1.

1 Basic Equations of Electrostatics

Name Symbol Unit

Electric Potential  V
Electric Field Intensity E V/m
Electric Flux Density D  C/m2
Volume Charge Density orv C/m3

i)
⃗E=−∇ φ
ii) D⃗ =ε ⃗E
iii) ∇. D⃗ =ρ

1.2 Equipotential and Electric Field Line

Consider an equipotential of any electric field as shown in Fig. 1.1. At any point P on this
equipotential consider that the electric field line makes an angle  with the tangent to the
equipotential at that point. If an elementary length dl is considered along the equipotential
at the point P, then the potential difference between the two extremities of dl will be given

by
|⃗E|cosθ×dl = -(2-1) But if the elementary length dl lies on the equipotential, then
there should not be any potential difference across dl. Again, (i) the magnitude of electric
field intensity is not zero at P and (ii) dl is also a non-zero quantity. Hence, the potential
difference across dl could only be zero if cos is zero, i.e. if  is 900.
Normal at P

e
Lin

E
ld
Fie
tric
ec
El

q
P Tangent at P
ial L
ine E cosq
ipot ent (f1) (f2)
Equ
dl
Fig.1.1 Equipotential and electric field line

Thus a basic constraint of electric field distribution is that the electric field lines are always
normal to the equipotential surface. A practical example of this constraint is that the electric
field lines will always leave or enter conductor surfaces at 90 0. This criterion is often used to
check the accuracy of electric field computation by numerical techniques. The other
properties of equipotential are (i) the tangential component of the electric field along the
equipotential is zero and (ii) no work is required to move a charged particle along an
equipotential.
1.3 Electric Potential Gradient

It is defined as the positive rate of change of electric potential with respect to distance in
the direction of greatest change. At any point in a field region it will be very difficult to
comprehend the direction of greatest change. To understand it conveniently, consider that
the equipotentials are known within the field region. Fig.1.2 shows three such
equipotentials 1, 2 and 3. Then from the point P on the equipotential 2 having an electric
potential of , if one moves to any point on the equipotential having an electric potential
, the potential difference is +. But the minimum distance between the
equipotentials 1 and 2 is the normal distance n. Hence, the greatest rate of change will be
along the normal to the equipotential. Moreover, there are two directions of the normal to
the equipotential 2 at the point P. Electric potential gradient is defined to be the greatest
rate of change of potential in the positive sense(1.e., increase as we go along the normal).
Hence, with reference to Fig. 1.2, the electric potential gradient at the point P will be given
by
φ1 −φ2 Δφ
, or gra { ⃗d φ= n^ 21 ¿
Electric Potential Gradient (grad ) = Δn Δn 1.1
where,  is the potential difference and n is the normal distance between the two
equipotentials 1 and 2 of Fig. 1.2.
Since, electric potential gradient has magnitude along with a specific direction, hence is a
vector quantity. It is a spatial derivative of electric potential. ( A spacial derivative is a measure
of how a quantity is changing in space. This is in contrast to a temporal derivative which would be a
measure of how a quantity is changing in time.)
Normal

1 gradf Dn f+Df

P f
2 E

3 f- Df

Fig. 1.2. Electric potential gradient and electric field intensity

1.4 Electric Potential Gradient and Electric Field Intensity

As discussed in section 1.2, electric field line or ⃗E will be directed along the normal to the
equipotential. But as there are two normal directions to the equipotential, the question is
that, ⃗E will be in which direction? Fig. 1.2 shows the fact at point P. In this context, recall
that by definition, electric field will be always directed from higher potential towards lower
potential. Thus, electric field will have the direction from equipotential 1 to equipotential 2
to equipotential 3. Again, when one moves from equipotential 1 to equipotential 2 along the
normal distance n as shown in Fig. 1.2, then

E× Δn=−[ φ2 −φ 1 ]=−[ φ− ( φ+ Δφ ) ]
 Δφ Δφ
E= or , ⃗E= n^ 12
or, Δn Δn 1.2
So, from eqns. (1.1) and (1.2) it may be seen that the magnitudes of ⃗E and gra { ⃗d φ¿ at
the point P are the same. But,
⃗E = − gra { ⃗d φ¿ 1.3

q
P E cosq
1(f1) 2 (f2)
Dl
Fig.1.3 Showing the relationship between electric potential gradient and electric field
intensity

Component of electric field intensity

Let us recall that negative rate of change of potential with distance in any direction ( x, y or
z) gives the component of electric field in that direction. Potential is a scalar quantity.
However, its magnitude may be dependent on the coordinates. Hence, the derivative of
potential along a particular axis will lead to the electric field intensity along that particular
axis. Thus, if  =f (x,y,z),electric field intensity in the x-direction can be given by
∂φ
Ex = −
∂x 1.6
∂φ ∂φ
Ey = − Ez = −
Similarly, in the y- and z-directions, ∂ y and ∂z
Thus, the electric field intensity vector in terms of the three components could then be
written as
⃗E = E ^i + E ^j + E k^ = − ∂φ ^i − ∂φ ^j − ∂ φ k^ = − ∂ ^i + ∂ ^j + ∂ k^ φ
x y z
∂x ∂y ∂z ( ∂ x ∂ y ∂z ) 1.7
On the RHS of eqn. 1.7, the vector operator within the parenthesis is the ‘del’ operator,
from eqn. 1.7 E = − ∇ φ
∇ . Thus, ⃗ 1.8
Comparing with equation 1.3, the ∇ operator gives the gradient of potential.
The ∇ operator is an interesting operator. When it acts on a scalar quantity, the result is
a vector quantity and physically it results into the spatial derivative of the scalar quantity,
i.e. gradient of the scalar quantity. In this case when ∇ acts on scalar electric potential, it
results into the vector quantity electric potential gradient.
Problem 1.1
The potential field in a medium having relative permittivity of 3.5 is given by  = 4x3y – 5y3z
+ 3xz3 V. Find the electric field intensity at the point (0.1, 0.5, 0.2)m.
Solution:
∂φ
Ex = − = −12 x2 y − 3 z 3 2 3
E x|(0 .1,0.5,0.2) = −12×0.1 ×0.5− 3×0.2 = −0.084 V /m
∂x Hence,
∂φ
Ey = − = −4 x 3 + 15 y 2 z E y|(0 .1,0 .5,0.2) = −4×0.13 +15×0.5 2×0.2 = 0.746 V /m
∂y Hence,
∂φ
Ez = − = 5 y3 − 9 xz 2 3 2
E z|(0.1,0.5,0 .2 ) = 5×0.5 − 9×0.1×0.2 = 0.589 V /m
∂z Hence,
⃗E| ^ ^ ^
So, (0.1,0.5,0.2) = −0.084 { i + 0.746 { j¿ + 0.589 { k¿ V /m¿
|⃗E|(0.1,0.5,0.2) = 0.954 V /m
Hence,

Problem 1.2
The potential field at any point in a space containing a dielectric medium of r = 5 is given by
= 7x2y – 3y2z – 4z2x V, where x, y and z are in meters. Calculate the y-component of electric
flux density at the point (1,4,2) m.
Solution:
∂φ
Ey = − = −7 x 2 + 6 yz E y|(1,4,2) = −7×12 +6×4×2 = 41 V /m
∂y Hence,
−12 2
So,
D y|(1,4,2) = 41 ×5×8.854×10 = 1.815 nC/m

Problem 1.3
The potential field in a space containing a dielectric medium of r1 is given by = 7xy – 3yz
– 4zx V, and another potential field in a space containing a dielectric medium of r2 is given
by = -2x – 7yz + 5zx V, where x, y and z are in meters. If the x-component of electric flux
density at the point (1,2,2)m is same in both the fields, then find the ratio of r1 and r2.
Solution:
∂φ
E x 1 = − 1 = −7 y +4 z E x1|(1,2,2) = −7×2 + 4×2 = −6 V /m
∂x Hence,
∂φ
E x 2 = − 2 = 2 −5 z E x2|(1,2,2) = 2 − 5×2 = −8 V /m
∂x Hence,
Now, D x1 = ε r1 ×ε 0 ×E x1 = −6ε r1 ε 0 C /m2

and D x 2 = ε r2 ×ε 0 ×E x 2 = −8 ε r 2 ε 0 C /m 2

As per the problem statement,

D x1 = D x2 , or, −6ε r1 ε 0 = −8ε r 2 ε 0
εr 1
= 1. 333
Hence, ε r 2

Problem 1.4
A point charge Q1 = +1.0C is located at (3,1,1)m and another point charge Q2 = -0.5C is
located at (0.5,2,1.5)m. Find the magnitude and polarity of the point charge located at
(1,2,2)m for which the z-component of electric field intensity will be zero at the origin.
Medium is air.
Solution:
For the point charge-1:
r O 1 = (0−3 ) ^i +( 0−1 ) ^j+(0−1 ) k^ = (−3 ^i− ^j− k^ ) m
Distance vector to the origin ⃗

So,
r | = 3.317m
|⃗
O1
Electric field intensity at the origin:
10−6 −3 ^i − ^j− k^
EO1 = × = A (−0.0822 { ^i ¿ − 0.0274 { ^j ¿ − 0.0274 { k^ ¿ ) V /m
4 π ×1×ε 0 3.3173 ,
−6
10
A=
where 4 π ×1×ε 0

For the point charge-2:

Distance vector to the origin r O2 = (0−0.5 ) ^i+(0−2) ^j+( 0−1.5) k^ = (−0.5 ^i− 2 ^j− 1.5 k^ ) m
⃗

So,
r | = 2.549m
|⃗
O2
Electric field intensity at the origin:
−0.5×10−6 −0.5 ^i −2 ^j−1.5 k^
EO2 = × 3
= A ( 0.015 { ^i ¿ + 0.06 { ^j ¿ + 0.045 { k^ ¿ ) V /m
4 π ×1×ε0 2.549
So, the z-component of electric field intensity at the origin due to point charges 1 and 2 is
(-0.0274 + 0.045)A = 0.0176A V/m
For the point charge-3: Let the magnitude of the charge be Q3 C.
Distance vector to the origin r O3 = (0−1 ) ^i +(0−2) ^j+(0−2 ) k^ = (−^i−2 ^j−2 k^ ) m
⃗

So,
r |= 3m
|⃗
O3
Electric field intensity at the origin:
Q3×10−6 − ^i −2 ^j−2 k^
EO3 = × 3
= A (−0.037 { ^i ¿ − 0.074 { ^j ¿ − 0.074 { k^ ¿ ) Q3 V /m
4 π ×1×ε 0 3 ,
If the resultant values of z-component of electric field intensity at the origin is to be zero due
to the three point charges, then
−0. 074 AQ 3 + 0.0176 A = 0 , or , Q3 = 0.238 μC