II Workshop on Power Transformers- Salvador,Brazil

Deregulation and Transformers Technical, 29-31 August 2001

Economic and Strategical Issues

TRANSFORMER LIFE MANAGEMENT

by Victor Sokolov, ZTZ-Service Co., Ukraine,
Convenor of CIGRE WG 12.18 "Life Management"

MODEL OF LIFE FOR A TRANSFORMER; TECHNICAL END OF LIFE; AGING PROCESSES;

DANGEROUS EFFECT OF DEGRADATION FACTORS; DEFECTIVE CONDITIONS OF
DIELECTRIC SYSTEM; FUNCTIONAL-BASED METHODOLOGY; CONDITION OF
AGEDTRANSFORMERS ; EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES: WATER HEAT RUN TEST;
TRANSFORMER FLUID IS A POWERFUL DIAGNOSTIC TOOL; USE OF INSULATION
CHARACTERISTICS; DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF WINDING BUCKLING; VIBRO-
ACOUSTIC MONITORING; TRANSFORMER IS GASSING-WHAT TO DO?

.
INTRODUCTION

The global task of the electric power industry in the first quarter of the 21st century will be to
manage the serviceability of a huge transformer population that has already been in service for 25-40
years. The basic problem is to ensure that appropriate actions are taken to promote the longest possible
service life under any operating conditions. Apparently, after long-term operation the condition of
transformer insulation should be substantially changed. However, traditional methodology is based
basically on monitoring the different recommended characteristics [1], and sometimes gives no idea
how to qualify and particularly how to quantify the rate of transformer impairment.
CIGRE WG 12.18 has suggested a new functional-based methodology [2,3] that consider the
assessment of the condition of a transformer on the relevant withstand strengths or spare margins, and
correlation between process of deterioration, defective condition and relevant characteristics of
defective condition (image of defect).
This paper presents some theoretical underlay of transformer functional-based methodology and
experience with its implementation for assessment of Power Transformer insulation condition.

MODEL OF LIFE FOR A TRANSFORMER

The life of a transformer consists of many steps from initial specification, design and
manufacture through installation, operation, maintenance, and possible change of state with
reconditioning and, eventually, replacement. A model of the life of a transformer may be presented as
that in Figure 1 as a change of its condition with time under impact of thermal, electric,
electromagnetic and electrodynamic stresses and contamination. The WG12.18 suggested considering
four basic conditions of a transformer: Normal (as new and service aged), Defective, Faulty and Failed.
Economic as well as technical and strategic factors determine the effective end of life of
equipment. A technical life may be still continue until a transformer retains its functional serviceability
that may be determined by its four key properties:
• Electromagnetic ability and integrity- an ability to transfer electromagnetic energy at specified
conditions, including permissible overexcitation and overloading, without general overheating,
excessive losses, appearance of localized hot-spots, gassing, excessive vibration and sound.
• Integrity of current carrying circuit.

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 • Dielectric withstand strength under the influence of the specified operational stresses, considering
a permissible level of deterioration.
• Mechanical withstand strength under the effect of specified through-fault currents;

A failure occurs when the withstand strength of the transformer with respect to one of its key properties
is exceeded by operating stresses. Sometimes the transformer can keep serviceability being in a faulty
condition (overheating, gassing) but it will fail immediately if a short-circuit or open-circuit happens.
The withstand strength of a transformer decreases naturally over its life.

SAFETY
MARGIN LIFE
EXTENSION

CRITICAL
LEVEL
REMEDIAL
REPAIR

FAULTY
NORMAL DEFECTIVE
FAILED

FIGURE 1. Conditions of a transformer in the course of its life cycle

TECHNICAL END OF LIFE ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTIONAL LIFE MODEL TESTS

The basic philosophy of the loading guides considers that ” the life of the transformer is
the life of paper”. Generally, the paper is considered to have its life expired once the tensile strength of
the paper has dropped to the level of electromagnetic force due to through fault current [4,5].
However, there is little information available about transformers, which have failed, primary due to
thermal degradation of insulation material. Only 3-5 % of total failures of aged transformers is
associated with overheating or wearing out of winding conductor’s insulation [8 ].
Experience has shown that local overheating of windings coils results often in dielectric mode failure,
namely, in carbonization of oil and a disk-to-disk flashover [9]
Investigation of functional life test model for power transformer by applying service-related thermal,
mechanical, and dielectric stresses to an actual transformer winding configuration has shown that
“dielectric life” can be shorter than “thermal life” of paper due to critical effect of oil aging products
(Table 1) [7]

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Table1 APPROXIMATION OF THE “THERMAL” AND “DIELECTRIC” TRANSFORMER LIFE
Hot spot Thermal Life, years Dielectric Life, years
Temperature,
0 Reduction of DP to 200 Reduction of dielectric strength
C
Aging factor h = 5 To 60% of initial data under effect
of aging by-products
80 6,229 Approximation: 124 Approximation:
4934
100 50 6972.15 22.1 log t = − 7.94 +
logt = − 13.391+ 273 +t
125 17 273 + t 10

140 1 1.16

160 0.19 0.32

180 0.04 0.1

Investigation of functional life model of major insulation under impact of temperature, moisture,
particles and aging by-products has revealed occurrence of “wearing-mode” failure due to significant
reduction of dielectric strength. The most likely reason is the formation of aging products, specifically,
of anionic surfactants and hydrate (bound) water, which is not determined by the usual methods (Karl
Fisher titration).
One may conclude that for the time being the Life of transformer population is determined basically by
reversible change of insulation condition.

AGING PROCESSES

The three main components subject to aging in a transformer are the paper forming the
conductor insulation, the pressboard forming the major insulation and winding support and the
insulating oil. Water, oxygen, oil aging products (acids particularly) and particles of different origin are
agents of degradation, which can shorten transformer life significantly under the impact of thermal,
electric, electromagnetic and electrodynamics stresses. The condition monitoring of a transforme r
contaminated with water must also consider contamination of the oil with particles and aging products.
Processes of insulation deterioration involve slow diffusion of water, gases, and aging products and
therefore affect basically only a part of the insulation structure, the so-called thin structure (paper
insulation of turn and coils, pressboard sheets, etc.) that comprises typically 40-60% of the total mass.
The heated mass of conductor insulation that is subjected to accelerated deterioration comprises
typically 2-10 % of the total mass of transformer insulation.
In fact, the fluid is an integral part of the transformer and plays a dynamic role in the condition of the
entire system. All impurities in the oil (water, gases, and aging products) are “the property” of the
entire dielectric system. Aggressive decay products being adsorbed by insulation can destroy the
cellulose and also affect the properties of new oil after refilling. Reconditioning of oil is a critical step
of life extension.

Water Contamination

There are three sources of excessive water in transformer insulation: Residual moisture in
the “thick structural” components not removed during the factory dry out, ingress from the atmosphere,
and aging (decomposition) of cellulose and oil. The main source of water contamination is atmospheric
moisture, and the main mechanism of water penetration is viscous flow of wet air or free water through
poor sealing under action of a pressure gradient. A large amount of rainwater can be sucked into a

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transformer in a very short time (several hours), when there is a rapid drop of pressure (after a rapid
drop of temperature that can be induced by rain) combined with insufficient sealing. Moistening of
insulation during exposure to atmospheric air is another significant factor. Aging can produce a
substantial amount of water only if insulation is subjected to elevated temperature and destructed
cellulose significantly. In this case water is removed basically from the vicinity of the hot spots in the
winding.
Distribution of moisture in the course of transformer life is non-uniform. Most of the
water is stored in the thin structure operating at oil bulk temperature (20-30% of the total mass of
transformer insulation). Water content in turn insulation is substantially lower than in pressboard
barriers due to higher temperature. However, the influence of temperature results in a non-uniform
distribution of water in the layers (elevated concentration in outer layers) Solid insulation is a water
accumulator and the main source of oil contamination in an operating transformer.
Oil is a water-transferring medium. Water is present in oil in soluble form that can be
revealed by the Karl Fisher titration. As oil become very oxidized with increasing amounts of polar
aging byproducts, their water solubility characteristics also increases. At elevated temperatures some
amount of hydrated water may transfer into dissolved water. Bound water can not be revealed by
conventional method as Karl Fisher titration is not valid for aged oils, where active contaminants are
accumulated capable of forming hydrates with bonded water.
Paper aging decomposition

Insulation decomposition treated as a chemical phenomenon.

Mechanisms of paper degradation under effect of temperature, water, oxygen and oil aging products
are shown in Figure 2 . Three mechanisms of degradation: HYDROLYSIS, PYROLYSIS and
OXIDATION are acting simu ltaneously [10,11].

Oxidation
4 types of oxidation could be classified[11 ]:
1) Oxidation of a primary OH group to aldehyde and one water molecule;
2) Oxidation of a secondary OH group to carboxyl COOH and acid RCOOH; no additional water;
3) Oxidation of a secondary OH group to Cetogroups+two water molecules
4) Unanimous oxidation of secondary OH groups to aldehyde+one water molecule that may followed
with the break of a ring. This is the least probable case.
Practically oxidation does not cause directly de-polymerization of cellulose

Pyrolysis
Thermal destruction causes the break between rings directly
Energy of activation Ea is equal to 54.3 Kcal/mol [12]
Degradation products of pyrolysis are: Furans and through fragmentation of levoglucosane-organic
acids; aldehyde (including Furfural); ketones; water;CO,and CO2

Hydrolysis
Process of decomposition consists of three stages and needs in water and acid catalyst that contains a
hydrogen atom-to trigger the process
Energy of activation is 26-38.4 Kcal/mol that is by 30-50 % lower that energy of activation of
Pyrolysis.
Degradation products of pyrolysis are:Furans and water. Apparently, Hydrolysis is a dominant
mechanism in the range of transformer operating temperature

Aging destruction of cellulose leads to furans formation, which is connected with water generation –
three molecules of water per one elementary act. It means that a correlation between aging water
generation and total furanic compounds can be found.
Both mechanisms cause depolymerization of cellulose furans formation. Thus, one can expect
correlation between furanic compounds and polymerization degree but hardly between furanic
compounds and amount CO and CO2 as the latter are the product of pyrolysis and oil oxidation
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Aging Equation

Experts of WG 12.18 suggested the following approximation of paper’s Life [11]:

Aging factor may be expressed as a number of scissions of cellulosic molecule, in terms of reduction of
polymerization degree, under effect of Hydrolysis and Pyrolysis

DP0
h= − 1<5 (permissible number of scissions)
DP

h = hH + hP
For limited data DP=200 one can show that

h ≅ (K P + a • q • K H ) • t

Where t-Time (Life);

KP- coefficient of thermal decomposition
BP
−
K P = AP • e T

KH- coefficient of hydrolytic decomposition

BH

K H = AH • e T

q-amount of acids
α - moisture coefficient
a = 9 Wp DP,

Wp - water content in the paper

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 CO2 CO
H2 O

Cellulose Oil
oxidation oxidation

acids H 2O Temperature O2
TURE

Hydrolysis Pyrolysis

Depoly Chipping off

merization levoglucosane

Dehydration
Levoglucosane
Furans fragmentation

acids Î2
CO2 CO H2 O

FIGURE 2 Aging Model for oil-paper/pressboard transformer insulation

DANGEROUS EFFECT OF DEGRADATION FACTORS

Dielectric safety margin of both major and minor insulation contaminated with water is still determined by
dielectric withstand strength of the oil
Presence of bubbles may cause occurrence of critical PD even at rated voltage.
Sudden ingress of free water may cause failure of the transformer immediately.
Presence of conductive particles including wet fibres of cellulose can reduce dielectric strength of oil by
several times.
A dangerous effect of dissolved water is a sharp reduction of dielectric strength of oil with increased
relative saturation due to increasing conductivity of particles or emulsion formation in the vicinity of
surface-active substances. Dissolved water is basically a problem of a “cold” transformer.
Bubble evolution is a problem of a “hot transformer”. This problem i nvolves not only high temperature
and elevated water content, but also presence of gas in cellulose capillaries and decreasing interfacial
tension of the oil due to its aging].
Deposit of oil sludge of the surface o f barriers reduces breakdown voltage under effect of switching
surge impulse.
Water and oil aging products accelerate significally paper decomposition

DEFECTIVE CONDITIONS OF TRANSFORMER DIELECTRIC SYSTEM

It is possible to define two critical stages of dielectric strength degradation:

• Defective condition: reduction of the initial withstands strength under the impact of the
degradation agents. It results in appearance of usually nondestructive partial discharges (PD) at
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 operating voltage and reduction impulse withstands strength. Winding distortion could be another
reason of dielectric withstand strength degradation.
• Faulty condition: appearance of destructive PD, progressing surface discharges, and creeping
discharge occurrence.
Two levels of defective conditions could be suggested:
1) Possible reduction of dielectric margin with respect to specified stresses by 10% or more;
2) Possible occurrence of critical PD at the rated voltage.
Characteristics of both conditions that suggested by “ZTZ-Service” are summarized in the table 1

Table 2.CHARACTERISTICS OF DIELECTRIC SYSTEM’S DEFECTIVE CONDITION

Caution levels Alarm levels

An increase of the oil relative saturation An increase of the relative saturation over 40-50 %
over 20% at operating temperature in at operating temperature at presence of
presence of particles (water content in particles(water content in fibres >6-7%)
fibres >2.5%). Presence of free water in oil

Water in major insulation that can result
in evolution water in oil at high
temperature and increase of the relative
saturation of oil over 40% at minimum
operative temperature Water content in
barriers >1.5-2% should be considered
Particles contamination Presence of
particles 5-150 microns more than 1000 in
10 ml.
Possible carbon generation at a place of
localized oil heating above 500C
Possible bubbles evolution at a place of
localized oil heating above 800C
(generation of C2H2)
Oil aging level that results in deposit of
sludge across the pressboard under effect
of electrical field
PD occurrence
The 1 st warning signal
q> 500-1000 pC
The signal of Defective condition
q>1000-2500 pC
Water in major insulation that can result in
evolution water in oil at high temperature and
increase of the relative saturation of oil over 40-
50% at normal operative temperature Water
content in barriers 3-4% should be considered
Particles contamination (Classes by NAS 1638):
10-12 ;
The presence of visible and conducting (metals,
carbon) particles
Water in winding conductor insulation that may
result in bubble evolution during overloading.
Water content of 1.0-1.5% and gas saturation
should be considered
Large (3-5 mm ) air/gas bubbles in oil
Oil aging level that results in occurrence of sludge
that can reduce dielectric strength of oil
PD occurrence
The 1 st fault signal q>>2500 pC
Critical condition q>>100,000-1000,000 pC

CONCEPTS OF FUNCTIONAL-BASED METHODOLOGY

• A transformer is considered to consist not of just some typical components but of a number of
functional subsystems, which include relevant components.
• A framework of the monitoring and diagnostic system is transformer failure model. It defines the
possible defects and «sensitive points» in the particular type of the equipment on the basis of the
design review and in-field histories. A failure model shall identify the goal of the condition
monitoring (what to look for?)

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• The condition-based methodology is considered as a test-questionnaire in terms to detect a
possible defective condition of the certain functional subsystem, which may lead to malfunction.
For instance: is there excessive water or particle contamination? (dielectric), abnormal
heating?(load transfer), winding distortion?(mechanical defect), etc.
• The test program is focused on a detection of possible defects utilizing a group of methods, which
characterize the particular defect. At least two procedures are necessary to quantify the defect, as
well as to ascertain its presence. The correlation between relevant methods is to be considered.

IMPLEMENTATION OF FUNCTIONAL-BASED CONDITION ASSESSMENT

METHODOLOGY

Table 3 presents the relevant groups of methods and diagnostic procedures that have been suggested by
ZTZ-Service Co to identify some typical defective condition of insulation. Design review has been
always the first diagnostic step.

Table 3GROUP OF METHODS FOR THE TRANSFORMER CONDITION ASSESSMENT

PROCEDURES
ON-LINE/IN-SERVICE OFF-LINE
Shall we expect a substantial reduction in the dielectric margin at operating temperatures?

Design review (safety margin) Temperature response of PF/insulation

Condition operation review resistance.
WHRT Change in cellulose/oil conductivity ratio (for
Particles /counting /identification converter transformers
Metals ; DGA; Oil aging degree Leakage Reactance/Capacitance response to
Vibro-acoustic test; PD test winding movement

What is the level of water content in solid insulation? Shall we expect bubbling evolution at
overloading?

Design review Estimation of water content using temperature

Condition operation review response of PF and insulation resistance,
WHRT considering load increase Sealing test
Air (oxygen/nitrogen content
oil interfacial tension test

Is there abnormal heating / rate of aging of insulation

Design review Polymerization Degree (DP)

Operation conditions (history)
water content in paper
Oxygen content in oil
furanic compounds;CO and CO2
Oil aging by-products

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EXPERIENCE WITH ASSESSMENT OF THE CONDITION OF AGED TRANSFORMERS

Table 4 presents the results of assessment of 106 aged (23-39 years in service), 110-500
kV, Power Transformers of 8 Manufacturers that has been performed by ZTZ-Service utilizing the
functional-based methodology. It is important to emphasize that most of the assessed units had been
recognized to be in a normal condition on the basis of traditional methodology.
The following trends can be extracted from the statistics available:
• In average each aged transformer has had about 6 different defects.
• Transformer life is limited predominantly by deterioration of accessories:: bushings, LTC and
cooling system (46.2 % of defects). Problems with the bushings have been revealed in about 70%
of transformers .
• 21.7% defects have been attributed to impairment of the conditions of insulation due to
contamination with water, particles and oil aging products.
• Nearly 90% of problems are associated with reversible-mode defects and could be corrected in
field.
• There were not detected any case with overheating or excessive aging of conductor’s insulation. 3
transformers exhibited elevated concentrations of furfural. However the problems have been
attributed to overheating the core structure insulation (two cases) and local overheating of neutral
lead due to poor cooling.

Table 4 RESULTS OF ASSESSMENT OF THE CONDITION OF AGED TRANSFORMER

Defect Number of Percent of
defects/percent of total assessed
amount transformers

High moisture in barriers 26/4.14 24.5

High moisture in oil 10/1.6 9.4

Oil contamination 14/2.2 13.2
Aged oil 52/8.3 45.2
Insulation surface contamination 34/5.4 32

Poor sealing (allowing free water) 4/0.64 3.8

Leeds contact overheating 7/1.1 6.6

Localized oil overheating 58/9.25 54.7

Loosed winding clamping 42/6.7 42
Loosed core clamping 26/0.96 24.5
Winding distortion 10/1.6 8.5
Localized magnetic shields/tank overheating 10/1.6 9.4

NOLTC defects 6/0.96 2.8

LTC defects 46/7.3 37.7
HV Bushings defects 92/14.7 69.8
Cooling system’s defects 146/23.3 89.6
Gaskets/oil leak 44/7.01 41.5
Total 627/100 100

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EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES

WATER HEAT RUN TEST (WHRT)

WHRT [13,14] appeared to be the most efficient technique in order to detect possible
substantial reduction in the dielectric margin on operating transformer condition, and assess the level of
contamination with water and particles.
The objectives of the method are:
• Assessment of the transformer insulation health under rated conditions – the maximum permissible
temperature.
• Assessment of the level of water contamination using the build-up of water content in oil with time
and temperature.
• Assessment of possible state of water and distribution of water within a transformer using the rate
of building-up of water in oil.
The method considers temperature migration of moisture and particles and utilizes build up water in oil
with time, when a transformer is heated by load losses up to maximum operative top oil temperature
(65-75C).
A loaded transformer is heated, by reducing its cooling, up to the maximum possible temperature, to
lower oil per cent saturation and to obtain a “moisture potential” in the vicinity of insulation. The test
duration must allow “discharging” the insulation and building up a significant amount of dissolved water
in the oil. To detect water content over 1.5-2.0%, the temperature 60-75°C and test time of 3 days has
been recommended. However, practical experience has shown that water contamination over 2% or the
presence of free water can be assessed even using a one day test.
Assuming that the main source of water contamination is a “thin” structure of transformer insulation, the
level of water content W can be estimated using the equation
∆ W ,
W > W e
+ %
1 − F (Z )
where ∆W is the amount of water “discharged” from the solid insulation into oil related to the mass of
the thin structure;
We is the equilibrium moisture, which can be determined from the a bsorption equation for given relative
oil saturation;
[1-F(Z)] is the diffusion function
Clear evidence of defective condition of the transformer could show increasing moisture in oil content
with temperature and sharp reduction of the breakdown voltage due to increasing moisture content in
particles. Table 5 presents the results of WHRT of two transformers. Both transformers had been
recognized as normal based on conventional tests and found to be defective ones based on the WHRT
results.

Table 5.CHANGE OF MOISTURE CONTENT AND OIL BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE WHILE

WHRT
Tested transformer
Tests Sampling 400MVA, 347kV, 180MVA,220kV
Woil, Before WHRT (30C) 12 14
ppm After heating( 65C) 40 30
Ubd,k Before WHRT (30C) 70 73.6
v After heating( 65C) 24 36
Fig.3 demonstrates the case of 180 MVA, 220/18 kV, GSU transformer, with open-breathing
preservation system after 18 years in operation. During its Water Heat-Run Test the build-up water
content in oil practically followed the rise in temperature. The presence of free water in the transformer
was determined and later confirmed by additional tests.

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 T o C,
W ppm
80
o
switching ϕ%
tC
70 off

60
W
50

40

30 ϕϕ

20

10

0
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

FIGURE 3. WHRT on the180 MVA, 220/18 kV, GSU transformer

W-absolute water content, ppm, ϕ -relative saturation, %

ON-LINE PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

The practical experience has confirmed that the modern PD electrical measuring devices can provide a
high sensitivity to PDs in field conditions, quite comparable to one achieved in laboratory tests at the
transformer factories. Such a technique may be effectively used as an on-line diagnostic instrument for
on-line monitoring power transformers, shunt reactors and current and potential transformers.
Analysis has shown [15] that the sources of PD can be associated:
• with operative voltage,
• with voltage induced by main magnetic flux,
• with voltage induced by stray flux.
Only 30% of insulation problems associated with arcing or sparking inside the transformer tank are
related to discharges in major insulation and provide an imminent danger for further transformer
operation
Since 1998 ZTZ-Service performed PD test on 45 units rated 220-750 kV.
Experience has shown that PD parameters may be used to qualify the condition of transformers
contaminated with water and particles. In these cases
PD repetition rate and PD Power could be more important characteristic then traditional PD maximum
pulse magnitude (Table 6)

Table 6 CLASSIFICATION OF INSULATION CONDITION IN TERMS OF PD PARAMETERS

(Statistic includes 32 tested transformers)
Condition Max pulse Magnitude,pC Repetition PD Power
Insulation Rate,ppc mW

Clean <30 25-30 <0.2

Fairly clean 250-380 1-2 0.5-0.9
(after repair)
Contaminated 300-400 120-150 50-90
Severe 220-250 1000-1800 470-800
contaminated

PD-electrical test technique appeared to be particularly efficient to identify whether a source of gas
generation relates to PD activity in a critical insulation zone.
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TRANSFORMER FLUID IS A POWERFUL DIAGNOSTIC TOOL

It has been estimated that transformer fluids contain about 70% of the diagnostic information available
for transformers. The possible benefits from using oil testing are indicated on Table 7, the Transformer
Functional Failure Model suggested by the Cigre workgroup on Transformer Life Management, Cigre
WG12.18. One may observe that for this collection most of the problems indicated could, in principle,
be detected by means of oil analysis.

Table 7.FUNCTIONAL FAILURE MODEL.POSSIBLE DETECTION OF TYPICAL DEFECTS

AND FAULTS THROUGH OIL TESTS

SYSTEM, DEFECT Detection FAULTS Detection

COMPONENTS Through oil Through oil

Excessive water Yes Destructive PD Yes

Dielectric Oil contamination Yes Localized tracking No
Major Insulation Surface contamination No Creeping discharge Yes
Minor Insulation Abnormal aged oil Yes Heated cellulose Yes
Leads cellulose aging Yes Flashover Yes
static electrification Yes
PD of low energy Yes

Loosening clamping No Localized hot spot Yes

Magnetic circuit Short/open-circuit Yes Sparking/ Yes
Core insulation in grounding circuit discharges
Clamping circulating current Yes Gassing Yes
Magnetic shields Floating potential Yes
Grounding circuit Aging lamination No

Loosening clamping No Winding distortion No

Mechanical radial
Windings axial
Clamping twisting
Leads support Insulation Failure Yes

Electric circuit Poor joint Yes Localized hot spot Yes

Leads Poor contacts Yes Open-circuit No
Winding Contact deterioration Yes Short-circuit Yes
conductors

The diagnostic use of oil-based information may be assisted by creating functional test/information
groups s uch as:
• Characterization – which gives parameters that can be used to identify the oil
• Aging status – which gives parameters relevant to the aging process
• Dielectric status – which gives parameters used to determine the dielectric safety margin and
dielectric characteristics of the insulation spaces.
• Degradation status – which gives parameters relevant to faults, failure and wear.

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 Table 8 CLASSIFICATION OF OIL-BASED INFORMATION FOR TRANSFORMER
CONDITION ASSESSMENT

Classification

Aging Status

Free Radicals; Visible Spectrum; Acidity ;Saponification Number; Inhibitor contents;

IFT;IR spectroscopy; Dissipation factor; Resistivity; Polarization Index; Turbidity;
Insoluble sludge; Sludge content; Oxidation stability tests; Furanic compounds
Dielectric Status
Water content; Percent saturation; Bound Water; Particle profile; Particles
Identification; Breakdown voltage; Standard Deviation; Impulse strength; Charging
Tendency; Resistivity; Dissipation factor; Gas tendency; PD intention voltage
Degradation status
DGA; Extended DGA; Furanic compounds; Phenols; Cresols; Dissolved metals
Particle profile; Particles identification

USE OF INSULATION CHARACTERISTICS TO ASSESS THE CONDITION OF OIL-

BARRIER INSULATION

30-35% of the problems still can be detected through off-line tests only. Those are winding distortions,
insulation surface contamination, some bushing problems, etc. The experience has also demonstrated
that water content in the pressboard barriers, the surface contamination level and oil contamination can
be effectively estimated using the temperature responses of insulation power-factor and DC insulation
resistance for interwinding and winding-to-tank insulating spaces, when taking into account the value
of relative portions of oil and solid ni sulation within the space. The transformer insulation is a
composite dielectric system, located between the electrodes, i.e., winding conductors, and grounded
parts of the transformer. Dielectric measurements allow to determine the partial conductance of the
dielectric system between each accessible pair of electrodes. Sometimes the measured value is equal to
the conductance of the insulation zone between electrodes. For instance, in the zone between the high-
voltage (HV) winding (outer) and the tank, all the current from the HV winding flows to ground.
Sometimes the measured value is not equal to the conductance of the insulation zone. For example, in
the interwinding space, in case of a severe contamination of the barrier surface, the portion of current
between the HV winding and the low-voltage (LV) winding flows down to the ground along the
surface of the barrier, resulting in a decrease of the measured dissipation factor.

The most important components of the main transformer insulation are:

• Insulation between the HV winding and the tank, including the HV bushings (oil contamination);
• Insulation between the HV and the LV windings (moisture in the barrier, oil contamination,
surface contamination);
• Interphase insulation (surface contamination, discharge across the barrier) .

These components usually have the smallest margins in the dielectric strength, and, as a result, are the
most sensitive to the insulation deterioration. The monitoring of the solid and liquid insulation in these
components, i.e., the monitoring of their dielectric characteristics, is a subject of great importance and
one of the main objectives of transformer diagnostic tests. In other areas of the insulation, specifically
the insulation between the LV winding and the core, the margin of dielectric strength is usually
significantly higher than in the spaces that include HV winding. Therefore, here only a high degree of
deterioration can be the cause for concern.

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The model of the oil-barrier structure can be presented in accordance with Figure 4,A [17]. The total
current through the model may be expressed as a sum of three components: the current through the
solid insulation (IP) , the current through oil (I0), the current along the surface (IS):
I = Ip + I0 + Is
It means that the full current through the composite insulation space and any of the insulation
characteristics derived from it depend not only on the solid insulation condition, but also on the
conditions of the oil and the surface. Therefore, the sensitivity of dielectric parameters to deterioration of
the barrier depends on the share of current flowing through the barrier and consequently on the relative
amount of cellulose insulation in this space, i.e. on the insulation structure design. Consequently all the
insulation characteristics must be analyzed according to their interrelationship.

This model allows us to determine the dissipation-factor at the power frequency (or at any other
frequency) as well as the dc insulation resistance [17]. The third (surface) component is of practical
importance only when surfaces of all the barriers are severely contaminated. In the majority of practical
cases another, simplified model is valid (Figure 4 B).

The above approach allows us to estimate the condition of the oil within the space as well as the
condition of the solid insulation considering the relative amount of the solid insulation. For example, the
dissipation-factor of the interwinding space at power frequency can be expressed by the following
simple equation:
tanδδ HV-LV = Kp x tanδδP + K0 x tanδδ0

The design parameters Kp and K0 can be evaluated using [17], but typically K0 =0.4-0.6 and
Kp =1- Ko=0.6-0.4.

IP IS IO IP IS IO
A B

FIGURE 4. The model of interwinding oil-barrier structure (A) & simplified model of oil-barrier space
“Winding-Tank” (B)

Over 15 years of experience with the evaluation of insulation conditions through the measurement of
tanδ and DC insulation resistance of relevant insulation spaces has shown that the following problems
can be successfully solved:

Estimation of the average water content (over 1-1.5%) in the barriers using test data for
interwinding space and the following algorithm:
• Measure tanδHV-LV at the elevated temperature.
• Determine tanδ0 of oil at the same temperature.
• Define the design parameters Kp and K0 .
• Calculate the value of the dissipation factor of the pressboard tanδP .
• Define the water content using well-known dependence for pressboards from [18].

The examples of such water content estimation using the measured dissipation-factor are presented in
Table. A good correlation between the estimated values and the results directly measured in the
samples of the pressboard, after draining the oil, has been found.

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Table 9. ESTIMATION OF THE WATER CONTENT IN OIL-BARRIER INSULATION
• Estimation of Oil Contamination in Insulating Spaces.

The experience has shown that in some cases the oil in the insulation spaces can be more
contaminated than the oil in the sample taken from the bottom of the tank. The condition of the oil
can be better evaluated through the dissipation-factor and dc insulation resistance in “HV-Tank”
space, using the difference in tanδ of the space “HV winding–Tank” measured at two different
temperatures (e.g. 60 and 300 C) [17].

• Evaluation of insulation surface contamination (including traces of creeping discharges)

using temperature dependence of tanδ values for the interwinding space [17].

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF WINDING BUCKLING

The failures of large power transformers, caused by winding movement, are due to the effects of short
circuit stresses and comprise 12-15% of total failures [19]. Experience has shown that over 90 % of
mechanical-mode failures have been associated with radial buckling of internal windings. Experience
has confirmed also that a damaged transformer may keep serviceability for years until an insulation
failure occurs. The winding buckling results in change (decrease) of the winding diameter, and of the
dimension of leakage channel.
Although it is important to have a sensitive diagnostic tool that detects winding deformation, it is also
important to have a reliable diagnostic approach that could identify fault location and perform
quantitative analysis of the winding movement.
A variety of techniques is being used to detect winding deformation in transformers:
winding capacitance; leakage reactance (LR)/leakage impedance; low voltage impulses (LVI);
frequency response analysis (FRA) using the impulse method or the swept frequency method;
frequency response of leakage impedance; frequency response of stray losses.
Each technique has advantages and disadvantages. To make a proper conclusion about the condition of
a critical transformer advantages of different techniques have to be utilized. FRA has been recognized
as the most sensitive technique to detect a minor winding movement. This method is claimed to allow
detection of most possible modes of winding dis tortion: radial, axial and twisting as well the change in
the clamping pressure. However, FRA still leaves uncertainties in the quantitative interpretation, in a
fault location, as well as the uncertainty as to what is actually being detected: movement of the
windings or change in the clamping pressure.
ZTZ-Service has utilized different techniques and has found that in order to identify the winding
buckling the preferable one is the relative change of leakage reactance with respect to moved winding
(or reactance response of the winding in question)[19].
Theoretical analysis and experience have shown the following:
• Local deformation of winding results in some reduction of its diameter;
• Some change of leakage reactance occurs in the results of the winding diameter reduction only;
• The relative change in leakage reactance can serve as a rate of the radial buckling of the winding.

∆ ZL ≅ G• ∆X

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 The initial geometry of a transformer is modified by the winding equivalent
displacement ∆ x. Therefore the critical state of a winding could be defined not in former terms of
relative increase in LR but in terms of actual deformation characteristic ∆ x. The value of ∆X may be
positive or negative with respect to different windings. Thus the image of the faulty winding can be
determined.
In most cases, we find it useful to follow the following guidelines to categorize the extend of
deformation:
• Green zone - allows for minor elastic displacements caused by moderate fluctuations in
temperature and electromagnetic stress; for large power transformers this zone, typically,
corresponds to ∆x ≤ 5 mm.
• Yellow zone – is characterized by a noticeable buckling; for large power transformers this zone,
typically, corresponds to 5 mm ≤ ∆x ≤ 10 mm.
• Red zone – is characterized by a critical buckling; for large power transformers this zone,
typically, corresponds to ∆x > 10 mm.

Fig 5 shows example of quantification of the common and tertiary windings buckling for 250 MVA
33/150kV autotransformer

SW-CW TW-CW TW-(CW+SW)

I
green yellow red x −− x green yellow red
8 εε == ,%
7 x
6 8
5
4 7
3
2 6
1 5
0
-1 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 ∆X, cm 4 SW-TW
-2
-3 3
-4 2
-5 TW-SW
-6 1
-7
-8 0
CW-TW 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 ∆X, cm

5a 5b

FIGURE 5 Three-State “Traffic Light” Deformation Chart for 250 MVA, 330/150/35 kV autotransformer
3a – Common Winding (CW) buckling
3b – Tertiary Winding (TW) buckling
CW+SW represents a HV winding

During the period of 1984-2000, the ZTZ-Service methodology was used to identify over 40
transformers with mechanically deformed windings

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VIBRO-ACOUSTIC MONITORING OF WINDING & CORE CLAMPING FORCE

A reduction in clamping forces is frequently accompanied with winding distortions and short circuits
between elements of the magnetic circuit. These defects can lead to PDs and combustible gas
generation, therefore the clamping forces monitoring can be of support in determining if the problem is
associated with the transformer insulation and in its localization. On-line vibro-acoustic method is
based on the measurement of the steady-state vibration in several points of the transformer tank and
further analyzing the energy distribution between different frequencies in this vibration. To
differentiate vibration from the windings and from the core two load modes are used: the maximum
possible load close to the rated one and no-load (or small load). The system is able to discriminate the
separate portions of the core or windings. The diagnosis is provided in the form of coefficients: when
the coefficient is between 1.0 and 0.9 the clamping force is good (60-100% of the initial one), between
0.8 and 0.9 the clamping force is satisfactory (20- 60% of the initial one), below 0.8 the condition is
critical (the clamping force is below 15-25% of the initial one). Figure 6 shows the diagnostic window
of the computerized diagnostics system during the test of a 345 step-up transformer. The parts of the
core and windings are colored: for three gradation mentioned above colors are green, yellow and red,
respectively.

FIGURE 6. The diagnosis of the core and winding residual clamping forces for a 345 kV, 880 MVA
step-up transformer

TRANSFORMER IS GASSING. WHAT TO DO?

.
Sources of gas generation in a Power Transformer

Experience has shown that about 70 % of problems with Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors could
be detected by means of oil analysis. In principle all the incipient faults that result in decomposition of
materials are accompanied with gas generation. However the rate of gases generated by different faults
is different and in some cases DGA may detect only advanced fault or even post- failure state.
The following typical scenarios of the failures progressing are presented on the basis of functional
condition – based methodology

Dielectric system
Moisture/particles Contamination ⇒Occurrence of moderate PD ⇒Occurrence of destructive PD ⇒
Gas generation ⇒Progressing PD, accompanied with gas generation ⇒ tracking/treeing,
accompanied with, critical pre-failure PD and intensive gas generation ⇒Breakdown.

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Electromagnetic system
• Local core overheating/sparking associated with the main magnetic flux. Closed loops in the core
(insulated bolts, pressing bolts, pressing metal rings) cause typically an intensive gas generation.
• Local core overheating/sparking associated with a stray flux. Faults associated with a stray flux
(including short circuit between winding parallels) allow continuing transformer operation on the
condition of load limitation. Three failure mechanisms may be advised:

- Local overheating due to excessive eddy current losses resulting in generation of gas, carbon
and other degradation products, and insulation deterioration.
- Close loops between adjacent members linked by stray flux, if accompanied with poor
contacts, result in overheating, sparking and arcing, and gas generation.
- Sparking due to a floating potential accompanied with gas generation

Current carrying circuit

A progressive rise of contact resistance results in the progressive rise of temperature, gas generation,
irreversible degradation of the contacts, coking, open-circuit or short-circuit occurrences.

Mechanical system

• Loosening clamping - Distortion of winding geometry ⇒ PD appearance accompanied with gas

generation ⇒ Creeping discharge progressing ⇒ Breakdown.

• Distortion of winding geometry + Switching surge ⇒ Flashover between coils accompanied with
gas evolution.

What to do if a transformer is gassing. Methodological procedures

To find a solution for the problem “What to do if the transformer is gassing?” it is necessary to answer
the questions: are the gas concentrations normal or abnormal? Is the source of gas generation internal
or external? What is the type of fault? Does the problem associated with thermal or electric faults, with
operative voltage or magnetic flux, with main flux or with stray flux? What may happen if the
load/voltage will be increased? The diagnostic model of gassing power transformer in Figure 7 may
help to answer these questions in some instances.

ZTZ-Service utilizes the following procedures to identify the problem with gassing transformer:
• Assessment of DGA characteristics :
• Identification of the transformer.
• Design review as a vital mean to gain an insight into transformer structural features.
• Identification of the operational conditions.
• Identification of the oil. Assessment of gassing tendency of the oil (if necessary).
• Consideration the possibility of external source of gas generation (LTC divertor switch
compartment, burned motor winding in the pump, overheating of oil during processing, presence
of residual gas).
• If thermal faults involved:
- Verify if the current -flow system involved (LTC contacts, leads contacts, etc). This is the
most dangerous case that may result in catastrophic failure. The following diagnostic tools
may be used: Design review; Thermo-scanning the zones of leads disposition and LTC

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 compartment; Measurement of winding resistance (transient contact resistance); effect of the
variation of current on gas generation.
- Verify if the problem is associated with the main magnetic flux. The following diagnostic
tools may be used: magnetizing current and no-load losses, ratio test.
- Assess the effect of load on gas generation if problem associated with stray flux involved.
Consider Heat Run Test as a powerful tool to predict the transformer behavior.
• If electrical discharge faults involved:
- Localize the possible source of gas generation by means of PD – acoustic technique and PD
electric technique.
- Verify if a problem associated with PD occurrence in winding insulation by means of PD-
electrical technique; assess the effect of voltage PD generation.

• Determination the conditions of possible transformer service continuation, e.g. load limitation.
Consider the rate of gas generation and gas patterns. Consider possible contamination of the
dielectric system with decomposition by-products: carbons particles, metals, bubbles evolution.

Gassing

Abnormal
Normal

Thermal Thermal PD
Cellulose Oil Discharges

Strands
External & Unusual sources

Coils Current Magnetic Operative

circuit circuit voltage
eads
Core
insulation Main Flux
Winding joints
LTC contacts

Leads connections

Main Flux
Stray Flux

Stray Flux

FIGURE 7 Model of gassing Power Transformer

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CONCLUSIONS
In order to make the best decisions about management the serviceability of a huge aged
transformer population, it is imperative to understand the condition of the equipment.
Condition-based monitoring of power transformer insulation has to be based on an extensive
understanding of the processes of insulation deterioration. The diagnostics have to be centered on the
prediction of the substantial drop in the dielectric safety margin under impact of moisture, oil by-
products, contaminating particles, partial discharge activity, tracking and creeping discharges, and
paper aging. The functional failure model chosen highlights the most dangerous processes where
attention has to be concentrated.

The scope of tests and their interpretation depend on sensitive points of components and
their expected failure modes and variability of the design (diagnostic accessibility). Design review
should be a critical step of condition assessment. Implementation of the presented test program that is
focused on a detection of possible defects utilizing a group of the relevant methods has allowed to
identify a number of defects in aged transformers. Most of the problems could be detected on-line,
especially utilizing the oil as diagnostic media, several, practically proven monitoring methods and
multi-step

REFERENCES

1.IEEE Std 62 -1995 IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus. Part 1 : Oil
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2.V.V. Sokolov, Consideration on Power Transformer Condition- based Maintenance, ”EPRI
Substation Equipment Diagnostic Conference VIII, February 20-23, 2000, New Orleans, LA
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Management of Transformers”, Proceedings of the 68th Annual International Conference of Doble
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4.IEEE Std C57.91-1995, IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil Immersed Transformers
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16. Victor Sokolov, Armando Bassetto, T.V. Oommen,Ted Haupert, Dave Hanson
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20 V. Sokolov, Z. Berler, "Transformer is gassing-What to do", ”EPRI Substation Equipment
Diagnostic Conference IX, February, 2001, New Orleans, LA

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