/file/Documents/ACFM%20Inspection%20Procedure.pdf

For the ACFM technique, the input current is induced into the specimen thus making
the system fully non-contacting. In single probe ACFM operation the Crack
Microgauge passes two signals to the ACFM crack detection and sizing software
(QFMu). The first is the magnetic field strength measured in the direction parallel to
the crack edge (Bx) and the second is the magnetic field strength measured in a plane
perpendicular to the surface of the metal (Bz). The software (QFMu) then displays
these signals in three forms; the Bx and Bz traces separately against a timebase, a
dual digital meter display, and a polar plot display in which one component is plotted
against the other. This latter form is known as a butterfly plot because of the
characteristic trace produced by a defect.

The Probes for Rail Head ACFM

The Probes integrated set-up for Rail Head ACFM


-The 75 KPH Trial on Rail Heads

The 75 KPH Trial on Rail Heads

Laboratory Trial: The 75 KPH Trial on Rail Heads




Laboratory Trial:
The 75 KPH Trial on Rail Heads
Three artificial slots were

cut into one of the four rail
heads
– 20 x 3 mm at 30º
– 20 x 5 mm transverse
– 30 x 5 mm transverse

Laboratory Trial: The 75 KPH Trial on Rail Heads Results
?
?
? ?
?

Laboratory Trial: Grinder Wheel Experiments at 80 kph



Laboratory Trial:
Grinder Wheel
Experiments at 80 kph


Laboratory Trial: Grinder Wheel Experiments at 80 kph Results

Conclusion
 TSC have proven the ACFM system works at 80 kph, with defects just
12mm in length, and just a few mm in depth RCF like geometry
 By varying the liftoff, it was possible to estimate noise due to vibration on
track
 System could detect RCF 12 x 2 mm in size, at 80 kph with a liftoff of
2.3±0.5 mm
 This far exceeds original project specification

The actual application: The Test Assemblies fitted to the locomotive.




Reading 2: Brochure- Alternating Current Field Measurement
(ACFM)
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) is an electromagnetic
technique for the detection and sizing of surface breaking cracks. The main
advantage of the technique is that it works through several millimeters of
coatings. This means that paint and other protective coatings do not have to
be removed and then reapplied.
Features
 Can be carried out while the vessel / pipe work is still in service
 Certain types of probes can inspect at elevated temperatures
 Minimal preparation before the test is required
 The system holds permanent records of all indications
 Minimal disruption to the plant
 High productivity of the ACFM equipment makes it very efficient

Discussion
Subject: Discussed on sentence “several millimeters of coatings.” w.r.t
sensitivity, lift-off, POD.

Experts at Work

The ACFM Amigo U19 Crack Microgauge

Technique
The ACFM Amigo U19 Crack Microgauge uses a probe to induce a uniform
alternating current in the area under test and detects the resulting current flow
near to the surface. The current is undisturbed if the area is free of surface
breaking cracks. A surface breaking crack will redirect the current around the
ends and faces of the crack.
The ACFM instrument measures these disturbances in the field and uses
mathematical algorithms to estimate the crack depth.

The Current Perturbation and the Mathematical Algorithms
Bz
BX
Bz

Capabilities
1. No need to remove paint or thin coatings.
2. Detects and sizes both crack length & depth.
3. Offline analysis of data.
4. Provides a permanent record of indications.
5. Ongoing monitoring capability.
6. No chemical agents & therefore requires no COSHH assessment.
7. Provides an immediate evaluation of the weld area.
8. Quick & efficient method of inspection.
9. High temperature capability.
10. Works equally well on plain material or welds.
11. Will inspect ferritic & non-ferretic materials.

http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/basics/assessment.htm
http://thumbs2.picclick.com/d/w1600/pict/151028670789_/COSHH-HEALTH-
SAFETY-A3-LAMINATED-POSTER-WORKPLACE-OFFICE.jpg
COSHH assessment - Control of Substances

Hazardous to Health
Applications
1. Structural weld inspection
2. Offshore cranes
3. Storage tanks floor & roof ‘lap’ joints
4. Storage tank annular welds internal & external
5. Vessel nozzles
Limitations
1. Not recommended for short sections or small items
2. Locations of weld repairs & grinding can cause spurious indications
3. Crack dimensions need to be greater than 5-10mm long and 0.5mm deep
4. Multiple defects reduce the ability to depth size cracks

Exercise
Subject: Based on the information above discuss on the applicability of
ACFM Amigo U19 Crack Microgauge in code compliance new
construction of tank, jacket, piping and others.

Reading 3: The alternating current field measurement (ACFM) crack
detection and sizing technique and its application to in-service inspection. A
Raine technical software consultants Ltd.
Keypoints:
 Used primarily for the detection of fatigue cracks in offshore structures

both on the subsea and topside structural sections.
 The inspection applications were then extended to the inspection of

pressurised systems and process plant i.e. pressure vessels and pipe
work.
Keywords:
Abseiling –rope access
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ndt.net/article/wcndt00/papers/idn644/idn644.htm

The Technique- Mathematical Modelling
The ACFM technique is an electromagnetic non-contacting technique which has
been developed to be able to detect and size surface breaking defects in a range
of different materials and through coatings of varying thickness. The basis of the
technique is that an alternating current flows in a thin skin near to the surface of
any conductor. When a uniform current is introduced into the area under test if
the area is defect free the current is undisturbed. If the area were to have a crack
present then the current would flow around the ends and the faces of the crack. A
magnetic field is present above the surface associated with this uniform current
and this will be disturbed if a surface breaking crack is present. It was realised
that if these disturbances could be measured they should have some
relationship to the defects that had caused them. University College London
carried out studies into the mathematical modelling of these magnetic fields and
their associated disturbances.
Keywords:
Uniform AC current
Current disturbances on the uniform AC field, induced magnetic field
disturbances, mathematical modelling of the disturbed magnetic fields.

A good correlation was produced between the theoretically predicted
magnetic field disturbances and those measured and thus showed that it was
possible to make quantitative measurements of the magnetic field
disturbances and relate them to the size of the defects which produced them.
Special techniques are used to induce these electric currents and the
components used are built into the ACFM probes Small detectors or sensors
are also built into the probe, which measure the magnetic field disturbances.
The probe is scanned longitudinally along the weld with the front of the probe
parallel and adjacent to the weld toe. Two components of the magnetic field
are measured, the Bx along the length of the defect which responds to
changes in surface current density and gives an indication of depth when the
reduction is the greatest and Bz which gives a negative and positive
response at either end of the defect caused by current generated poles. This
gives an indication of length. Figure 1.

Discussion
Subject: Discuss on the sentence “Special techniques are used to induce
these electric currents and the components used are built into the ACFM
probes Small detectors or sensors are also built into the probe, which
measure the magnetic field disturbances.”

Figure 1: Time Based ACFM Dispaly

A physical measurement of defect length indicated by the probe position is
then used together with a software program to determine the accurate length
and depth of the defect.
In order to aid interpretation the Bx and Bz components are plotted against

each other and when a complete loop indication is produced this confirms the
presence of a crack. This is called the Butterfly plot Figure 2 and because it is
not sensitive to probe speed aids in the interpretation of the data collected
and confirms defect indications.
During the application of the ACFM technique actual values of the magnetic
field are being measured in real time. These are used together with
mathematical model look-up tables so that there is no need for calibration of
the ACFM instrument using a calibration piece with artificial defects such as
slots.

Bx
Bz

Discussion
Subject: Discuss on the sentence “These are used together with
mathematical model look-up tables so that there is no need for calibration of
the ACFM instrument using a calibration piece with artificial defects such as
slots.”

Designation: E2261/E2261M − 12
Standard Practice for Examination of Welds Using
the Alternating Current Field Measurement Technique
10. Alternating Current Field Measurement Reference Standards

10.1 Artificial Slots for the Operation Reference Standard:
10.1.1 The operation reference standard has specific artificial discontinuities.
It is used to check that the instrument and probe combination is functioning
correctly. It may also be used for standardization of the equipment for
nonmagnetic materials. Unless otherwise specified by the client or equipment
manufacturer, the artificial discontinuities for the operation reference standard
are elliptical or rectangular slots. The slot geometry will be specified by the
equipment manufacturer to be consistent with the crack size estimation model.
Typical slot dimensions are as follows:
10.1.1.1 Elliptical Slots—Two elliptical slots placed in the
weld toe with dimensions 2.0 in. × 0.2 in. [50mm × 5mm] and
0.8 in. × 0.08 in. [20 mm × 2 mm]. (Fig. 3, discontinuities A
and B.)..bra..bta bra…

In-service Inspection
In-service inspection can include many different areas of activity including the
offshore industry, public safety, petrochemical, civil and mechanical
engineering. All of these sectors have their unique problems in the forms of
access; different forms of coating, from the protective to the cosmetic and the
type of materials, which require inspection. In the majority of cases fatigue
type cracks need to be detected, these are common in the offshore industry
and the civil, mechanical engineering and public safety sectors. In the
petrochemical industry environmental cracks such as stress corrosion
cracking, hydrogen sulphide cracking and stress orientated hydrogen cracks
are required to be detected.

The ACFM technique was originally developed for the inspection of carbon
steel welds on subsea structures, which were usually nodal welds. A number
of probes were developed, a general purpose weld inspection probe, a 30
degree angle probe for examining tight angle geometry's and a pencil probe
specially designed to examine welds that had been subjected to grinding.
This was used to inspect the bottom of the ground toe of the weld to
determine if defects were present and then determine their length and depth
or to confirm that the defect had been removed. During a trial organised by
University College London where samples were produced to reproduce some
of the difficult geometry's and access problems located in process plants, it
was found that additional probes were required to gain access and detect and
size the defects located within the samples. A range of mini and micro pencil
probes has now been produced with straight and 90 degree access with
increased sensitivity.
Keywords:
Standard probes, pencil probes, angle probes, micro pencil probes, costumed
make probes (thread probes).

In addition to this it was realised that the inspection of short lengths of weld
also created problems in that the communication rate was too slow to
produce a good representation of the weld result on the VDU screen. New
software has now been produced that eliminates this problem including
communication rates, which allows scanning speeds seven times faster than
before.
Keywords:
Communication rate.

This allows greater presentation on the screen for shorter lengths of welds
and faster scanning speeds for the inspection of long lengths of weld. The
technique was also used to inspect structures that had been coated with
protective or anti fouling coatings so that the expensively applied coatings did
not have to be removed and reapplied thus avoiding costly preparation and
reinstatement. The topside inspection engineers also adopted the technique
for the inspection of process and pressurised plant, structural steelwork and
crane pedestals. The system was used in conjunction with rope access teams
allowing inspection without scaffolding and proving the usefulness of two man
operations and the Butterfly plot. Inspections could be carried out up to 50
metres between the ACFM operator and the probe pusher. The technique has
also been applied to the inspection of drill threads on casing and drill tools. A
special transportable system has been produced to automatically inspect the
drill thread ends and classify them. This provides Go-NoGo reporting. The
system is based on new ACFM array technology. A hand held probe has also
been produced to inspect drill threads with the portable ACFM system.

Thread Inspection ACFM Probe

New materials are being used for components and coatings on offshore
structures but the ACFM system has now been successfully applied to ferritic
steels, austenitic stainless steels, aluminium, duplex, super duplex, monel
and inconel. It has also been used to inspect through the following coatings,
flame sprayed aluminium, epoxy coating, standard paints, ferrite based paints
and copper coated threads. Some inspections have to be carried out when
the plant is operational and ACFM has been used during inspections at - 0°C
and up to 500°C. Because of the above advantages the ACFM technique has
been used to inspect coated flare booms, epoxy coated pig traps, painted
nozzle welds, pipe butt welds, pipe and saddle support welds and pressure
vessel seam welds as well as the above mentioned inspections.

THEME PARK INSPECTION
Theme park rides are made up of several component parts. The structural
section of the ride is very similar to the tubulars found in offshore structures
with fairly long chord and brace node welds in the track and support areas
and thus the problems of inspection are more of access than geometry. The
foundation base sections have short fillet welds with access holes similar to
those found in offshore sections.
Samples were made to examine UK technicians using the ACFM technique to
inspect topside production plant and were found to have similar geometry to
that found in the production of roller coasters. The carriages, axles and carts
or trucks have a different problem. The majority of the welds on these
components is short and has difficult access. This creates two problems one
of end effect and the other of weld presentation. To reliably inspect these
welds there is a requirement to have small probes with high sensitivity and
little response to edge effect and hard wearing probe faces.

The communications rate between the ACFM instrument and the computer
needs to be fast to obtain a meaningful length of weld on the screen of the
computer. The alternative is to scan slowly.
Technical Software Consultants have addressed these problems with the

introduction of the mini and micro pencil probes. Both of these probes have
either straight or 90-degree access and have stainless steel probe faces. The
mini and micro probes have slightly different sensitivity in that one can detect
defects 0.04" deep and the other 0.02" These probes are particularly suited
for the detection of shallow defects in tight access areas.
A new range of control software QFM 2 has also been produced which has
additional features such as a faster communications rate allowing scanning
speeds of up to 2"/second.This can be used for scanning long welds faster or
producing longer images on the computer screen for short weld inspection.
This software also allows automatic centralisation of the data display and the
ability to select and print single scans of data.

Different values of lift off can also be selected in order to inspect through
different thicknesses of coating.
The combination of these developments will allow the experience gained from
critical offshore inspection to be applied to the inspection of the theme park
components so that they can be carried out more efficiently and reliably.
In one theme park the track of one of the rides is made up of 300 ties each
one having 70 welds of varying length and geometry. During the annual
shutdown of this ride a number of these ties are cleaned, inspected using
magnetic particle inspection techniques and then the ties are repainted. This
normally takes three weeks, one for the cleaning, one for the inspection and
one for refurbishment and repainting. This is one of the major problems, as
the paint has to be matched as closely as possible with the original colours.
During one inspection 30 ties were inspected with magnetic particle
inspection.

During the next inspection the ACFM technique was used. No prior cleaning
was required and 64 ties were inspected in four days and one day was used
for repairs and re-inspection. No additional painting was required except for
the localised painting where the repairs had taken place. In an industry where
the customer expects all of the rides to be available when they visit the theme
park the reduction in down time is very important. The ACFM technique has
now being used in a number of theme parks and a mechanised system has
been installed in one park where more than 1000 supports require inspection.
Using the new system the inspection time/ support has been reduced from 8
minutes to 3minutes.
Keypoints: Advantages
■ Speed of scanning,
■ No removal of paint or coating.

Keypoints:
 Two problems one of end effect and the other of weld presentation. To
reliably inspect these welds there is a requirement to have small probes
with high sensitivity and little response to edge effect and hard wearing
probe faces.
 The communications rate between the ACFM instrument and the

computer needs to be fast to obtain a meaningful length of weld on the
screen of the computer. The alternative is to scan slowly.
 Different values of lift off can also be selected in order to inspect through
different thicknesses of coating.
 Multiple configured probes necessary.

Highway Construction
There are 240,000 welded steel bridges in the USA with an average age of
45 years and of these there are 58.9%, which are structurally defective. The
major form of failure in these bridges is fatigue. Reference (1) In 1967 one
steel bridge collapsed and 49 people were killed. The initial failure was a
1/8th deep fatigue crack in an eye bar. A second bridge failed in 1980, which
was also caused by fatigue. In the USA there are 27,000 bridges classed as
fracture critical and because of this there is a need to have an efficient and
reliable NDT technique. In the opinion of the Federal Highways Authority NDT
is still not used efficiently during operations and maintenance. Reference (2)
In the UK there are similar problems with the increasing use of heavy road
transport and the Euro regulations allowing heavier axle weight. The
combination has caused not only fatigue problems but also bridge deck
problems.

There are a number of road bridges produced from box girder construction,
which have longitudinal as well as transverse cracking. Unfortunately the
majority of these welds are coated and to clean and inspect would be very
expensive and labour intensive. These box sections are about 40' long with
both horizontal and vertical welds present. The problem of inspecting for and
detecting fatigue cracks through coatings has been well known in the offshore
industry for over thirty years and is now being tackled with the use of
electromagnetic techniques such as the ACFM technique. The results
obtained following inspection are a major factor in calculating the structural
integrity of these welds and determining the valid life of the welded joint in
terms of Probability of Failure and Reliability Index.

The problems of inspection of road bridges are not unrelated to that of the
inspection of offshore structures in that the material is steel which is coated,
the welds have difficult access and geometry and the inspection has to be
reliable and repeatable. These were the same problems and background with
which ACFM technique was presented. The ACFM technique has since
successfully overcome these problems using the portable unit, two man rope
access, specially developed probes and communication techniques and has
been used to carry out inspection of coated steel structures such as offshore
structures and bridge sections. One other problem which has arisen is the
failure of overhead signs and light supports which has been subject to high
cycle fatigue. This has caused fatalities in one county in the UK and also in
one of the Northern States of the USA and has caused the inspection and
design of these structures to be re-examined. Some of these designs such as
the flagpole design where the weld is on the elbow may have to be changed.
Because of their location it is not easy to remove the protective coating
inspect and re-coat without causing some disruption to the traffic flow.
Comparative trials has shown that there can be a 60% saving in time and cost
when changing from magnetic particle inspection to a non contacting
technique such as ACFM.

INSPECTION OF DUPLEX AND SUPER DUPLEX MATERIAL
Duplex and super duplex stainless steel has been developed to combine the
high mechanical strength of carbon steels with the corrosion resistance of
conventional stainless steels. In situations where corrosion resistance is
required, they allow the use of thinner section components than before, thus
giving great weight and cost reductions. Duplex steels are being increasingly
used for process and production pipework operating at high temperatures and
pressures. Although the fatigue crack propagation rate is similar to carbon
steel the reduced stiffness gives higher fatigue loading and this combined
with the thinner walls gives a reduced fatigue life. This makes the detection of
fatigue cracking at an early stage more important.

The complex metallurgical structure of duplex steels produces problems with
most NDT techniques. The complex structure is produced because duplex
can occur as islands of ferrite in an austenite matrix or vice versa. If it is the
former the material will perform as if it was an austenitic material and the
current flow would penetrate several millimetres. If the structure were of
austenite islands in a ferrite matrix then the penetration would be only a
fraction of a millimetre. The ACFM technique performs equally as well under
both conditions but has the added advantage that in the austenitic situation
the technique has detected internal defects and defects occurring on the inner
surface.
Keypoints:
 If it is the former the material will perform as if it was an austenitic material
and the current flow would penetrate several millimetres.
 If the structure were of austenite islands in a ferrite matrix then the
penetration would be only a fraction of a millimetre.

Duplex Steel

Th e Stan d ard Pe n e tratio n
δ = ( πfμσ) -½
The governing factors: μ, σ
Where:
δ = Standard Depth of Penetration (m m )
π = 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
μ = Magnetic Perm eability (H/ m m )
σ = Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)

When inspecting ferrite based duplex it was found that the depth-sizing model
was quite accurate but with the austenite based duplex a 10% inaccuracy
was detected. This was overcome by multiplying the value determined by a
compensation factor. So far over 15000 welds have been examined using the
ACFM technique with a good detection rate and a low number of false calls.
New procedures are being developed using higher frequencies to allow
discrimination between surface and subsurface defects.
Keywords:
Ferrite based duplex (?)
Austenite based duplex (?)

PRESSURE VESSEL INSPECTION: INSPECTION FOR TRANSVERSE
CRACKS IN A PRESSURE VESSEL SHELL PLATE
A section of 1" shell plate which had a 3/4" wide weld running across it was
presented for inspection. A micro ACFM inspection probe was used to scan
the toe of the weld using the normal scanning procedure. Several positive Bx
indications were noted indicating the presence of transverse cracking. The
probe was then used to scan along the centre of the weld cap from one end
of the section to the other. During this scan nine strong transverse crack
indications were noted. Their locations were noted along the length of the
weld. Two more indications were also noted, one was located at 45° between
defects 5 and 6 and this was located during the longitudinal weld toe scan
and gave a weak indication. A second indication was noted between defects
4 and 5 also during the toe scan but this was only 4mm long (also transverse)
and thus was not covered by the weld cap centre line scan. The defects were
then sized using the normal ACFM procedure to produce length and depth
information.

Pressure Vessels

COKE DRUM INSPECTION
These drums are subject to thermal and mechanical fatigue due to the
process of producing fine grade carbon then using drills to release the final
product. Cracking occurs at the bottom section of these vessels but detection
is difficult because of the very rough surface. The oil company involved
normally allocated two weeks down time for the inspection of six drums using
conventional inspection techniques such as magnetic particle inspection and
manual ultrasonic inspection. One total inspection of a drum took eight hours
with the ACFM technique and the results were compared with the other
techniques and gave a good correlation. The oil company has specified the
ACFM technique for the inspection of these drums and it is estimated that the
total inspection will take four days. The ACFM technique is going to be used
to detect and then monitor the crack growth during the life cycle of the coke
drums.

Coke Drums

Coke Drums

Delay Coker
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_coker

DETERMINATION OF PRESSURE VESSEL LIFE
A number of pressure vessels were nearing the end of their determined life but the
plant operator wanted to extend the operational life. Inspection of the internal welds
had been carried out from the external surface with an ultrasonic technique and
detects had been detected. The ACFM technique was then used from the inside to
confirm the presence and determine the extent of the internal cracking. The technique
was able to measure the length and the depth of the defects and from these
measurements it was possible to determine the structural integrity of the vessels and
allow them to remain in service. The ACFM technique is now used as the front line
and verification inspection technique.
INSPECTION OF DAMAGED AREA OF A REFINERY

A reactor located in a refinery in Minnesota had been damaged in a fire. Following
conventional inspection ten defects were located but because of access problems it
was not possible to examine them with manual ultrasonic techniques to determine
their depth. In subzero temperatures the ACFM crack microgauge and a micro pencil
probe was used to determine the depths of the defects. The only problem the
inspector had with this inspection was that because the temperatures were so low the
screen of the laptop froze.

REACTOR CATALYST BED SUPPORT
The catalyst bed support consisted of a 3" internal strip running around the
total circumference of the vessel. Internal diameter cracks were suspected.
The ACFM technique was used and only cracks at the toes of the welds were
detected. These were sized and run or repair decisions were based on these
results.
REACTOR INSPECTION
These particular reactors had a number of nozzles, which were known to be
subject to thermal and mechanical fatigue. Plates had been fabricated to
reinforce these nozzles and these required regular inspection during the
operating process. The external welds were inspected with the ACFM
technique and all cracks detected were sized.

ENVIRONMENTAL CRACK DETECTION: CRACKING IN DISTILLATION
TOWERS
The distillation towers were manufactured from carbon steel and the internal
surface was subject to a hydrogen sulphide atmosphere producing
environmental cracking. The surface was very difficult to clean and the
inspection was carried out using the ACFM technique to detect the onset of
cracking and to determine the degree of damage by measuring the depth of
the cracks.
ABSORBER TOWER INSPECTION

The absorber towers in gas plants are manufactured from thick wall carbon
steel. Due to the production process they are subject to hydrogen induced
cracking on the tray support welds on the internal surfaces. These welds were
inspected and crack depths measured.

RING TYPE JOINT FLANGES
These particular flanges were manufactured from 21/4%Chrome Molybdenum
steel which had a weld overlay produced from 347 stainless steel. Stress
corrosion cracking was suspected in the weld overlay and decisions had to be
made whether to continue operations or repair the cracks.
REFINERY COKE DRUM CRACKING

The coke drum was manufactured from carbon steel and the internal surface
was clad in 410 stainless steel. Cracking was occurring in the clad material
and the ACFM technique was used to determine the depths of the cracking
and to determine if the cracking had extended into the parent material. The
ACFM technique was used to detect and measure the size of the cracks in
terms of length and depth and a decision was made based on this information
whether to repair or monitor.

HIGH TEMPERATURE INSPECTION AND MONITORING OF CRACKS:
RE-CERTIFICATION OF A GAS PROCESS PLANT AT HIGH AND LOW
TEMPERATURES
The ACFM technique has found many applications in refineries and process
plant, but one of the most successful has been in weld inspection at high and
low temperatures. Because the probes do not have an inner core they are not
subjected to the Curie point limitations which affect some electromagnetic
techniques. The standard probes can be scanned at medium temperatures up
to 200°C on process plant and high temperature applications at 500 °C on
pressure vessels. The same probes can also be used to inspect plant with
surface temperatures of -20 °C. A gas process plant in Scotland was coming
to the end of its first year in service and recertification was required. Because
a major part of the plant required inspection the only way that it would be
possible to carry out this inspection would be to do some of the inspection
prior to and after the shutdown period. This would mean inspecting the plant
live at high and low temperatures.

A ten-week inspection programme was organised to include the two-week
shutdown period. Pressure vessels, separators, saddle welds, girth welds,
pipe work and fractionating columns were inspected over this period using the
same probe with a 25 metre cable length and a U9 crack microgauge
instrument. Six defects were detected and these ranged from 10mm- 70mm
long x 4mm deep. The operating temperatures of the plant ranged from
225°C to - 20°C.
Because of access problems it was not possible always to locate the crack
microgauge near to the worksite. This problem was overcome by using a 25-
metre probe cable from the unit to the probe and a 30-metre cable between
the unit and the laptop. The probe operator communicated with the crack
microgauge operator using a head-up display system and two way audio
communications. This enabled the inspection of fractionating columns and
other high parts of the plant to be inspected without the use of scaffolding.
The ability of the technique to be used to inspect through coatings as well as
at high and low temperatures meant that critical areas which could not be
inspected on line were inspected during the shutdown period and the
remainder was inspected on line.

During the first inspection ACFM was used as the front line inspection tool
with verification of defects being carried out by local coating removal and MPI
followed by grinding to remove the defects. Good correlation was found
between the techniques and verification is not now carried out and the ACFM
technique has been used during every maintenance shutdown period.
Keywords:
 Through coating
 High & low temperature application
 No curie temperature limitation
 Remote interpretation.

STAINLESS STEEL PRESSURE VESSEL
A particular client had a requirement to monitor stainless steel pressure
vessels operating at 500°C. It was not possible to shut down the plant so a
number of probes were developed to be able to operate continuously at these
high temperatures. The probes for inspection were manually deployed
whereas the probes for monitoring were continuously mounted on the vessels
beneath the lagging and automatically monitored remotely.
PROCESS PIPE WORK

This was another case of crack monitoring. Cracks had been observed in the
circumferential welds of a pipeline operating at 750°F and the plant operator
did not want to shut down the process plant. Manual ACFM inspection was
used to determine the size of the cracks and the fracture mechanics engineer
was able to determine the structural integrity of the welds. The plant was
allowed to continue operating and the cracks were monitored on a regular
basis.

FABRICATION OF PIPE WORK
A new 347 stainless steel pipe line was been fabricated and in the past the
process has been to produce the root weld allow the weld to cool down then
inspect with dye penetrant. Any repairs were then carried out and the next
pass laid down after re-heating. At each inter-pass stage the weld was
allowed to cool, then inspected and then reheated to allow welding to
continue. The ACFM system together with a pencil probe was used instead of
the dye penetrant inspection as a quality control tool. No cooling below the re-
eating temperature was required and the weld production increased. The
specialised welding time had been reduced from 12 hours /weld to 2 hours
/weld because of the reduced inspection time and heat cycle time. No repairs
ere necessary during the fabrication.
Keypoints:
High temperature application.
Pencil probe for weld bead inspection.

COMMENTS
The ACFM technique's reputation has grown based on initial work carried out
by the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London in
its work on detection and sizing of surface breaking fatigue cracks. This
showed that the ACFM technique had a high level of Probability of Detection
and characterisation of defect length and depth. This enabled the technique
to establish itself in the offshore and mechanical and civil engineering world
as well as the petrochemical industry for the detection of surface breaking
fatigue cracks. From there it has progressed and shown that it is equally
successful in the detection and sizing of environmental cracks. The technique
has also been used to inspect nonmagnetic materials such a stainless steel
and titanium and to inspect through coatings making it a useful and adaptable
inspection technique for the new millennium.

UCL

Reading 4: ASTM Designation: E2261/E2261M -12 Standard
Practice for Examination of Welds Using the Alternating Current
Field Measurement Technique
Keypoints:
3.2.1 exciter— a device that generates a time varying electromagnetic field,
usually a coil energized with alternating current (AC); also known as a
transmitter.
3.2.2 detector— one or more coils or elements used to sense or measure a
magnetic field; also known as a receiver.

3.2.3 uniform field— as applied to nondestructive testing with magnetic fields,
the area of uniform magnetic field over the surface of the material under
examination produced by a parallel induced alternating current, which has
been passed through the weld and is observable beyond the direct coupling
of the exciting coil.
3.2.4 graduated field— as applied to nondestructive testing with magnetic

fields, a magnetic field having a controlled gradient in its intensity.
Keypoints:
The Uniform Field:
The uniform magnetic field
The uniform electric field?

3.3 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.3.1 alternating current field measurement system—the electronic
instrumentation, software, probes, and all associated components and cables
required for performing weld examination using the alternating current field
measurement technique.
3.3.2 operational reference standard—a reference standard with specified

artificial slots, used to confirm the operation of the system.
3.3.3 Bx—the x component of the magnetic field, parallel to the weld toe, the
magnitude of which is proportional to the current density set up by the electric
field.
3.3.4 Bz—the z component of the magnetic field normal to the inspected base
metal/heat affected zone surface, the magnitude of which is proportional to
the lateral deflection of the induced currents in the plane of that surface.
3.3.5 X-Y Plot—an X-Y graph with two orthogonal components of magnetic
field plotted against each other.

3.3.6 time base plots— these plot the relationship between Bx or Bz values
with time.
3.3.7 surface plot— for use with array probes. This type of plot has one
component of the magnetic field plotted over an area, typically as a color
contour plot or 3-D wire frame plot.
3.3.8 data sample rate— the rate at which data is digitized for display and
recording, in data points per second.
3.3.9 configuration data— standardization data and instrumentation settings
for a particular probe stored in a computer file.
3.3.10 twin fields— magnetic fields generated in two orthogonal directions by
use of two exciters
NOTE 1— Different equipment manufacturers may use slightly different terminology.

Reference should be made to the equipment manufacturer’s documentation for
clarification.

The surface plot

The Bx, Bz time base plots

4. Summary of Practice
4.1 In a basic alternating current field measurement system, a small probe is
moved along the toe of a weld. The probe contains an exciter coil, which
induces an AC magnetic field in the material surface aligned to the direction
of the weld. This, in turn, causes alternating current to flow across the weld.
The depth of penetration of this current varies with material type and
frequency but is typically 0.1 mm [0.004 in. ] deep in magnetic materials and
2 ~ 7 mm. [0.08 - 0.3 in] deep in non-ferrous materials.
Any surface breaking discontinuities within a short distance of either side of
the scan line at this location will interrupt or disturb the flow of the alternating
current. The maximum distance from the scan line to a target discontinuity,
potentially detectable at a specified probability of detection, is determined by
the probe assembly size, but is typically 10 mm [0.4 in ]. Measurement of the
absolute quantities of the two major components of the surface magnetic
fields (Bx and Bz) determines the severity of the disturbance (see Fig. 1) and
thus the severity of the discontinuity.
Keywords: absolute quantities

FIG. 1 Example Bx and Bz Traces as a Probe Passes Over a Crack (The
orientation of the traces may differ depending upon the instrumentation.)

Discontinuity sizes, such as crack length and depth, can be estimated from
key points selected from the Bx and Bz traces along with the standardization
data and instrument settings from each individual probe. This discontinuity
sizing can be performed automatically using system software.
Discontinuities essentially perpendicular to the weld may be detected (in

ferritic metals only) by the flux leakage effect. However confirmation of such
transverse discontinuities (and detection of the same in non-ferritic metals)
requires scans with the induced magnetic field perpendicular to the direction
of the weld.
Keypoints:
■ Primary induced magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the weld.
■ Induced eddy current parallel to the weld
■ Electrical perturbation, the defect run transverse to the weld in the same
direction as the primary induced magnetic field.

4.2 Configuration data is loaded at the start of the examination. System
sensitivity and operation is verified using an operation reference standard.
System operation is checked and recorded prior to and at regular intervals
during the examination. Note that when a unidirectional input current is used,
any decay in strength of the input field with probe lift-off or thin coating is
relatively small so that variations of output signal (as may be associated with
a discontinuity) are reduced. If a thick coating is present, then the
discontinuity size estimation must compensate for the coating thickness. The
coating thickness requiring compensation is probe dependent. This can be
accomplished using discontinuity-sizing tables in the system software and an
operator-entered coating thickness or automatically if the equipment
measures the coating thickness or stand-off distance during the scanning
process. Using the wrong coating thickness would have a negative effect on
depth sizing accuracy if the coating thickness discrepancy is too large. Data
is recorded in a manner that allows archiving and subsequent recall for each
weld location. Evaluation of examination results may be conducted at the time
of examination or at a later date. The examiner generates an examination
report detailing complete results of the examination.

5. Significance and Use
5.1 The purpose of the alternating current field measurement method is to
evaluate welds for surface breaking discontinuities such as fabrication and
fatigue cracks. The examination results may then be used by qualified
organizations to assess weld service life or other engineering characteristics
(beyond the scope of this practice). This practice is not intended for the
examination of welds for non-surface breaking discontinuities.
Keywords:
This practice is not intended for the examination of welds for non-surface
breaking discontinuities.

6. Basis of Application
6.1 Personnel Qualification:
6.1.1 If specified in the contractual agreement, personnel performing
examinations to this practice shall be qualified in accordance with a nationally
or internationally recognized NDT personnel qualification practice or standard
such as ANSI/ASNT-CP-189 or SNT-TC-1A or a similar document and
certified by the employer or certifying agent, as applicable. The practice or
standard used and its applicable revision shall be identified in the contractual
agreement between the using parties.
6.2 Qualification of Nondestructive Evaluation Agencies—if specified in the
contractual agreement, NDT agencies shall be qualified and evaluated as
described in Practice E543, with reference to sections on electromagnetic
examination. The applicable edition of Practice E543 shall be specified in the
contractual agreement.

7. Job Scope and Requirements
7.1 The following items may require agreement by the examining party and
their client and should be specified in the purchase document or elsewhere:
7.1.1 Location and type of welded component to be examined, design
specifications, degradation history, previous nondestructive examination
results, maintenance history, process conditions, and specific types of
discontinuities that are required to be detected, if known.
7.1.2 The maximum window of opportunity for work. (Detection of small
discontinuities may require a slower probe scan speed, or cleaning of surface,
or both, which will affect productivity.)
7.1.3 Size, material grade and type, and configuration of welds to be
examined. If required by type of equipment chosen, thickness of coating and
variation of coating thickness.

Example of Cleaning Requirements:
The surface must be cleaned sufficiently to allow smooth probe travel and to
allow features such as grinds or seam welds to be seen. This requires
removal of marine fouling and flaking paint or corrosion for which use of a
wire brush, hand scraper or water jet is normally sufficient. It should be noted
that cleaning to bright metal is not required. However in some locations,
particularly in warmer waters, marine growth can be hard and thick. In such
cases it will be necessary to use grit blast cleaning. The system operator shall
confirm that the surface condition is acceptable prior to carrying out the
inspection, using information supplied by the diver and the divers video
camera.

Underwater Structures

Underwater Structures

7.1.4 A weld numbering or identification system.
7.1.5 Extent of examination, for example: complete or partial coverage, which

welds and to what length, whether straight sections only and the minimum
surface curvature.
7.1.6 Means of access to welds, and areas where access may be restricted.
7.1.7 Type of alternating current field measurement instrument and probe;

and description of operations reference standard used, including such details
as dimensions and material.
7.1.8 Required operator qualifications and certification.
7.1.9 Required weld cleanliness.
7.1.10 Environmental conditions, equipment and preparations that are the

responsibility of the client; common sources of noise that may interfere with
the examination.

7.1.11 Complementary methods or techniques may be used to obtain
additional information.
7.1.12 Acceptance criteria to be used in evaluating discontinuities.
7.1.13 Disposition of examination records and reference standards.
7.1.14 Format and outline contents of the examination report.

8. Interferences
8.1 This section describes items and conditions, which may compromise the
alternating current field measurement technique.
8.2 Material Properties:
8.2.1 Although there are permeability differences in a ferromagnetic material
between weld metal, heat affected zone and parent plate, the probe is
normally scanned along a weld toe and so passes along a line of relatively
constant permeability. If a probe is scanned across a weld then the
permeability changes may produce indications, which could be similar to
those from a discontinuity. Differentiation between a transverse discontinuity
signal and the weld signal can be achieved by taking further scans parallel to
the indication, or using an array probe. The signal from a discontinuity will die
away quickly. If there is no significant change in indication amplitude at 0.8 in.
[20 mm] distance from the weld then the indication is likely due to the
permeability changes in the weld.

Keywords:
the probe is normally scanned along a weld toe and so passes along a line of
relatively constant permeability
Weld toe
Probe

Weld profile
Weld toe

8.3 Magnetic State:
8.3.1 Demagnetization—It must be ensured that the surface being examined
is in the non-magnetized state. Therefore the procedure followed with any
previous magnetic technique deployed must include demagnetization of the
surface. This is because areas of remnant magnetization, particularly where
the leg of a magnetic particle examination yoke was sited, can produce loops
in the X-Y plot, which may sometimes be confused with a discontinuity
indication.

8.3.2 Grinding marks— magnetic permeability can also be affected by surface
treatments such as grinding. These can cause localized areas of altered
permeability across the line of scan direction. The extent and pressure of any
grinding marks should always be reported by the probe operator, since these
can give rise to strong indications in both Bx and Bz, which may be confused
with a discontinuity indication. If a discontinuity is suspected in a region of
grinding, further scans should be taken parallel but away from the weld toe
and perpendicular across the region of grinding. The indication from a linear
discontinuity will die away quickly away from the location of the discontinuity
so that the scan away from the weld toe will be flatter. If there is no significant
change in indication amplitude at 0.80 in. [20 mm] distance from the weld
then the indication is likely due to the effect of the grinding. The indication
from a region of grinding will be the same for the perpendicular scan.

8.4 Residual stress, with accompanying permeability variations, may be
present with effects similar to those due to grinding, but are much smaller.
8.5 Seam Welds:

8.5.1 Seam welds running across the line of scanning also produce strong
indications in the Bx and Bz, which can sometimes be confused, with a
discontinuity indication. The same procedure is used as for grinding marks
with further scans being taken away from the affected area. If the indication
remains constant then it will not have been produced by a linear discontinuity.

Longitudinal Seam welds running across the line of scanning

8.6 Ferromagnetic and Conductive Objects:
8.6.1 Problems may arise because of objects near the weld that are
ferromagnetic or conductive which may reduce the sensitivity and accuracy of
discontinuity characterization when they are in the immediate vicinity of the
weld.
8.7 Neighboring Welds:

8.7.1 In areas where welds cross each other, there are indications, which may
be mistaken for discontinuities. (See 8.5.)

FIGURE 13. Magnetic flux density signals from transverse discontinuity
compared to parallel discontinuity and seam weld: (a) chart recorder plot of
Bx measurements; (b) chart recorder plot of Bz measurements; (c) butterfly
shaped plot of magnetic flux density.
Legend
1. Transverse discontinuity.
2. Parallel discontinuity.
3. Seam weld.

8.8 Weld Geometry:
8.8.1 When a probe scans into a tight angle between two surfaces the Bx
indication value will increase with little change in the Bz value. In the
representative plot of Fig. 2, this appears as a rise in the X-Y plot. If the
equipment is capable of measuring lift-off, the lift-off will also change.

FIG. 2 Example X-Y Plot Produced by Plotting the Bx (vertical)
and Bz (horizontal) Together (The orientation of the plot may differ depending
upon the instrumentation.)
Bx
Bz

Tight Geometries

Tight Geometries

Experts at Work

Tight Geometries

Tight Geometries

8.9 Crack Geometry Effects:
8.9.1 A discontinuity at an angle to the scan—a discontinuity at an angle to
the scan will reduce either the peak or the trough of the Bz as the sensor
probe only passes through the edge of one end of the discontinuity. This
produces an asymmetric X-Y plot. Additional scans may be made along the
weld or parent plate to determine the position of the other end of the
discontinuity.
8.9.2 A discontinuity at an angle to the surface—the effect of a discontinuity at
a non-vertical angle to the probe is generally to reduce the value of the Bz
signal. The value of the Bx signal will not be reduced. This has the effect of
reducing the width of the X-Y plot in the representative plot of Fig. 2.
8.9.3 Line contact or multiple discontinuities—when contacts occur across a
discontinuity then minor loops occur within the main X-Y plot loop produced
by the discontinuity. If more than one discontinuity occurs in the scan then
there will be a number of loops returning to the background.
Keywords: X-Y Plot is butterfly plot.

Crack Geometry
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://bnurwinanto.blogspot.com/2014/08/visual-inspection-and-weld.html

discontinuity at an angle to the surface—The value of the Bx signal will not be
reduced (?). This has the effect of reducing the width of the X-Y plot in the
representative plot of Fig. 2.
The value of the Bx

Bx signal will not be
reduced (?). (of the
butterfly vector plot)
Reducing
It does affect the Bx

plot.
Bz
Fig. 2

FIGURE 14. Magnetic flux density from cracks oriented at different angles to
scan direction: (a) Bx measurement; (b) Bz measurement.
(a)
Legend
1. 0 degrees.
2. 30 degrees.
3. 45 degrees.
4. 90 degrees.

FIGURE 14. Magnetic flux density from cracks oriented at different angles to
scan direction: (a) Bx measurement; (b) Bz measurement.
(b)
Legend
1. 0 degrees.
2. 30 degrees.
3. 45 degrees.
4. 90 degrees.

Typical ACFM Displays

discontinuity.
Keywords: X-Y Plot is butterfly plot.



discontinuity.

8.9.4 Transverse discontinuities—if a transverse discontinuity occurs during
the scan for longitudinal discontinuities (or if a longitudinal discontinuity
occurs during the scan for transverse discontinuities) then the Bx may rise
instead of falling and the Bz signal will remain the same as for a short
longitudinal discontinuity. The X-Y plot will then go upwards instead of down
in the representative plot of Fig. 2. This flux leakage effect is, however,
related to the opening of the discontinuity, so it may not be seen for tightly
closed discontinuities. To confirm the presence of transverse discontinuities,
further scans should be made with the probe orientated to give an induced
field perpendicular to the weld, or through use of an array probe with twin
fields.

8.9.5 Alternating current field measurement end effect – the field from the
standard weld probe is able to propagate around the end of a weld and this
can result in sloping changes in the Bx and Bz traces. A discontinuity
indication may be obscured or distorted if the discontinuity or any active probe
element is close to the weld end. The distance over which this effect occurs
depends on probe type, but can be up to 2 in. [50 mm] for large probes.
Smaller probes should be used in these situations as they have less
susceptibility to edge effect.

8.10 Instrumentation:
8.10.1 The operator should be aware of indicators of noise, saturation or
signal distortion particular to the instrument being used. Special consideration
should be given to the following concerns:
8.10.1.1 The excitation frequency of operation should be chosen to maximize
discontinuity sensitivity whilst maintaining acceptable noise levels.
8.10.1.2 Saturation of electronic components is a potential problem in
alternating current field measurement because signal amplitude can increase
rapidly as a probe is scanned into tight angle geometry. This could cause the
Bx indication to rise above the top of the range of the A/D converter in the
instrument. Data acquired under saturation conditions is not acceptable and
appears as a flattening of the Bx response in the representative plots of Fig. 1
at the maximum possible signal value. If saturation conditions are observed,
the equipment gain should be reduced until the Bx value no longer appears to
saturate and the inspection repeated. After adjusting the equipment gain, an
equipment operation check as described in 11.2 is recommended, except that
the loop size will be smaller. Note that this gain adjustment does not affect the
discontinuity sizing capability.

8.10.2 Instrument-induced Phase Offset—The measurements of magnetic
field are at a chosen and fixed phase so that unlike during conventional eddy
current examination the phase angle does not need to be considered. The
phase is selected at manufacture of the probes and is stored in the probe file
and is automatically configured by the instrument.

The Eddy Current Impedance Plane Responses

8.11 Coating Thickness
8.11.1 If a coating thickness exceeds the specified range for uncompensated
operation then the discontinuity size estimation must compensate for the
coating thickness. This can be accomplished by manually entering a coating
thickness and using discontinuity tables in the system software. Otherwise,
using the wrong coating thickness would reduce the depth sizing accuracy.
Alternatively, the compensation may be performed automatically if the
equipment measures the stand-off distance or coating thickness during the
scanning process.
Keypoints:
■ Uncompensated operation
■ Compensated operation?
■ Stand-off measurement ( same as coating thickness) and compensated
for different coating thickness in the equipment software algorithms.

9. Alternating Current Field Measurement System
9.1 Instrumentation
9.1.1 The electronic instrumentation shall be capable of energizing the exciter
at one or more frequencies appropriate to the weld material. The apparatus
shall be capable of measuring the Bx and Bz magnetic field amplitudes at
each frequency. The instrument will be supplied with a portable personal
computer (PC) that has sufficient system capabilities to support the
alternating current field measurement software, which will be suitable for the
instrument and probes in use and the examination requirements. The
software provides control of the instrumentation including set-up, data
acquisition, data display, data analysis and data storage.

The software provides algorithms for sizing the discontinuities. (See 11.2.2)
The software runs on the PC and, on start up, all communications between
the PC and the instrument are automatically checked. When the software
starts up it automatically sets up the instrument connected in the correct
mode for alternating current field measurement examination.
Configuration data for each probe is stored on the PC and is transmitted to
the instrument whenever a probe is selected or changed. For non-magnetic
materials, if configuration data is not available from the equipment
manufacturer, a standardization may be performed on reference blocks prior
to the material examination. Equipment operation is also checked by
scanning over a reference standard. (See 11.2.2) Once the instrumentation is
set up for a particular probe, the software can be used to start and stop data
acquisition. During data acquisition at least two presentations of the data are
presented on the PC screen in real time. (See 4.1). Data from the probe is
displayed against time (with Fig. 1 as an example) and also as an X-Y plot
(with Fig. 2 as an example).

FIG. 1 Example Bx and Bz Traces as a Probe Passes Over a Crack (The
orientation of the traces may differ depending upon the instrumentation.)

FIG. 2 Example X-Y Plot Produced by Plotting the Bx (vertical)
and Bz (horizontal) Together (The orientation of the plot may differ depending
upon the instrumentation.)
Bx
Bz

The data from the probe can also be displayed against position (see Fig. 1) if
an encoder is used with the probe. Depending upon equipment type, manual
or automatic position markers may be incorporated with the data. Once
collected the data can be further analyzed offline using the software to allow,
for example, discontinuity sizing (see 11.2.2) or annotation for transfer to
examination reports. The software also provides facilities for all data collected
to be electronically stored for subsequent review or reanalysis, printing or
archiving.
9.2 Driving Mechanism:

9.2.1 When a mechanized system is in operation, a mechanical means of
scanning the probe, or probes in the form of an array, along a weld or surface
area at approximately constant speed may be used.
Keywords:
Encoder

9.3 Probes:
9.3.1 The probes selected should be appropriate for the form of examination
to be carried out dependent on length of weld, geometry, size of detectable
discontinuity and surface temperature.
9.3.1.1 Standard weld probe— Commonly used for weld examination

whenever possible as it has its coils positioned ideally for discontinuity sizing.
9.3.1.2 Tight access probe— designed specifically for occasions where the
area under examination is not accessible with the standard weld probe. It is
not as accurate as the weld probe for sizing in open geometries such as butt
welds.

9.3.1.3 Grind repair probe—designed for the examination of deep repair
grinds. It has the same basic geometry as a standard probe but is more
susceptible to produce indications from vertical probe movement.
9.3.1.4 Mini-probe—designed for restricted access areas such as cut outs

and cruciforms and has a reduced edge effect. It may be limited to shallow
discontinuities only and is more sensitive to lift off. This probe may be in the
form of a straight entry or 90°.

9.3.1.5 Micro-probe—designed for high-sensitivity discontinuity detection in
restricted access areas and has the same limitations as a mini-probe. This
probe may be in the form of a straight entry or 90°.
9.3.1.6 Array probe— made up of a number of elements; each element is

sensitive to a discrete section of the weld width. The elements may be
oriented with their axes aligned longitudinally or transversely with respect to
the weld toe. The array probe may have two orthogonal直交的 field exciters to
allow examination for longitudinal and transverse discontinuities in a single
scan. The array probe is generally used either for scanning a weld cap in one
pass or for covering a section of plate.
9.3.1.7 Edge effect probe—designed to reduce the edge effect when carrying
out examination only near the ends of welds. (A mini probe may also be used
for the same examination.)

Scanning Pattern General Considerations - All Welds
The following notes on probe deployment describe how to inspect welded components
for fatigue cracks where it is assumed that defects will closely follow the weld line. The
technique relies on recognition of the signal from a probe scan along the length of a
defect, so an ACFM probe is always scanned along a line parallel to the weld. For this
reason, defects that lie at an angle of more than about 25o to the weld may not be
detected. If inspection for transverse defects is required, refer to the procedure in
section "Transverse Cracks" on page 14. Standard weld probes should be used for all
welds where access allows. A pencil probe should only be used for inspecting ground
out regions or other geometries where a weld probe cannot gain access. The
recommended scanning speed is about 10mm per second. The standard probe scans
a width of approximately 20mm. Scans should always be made along both weld toes
and, if wider than 20mm, the weld cap should also be covered by making a number of
passes sufficient to cover the weld cap width taking into account the coverage of the
probe.

9.4 Data Displays:
9.4.1 The data display should include Bx and Bz indications as well as an X-Y
plot.
9.4.2 When multi-element array probes are being used, the facility to produce
color contour maps or 3D-wire frame plots representing peaks and troughs
should be available.

3D-wire frame plots

9.5 Excitation Mechanism:
9.5.1 The degree of uniformity of the magnetic field applied to the material
under examination is determined by the equipment manufacturer.
Representative magnetic field distributions are a uniform magnetic field and a
graduated magnetic field. The geometry of the slots used in the operation
reference standard and the discontinuity sizing model must be consistent with
the excitation field.
Keywords:
Uniform magnetic field
Graduated magnetic field
Discontinuity sizing model

10. Alternating Current Field Measurement Reference Standards
10.1 Artificial Slots for the Operation Reference Standard:
10.1.1 The operation reference standard has specific artificial discontinuities.
It is used to check that the instrument and probe combination is functioning
correctly. It may also be used for standardization of the equipment for
nonmagnetic materials. Unless otherwise specified by the client or equipment
manufacturer, the artificial discontinuities for the operation reference standard
are elliptical or rectangular slots. The slot geometry will be specified by the
equipment manufacturer to be consistent with the crack size estimation model.
Typical slot dimensions are as follows:

10.1.1.1 Elliptical Slots—Two elliptical slots placed in the weld toe with
dimensions 2.0 in. × 0.2 in. [50mm × 5mm] and 0.8 in. × 0.08 in. [20 mm × 2
mm]. (Fig. 3, discontinuities A and B.)
10.1.1.2 Rectangular Slots— Three rectangular slots with depth 0.08 in. [2
mm] and lengths of 0.4 in. and 0.8 in. [10 mm and 20 mm] (Fig. 3,
discontinuities C and D) and with depth 0.16 in. [4 mm] and length of 1.6 in.
[40 mm] (Fig. 3, discontinuity E.)
10.1.2 These slots shall be less than 0.008 in. [0.2 mm] wide.
10.1.3 Artificial discontinuity depths are specified by giving the deepest point
of the discontinuity. Discontinuity depths shall be accurate to within +/- 10% of
the depth specified, measured, and documented. The discontinuity length
shall be accurate to within +/- 0.040 in. [+/- 1.00 mm] of the dimension
specified.

FIG. 3 Flat Plate Sample Serial Number XXX Showing Size and Location of
Reference Slots (Plan View and Side View. Not to Scale)
Weld cap

FIG. 3 Flat Plate Sample Serial Number XXX Showing Size and Location of
Reference Slots (Plan View and Side View. Not to Scale)

10.2 Reference standards having artificial or simulated discontinuities are not
required for standardization when the technique is to be used to examine
carbon steel welds or if configuration data is available for the examination
material.
10.3 Materials other than carbon steel:

10.3.1 If the technique is to be used on materials other than carbon steel,
then it may be necessary to standardize the probes on this material if
configuration data is not available from the equipment manufacturer, refer to
manufacturer’s instructions.

10.2 Reference standards having artificial or simulated discontinuities are not
required for standardization when the technique is to be used to examine
carbon steel welds or if configuration data is available for the examination
material.

NOTE 2 — If this is not done then the sizes of the indications may be too
small (so that small discontinuities may be missed) or too large (so that
spurious indications may be called), or the Bx indication may saturate
making the examination invalid. This standardization is done using a slot
of reasonable size located at a weld toe of a representative sample. The
gain settings are altered, either automatically or manually according to
equipment type, until a loop of reasonable size is produced in the X-Y plot
while background noise indications are kept low. When the technique is to
be used to size the depths of discontinuities detected in material for which
configuration data is unavailable, then a reference standard should be
manufactured from the material with at least two slots of differing depth.
This provides an adjustment coefficient that modifies the estimated depth
from the sizing model.

10.4 Reference standards having artificial or simulated discontinuities for
welds in materials other than carbon steel shall not be used for discontinuity
characterization unless the signals from the artificial discontinuities can be
demonstrated to be similar to the signals for discontinuities detected. To be
considered similar, a direct comparison should be performed between
responses to the simulated discontinuities and real cracks. This comparison
should involve at least one limited sizing trial or a probability of detection
(POD) study.

10.5 Manufacture and Care of the Operation Reference Standards:
10.5.1 Drawings — for each operation reference standard and standard, there
shall be a drawing that includes the as-built measured slot dimensions,
material type and grade, and the serial number of the actual operation
reference standard or weld standard.
10.5.2 Serial Number — each operation reference standard shall be identified

with a unique serial number and stored so that it can be obtained and used
for reference when required.
10.5.3 Slot Spacing — the slots should be positioned longitudinally to avoid

overlapping of indications and interference from end effects.
10.5.4 Proper machining practices shall be used to avoid excessive cold-

working, over- heating, and undue stress and permeability variations.
10.5.5 Blocks should be stored and shipped so as to prevent mechanical

damage.

11. Equipment Operation Check
11.1 Instrument Settings:
11.1.1 Operating Frequency—using the appropriate operation reference
standard the procedure in 11.2.2 below is intended to help the user select an
operating frequency. Demonstrably equivalent methods may be used.
The standard operating frequency depends upon the equipment to be used

and typically is in the range of 5 to 50 kHz.
A higher operating frequency will give better sensitivity on good surfaces. If

the system available is not capable of operating at the frequency described by
this practice, the inspector shall declare to the client that conditions of
reduced sensitivity may exist.

11.1.2 Standardization — For non-magnetic materials where configuration
data is not available, the equipment may need to be standardized.
Standardization is performed by loading manufacturer supplied configuration
data, performing standardization measurements, and saving the resulting
data and instrument settings as user configuration data.
The standardization measurements are performed using the appropriate
operation reference standard (see 10.1). The probe is placed at the toe of the
weld with the nose of the probe parallel to the longitudinal direction of the
weld. The probe is then scanned across the operation reference standard and
over a reference slot as specified by the equipment manufacturer.
The signal for the scanned slot is then selected and the gain is adjusted
manually or automatically based on the measured signal and a reference
signal for the discontinuity. Care must be used to ensure that the reference
slot is the same as the discontinuity for the reference signal. This information
can then be saved as user configuration data.

11.2 Test System Check and Procedure:
11.2.1 The test system shall consist of an alternating current field
measurement instrument, the PC, the probe and the operation reference
standard.

11.2.2 The equipment operation check will be performed using the
appropriate operation reference standard (see 10.1). The probe is placed at
the toe of the weld with the nose of the probe parallel to the longitudinal
direction of the weld. The probe is then scanned across the operation
reference standard and over the appropriate reference slot, which depends
upon the probe type and as specified by the equipment manufacturer
producing a standardized data plot. Discontinuity indications are created
When:
(1) the background level Bx value is reduced and then returns to the nominal
background level (see Fig. 1) and this is associated with
(2) a peak or positive (+ve) indication followed by a trough or negative (-ve)
indication (or a trough followed by a peak, depending on direction of scan)
in the Bz values.
The resultant effect of the changes in Bx and Bz is a loop in the X-Y plot
shown, for example, as the downward loop of Fig. 2.

The presence of a discontinuity is confirmed when all three of these
indications are present, that is, changes in the Bx and the Bz values and a
loop in the X-Y plot. The loop should fill approximately 50 % of the Bx
direction and 175 % of the Bz direction of the X-Y plot (that is, the loop is
larger than the display in the Bz direction). The scanning speed or data
sampling rate can then be adjusted if necessary, depending on the length and
complexity of weld to be examined.
11.2.2.1 Once the presence of the discontinuity has been confirmed by the Bx
and Bz indications the discontinuity should be sized.

Keywords:
Operation reference standard

11.2.2.2 Discontinuity sizing is performed in the examination software and
uses look-up tables of expected responses versus discontinuity sizes. These
tables are based upon mathematical models that simulate the current flow
around the discontinuities and the resultant change in surface magnetic field.
The operator either positions cursors on the displayed data or enters
background and minimum values of Bx along with the Bz length and any
coating thickness to allow the software to estimate discontinuity length and
depth.
11.2.2.3 If the discontinuity sizing values differ from those expected from the
operation reference standard then the instrument and probe settings should
be checked. Each probe should have a unique probe file, the validity of which
has been checked against the discontinuity sizing tables. The instrument
settings can be checked using the software package.

11.2.3 Each alternating current field measurement unit and probe to be used
during the examination should be checked with the operation reference
standard. Discontinuity sizing estimation results obtained should be the same
as the measured dimensions of the slots in the block. If the dimensions differ
by more a specified margin (for example, 10 %), then check that the correct
probe files and gain have been used. If the correct probe files and gain have
been used then there is a fault with the system, which will have to be
determined. Do not use for examination unless standardization validity is
confirmed within the specified margin between the estimated and measured
slot dimensions.
Keywords:
 Each alternating current field measurement unit and probe to be used
standard.
 Do not use for examination unless standardization validity is confirmed
within the specified margin between the estimated and measured slot
dimensions.

Keywords:
 Each alternating current field measurement unit and probe to be used
standard.
 Do not use for examination unless standardization validity is confirmed
within the specified margin between the estimated and measured slot
dimensions.
NOT

11.3 Frequency of System Checks:
11.3.1 The system should be checked with all of the probes to be used during
the examination prior to examining the first weld.
11.3.2 System operation should be checked at least every four hours with the
probe in use or at the end of the examination being performed. If the
discontinuity responses from the operation reference standard have changed
by a specified margin (for example, 10 %), the welds examined since the last
operations reference standard check shall be re-examined after following the
procedure in 11.2.3.

12. Examination Procedure
12.1 If necessary, clean the weld surface to remove obstructions and heavy
ferromagnetic or conductive debris.
12.2 Following the guidelines in 9.3, select a suitable probe for the
examination task, then, using the installed software, select a data file and a
probe file.
12.2.1 The probe is placed at the toe of the weld with the nose of the probe
parallel to the longitudinal direction of the weld.

12.2.2 The probe is then scanned along the weld. Discontinuity indications
are created when the following three points are indicated:
12.2.2.1 The background level Bx value is reduced and then returns to the
nominal background level, Fig. 1.
12.2.2.2 This is associated with a peak, or positive (+ve) indication followed
by a trough, or negative (-ve) indication (or a trough followed by a peak,
depending on direction of scan) in the Bz values. Fig. 1.
12.2.2.3 The resultant effect of the changes in Bx and Bz is a downward loop
in the X-Y plot, which is shown as a downward loop in the example plot of Fig.
2.
Keywords:
Downward loop

12.2.3 The presence of a discontinuity is confirmed when all three of these
indications are present, that is, the Bx, the Bz and a loop in the X-Y plot. The
scanning speed or data sampling rate can be adjusted if necessary,
depending on the length and complexity of weld to be examined.

12.3 Compensation for Material Differences:
12.3.1 To compensate for the small differences in readings caused by
variations in permeability, conductivity or geometry for a given material, the
data may be centered on the display area. For larger differences, the
equipment settings should be adjusted, and/or a more suitable probe
configuration should be used, in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.

12.4 Compensation for Ferromagnetic or Conductive Objects:
12.4.1 Techniques that may improve alternating current field measurement
results near interfering ferromagnetic or conductive objects include:
12.4.1.1 Comparison of baseline or previous examination data with the

current examination data.
12.4.1.2 The use of special probe coil configurations.
12.4.1.3 Use of higher or lower frequency probes may suppress non-relevant

indications.
12.4.1.4 The use of a complementary method or technique.

12.5 Size and record all discontinuity indications as described in Section 14.
12.6 Note areas of limited sensitivity, using indications from the operation
reference standard as an indicator of discontinuity detectability.
12.7 Using a discontinuity characterization standard, evaluate relevant

indications in accordance with acceptance criteria specified by the client, if
applicable.
12.8 If desired, examine selected areas using an appropriate complementary

method or technique to obtain more information, adjusting results where
appropriate.
12.9 Compile and present a report to the client.

13. Examination Considerations
13.1 Scanning Speed:
13.1.1 The scanning speed is chosen using the appropriate data sampling
rate to obtain reasonable fidelity with the details of the scanned object given
the length of the shortest discontinuity required to be found. A typical scan
speed is 1 in. [25 mm]/second. This will produce a regular scan on the PC
screen.
 If short welds are to be examined then a faster data sampling rate should
be used.
 If long welds are to be examined and the whole weld needs to be seen on
the PC screen then a slower data-sampling rate should be used.
The weld length and speed of scanning will govern the data-sampling rate
selected. With the introduction of faster software or hardware it is possible to
select respective data sampling rates to produce faster scanning rates.

13.1.2 Acquire and record data from the operation reference standard at the
selected examination speed.
13.1.3 Acquire and record data from the welds to be examined. Maintain as
uniform a probe speed as possible throughout the examination to produce
repeatable indications.

13.2 Width of Scan:
13.2.1 The scan width is determined by the size of the probe and should be
considered when performing an inspection. The sensitivity of the probe to a
discontinuity decreases with distance. This distance is a factor that affects the
number of scans that must be performed in order to provide full coverage
when inspecting the weld. Note that even if a scan width is larger than the
width of the weld cap, both toes of the weld should be scanned separately in
most cases.
13.3 Continuous Cracking:

13.3.1 Prior to the scanning of a weld, checks should be made that the
discontinuity is not continuous by scanning the probe from 2 in. [50 mm] away
from the weld towards the toe. If a discontinuity is present the Bx indication on
the computer screen will dip as the probe approaches the weld toe. If this
form of indication occurs then this procedure shall be repeated at intervals
along the toe of the weld.

13.4 Scanning Direction:
13.4.1 The probe should always be scanned parallel to the weld toe (except
when confirming transverse discontinuities or discontinuities in regions of
grinding) and this will give recognizable indications from longitudinal
discontinuities in the weld area. Scanning in this direction will also give
recognizable indications from transverse discontinuities and discontinuities
inclined to the toe of the weld. The operator should be familiar with these
types of indications.
Keywords:
The probe should always be scanned parallel to the weld toe

13.5 Circumferential Welds:
13.5.1 The scanning pattern for a circumferential weld is shown in Fig. 4.
Overlapping scans are required to ensure no discontinuities are missed if
they occur at the end of a scan. The number of overlapping scans will vary
depending on the component diameter. The overlap should be between 1 in.
[25 mm] and 2 in. [50 mm] depending on the diameter of the tube or pipe. All
detection shall be complete before any sizing operation is performed.
Remember to check for continuous discontinuities before scanning.

FIG. 4 Scanning Pattern for a Circumferential Weld

13.6 Linear Welds:
13.6.1 The scanning pattern is similar to that for circumferential welds except
that an edge effect may occur at the end of the weld or if the weld ends at a
buttress. In the case of the end of the weld an edge-effect probe should be
used but for the buttress a mini- or micro-probe should be used. These
probes can also be used as an alternative to the edge effect probe. The
standard weld probe should be used for sizing if at all possible. Recourse to
other techniques, possibly including conventional eddy current techniques,
may be necessary in these situations.

Bx background and minimum values to be used near a plate edge
substrate
Bx background
Bx minimum

13.7 Attachments, corners and cutouts:
13.7.1 The scanning patterns for the attachment welds and gussets are
shown in Fig. 5, Fig. 6, and Fig. 7 where lines A1-A6, B1-B3 and C1 and 2
are the probe scan lines and positions 1-10 are the incremental positions
along the weld length. The corners are difficult to scan and the micro- or mini-
robes should be used where possible.
13.8 Cut outs and cruciform geometries:

13.8.1 The examination of this geometry is difficult due to the access
problems; the scanning patterns and identification of the areas are shown in
Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10 and Fig. 11. The 90° mini- or micro- probe is essential
for examining the cut-out areas.

FIG. 5 Scanning Pattern for an Approach to an Attachment

FIG. 6 Scanning Pattern for the End of an Attachment

FIG. 7 Scanning Pattern Across an Attachment (Crack in the Toe End)

FIG. 8 Scans of the Main Weld

FIG. 9 Scans of the Horizontal Weld into a Cut Out

FIG. 10 Nomenclature for Vertical Welds

FIG. 11 Scans of Vertical Cut Out Weld and Cut Out Surface

13.9 Ground-out Areas:
13.9.1 The repair or groundout area is usually 0.5 in. [12.5 mm] wide, and the
grind repair probe is designed for the examination of these areas. The probe
should be scanned into one end of the groundout area and the scan
continued through the other end. Areas with discontinuities should be noted
and sized for length and depth with the grind repair probe.

14. Discontinuity Sizing Procedure
14.1 The depth and length of the discontinuity are estimated from
measurements taken of the Bx signatures plus the distance between terminal
peak/trough of the Bz signature with compensation provided by either a user
entered coating thickness or a real-time thickness compensation function.
14.2 Length:
14.2.1 Once an area containing a discontinuity has been located, a repeat
scan is taken through the discontinuity. The Bz length of the discontinuity is
determined by locating the extreme ends of the discontinuity using the peak
(+ve) and trough (-ve) Bz locations. These positions should be just inside the
actual ends of the discontinuity. This Bz length is used with the discontinuity
sizing tables to determine the true length and depth of the discontinuity. The
length of the detected discontinuity may be measured directly by the system
software using properly placed manual markers or a position encoder. If the
markers are placed manually, then the scan speed should be kept constant.

14.3 Depth:
14.3.1 The depth of the discontinuity is calculated using the Bx minimum and
Bx background values and the Bz length of the discontinuity measured from
the Bz data. Once these values have been put into the discontinuity sizing
table, together with the coating thickness, if the equipment does not provide
for lift-off compensation, then the discontinuity depth will be estimated by the
software. Alternatively, if the equipment provides a lift-off value, the coating
thickness can be determined automatically and the depth can be determined
from the equipment software and discontinuity sizing table.

15. Report
15.1 Reporting Requirements—a list of reporting requirements is given in
Table 1. Reference should be made to the Client reporting requirements
(7.1.14). The items listed below should be included in the examination report.
All information below should be archived, whether or not it is required in the
report.
15.1.1 Owner, location, type and serial number of component examined.
15.1.2 Size, material type and grade, and configuration of welds examined. If
required by type of equipment chosen, thickness of coating and variation in
coating thickness.
15.1.3 Weld numbering system.

15.1.4 Extent of examination, for example, areas of interest, complete or
partial coverage, which welds, and to what length.
15.1.5 The names and qualifications of personnel performing the examination.
15.1.6 Models, types, and serial numbers of the components of the

alternating current field measurement system used, including all probes.
15.1.7 For the initial data acquisition from the operation reference standard, a
complete list of all relevant instrument settings and parameters used, such as
operating frequencies, and probe speed. The list shall enable settings to be
referenced to each individual weld examined.

15.1.8 Serial numbers of all of the operations reference standards used.
15.1.9 Brief outline of all techniques used during the examination.
15.1.10 A list of all areas not examinable or where limited sensitivity was
obtained. Indicate which discontinuities on the operations reference standard
would not have been detectable in those regions. Where possible, indicate
factors that may have limited sensitivity.
NOTE 3 — Factors that influence sensitivity to discontinuities include but are

not limited to: operating frequency, instrument noise, instrument filtering,
digital sample rate, probe speed, coil configuration, probe travel noise and
interference described in Section 8.

More on:
NOTE 3 — Factors that influence sensitivity to discontinuities include but are
not limited to:
 operating frequency,
 instrument noise,
 instrument filtering,
 digital sample rate,
 probe speed,
 coil configuration,
 probe travel noise and
 interference described in Section 8.

15.1.11 Specific information about techniques and depth sizing for each
discontinuity.
15.1.12 Acceptance criteria used to evaluate discontinuities.
15.1.13 A list of discontinuities as specified in the purchasing agreement with

the thickness of the coating over these discontinuities if the equipment does
not measure and compensate for lift-off.
15.1.14 Complementary examination results that influenced interpretation and

evaluation.

15.2 Record data and system settings in a manner that allows archiving and
later recall of all data and system settings for each weld. Throughout the
examination, data shall be permanently recorded, unless otherwise specified
by the client.
15.2.1 Report form. An example report form is shown in Table 2.

16. Keywords
16.1 alternating current field measurement; electromagnetic examination;

ferromagnetic weld; non-conducting material; weld

SUMMARY OF CHANGES
Committee E07 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since
the last issue (E2261 - 07) that may impact the use of this standard. (November 1, 012)
(1) Updated the units statement in 1.4.

(2) Updated 4.1 and 8.9.4, and added definition 3.3.10 to clarify conditions for
examination for discontinuities perpendicular to welds.
(3) Updated 8.3.2 and 13.4.1 to clarify procedures for examining in the vicinity of
grinding areas.

The Reading Magic
The

The
The Reading Magic

ass

Bx background and minimum values to be used near a plate edge

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