Lab Manual

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS-I
(CEN 2200)

Submitted By:
Name: M. Anas khan
Reg. # L1F17BSCE0042
Section: CA

Submitted To:
ENGR. Tanveer Youns

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Central Punjab Lahore
 University of Central Punjab
(Incorporated by Ordinance No. XXIV of 2002 promulgated by Government of the Punjab)

Table of Contents
Sr.
Description Page #
No
Study of main machines and small instruments in Strength of Materials
1 2
Laboratory
2 To perform tension test on various specimens. 10
Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched Specimens of
3 28
metallic materials in tension and bending
To perform compression test on wooden cubes with load applied:
4  Parallel to fibers. 34
 Perpendicular to fibers.

5 To study the bending behavior of wooden beam and to determine 41

modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture of wood.

6 To perform hardness test on a given steel sample using Brinell hardness 47

testing machine.
To determine the shear force and bending moment in a statically
7 determinate beam and comparison of experimental and theoretical 51
results.
To determine the deformations in a statically determinate beam by “Area
8 Moment Method” and comparison of experimental and theoretical 64
results.
Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria. 75
Appendix B: Safety Guidelines. 76
Appendix C: Guidelines on preparing lab reports 78
X

1
Job#1
Study of main machines and small instruments in Strength of
Materials Laboratory

1.1 Objective:
The objective of this study is to have an idea about placement of the important machines in
the laboratory and to learn how to use them easily and efficiently.
1.2 Main Testing Machines:

1.2.1 Universal Testing Machine:

A universal testing machine, also known as a universal tester is a material testing machine
used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. It is named after the
fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression tests on materials,
components, and structures.

Fig 1.1: Universal Testing Machine

2
This machine can perform different steel tests like
 Tension Test
 Compression Test
 Bending Test
 Shear Test
 Punching Test

It has two parts. Its upper part is fixed whereas lower part is moveable. It can perform all
sorts of tests by re arranging its bed.
1.2.1.1 Capacity:
Its maximum capacity is 1000 KN.
1.2.1.2 Manufacturer:

ZHEJIANG TU CRONG INSTRUMENT Co. Ltd, China

1.2.2 Charpy Impact Testing Machine:
It is used to access strength against impact load. Its working principal is based on the simple
pendulum. This machine can perform impact test of bending and tension.
It is manually operated and manufactured by “Charpy Limited England”.
1.2.2.1 Measuring Scale:
0-170 degrees
1.2.2.2 Types of test performed:
 Bending
 Tension

3
 Fig 1.2: Charpy’s testing machine

1.3 Small Instruments:

1.3.1 Vernier Calipers:
1.3.1.1 Purpose:
It is used to measure internal diameter, external diameter, and length of small objects, depth
and thickness of small objects.

4
 Fig 1.3: Vernier Caliper
1.3.1.2 Parts:
 Main scale
 Venire scale
 Upper jaws
 Lower jaws
 Depth measuring stem
 Screw clamp

Its upper jaws are used for measuring the internal diameter and Lower jaws are used for
measuring the external diameter and length of objects. Depth measuring stem is for
measuring the depth of liquid container.
1.3.1.3 Least count:
The smallest measurement, that any instrument can measure, is called least count.
 Least count of main scale = 1mm
 Least count of Vernier scale = 0.5mm
3.1.4 Zero Error:
If zero of main scale is to the left of Vernier scale’s zero, subtract the error in the end from
final reading & vice versa.
Mathematically:
Length = Main Scale Reading + (Least Count * Vernier Scale Reading).
1.3.2 Micrometer Screw Gauge:

1.3.2.1 Purpose:
 It is use to find external diameter, length up to 25.4mm (1 inch) and thickness.

 To measure the dimensions with greater accuracy.

5
 Fig 1.4: Micrometer screw gauge:
1.3.2.2 Parts:
 Main scale (horizontal scale)
 Minor scale (micrometer scale, circular scale)
 Frame and lock nut.
 Ratchet knob.
 Anvil and spindle

1.3.2.3 Pitch:
By the Complete rotation of the circular scale on main scale, the circular scale covers a
distance of 0.5mm. This is called pitch.
1.3.2.4 Least Count:
Pitchof instrument
Least Count =
Total No. of Divisions OnCircular Scale
0.5
¿ = 0.01mm
50
1.3.3 Deflection Gauge:
1.3.3.1 Deflection:
Any of the displacement from the neutral axis of the member is referred as deflection.
1.3.3.2 Purpose:
To measure deflection of any structural member like beam, column and slab etc.

6
 Fig 1.5: Deflection Gauge

1.3.3.3 Parts:
 Smaller Circular Scale
 Larger Circular Scale

1.3.3.4 Least Count:

Inner dial is divided in 10 parts & outer dial is divided in 100 parts.
Least count of smaller scale = 1mm
Least count of larger scale = 0.01mm
e.g. Inner scale reading = 4
Outer scale reading = 74
Final reading = 4.74 mm

1.3.4 Extensometer:
1.3.4.1 Purpose:
It is used to measure the elongation in steel, produced during the tension test. It can measure
the maximum value of 25 mm.

7
 Fig 1.6: Extensometer
1.3.4.2 Least Count:
Least count of extensometer = 0.0001”
This is very old instrument. Now a day fully electronic extensometers are used which
automatically give readings in digital form.
1.3.5 Inside Caliper:
It is used to measure the internal dimensions of small objects. It has no least count.

8
 Fig 1.7: Inside Caliper

The caliper has an adjusting screw that permits it to be carefully adjusted without removal of
the tool from the work piece.

1.3.6 Outside Caliper:

It is used to measure the external dimensions of small objects. It has no least count.

Fig 1.8: Outside Caliper

1.3.7 Spring Divider:
It is used to measure extension in steel bar during tension test, when the range of
extensometer is exhausted. It has no scale, so no least count.

9
 Fig 1.9: Spring Divider

1.4 Precautions:
 Instruments which is to be used, should be clean.
 The jaws of caliper should not be loose, not so hard tight when specimen is placed
between them.
 Reading should be noted carefully.
 Instrument error should be checked before taking observations.

1.5 Applications:
The above job is being performed to get the student kick started about the instruments
that he/she has to perform experiments on in SOM-1 lab. This general introduction eases
the way forward for the student in regard of what to expect from his strength of materials
lab. Some of these instruments/ Machines are already familiar to the students from
Engineering materials subject from semester-1. This job is performed to educate the
student about positioning of different instruments in lab.

1.6Comments
This primary job is the basis of any lab that is being performed in civil engineering
courses that I as a student had studied. The introductory lab pushes my curiosity as a
student to personally research a bit more about the instruments that I have to perform
experiments on, hence forth increasing my understanding of the experiments that are to be
performed.

10
Job#02
To Perform the Tension Test on various specimens (ASTM A615/ 615-M)
1 Specimen:
 Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar

11
  Cold Twisted Deformed Steel Bar
 Cast Iron
2 Objectives:-
 To study the stress strain behavior of the given samples.
 To determine the different mechanical properties of the samples e.g. yield strength,
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility etc.
 To check the adequacy of samples as per standards.
3 Apparatus:-
 1000 KN Universal testing machine
 Baty’s extensometer ( L.C. = 0.01 mm)
 Spring Divider
 Vernier Calipers (L.C. = 0.05 mm )
 Steel Ruler
 Electronic Weighing Balance

4 Related Theory:-
4.1 Steel:-
Steel is an alloy with major component as iron with carbon content between 0.06% to 2 %
by weight.
4.1.1 Types of steel based upon carbon content are as follows:
 Low carbon steel: (carbon contents up to 0.25% by weight of steel)
 Medium carbon steel: (carbon contents ranges from 0.25% to 0.45% by weight)
 High carbon steel: (carbon contents ranges from 0.45% to 1.50% by weight)

4.1.2 Types of steel based on fabrication are as follows

 Hot Rolled:
 Hot Rolled Plain Steel Bars
 Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

Hot Rolled deformed steel bars having ribs / protrusions on the surface are most
commonly used in reinforced cement concrete (RCC).
 Cold Twisted / Cold Worked:
By applying pre-calculated twist to the hot rolled deformed steel bars, yielding
portion is eliminated in steel, after twisting at the normal temperature that is why it is
called twisted steel. Commercial name is Torr Steel.
4.2 Advantages:-

12
 We can fully utilize the strength of the material by sacrificing ductility.
4.3 Disadvantages:-
Ductility / Warning before failure is decreased as the yielding zone is eliminated.
4.4 Properties of Steel:-
 Tensile Strength:-
It is maximum tensile stress that a material can withstand before failure.
 Hardness:-

Resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

 Scratch Hardness
 Indentation Hardness
 Rebound Hardness

 Ductility:-
It is a mechanical property defining the extent to which material can be deformed
without fracture. Ductility gives the warning before failure. Two parameters
indicating ductility are
 % age elongation
 % age reduction in area

4.5 Stress-Strain Curve:-

It is the graph between stress and strain. The data obtained from experiment is load
and elongation. Stress is obtained by dividing load and x-section area. Strain is
obtained by dividing gauge length and elongation.
The stress-strain diagram consists of four stages
 Elastic: The stress range in which a material will recover its original form when
the force (or. loading) is removed
 Yielding: The stress range in which a material like steel deforms without the
increase of stress.
 Strain Hardening: The stress range after yielding in which the particles of the
material like steel rearrange themselves to take stress again.
 Necking: Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the
ultimate strength is called necking.

From yielding stage, some permanent plastic deformation occurs.

13
 Fig 2.1Typical Stress Strain Curve of Mild Steel Specimen

4.6 Components of Stress-Strain Curve:-

 Proportional Limit:-
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that stress is
linear function of strain. Brittle material has no proportional limit. Up to proportional
limit, the stress strain relationship is linear & elastic.

 Plastic Range:-

The region extending from plastic limit to the point of fracture or failure is called as
plastic range.
 Tensile / Ultimate Strength:-
Maximum or highest ordinate (Stress) on the Stress-Strain diagram is called as
Tensile / Ultimate Strength of the sample. It is commonly considered as the maximum
strength of the material.

 Rupture / Fracture / Breaking Strength:-

14
 Rupture or breaking strength is the stress at failure. Rupture strength is always less
than the ultimate strength. For brittle material, the ultimate and rupture strength is
almost same.

 Modulus of Elasticity:-

It is the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain in case of steel. It is determined as the
slope of straight line from zero to proportional limit of the stress-strain diagram.
The stress-strain linear relationship was discovered by Robert Hook in 1676 and is
known as Hook’s Law. It is mathematically represented as
σ =Eϵ
Where E is represented as modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus with units of
stress. For mild steel E = 200000 Mpa = 200 GPa.

 Yield Point & Yielding:-

A point in the stress strain curve after which there is an increase in strain with no
significant increase in stress is called as yield point & the phenomenon is called as
yielding. The stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield strength of the
material, which if represented in ksi gives the grade of steel.

 Proof Stress:-

It is the stress corresponding to the point of the material having no clear indication of
the yield point & this yield point is obtained from the graphical solution of stress-
strain curve.

 Resilience and modulus of Resilience:

The ability of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range (without permanent
deformation) is called as resilience.
Modulus of resilience is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a
sample’s tensile force is increased from zero to proportional limit (P.L). It is
calculated as the total area under the stress-strain diagram up to the proportional limit.
Its unit is Psi or MPa.
Mathematically,

15
 2
1 1 σ P .L
U r = σ P . L . ϵP . L=
2 2 E

Fig 2.2: Graph showing modulus of resilience

 Toughness and modulus of toughness:

The ability of the material to absorb the energy up to the plastic range (permanent
deformations) is called as toughness.

Fig 2.3: Graph showing modulus of toughness

The work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile force is gradually
increased from zero to the value causing rupture is defined as the Modulus of
Toughness. This may be calculated as the entire area under the stress-strain curve
from the origin to rupture. Its unit is Psi or MPa. It is denoted by U t and it can be
measured by integration, plotting graph on auto-cad, counting no. of boxes under the
graph and multiplying with area of one box.
 Residual Strain:-

16
 When the material is located beyond the elastic limit then after unloading the material
does not come back to its original position and there is a permanent deformations/set
in the specimen, which is called residual strain. So these are the strain corresponding
to produce permanent set or permanent change in shape.
 Specific Strength:-

Ratio of ultimate / tensile strength to the specific weight (weight per unit volume) is
called as specific strength. Its units are of length.
 Elasticity:-

The ability of the material to regain its original shape and size after the removal of the
load. The elastic strain is the reversible change in the dimension of the body.
 Plasticity:-

The property of the material by which it retains the shape given to it. A plastic strain
is deformation or change in dimension which is irreversible and remains in after the
load has been removed.
4.7 Methods of finding Yield Point:-
Following four methods can be used for finding yield point.
 Offset Method:-

This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress strain
diagram at 0.2 % strain.

17
 Fig 2.4: Offset method of finding yield point

 Halting of Machine or Drop of Beam Method:-

To access the yielding of material, when machine halts, it is indication of yielding.

This is valid for machines where there is needle. In other case, when the beam of the
machine drops/dips, it’s the indication of yielding. These methods are valid for hot
rolled mild steel.

 Specific Strain Method:-

Yield occurs at a specified strain value and this value is 0.5 % i.e. yielding stress is
the stress corresponding to 0.5 % of strain.

Fig 2.5: Specific strain method of finding yield point

 Luder
Line’s

Method:-

18
` This method is named after a British researcher “when the specimen yields a pattern
of fine lines appears on the polished surface, they roughly interact at right angle to
each other and 450 approximately to the longitudinal axis of the bar. If the rod is not
painted, then the metallurgical coating formed over the rod’s surface during
manufacturing and drop down indicating yielding.

Fig 2.6: Pattern of lines showing yielding of steel during testing

4.8 Terminologies regarding Steel Specimen:
 Gauge Length:-
It is the length between two marks on the bars. It’s a reference length for the
determination of elongation.
 For Mild Steel G.L = 5 x D(Nominal Diameter)
M (kg )
kg
 For Torr Steel G.L = 5.65 √ S o So =
0.00785 ( )
m m2
m
. L(m)

 For Cast Iron, G.L = 50 mm

G. L
Marked Gauge Length on the Bars =
2
 Percentage Elongation:-

The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage.

Lf −L o
% age Elongation = x 100
Lo
Lo = original Length of sample Lf = final length of the sample

19
  Percentage Reduction in Area:-

Reduction in x-sectional area per unit original area expressed in percentage.

A o− A f
% age reduction in X-Area = x 100
Ao
Ao = original x- sectional area Af = Actual Rupture Area
4.9 Preferred nominal sizes:

Fig 2.7: Preferred nominal sizes as per various standard specifications

4.10 Tolerances:
 Tolerance on mass:

Fig 2.8 Tolerance on mass as per various standard specifications

 Deviation on Size:
Deviation on size or dimension should not exceed 8% of nominal dimension in any
case. It can be calculated as follows:

20
 ( D ) Nominal−( D ) Actual
Deviation on Size = ×100
( D ) Nominal
 Minimum Length of bar for Tension Test:
Length of test specimen should be larger
of either 600mm or 20D where D is the nominal diameter of the specimen. This is because of
following reasons:
 So that %age elongation can be checked more easily.
 Specimen can be fixed easily in the machine.
 So that it can present better visual results.

 Tensile Properties:

Fig
2.9: Criterion for steel reinforcement to pass tension test:

4.11 Measurement of Ductility:-

Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of the material. In
general, measurement of ductility is of interest in three ways.
 To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in metal
working operations such as rolling and extrusions.
 To indicate to the designer, in a way, the ability of the metal to follow plastically
before fracture. A high ductility indicates that the metal is forgiving and likely to
deform locally without fracture.
 To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.

21
 The conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test are the
strain at fracture (usually called elongation) & the reduction of area at fracture. Both of
these properties are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back together and
taking measurements of length and cross sectional area.
Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic deformations will be concentrated in the
necked region of the tension specimen. The value of rupture strain (elongation) will
depend upon the gauge length over which the measurements was taken. The smaller the
gauge length, the greater would be the contribution to the overall elongation from the
necked region and the higher will be the value of rupture strain. Therefore, when
reporting values of percentage elongation, the gauge length Lo always should be given.
Fig 2.10: Comparison stress-strain graph for brittle and a ductile material

4.12 Failure Patterns:-

 Mild Steel failure in Tension:-
As mild steel is a ductile material which is week in shear as compared to tension so it
should fail in shear. As maximum shearing stress developed at 450 therefore, failure
plane in mild steel occurs roughly at 450 with the longitudinal axis.

22
 Fig 2.11: Strain transformation during tension test until failure

 Cast Iron Failure in tension Test:-

Cast iron is brittle material which is week in tension as compared to shear, so it
should fail in tension. The maximum tensile stress due to tensile loading develops at
900 hence cast iron fails at 900 with longitudinal axis.

Fig 2.12: Failure pattern of cast iron specimen

during tension test
5 Procedure:
 First of all, we took the 3 samples for testing
purpose and measured their physical
properties i.e. length and diameter of the sample

23
 etc. The physical properties were measured by taking the average of 4 readings so that
probability of errors can be reduced.
 Then we marked the gauge length on the samples and then punched them with the help
of jib and hammer.
 Now the sample was ready for the test. Types of samples to be tested on the basis of
material were
 Hot rolled deformed steel bar.
1) Torr steel
2) Cast iron
 Now we put the sample in the jaws of 1000KN UTM machine for the testing purpose.
 Then we increased the load gradually and measured the readings on extensometer
already present in the machine.
 After the failure of sample we again measured the physical properties. Also we
measured the increased length of sample with respect to the reference length.
 We repeated the same procedure for each sample.
 Then we made calculations and plotted down the graph.
5 Measurements:-

Mild steel specimen Data

L.C of extensometer
0.00127
(mm)
Gauge Length (mm) 50
Dia of bar (mm) 13.31
Area of Bar (mm2) 139.14

Cold twisted steel data

LC of extensometer
0.001
(mm)
Gauge length (mm) 60
Diameter of bar (mm) 12.82
Area of bar (mm2) 129.08

Cast iron data

LC of extensometer (mm) 0.001
Gauge length (mm) 50
Diameter of bar (mm) 16.7
Cross sectional area of bar
219.04
(mm2)

24
7 Observations and Calculations:

7.1 Observations and calculations for Hot Rolled Steel Bar:-

Loa
Spring
Sr.N d Extensomete Extension stress
Divide Strain %strain Remarks
o (KN r Reading (mm) (Mpa)
r
)
1 0 452 0 0 0 0
0.0050
2 2 454 0.00254 0.0000508 14.37
8
0.0101
3 4 456 0.00508 0.0001016 28.75
6
0.0152
4 6 458 0.00762 0.0001524 43.12
4
0.0228
5 8 461 0.01143 0.0002286 57.50
6
0.0304
6 10 464 0.01524 0.0003048 71.87
8
0.0355
7 12 466 0.01778 0.0003556 86.25
6
0.0431
8 14 469 0.02159 0.0004318 100.62
8
9 16 472 0.0254 0.000508 0.0508 114.99
0.0558
10 18 474 0.02794 0.0005588 129.37
8
11 20 477 0.03175 0.000635 0.0635 143.74
0.0711
12 22 480   0.03556 0.0007112 158.12 P Limit
2
13 24 482 0.0381 0.000762 0.0762 172.49
0.0838
14 26 485 0.04191 0.0008382 186.86
2
15 28 487 0.04445 0.000889 0.0889 201.24
0.0965
16 30 490 0.04826 0.0009652 215.61
2
0.1041
17 32 493 0.05207 0.0010414 229.99
4
0.1117
18 34 496 0.05588 0.0011176 244.36
6
0.1168
19 36 498 0.05842 0.0011684 258.74
4
0.1219
20 38 500 0.06096 0.0012192 273.11
2
0.1295
21 40 503 0.06477 0.0012954 287.48
4
0.1371
22 42 506 0.06858 0.0013716 301.86
6
23 44 508 0.07112 0.0014224 0.1422 316.23

25
 4
0.1498
24 46 511 0.07493 0.0014986 330.61
6
0.1574
25 48 514 0.07874 0.0015748 344.98
8
26 50 517 0.08255 0.001651 0.1651 359.36
27 51.5 522 0.0889 0.001778 0.1778 370.14
28 51.7 532 0.1016 0.002032 0.2032 371.57
Elastic
29 51.9 542 0.1143 0.002286 0.2286 373.01
Limit
30 52.1 557 0.13335 0.002667 0.2667 374.45
31 52.3 572 0.1524 0.003048 0.3048 375.89
32 51.5 602 0.1905 0.00381 0.381 370.14
33 51.5 652 0.254 0.00508 0.508 370.14
34 51.5 702 0.3175 0.00635 0.635 370.14
35 51.5 752 0.381 0.00762 0.762 370.14
36 51.5 802 0.4445 0.00889 0.889 370.14
Loa
Sr.N d Extensomete Extension stress
Strain %strain Yielding
o (KN r Reading (mm) (Mpa)
)
37 51.5 852 0.508 0.01016 1.016 370.14
38 51.5 902 0.5715 0.01143 1.143 370.14
39 51.5 952 0.635 0.0127 1.27 370.14
40 51.5 1052 0.762 0.01524 1.524 370.14
41 51.5 1102 0.8255 0.01651 1.651 370.14
42 52.5 1152 0.889 0.01778 1.778 377.32
43 52.5 1152 0.889 0.01778 1.778 377.32
44 52.7 1322 1.1049 0.022098 2.2098 378.76
45 53.5 1352 1.143 0.02286 2.286 384.51
2.4079
46 55 1400 1.20396 0.0240792 395.29
2
2.5349
47 56 1450 1.26746 0.0253492 402.48
2
48 57 1502 1.3335 0.02667 2.667 409.67
Strain
49 58 1572 1.4224 0.028448 2.8448 416.85
Hardenin
2.9921 g Zone
50 59 1630 1.49606 0.0299212 424.04
2
51 60 1697 1.58115 0.031623 3.1623 431.23
3.3451
52 61 1769 1.67259 0.0334518 438.41
8
53 62 1852 1.778 0.03556 3.556 445.60
54 63 1932 1.8796 0.037592 3.7592 452.79
3.9725
55 64 2016 1.98628 0.0397256 459.97
6
56 65 2112 2.1082 0.042164 4.2164 467.16

26
 4.4729
57 66 2213 2.23647 0.0447294 474.35
4
4.7421
58 67 2319 2.37109 0.0474218 481.54
8
59 68 2452 2.54 0.0508 5.08 488.72
60 68.7 2552 2.667 0.05334 5.334 493.75
61 70 54 4 0.08 8 503.10
62 72 55 5 0.1 10 517.47
63 74 55.5 5.5 0.11 11 531.85
64 76 56 6 0.12 12 546.22
65 78 57 7 0.14 14 560.59
Ultimate
66 78.2 58 8 0.16 16 562.03
Stress
67 74 59 9 0.18 18 531.85  
Rupture
68 71.4         513.16
  strength

90

80

70

60
Stress (Mpa)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

%strain

Stress – Strain Graph

For M.O.E.:

27
 400

350 f(x) = 2160.18 x + 6.42

300

250
Stress

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18

% Strain

For M.O.R.:

stress
%strain area U.C
(Mpa)
0 0 0
0.00508 14.3742106 0.0365
0.01016 28.7484212 0.1095
0.01524 43.1226318 0.1826
0.02286 57.4968424 0.3834
0.03048 71.871053 0.4929
0.03556 86.2452636 0.4016
0.04318 100.619474 0.7120
0.0508 114.993685 0.8215
0.05588 129.367895 0.6207
0.0635 143.742106 1.0405
0.07112 158.116317 1.1501
0.0762 172.490527 0.8397
0.08382 186.864738 1.3691

28
 0.0889 201.238948 0.9858
0.09652 215.613159 1.5882
0.10414 229.98737 1.6977
0.11176 244.36158 1.8073
0.11684 258.735791 1.2779
0.12192 273.110001 1.3509
0.12954 287.484212 2.1359
0.13716 301.858422 2.2454
0.14224 316.232633 1.5700
0.14986 330.606844 2.4645
0.15748 344.981054 2.5740
0.1651 359.355265 2.6835
MOR
(Mpa) 30.54

For M.O.T.:

stress
%strain area U.C
(Mpa)
0 0 0
0.00508 14.3742106 0.03651049
0.01016 28.7484212 0.10953148
0.01524 43.1226318 0.18255247
0.02286 57.4968424 0.3833602
0.03048 71.871053 0.49289168
0.03556 86.2452636 0.40161544
0.04318 100.619474 0.71195465
0.0508 114.993685 0.82148614
0.05588 129.367895 0.62067841
0.0635 143.742106 1.0405491
0.07112 158.116317 1.15008059
0.0762 172.490527 0.83974138

29
 0.08382 186.864738 1.36914356
0.0889 201.238948 0.98578336
0.09652 215.613159 1.58820653
0.10414 229.98737 1.69773801
0.11176 244.36158 1.8072695
0.11684 258.735791 1.27786732
0.12192 273.110001 1.35088831
0.12954 287.484212 2.13586395
0.13716 301.858422 2.24539544
0.14224 316.232633 1.56995128
0.14986 330.606844 2.46445841
0.15748 344.981054 2.57398989
0.1651 359.355265 2.68352138
0.1778 370.135923 4.63226904
0.2032 371.573344 9.41970769
0.2286 373.010765 9.45621818
0.2667 374.448186 14.239093
0.3048 375.885607 14.2938588
0.381 370.135923 28.4234203
0.508 370.135923 47.0072622
stress
%strain area U.C
(Mpa)
0.635 370.135923 47.0072622
0.762 370.135923 47.0072622
0.889 370.135923 47.0072622
1.016 370.135923 47.0072622
1.143 370.135923 47.0072622
1.27 370.135923 47.0072622
1.524 370.135923 94.0145244
1.651 370.135923 47.0072622
1.778 377.323028 47.4636434
1.778 377.323028 0
2.2098 378.760449 163.238423
2.286 384.510133 29.0806092
2.40792 395.290791 47.5366644
2.53492 402.477897 50.6583117
2.667 409.665002 53.633917
2.8448 416.852107 73.477371
2.99212 424.039213 61.9400546
3.1623 431.226318 72.774544
3.34518 438.413423 79.5198579
3.556 445.600528 93.1839106
3.7592 452.787634 91.2762373
3.97256 459.974739 97.3734899
4.2164 467.161844 113.036492

30
 4.47294 474.34895 120.76759
4.74218 481.536055 128.681239
5.08 488.72316 163.886484
5.334 493.754134 124.774616
8 503.097371 1328.80306
10 517.471581 1020.56895
11 531.845792 524.658687
12 546.220003 539.032897
14 560.594213 1106.81422
16 562.031634 1122.62585
18 531.845792 1093.87743

 
MOT
  (Mpa) 8929.76275

7.2 Observations and calculations for Cast Iron:-

Extensomete Spring Extension stress

Load (N) Strain % Strain Remarks
r Reading Divider (mm) (Mpa)
0 0   0 0 0 0
1962 4   0.004 0.00008 0.008 8.9573
3924 10   0.01 0.0002 0.02 17.9146
5886 22   0.022 0.00044 0.044 26.8718
7848 30   0.03 0.0006 0.06 35.8291
P limit
9810 43   0.043 0.00086 0.086 44.7864
11772 53   0.053 0.00106 0.106 53.7437
13734 67   0.067 0.00134 0.134 62.7010
15696 80   0.08 0.0016 0.16 71.6582
17658 90   0.09 0.0018 0.18 80.6155
19620 108   0.108 0.00216 0.216 89.5728
21582 120   0.12 0.0024 0.24 98.5301
23544 135   0.135 0.0027 0.27 107.4874
25506 148   0.148 0.00296 0.296 116.4446
27468 170   0.17 0.0034 0.34 125.4019
29430 185   0.185 0.0037 0.37 134.3592
 
31392 210   0.21 0.0042 0.42 143.3165
33354 230   0.23 0.0046 0.46 152.2738
35316 258   0.258 0.00516 0.516 161.2311
37278 280   0.28 0.0056 0.56 170.1883
39240 308   0.308 0.00616 0.616 179.1456
43164   52 2 0.04 4 197.0602

31
 Ultimate
46107   52.5 2.5 0.05 5 210.4961
stress
48853.8   Failure 0 0 0 223.0363 Failure

Stress - Strain Graph

250.0000

200.0000
Stress ( Mpa )

150.0000

100.0000

50.0000

0.0000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

% Strain

7.3 Observations and calculations for Cold twisted:-

Sr. Load Extensomete Spring Extension stress
Strain % Strain Remarks
No (N) r Reading Divider (mm) (Mpa)
1 0 0   0 0 0 0
2 2943 20   0.02 0.0003333 0.033333 22.799
3 5886 30   0.03 0.0005000 0.050000 45.599
4 8829 43   0.043 0.0007167 0.071667 68.398
5 11772 54   0.054 0.0009000 0.090000 91.198
6 14715 65   0.065 0.0010833 0.108333 113.997
7 17658 77   0.077 0.0012833 0.128333 136.797
P limit
8 20601 90   0.09 0.0015000 0.150000 159.596
9 23544 101   0.101 0.0016833 0.168333 182.396
10 26487 111   0.111 0.0018500 0.185000 205.195
11 29430 125   0.125 0.0020833 0.208333 227.994
12 32373 132   0.132 0.0022000 0.220000 250.794
13 35316 145   0.145 0.0024167 0.241667 273.593
14 38259 160   0.16 0.0026667 0.266667 296.393
15 41202 175   0.175 0.0029167 0.291667 319.192
16 44145 195   0.195 0.0032500 0.325000 341.992
17 47088 230   0.23 0.0038333 0.383333 364.791
18 50031 270   0.27 0.0045000 0.450000 387.591
 
19 52974 310   0.31 0.0051667 0.516667 410.390
20 55917 370   0.37 0.0061667 0.616667 433.190
21 58860 440   0.44 0.0073333 0.733333 455.989
22 61803 580   0.58 0.0096667 0.966667 478.788

32
23 64746 770   0.77 0.0128333 1.283333 501.588
24 67689 1000   1 0.0166667 1.666667 524.387
25 70632 1090   1.09 0.0181667 1.816667 547.187
26 73575 1560   1.56 0.0260000 2.600000 569.986
27 75537 2090   2.09 0.0348333 3.483333 585.186
28 77499 2450   2.45 0.0408333 4.083333 600.385
29 79461 2690   2.69 0.0448333 4.483333 615.585
Ultimate
30 80442   64 4 0.0666667 6.666667 623.185
stress
31 73575   66 6 0.1000000 10.000000 569.986
 
32 68670   67 7 0.1166667 11.666667 531.987
33 64549.8   70 10 0.1666667 16.666667 500.068 Failure

Stress-Strain Curve
700

600

500
Stress (Mpa)

400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

% Strain

7.3 Observations and calculations for %age Elongation vs Gauge Length:-

7.3.1 Mild steel bar

Sr No Marked Elongated Extension %

Ref length Length (mm) Elongation
(mm) (mm)
1 60 78 18 30.0
2 90 112 22 24.4
3 120 147 27 22.5
4 150 183 33 22.0
5 180 212.7 32.7 18.2
6 210 251 41 19.5

33
 7 240 284 44 18.3
8 270 318 48 17.8
9 300 354 54 18.0
10 330 390 60 18.2
11 360 424 64 17.8
12 390 458 68 17.4
13 420 487 67 16.0
14 450 520 70 15.6

500
450
400
Marked Ref Length

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
15.0 17.0 19.0 21.0 23.0 25.0 27.0 29.0 31.0

% Elongation

Graph of % Elongation- Gauge length

7.3.2 Cold twisted steel bar:

Marked Ref Elongated

Extension %
Sr No length Length
(mm) Elongation
(mm) (mm)
1 30 33 3 10.00
2 60 73 13 21.67
3 90 105 15 16.67
4 120 135 15 12.50
5 150 170 20 13.33
6 180 204 24 13.33
7 210 235 25 11.90
8 240 265 25 10.42
9 270 302 32 11.85
10 300 333 33 11.00
11 330 364 34 10.30
12 360 398 38 10.56
13 390 413 23 5.90
14 420 464 44 10.48

34
 450

400

350

300
Marked Ref Length

250

200

150

100

50

0
5.00 7.00 9.00 11.00 13.00 15.00 17.00 19.00 21.00 23.00

% Elongation

7.3 Comparison Graph :-

700

600

500

400
Stress

Mild steel
300 Cold Twisted
Cast iron
200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

% strain

35
8 Comments: -

The experiment was performed above was set on three specimens i.e. cold twisted steel, hot
rolled steel (Mild steel) and cast iron. Ultimate strength of the cold twisted steel is greatest as
per the graph which is at the expense of the ductility (breaks without warning). The process
involved here is yielding, which makes cold twisted steel more expensive. Mild steel is most
widely used type of steel in construction as if is focused on overall performance of the steel
while ignoring specifics. Requires less processing hence making it cheaper and is more
ductile than cold twisted steel (shows curvature before breaking). Mild steel is a better option
than cast iron in regard to the ultimate tensile strength. however, however cast iron proves to
be better in compression.

9 Applications:

The specimens above have their own uses in the market. Hot rolled is ideal where overall
strength matters and finishing is not a concern. Cold twisted can have precise uses and
applications i.e. when dimensional strength matters and finishing is needed. Cast iron is used
where the structural component is usually in compression i.e. in well-designed bridges and
buildings. If cast iron is not used properly the structure is deemed to fail.

Job #03
Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched Specimens of
metallic materials in tension and bending

36
Specification: ASTM E23

1 Apparatus:

The apparatus required for this test is:

 Charpy impact testing machine
 Steel samples
 Vernier caliper

2 Objectives:
The basic objective is to determine the modulus of toughness.

Fig 3.1 Charpy’s steel impact testing machine and steel specimen

37
 Figure 3.2: Notched specimens for testing
3 Related Theory:
3.1Toughness:
Toughness is the resistance of a substance against a sudden impact of load.
OR
The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform plastically without fracture.
Modulus of toughness is defined as energy absorbed per unit volume by the specimen when it
is loaded from zero to failure. Mathematically,
Modulus of toughness = Energy absorbed / Volume
Its units are N/m2
3.2 Types of Loads:
a) Dead load/Static load
b) Dynamic load/Live load
c) Impact load

3.2.1 Dead Load/Static Load is the load which does not change its magnitude, direction and
position is termed as static load. Self-weight of a structures or permanent features of building
is called dead weight.
3.2.2 Live Load/Dynamic Load is the load which changes its magnitude, direction and
position, or, one of these e.g., moving vehicles on the bridge.
3.2.3 Impact Load is sudden application of large magnitude of force in short interval of time.
e.g. Earthquake load, blast load.
4 Procedure:

4.1 For Impact Test in Bending:

38
  Set the apparatus for bending test in the machine.
 Lift the hammer up to the maximum height, then leave it freely and note the
angle. It is “θ1”.
 Take the sample and set it into the machine and drop the hammer from its
maximum height. The hammer will break the sample and then read the reading as
“θ2“
4.2 For Impact Test In Tension:

For this, procedure will remain same, but use tension apparatus instead of bending
apparatus.

θ1-90
h1-ho h2-ho
θ2-90
θ1
θ2

h1 ho h2

Fig 3.3: Schematic diagram for charpy impact resistance test

5 Derivation:

As,
E 1=mgh 1
E 2=mgh2
h 2−h o=R sin (θ 2−90)
¿−R cos θ 2
h 1−h o=R sin( θ1−90)
¿−R cos θ 1
m=Mass of fork =22.4 kg
Change∈energy=ΔE=E 1 – E 2

39
 ΔE=E 1 – E 2
¿ mgh1 – mgh2
¿ mg(h 1 – h 2)
¿ mg {[h o + R sin(θ 1−90)] – [h o+ R sin(θ 1−90)]}
¿ mg {[h o + R(−cos θ 1)]– [h o + R(−cos θ 2)]}
¿ mg[ h o – R cos θ 1 – h o+ R cos θ 2]
¿ mg( R Cosθ 2 – R Cosθ 1)
ΔE=mgR(Cosθ2 – Cosθ 1)= Absolute Energy
ΔE
M .O .T =
Volume

6 Observations and Calculations:

Specimen Height Attained by E = mgR(Cos2 - Cos1) Volume M.O.T.

Fork
1 2 N.mm mm3 N/mm2
Bending 135 115 56723.67 5500 10.31
Tension 135 115 56723.67 3927 14.44

6.1 Bending
m = 27.1 Kg
g = 9.81 m/sec2
R = 750 mm
1= 135 Degrees
2 = 115 Degrees
E = m x g x R(Cos2 - Cos1)
E = 27.1 x 9.81 x 750(Cos115 – Cos135)
E = 56723.67 N.mm
Volume = L x b x d
Volume = 55 x 10 x 10
Volume = 5500 mm3
Energy
M.O.T =
Volume
M.O.T = 10.31 N/mm2

40
6.2 Tension:
1 = 135 degree
d = 10 mm
2 = 115 Degrees
L = 50 mm
E = m x g x R(Cos2 - Cos1)
E = 56723.67 N.mm
πd 2
Volume = x L = 3927 mm3
4
Energy
M .O .T =
Volume
M.O.T = 14.44 N/mm2

7 Precautions:

 Instrument should be neat and aligned

 Specimens should be according to code
 Specimen should be placed according to code way
 By performing this experiment keep distance from instrument
 Note the reading carefully

8 Comments:

The above experiment is performed to test the toughness of steel specimens. Impact load
applied with the help of Charpy steal impact machine. Amount of strain energy that specimen
takes per unit its volume gives us its modulus of toughness. The qualitative results of the
impact can also be used to measure the ductility of a material. If the material breaks on a flat
plane, we deduce that the fracture was brittle, if the material breaks with jagged edges or
shear lips, then fracture was ductile. Such experiments are performed on the specimens of
steel that are to be tested before used in construction hence verifying their properties.

41
Job#4
To perform compression test on wooden cubes when load is applied:
 Parallel to Fibers.
 Perpendicular to Fibers.

1 Specification: ASTM D3501-05a

2 Objectives:
 To determine compressive strength of wood.
 To determine modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness.
 To study the anisotropic behavior of wood.

3 Apparatus:
 Universal Testing Machine.
 Wooden Cubes
 Vernier Caliper

4 Related Theory:

4.1 Compressive Strength:

Maximum compressive stress that can be developed in any member is termed as compressive
strength.
4.2 Modulus of Elasticity:
It is the ratio b/w the unit stress to unit strain. And it is determined as the slope of the straight
line from zero to proportional limit.
4.3 Modulus of Stiffness:
The stiffness of a component means how much it deflects under the given load. Modulus of
stiffness can be defined as the force required to produce unit deformation.

42
 P ∝δ
P = Kδ Where, K Is Modulus of Stiffness

4.4 Isotropic Material:

Materials showing same properties in different directions are called isotropic materials e.g.
Steel
4.5 Anisotropic Material:
Materials showing different properties in different directions are termed as anisotropic
materials e.g. wood.
4.6 Failure Parallel to Fibers:
When the load is applied parallel to Fibers, the wooden sample will take more load to fail.
The ability of wood to take more load parallel to Fibers before failure is because each fiber
act as a column to the applied load and even after the failure of the single fiber the rest of the
fibers will keep on taking the load.

Fig 4.1:

Schematic failure pattern under applied load (parallel to fibers)

43
 Fig 4.2: Actual failure pattern when load is applied parallel to fibers

4.7 Failure Perpendicular to Fibers:

When the load is applied perpendicular to the Fibers, the wooden sample takes comparatively
less load. This is because the failure of the single fiber will lead to the failure of the whole
sample.
The strength of the wooden sample when the load is applied parallel to the Fibers is about ten
times more as compare to when the load is applied perpendicular to Fibers.

Fig 4.3: Failure pattern when load is applied perpendicular to grains

44
 Fig 4.4: Orientations in which wooden cube can be tested

5 Procedure:
 Measure All the Dimensions of wooden cube. i.e. Length, Width, Height with the help
of Vernier caliper
 Fix the cube in the machine
 Gradually keep on increasing the load
 Note the load and deflection readings from attached computer
 Prepare a graph for it
 Repeat the procedure for load applying in perpendicular case.

6 Code Limitations:
6.1 Control of moisture content:

Wood samples are to be tested at a specified moisture content or Relative humidity to

approximate constant weight in controlled atmospheric conditions before testing. For
samples under dry conditions, a relative humidity of 65±2% at a temperature of 68±6
degree Fahrenheit (20±3 degree centigrade) is preferred.
6.2 Loading Rate:
While determining maximum compressive strength only, apply the load through a
spherical block with a continuous rate of cross head movement so as to produce
failure within 3 to 10 minutes after initiation of loading. A loading rate of 0.003 in/in
is suggested. The loading rate shall be modified if time falls outside the range of 3 to
10 minutes.

45
 7 Observations and Calculations:
7.1 Cube Dimensions:

7.2 Observations and calculations when

 load is applied Parallel to Grains:

7.2.1 Graph:
Plot following graphs:
 Stress-strain curve when load is applied perpendicular to fibers.
 Stress-strain curve when load is applied parallel to fibers.
 Comparison graph for both cases.

7.3 Observations and calculations when

 Load is applied perpendicular to grains:

8 Comments:

The respective experiment is performed to find the compressive strength, anisotropic

behavior (change of properties with orientation) and modulus of stiffness of wood. Wood is a
sustainable, natural material that exhibits orthotropic properties. Parallel load is the way to go
with wood since wood is 10 times stronger in this orientation on contrary to perpendicular
load where strength of wood gets 1/10th. (since the grains slide over each other).
A designer must carefully consider the anticipated loadings on a wood member or structure
to ensure maximum effectiveness of the material. Additionally, due to its natural origin, wood
has mechanical properties tied to the individual species of tree, the moisture content, and the
size of the test specimen.

46
Job #5
To study the bending behavior of wooden beam and to determine modulus
of elasticity and modulus of rupture of wood.

1 Apparatus:
 1000 kN UTM
 Deflection Gauge
 Wooden Beam

2 Objectives:
 To study bending or flexural behavior of wooden beam
 To determine modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture of wood.

3 Related Theory:
3.1 Shear Force:

A force which tends to slide one part of section against the adjacent part acting normal to the
longitudinal axis and tangentially to the cross section is called shear force.

3.2 Bending Moment:

Algebraic sum of all the moments located between a cross section and one end of the
structural member.
Bending moment that bends beam convex downward is positive and one that bends beam
convex upward is negative.

3.3 Elastic Curve:

The deflected shape of longitudinal axis of beam is called elastic curve.

3.4 Modulus of Elasticity:

47
It is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain and it is determined as the slope of the straight line
from zero to proportional limit from stress strain diagram. Modulus of elasticity is given by
following relation:
σ= EԐ
where σ = Stress
E = Mod. Of Elasticity
Ԑ = Strain
3.5 Modulus of Rupture:

Maximum tensile/bending stress that can be developed in a beam before failure or it is the
energy absorbed per unit volume when the specimen is loaded from zero to failure load.

3.6 Difference between Modulus of Toughness & Modulus of Rupture:

Modulus of toughness can be determined by tension or compression test however modulus of

rupture is only determined for members subjected to bending.

3.7 Flexural Formula:

The relationship between flexural stress and bending moment is expressed by flexural
formula and is given as
σ = My/I ------- (1)
Where,
σ= Flexural stress
M=Bending moment at a particular section
Y=Distance of fiber from neutral axis
I=Moment of inertia

3.8 Types of Failure:

a) Shear Failure is the one generated at support and cause diagonal cracks.
b) Flexural Failure is the one generated at the center and cause vertical cracks.
c) Flexural Shear Failure is the one generated between support and center and cause
the cracks which are vertical from the bottom and diagonal from the top.

48
4 Loading Arrangement:
We want such type of loading arrangement that can produce pure moment zone so that failure
is only due to moment not due to combine effect of moment and shear. This can only be
achieved by two point loading arrangement.

4.1 Two Point Loading:

Two equal loads acting at the equal distance from the support is called as two point loading
system. In this system, the shear force acting between two loads is zero and bending moment
between the loads is constant.

Fig 5.1:
Shear
force
and

bending moment diagram for two point loading

5 Procedure:
49
  Measure length, width and depth of beam.
 Mark the points on the beam showing position of support, point loads and deflection
gauge.
 Set specimen in the machine according to two point loading.
 Select suitable loading interval and apply loading gradually at approximate 0.5 to 6
tons.
 At approximate 0.5 tons remove the deflection gauge and keep on applying load until
beam fails.
 Note the failure load and calculate modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture.

6 Precautions:
 Apply the load gradually so that we can see deflection against each reading easily.
 Remove the gauges before the failure load otherwise they may get damaged.
 Stay away from the machine otherwise particles may hurt you.

7 Measurements:

7.1 Plotting of Graph:

Draw graph between Load and Deflection and get [P’/D] value from the graph that is the
slope of the straight line.

8 Comments:

50
9 Applications:

Job#6
To perform hardness test on a given steel sample using Brinell hardness
testing machine.

1 Specification: ASTM E10-15a

2 Purpose:
 To check hardness of sample.
 To check quality of sample in industry.
 It gives indirect measure of strength of material.

3 Apparatus:
 Brinell Hardness testing Machine

51
  Steel ball indenters

 Steel samp

4 Related Theory:
4.1 Hardness:

It is property of material by the virtue of which it resists the plastic deformation, usually by
penetration .However; the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching,
abrasion or cutting.

4.2 Methods of Measuring Hardness:

a) Brinell hardness testing
b) Vickers hardness testing
c) Rockwell hardness testing

4.3 Brinell hardness testing:

In this method a hardened steel bar is pressed into the surface under a specified load for a
fixed time and then released. Hardness which is calculated as a number termed as the ratio of
applied in Kg to the indenter contact area in mm.
B.H.N=Load applied on indenter (Kg)/Contact area of indenter (mm)
P
B.H.N = π D ¿ ¿
2

52
Fig 6.1: Schematic diagram for loading in Brinell hardness machine along with formula

Where,
D=Diameter of indenter
d= Indentation diameter
4.4 Applications:

Because of the wide test force range the Brinell test can be used on almost any metallic
material. The part size is only limited by the testing instrument's capacity.

4.5 Indenters:
For soft material
 10 mm steel ball indenter

For hard material

 10 mm carbide indenter

Load
 3000 kg force for hard material
 500 Kg or 1500 Kg for soft material

Time
 10 to 15 seconds for iron and steel
 30 seconds for all other materials

5 Code Limitations:
5.1 Diameter of Indentation:

53
  Measure the diameter of each indentation in two directions, perpendicular to each
other. Additional measurements of indentation diameter may also be made. The
arithmetic mean of the indentation diameters should be used for the calculation of
Brinell hardness number.
 For tests on flat surfaces, the difference between largest and smallest measured
diameters for the same indentation shall not exceed 1% of the indenter ball
diameter unless it is specified in the product specifications such as for an
anisotropic grain structure.

5.2 Indentation Spacing:

The distance between the centers of two adjactant indentations shall be at least three times
the diameter of mean indentation.
5.3 Edge Distance:
The distance from the center of any indentation to the edge of test piece shall be at least
two and a half times the diameter of mean indentation.
5.4 Temperature Limits:
Brinell hardness test shall be carried out at an ambient temperature within limits of 10 to
35 degree centigrade. Users of Brinell test are cautioned that temperature of the test materials
and temperature of hardness tester may affect the test results.
6 Observations and Calculations:

Load applied on indenter (Kg) =P

D=diameter of indenter
d= indentation diameter
7 Comments:

Job#7
To determine the shear force and bending moment in a statically
determinate beam and comparison of experimental and theoretical results.
1. Objective:
Measurement of shear force and bending moment in a beam from which comparison with
theoretical values can be made.

54
2. Apparatus:
2.1 ST3112 Shear Force and Bending Moment Apparatus:

Fig 7.1 Shear force and bending moment apparatus with description of parts
The beam has two parts with one part having ball bearings travel on vertical surface of the
other part, an overhung spring balance for measuring the shear force and an underhung spring
balance for measuring bending moment are provided. The beam rests on two roller supports.
Load hangers and weights slide along the beam. It is to be used with ST305 Universal Base
Frame or ST300 Universal Structural Frame (separately supplied).
3. Theory:
3.1 Internal Loads

The design of a structural member requires an investigation of the forces acting within the
member which are necessary to balance the force acting externally to it. There are four types
of internal loadings that can be resisted by a structural member.

3.1.1 Axial Force

This force acts along the member’s longitudinal axis, and passes through the centroid or
geometric center of the cross-sectional area.

3.1.2 Shear Force

If the external force is applied perpendicular to the axis of a member, it causes an internal
stress distribution acting tangent to the member’s cross sectional area. The resultant of this
stress distribution is called the “shear force”.

3.1.3 Bending Moment

When an external moment is applied perpendicular to the axis of a member, the internal
distribution of stress is directed perpendicular to the member’s cross-sectional area and varies

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linearly from a “neutral” axis passing the member’s centroid. The resultant moment of this
stress distribution is called the “bending moment”.

3.1.4 Torsion Moment

An external torque tends to twist a circular member about its longitudinal axis. It causes an
internal distribution of stress which varies linearly when measured in a radial direction. The
resultant torque of this stress distribution in called the “torque” or “torsional moment”.

3.2 Shear Force

3.2.1 Sign Convention

Before presenting a method for determining the shear force as a function of x and later
plotting these functions, it is necessary to establish a sign convention so as to define
“positive” and negative shear force acting in the beam. The sign convention to be adopted
here is illustrated in Fig. 2-1.
On the left-hand face (L.H.F.) of a beam segment, the positive internal shear force V acts
downward. On the right-hand face of a beam segment, the positive internal shear force V acts
upward.
3.3 Bending Moment

Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their
longitudinal axis are called beams. They are classified as to how they are supported for
example, a simply-supported beam, cantilevered beam and overhanging beam.
When the applied loads act on along a beam, an internal bending moment that varies from
point to point along the axis of the beam is developed.
To determine the internal moment in the beam, one way is to express internal moment as
function of the arbitrary position x along the beam’s axis. This moment function can then be
plotted and represented by graph called moment diagram. Before finding the moment
function, we must know step to do as follows:

56
 Fig 7.2: Shear force sign convention and shear joint
Fig 7.3: Bending moment sign convention
The sign convention to be adopted here is illustrated in Fig. 2-3 on the left-hand face (L.H.F)
of a beam segment, the internal moment M acts counterclockwise. In accordance with

Newton’s third law, a bending moment must act clockwise on the right-hand face (R.H.F) of
a segment.

Procedure for analysis:

1. Draw a free-body diagram of the beam and sum moment of the force system about a
support. The reaction can determined at the other support.

57
2. Cut on the left-hand face and draw a free-body diagram of the left-hand face of beam, the
internal moment acting on it must be counterclockwise.
3. Sum moment of the force system about left-hand face, the internal moment function can be
determined at the left-hand face.
4. Plot moment function.

3.4 External Loads

Loads acting on a segment normally

are separated to be three types as
follows:

3.4.1 Point load

Fig 7.4: Point load

3.4.2 Uniform load

Fig 7.5: Uniformly distributed load

3.4.3 Linearly increasing uniform load:

Fig 7.6: Linearly increasing uniform

load

3.5 Centroid of Load

3.5.1 Uniform load

The uniform load on a segment is rectangular, so the centroid of uniform load is at mid-
length.
Fig 7.7: Centroid of uniform load

58
 Fig 7.8: Centroid of linearly increasing
uniform load

3.6 Supports

In general, we use three types of supports; each type has different number of acting reactions.

3.6.1 Simple support

The symbol of simple support is

Fig 7.9: Simple support

There are two reactions on it, one is vertical and the other is horizontal reaction. There is zero
moment at this support.

3.6.2 Roller Support

The symbol of roller is

Fig 7.10: Roller support

There is only one vertical reaction action on it.

3.6.3 Fixed support

The symbol of fixed support is

Fig 7.11: Fixed support

There are three types of reactions acting on
it. These reactions are vertical reaction,
horizontal reaction and moment reaction.
3.7 Samples of Various Loads Acting
on a Beam

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3.7.1 Concentrated load
Fig 7.12: Point load on beam and free body diagram of segment x

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 Fig 7.13: Free body diagram of segment x

Fig 7.14: Moment diagram

3.7.2 Uniform load

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Fig 7.15: Free body diagram for whole span and segment x
Fig 7.16: Moment diagram

62
63
64
65
Fig 7.17: Linearly varying uniform
load on beam AB

Fig 7.18:
Free body

diagram

Fig 7.19:
Free body

diagram of segment x

66
 Fig 7.20: Moment diagram
3.8 Hinges

When two parts of segments are connected by a hinge, they become a beam where the joint
can be free. The internal moment at hinge will be zero.

3.9 How to Apply Moment in Beam to ST3112

Fig 7.21: ST 3112 Shear force and bending moment apparatus

Referring to Fig, when the external loads are applied on a beam, the beam will try to bend at
the hinge. The external moment is transferred to tension from underhung balance multiplied

67
by 100 mm where the distance from the hinge to underhung balance is. To be clear of this
concept, the left segment must be drawn as a free-body diagram as shown in Fig. 2-25.

Fig

7.22: Free body diagram

Fig 7.23: Schematic diagram for shear force and bending moment apparatus

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2 Test procedure:

4.1 Shear Force

 Place ST3112 on ST305. Adjust both columns on ST305 base frame with 700 mm
interval or in range 0-700 mm.
 Put the underhung spring balance in place to keep two segments of the beam together and
place the beam with both ends on simple supports.
 Adjust the support height until the beam is level, not sliding sideway.
 Place the overhung spring balance in place and adjust both underhung and overhung
spring balances again until the beam is straight and level.
 Record tare reading from overhung spring balance reading.
 Apply weights on the weight hanger to positions along the beam and adjust both
underhung and overhung spring balance so that the beam reaches horizontal level and
straight again.
 Record the overhung spring balance readings, positions and applied weights on data sheet
supplied.
 The measured shear value is equal to the value obtained from the overhung spring balance
minus the tare value.
 Repeat the experiment at least three times and use the average measured value to compare
with the theoretical value on data sheets supplied.

Note: Net reading = Actual reading - Tare Reading

4.2 Bending Moment

 Place ST3112 on ST305. Adjust both columns on ST305 base frame with 700 mm
interval or in range 0-700 mm.
 Put the underhung spring balance in place to keep two segments of the beam together
and place the beam with both ends on simple supports.
 Adjust the support height until the beam is level, not sliding sideway.
 Place the overhung spring balance in place and adjust both underhung and overhung
spring balances again until the beam is straight and level.
 Read underhung spring balance reading as tare reading.
 Place load W1 = 400 g, W2 = 200 g and W3 = 300 g on each load hanger and hang
them on the position at 100mm. 500 mm. and 650 mm. on beam.
 Adjust both underhung and overhung spring balance so that the beam reaches
horizontal level and straight again.
 Record the underhung spring balance readings, positions and applied weights on data
sheet supplied.
 Repeat the same process, weights and position at least 3 times.
 Repeat the same process and weights at L1 = 100 mm. L2 = 400 mm. and L3 = 550
mm.
 Repeat the same process with W1 = 400 g, W2 = 200 g and W3 = 400 g, L1 = 100
mm. L2 = 400 mm. and L3 = 550 mm.

Note: Net reading = Actual reading - Tare Reading

5 Observations and calculations:

69
6 Commetns:

Job#8
To determine the deformations in a statically determinate beam by “Area
Moment Method” and comparison of experimental and theoretical results.
1. Objective:
Verification of the deflections, rotation and fixed ended moments of a beam by area-moment
method.
2. Apparatus:
2.1 ST 322 Area Moment Method Apparatus

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 Fig 8.1: Area moment method studying equipment
The beam has two moment supports with a knife edge. The support allows longitudinal travel
of the beam. Each support has a rotating arm. The arm rotation is monitored by a dial
indicator. The moment is applied and measured by load on the rotating arm. The beam
deflection is measured by a dial indicator. It is to e used with ST300 Universal Structural
Frame.

3. Theory:
3.1 The Elastic Curve:

71
Before the slope at a point on a beam is determined it is often helpful to sketch the deflected
shape of the beam when it is loaded. The deflection diagram of the longitudinal axis that
passes through the centroid of cross-sectional area of the beam is called the elastic curve. The
elastic curve depends on various types of supports. In general, supports resist a force such as
pin, fixed support and roller. The elastic curve of a beam on simple supports is shown below.

Fig 8.2: Elastic curve

3.2 Moment – Curvature Relationship:

Fig 8.3: Element of the beam

72
73
 Fig 8.4: M/EI diagram for infinitesimal loading
Theorem 1: The angle between the tangents at any two points on the elastic curve equals the
M
area under the diagram between these two points.
EI
Theorem 2: The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point on elastic curve with respect to the
M
tangent extended from another point equals the moment of the area under the diagram
EI
between the two points. This moment is taken about a vertical axis passing through the point
where the vertical deviation (t A/B) is to be determined.

Fig 8.5: M/EI diagram for given

loading

74
3.3 Built in beams:
When both ends of the beam in Fig. 8.6 (a) are built-in, the slope and deflection at each end is
zero.

Fig 8.6: Built in beam

75
In Fig 8.6 (b) the net bending moment diagram, shown in Fig 8.6 (c), is decomposed into its
free sagging components with applied loading simple supported and its fixing hogging
component determined by fixed end moments.

76
77
78
4. Test procedure:
4.1 Simple Support Beam:
4.1.1 Adjust both end of moment supports to fit 500 mm span and fix them on the leveled
frame. Support lock pins should be in position during operation as shown in Fig. 8.7.

79
 Fig 8.7:

Schematic diagram of simply supported beam

4.1.2 Set up the knife edge support with horizontal moment on the left support and the knife
edge support without horizontal moment on the right support.
4.1.3 Place the 25 mm × 700 mm steel beam on both supports.
4.1.4 Place one load hanger on beam.
4.1.5 Set up two deflection measurement or dial gauge at 10 cm. and 25 cm. position on
beam, move load hanger at 35 cm. position and make reading indicator on gauge at zero.

Fig 8.8: Location

of dial gauges
for
deflection measurement
4.1.6 Place a 2N-weight on the load hanger, read the scales and record the data.
4.1.7 More the weight out, turn indicator at zero again, place the 2V-weight on hanger again,
read the scales and record data.
4.1.8 Repeat step 4.1.7.
4.1.9 Repeat step 4.1.8 but changing weight.
4.1.10 Repeat step 4.1.8 two more times.

5 Observations and calculations:

80
Modulus of elasticity = ----------------
Moment of inertia about weak axis = ----------------
Span length = ---------
Type of support: ------------
Positon of measured deflection from left support:
Dial gauge I = -----------
Dial gauge II = --------

Rotation at Support A:

Dial Guage reading

θ=tan −1
Armlength

81
Fixed Ended Moment at Support A:

Load in N = F =

Distance of Load from Left Support = d =

Experimental FEM = F.d =

Also calculate the theoretical fixed end moment using the formula.

For Theoretical Computation:

82
For Theoretical Computation:

83
 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs without projects

Viva voce/ Lab performance 30%
Lab Report 20%

Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of
copying may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to
DC. This may result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.

Appendix B: Safety Guidelines

In all the Civil Engineering (CE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents
during conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall be
adopted:

84
 Know and follow safety rules, procedures and protocols
 Be alert to unsafe conditions. It is the responsibility of each individual to assure a safe
working environment for themselves and other workers in the laboratories.
 Post suitable warning signs if a specific hazardous situation exists.
 Do not operate any of the equipment unless you have been trained and authorized to do
so.
 Students must not work alone when using power tools, hazardous substances, or
dangerous equipment.
 During operation of tensile or compression test machines, provide a safe radius of at least
6 feet to protect spectators from any possible unexpected movement or release of testing
material.
 Keep hands or loose clothing away from machines at all times during operation
 The test procedures cause specimens to rupture and may release and accelerate pieces of
matter. Therefore all personnel that are present in the laboratory must wear safety glasses
at all times when operating the mechanical stress testing equipment.
 It is advised to use gloves and wear steel toed shoes when placing or removing test
specimens.
 The rupture of specimens can create a loud cracking noise. It is advised to wear earplugs
as hearing protection.
 Keep the machine surface clear of material and tools.
 Make sure to close all hydraulic valves and turn off power once testing is complete.
 Keep fingers, hands and arms out of “pinch points” in load assembly, i.e. points where
movement of the heads on the test machine could trap or crush these appendages.
 Doorways and walkways within the lab shall not be blocked or used for storage.
 All tools and equipment shall be returned to their proper storage location after use.
 Chemical resistant gloves shall be worn whenever the potential for hazardous skin contact
exists.
 Heat resistant gloves shall be used for handling hot objects.
 An unlabeled chemical can create substantial problems due to uncertainty about how to
safely handle, store or dispose of it. Therefore, all chemicals, including those stored in
temporary storage or process containers, must be properly labeled. Never use any
chemical or substance that is not clearly labeled or identified!

85
 Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports

Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He/She will write a report for
each experiment performed in lab. A format has been developed for writing these lab reports.

86
Lab Report Format
The format of the report will include:
1. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?
2. Introduction/ Related Theory: Introduce area explored in the experiment.
3. Measurements/Procedure: In your own words write how the experiment is
performed (Do not copy/paste the procedure).
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the
experiment and how they were resolved?
b. Graphs, if any
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real world application where this experiment may apply.
6. Comments on observations and results as per standards.

87