Lab# 1

Objective

 To calculate the coefficient of friction of different materials using friction apparatus.

Apparatus

Figure 1.1

Introduction

Friction

Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between systems in contact.

The magnitude of force is directly proportional to magnitude of normal force

f =μ N

Where μ is coefficient of friction

Types

If two systems are in contact and moving relative to one another, then the friction between

them is called kinetic friction. But when objects are stationary, static friction can act

between them; the static friction is usually greater than the kinetic friction between the objects.

Cases
 In this experiment we will take three different cases and calculate their coefficient of friction

 Wood on Metal
 Metal on metal
 Metal on Rubber

Advantages

 Friction helps in applying the brakes.

 It helps in walking on floor.
 Coffee mug stays on the dashboard.
 Shuffling across a carpet to shock someone.
 Dragging of atmosphere with earth is possible.

Disadvantages

 Due to friction we have to exert more power in machines.

 It opposes the motion. 
 Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.
 Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel which is a money loss. 
 Machine efficiency is decreased: energy input is lost to heat.

Table :

Sr. No Wood on Wood Metal on Metal Metal on Rubber

W F u=F /W W F u=F /W W F u=F /W

(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)

1. 1.3 0.5 0.384 1.3 0.6 0.461 1.3 0.7 0.538

2. 1.8 0.7 0.388 1.8 0.8 0.444 1.8 0.8 0.444

3. 2.3 0.8 0.347 2.3 1.0 0.434 2.3 1.1 0.478

4. 2.8 1.1 0.392 2.8 1.1 0.392 2.8 1.3 0.464

5. 3.3 1.3 0.393 3.3 1.4 0.424 3.3 1.4 0.424

Mean value of u 0.380 Mean value of u 0.420 Mean value of u 0.453

 Figure 1.2

Conclusion

In this lab experiment we are familiarized with the friction apparatus we had observed that the fraction
between metal and rubber surface is greater than the friction between wood on wood and least static
friction between metal on metal surface on the horizontal plane.

Lab#02

Objective

 To investigate friction on inclined plane & To prove that a force applied parallel to plane required
to slide a block up by plane using vector method.

Apparatus
 Figure 2.1

Introduction

Friction

Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between systems in contact.

The magnitude of force is directly proportional to magnitude of normal force

f =μ N

Where μ is coefficient of friction

Types

If two systems are in contact and moving relative to one another, then the friction between

them is called kinetic friction. But when objects are stationary, static friction can act

between them; the static friction is usually greater than the kinetic friction between the

objects.

Angle of Response:
It is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of a plane structure with the horizontal such

that the body kept on it just begins to slide along the plane.

Figure 2.2

Angle of Limiting Friction:

Limiting Angle of Friction is defined as the angle which the resultant reaction (R) makes with

the normal reaction (R N ).

Figure 2.3

Cone of Friction:

If the resultant reaction is rotated about normal reaction force, it will form a cone, known as

cone of friction.
 Figure 2.4

Tables :

Case -1 (Wood on Wood)

Sr. No. Angle P P % age error

(By Experiment) (By Calculations)

1. 5 0.7 0.64

2. 10 0.8 0.74

3. 15 0.9 0.84

4. 20 1.0 0.94

5. 25 1.1 1.03

Case -2 (Metal on Metal)

Sr. No. Angle P P % age error

(By Experiment) (By Calculations)

1. 5 0.5 0.459

2. 10 0.7 0.567

3. 15 0.8 0.671

4. 20 0.9 0.707

5. 25 1.0 0.863

Case -1 (Metal on Rubber)

Sr. No. Angle P P % age error

(By Experiment) (By Calculations)

1. 5 0.7 0.62

2. 10 0.8 0.73

3. 15 0.9 0.83

4. 20 1.1 0.92

5. 25 1.2 1.01

Conclusion

In this lab we conclude that the co efficient of friction for metal on rubber is greater than the other two
cases, so frictional force will be higher in case of metal on rubber.

Lab#03

Objective

To study and calculate the mechanical advantage, Velocity ratio and efficiency of worm and worm wheel.

Introduction

Worm & Worm wheel

A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm (which is a gear in the form of a screw) meshes with
a worm gear (which is similar in appearance to a spur gear).The two elements are also called the worm
screw and worm wheel. The terminology is often confused by imprecise use of the term worm gear to
refer to the worm, the worm gear, or the worm drive as a unit.

Like other gear arrangements, a worm drive can reduce rotational speed or transmit higher torque.
A worm and worm wheel can be used as a solution to the problem of connecting two shafts at right-
angles where the shaft centre-lines do not coincide in any plane.

Self-locking

In a worm gear assembly, the worm is typically the driving component. Self-locking means that the gear
cannot drive the worm. In other words, back driving is not possible. Self-locking, or the prevention of back
driving, is useful in applications that require lifting and/or holding loads. But the American Gear
Manufacturers Association (AGMA) recommends that a brake should be used to ensure that a worm gear
will not back drive, rather than relying on the worm gear’s theoretical ability to self-lock.

Figure 3.1

Advantages

 Produces a very high gear ratio.

 Transfers rotation through 90 degrees.
 Very compact Machinery
 Provides a high static friction
 Able to hold massive Loads by static friction

Disadvantages

 It is very expensive compared to other gear systems.

 Due to high motor speeds, a lot of wear and tear on the wheels is possible.
 As a drawback, worm screw speed reducers are subjected to greater friction due to their sliding,
which causes high operation temperatures and greater energy expenditures.

Applications

 This type of gear systems are used in rear axle of heavy wagons, cranes and other lifting
appliances.
 The places where high torque and low speed required are widely use worm wheel as the
reduction unit with an electric motor.
 Worm gears are used where large gear reductions are needed.
 Automatic door system.
  Lifts.
 Automotive steering systems.
 Speed reducers in small motors.

Table :

Sr. No Load Effort Velocity Mechanical Efficiency

Advantage
W P Ratio (%)

(N) (N)

1. 0.5 0.05 30 10 33.3

2. 1.0 0.1 30 10 33.3

3. 1.5 0.15 30 10 33.3

4. 2.0 0.2 30 10 33.3

5. 2.5 0.25 30 10 33.3

6. 3.0 0.3 30 10 33.3

7. 3.5 0.35 30 10 33.3

8. 4.0 0.45 30 8.88 22.2

9. 4.5 0.5 30 9 21

Conclusion

In this lab I conclude that effort are directly proportional to each other in case of worm and worm gears
due to inlock break system, worm wheel move one teeth of worm.

We observe that load and effort are directly related , mechanical advantages remain constantas it is the
ratio of effort and level.

Graph
 Graph 1

Lab# 04

Objective

 To study the characteristics of Watt Governor.

Introduction

A governor is a system that is used to maintain the mean speed of an engine, within certain limits, under
fluctuating load conditions. It does this by regulating and controlling the amount of fuel supplied to the
engine. The governor hence limits the speed of the engine when it is running at the no-load condition, i.e
it governs the idle speed, and ensures that the engine speed does not exceed the maximum value as
specified by the manufacturers.

Most engine-powered applications, from lawn mowers to tractors to standby power systems, even your
cars must be controlled, automatically, by a “governor” .The governor system is like a cruse control
system. It keeps the engine running at the speed you select, regardless of changes in the load. Since
there is always a continuous load change as time passes with frequency and suddenness that would
require the full attention of-and probably overwhelm- a human operator, the governor handles the load
change.

Characteristics of  Governors

  Stability:

A governor is said to be stable when there is one radius of rotation of the balls for each speed
which is within the speed range of the governor.

 Sensitivity:

It is define as the extent of sleeve movement for a change in speed of the governor. According to
this definition, the sensitiveness of the governor shall be determined by the ratio of speed range to the
mean speed. The smaller the ratio more sensitive the governor will be w. here N2 – N1 = Speed range
from no load to full load.

 Isochronism:

A governor is said to be isochronous if equilibrium speed is constant for all the radii of rotation in
the working range. Therefore, for an isochronous governor the speed range is zero and this type of
governor shall maintain constant speed.

 Hunting:

An excessively fast too and fro motion of the sleeve between the stopper due to resonance
condition is known as hunting of governor.

 Coefficient of insensitivity:

It is reciprocal of sensitivity i.e.  The ratio of mean speed to the range.

Types of governor
 Figure 4.1

Advantages

1. They are inexpensive.

2. They are satisfactory when it is not necessary to maintain exactly the same speed, regardless of
load.
3. They are extremely simple with few parts.

Disadvantages

1. They have large deadbands, since the speed-measuring device must also furnish the force to
move the engine fuel control.
2. Their power is relatively small unless they are excessively large.
3. They have an unavoidable speed droop, and therefore cannot truly provide constant speed when
this is needed.

Conclusion

As the speed increases, the rpm decreases and engine required more amount of fuel to operate
efficiently. And if the load decreases, the rpm increases thus, reducing the fuel consumption.
 Lab# 05

Objective

To study and determine the characteristics of Proell Governor.

Apparatus

Figure 5.1

Introduction

Proell Governor:
It consists of two revolving balls of equal mass supported by the links extended upward.

These balls can be called as governor balls or the fly balls.

Figure 5.2

 These balls will be revolving around the spindle which is driven by the engine.
 As you can see the above schematic diagram of a Proell Governor, there are links
 joined to a sleeve where it can translate on the spindle freely.
 A central load of W is added on the sleeve to increase the revolution speed of the balls
 required to lift the sleeve on the spindle.
 A bell crank lever will be connected to the sleeve and the other end of it will be
 connected to throttle valve located in the fuel supply passage (Not shown in the above
 schematic diagram).
 As the engine working, these balls also revolving around the spindle at a certain speed
 and maintained at a mean position radially with the speed of the engine due to the
 centrifugal force.
 Whenever there is a decrease in the engine speed due to the load, then the speed of the
 balls also changes and due to the less centrifugal force outwards, the balls revolve bit
 lower their means radial position.
 Then the sleeve connected by the links will automatically move downwards on the
 spindle, the bell crank lever opens the throttle valve to pass the more amount of fuel.

So that the engine speed will be increased to its mean speed.

This is how the Proell Governer works to govern the fuel supply and regulates the mean speed of the
engine when there is a variation in the load. The movement of the sleeve on the spindle is a bit more
sensitive when the engine is running at higher speeds due to the central load on the sleeve and the
extended links. This is an advantage of the Proell Governor over the Porter Governor.

Table
 Sr. No Sleeve Rotational speed

Lift N (Rev/min)

(mm) Sleeve Mass=300 g Sleeve mass=342 g Sleeve mass=385g

Raising Falling Raising Falling Raising Falling

1. 0 - 136 - 140 - 148

2. 4 155 145 157 148 158 155

3. 8 156 151 162 151 165 160

4. 12 160 155 165 156 170 165

5. 16 166 157 172 163 175 170

6. 20 171 163 176 167 180 174

7. 24 182 - 184 - 183 -

Conclusion

The sensitivity of proell governor increases as the load increases which remains that when load is
increased, the governor opens the value to allow more fuel to be consumed.

Graph
 Graph 2

Lab#06

Objective

To study and calculate the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of Bevel gear.

Apparatus
 Figure 6.1

Introduction

Gear:

A gear is a kind of machine element in which teeth are cut around cylindrical or cone shaped surfaces
with equal spacing. By meshing a pair of these elements, they are used to transmit rotations and forces
from the driving shaft to the driven shaft. Gears can be classified by shape as involute, cycloidal and
trochoidal gears. Also, they can be classified by shaft positions as parallel shaft gears, intersecting shaft
gears, and non-parallel and non-intersecting shaft gears.

Types of Gears

 There are three major categories of gears in accordance with the orientation of their axes
configuration:

I. Parallel Axes  (Spur Gear, Helical Gear, Gear Rack, Internal Gear)
II. Intersecting Axes (Miter Gear, Straight Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear)
III. Nonparallel, Nonintersecting Axes (Screw Gear, Worm, Worm Gear (Worm Wheel)
 Figure 6.2

Bevel Gear

Bevel gears have a cone shaped appearance and are used to transmit force between two shafts which
intersect at one point (intersecting shafts). A bevel gear has a cone as its pitch surface and its teeth are
cut along the cone. Kinds of bevel gears include straight bevel gears, helical bevel gears, spiral bevel
gears, miter gears, angular bevel gears, crown gears, zerol bevel gears and hypoid gears.

Figure 6.3

Types of Bevel Gears

 Bevel gears are classified in different types according to geometry:

I. Straight bevel gears 

II. Spiral bevel gears 
III. Zerol bevel gears 
 IV. Hypoid bevel gears 
V. Mitre gears

Advantages

 This gear makes it possible to change the operating angle.

 Differing of the number of teeth (effectively diameter) on each wheel allows mechanical
advantage to be changed. By increasing or decreasing the ratio of teeth between the drive and
driven wheels one may change the ratio of rotations between the two, meaning that the rotational
drive and torque of the second wheel can be changed in relation to the first, with speed
increasing and torque decreasing, or speed decreasing and torque increasing.

Disadvantages

 One wheel of such gear is designed to work with its complementary wheel and no other.
 Must be precisely mounted.
 The shafts' bearings must be capable of supporting significant forces.

Application

 The bevel gear has many diverse applications such as locomotives, marine applications,
automobiles, printing presses, cooling towers, power plants, steel plants, railway track inspection
machines, etc.
 For examples, see the following articles on:
 Bevel gears are used in differential drives, which can transmit power to two axles spinning at
different speeds, such as those on a cornering automobile.
 Bevel gears are used as the main mechanism for a hand drill. As the handle of the drill is turned
in a vertical direction, the bevel gears change the rotation of the chuck to a horizontal rotation.
The bevel gears in a hand drill have the added advantage of increasing the speed of rotation of
the chuck and this makes it possible to drill a range of materials.
 The gears in a bevel gear planer permit minor adjustment during assembly and allow for some
displacement due to deflection under operating loads without concentrating the load on the end of
the tooth.
 Spiral bevel gears are important components on rotorcraft drive systems. These components are
required to operate at high speeds, high loads, and for a large number of load cycles. In this
application, spiral bevel gears are used to redirect the shaft from the horizontal gas turbine
engine to the vertical rotor. Bevel gears are also used as speed reducers.

Table

Sr. No Load Effort Velocity Mechanical Efficiency

Advantage
W P Ratio (%)

(N) (N)

1. 0.5 0.4 2 1.25 62.5

2. 1.0 0.8 2 1.25 62.5

3. 1.5 1.1 2 1.36 68.1

4. 2.0 1.6 2 1.25 62.5

5. 2.5 2.0 2 1.25 62.5

6. 3.0 2.3 2 1.30 65.2

7. 3.5 2.8 2 1.25 62.5

8. 4.0 3.2 2 1.25 62.5

9. 4.5 3.6 2 1.25 62.5

Conclusion

Working is similar to worm and worm wheel but differs in geometry. In this lab, mechanical advantage and
efficiency remains the same.

Graph
 Graph 3

Lab# 07

Objective

To study and calculate the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of Chain Drive.
Introduction

Chain

A chain can be defined as a series of links connected by pin joints.

Figure 7.1

Chain Drive

A chain drive consists of an endless chain wrapped around two sprockets. A chain drive consists of a
chain and two wheels, called Sprockets. The sprockets are toothed wheels over which an endless chain
is fitted. Chain drives are suitable for small centre distances and can be used generally up to 3 meters but
in special cases even up to 8 meters. Chain drives transmit power up to 100kw and operating peripheral
velocity up to 15m/s. The velocity ratio can be as high as 8:1.

Figure 7.2

Difference Between a Sprocket and a Gear?

Both sprockets and gears are grooved wheels that operate within a machine, but their functions are rather
different. Gears are generally toothed wheels that connect with the teeth on other gears to transmit
movement to another part. Sprockets use their teeth to interact with and move one (sometimes more)
flexible component, like a bicycle chain or a conveyor belt.
 Figure 7.3

Classification of chain drives:

Based on application chain drives can be classified into three types.

1. Load lifting chains

2. Power transmission chains
3. Hauling chains

Hauling chains:

They are used for carrying materials continuously by sliding, pulling or carrying in conveyor.

Power transmission chains:

They are used for transmitting power from one shaft to another.

Load lifting chains:

They are used for suspending, raising or lowering loads in material handling operations.

Advantages

 They can be used for both long and short distances

 A number of shafts and be driven from a single chain
 They are compact and have small overall dimensions
 They do not present fire hazard
 Temperature and environmental conditions do not affect their working
 They do not require initial tension
 They have very high efficiency (up to 96%)
 They do not slip
 They are easier to install
 They can withstand abrasive conditions
 They can operate in wet conditions.

Disadvantages
  They cannot be used where slip is the system requirement
 They require precise alignment compared to belt drives
 They require frequent lubrication
 They have less load capacity compared with gear drives
 Their operation is noisy and can cause vibrations
 They are not suitable for non-parallel shafts
 They cannot be used where precise motion is required
 They require housing
 They require adjustments for slack like tensioning device.

Applications

 They are used for power transmission

 They are used in transportation industry
 They are used in wood working machinery
 They are used in agricultural machinery
 They are used in oil well drilling rigs
 They are used in building construction
 They are used in material handling equipment
 They are used for lifting load
 They are used for carrying materials.

Table :

Sr. No Load Effort Velocity Mechanical Efficiency

Advantage
W P Ratio (%)

(N) (N)

1. 0.5 0.2 3 2.5 83.3

2. 1.0 0.4 3 2.5 83.3

3. 1.5 0.6 3 2.5 83.3

4. 2.0 0.7 3 2.72 90.9

5. 2.5 1.0 3 2.5 83.3

6. 3.0 1.2 3 2.5 83.3

7. 3.5 1.3 3 2.5 83.3

8. 4.0 1.6 3 2.5 83.3

9. 4.5 1.8 3 2.5 83.3

Conclusion
In this lab, we learnt the basic concepts of chain drive , its working principle chain drive is much efficient
as it is compact. It gives accurate results for small distance.

Graph

Graph 4

Lab# 08

Objective

 To demonstrate a quick return mechanism and to record the relationship between the rotation of
work crank and moment of slider.

Apparatus
 Figure 8.1

Introduction

Quick return mechanism:

A quick return mechanism is an apparatus to produce a reciprocating motion in which the time taken for
travel in return stroke is less than in the forward stroke. It is driven by a circular motion source (typically a
motor of some sort) and uses a system of links with three turning pairs and a sliding pair.

Quick return is a common feature of tools in which the action is performed in only one direction of the
stroke, such as shapers and powered saws, because it allows less time to be spent on returning the tool
to its initial position.

These mechanisms are widely used on machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke followed by a fast
return stroke with a constant-angular-velocity drive crank. This mechanism is sensitive to small changes
in the lengths of the links and the distance between the two rocker points.

Types of Quick Return Mechanism :

There are three types of quick return mechanism.

 Hydraulic Drive
 Whitworth Quick Return mechanism
 Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism

Advantages

 Converts rotatory motion into reciprocating motion.

 Provides faster return stroke.
 It reduces the idling time. 

Disadvantages

 As we know that Quick-Return Mechanism consist of various components these are used to
transformation of motion and they have relative motion with each other due so some
disadvantages will occur.
  As we know that in all type of mechanisms in the common thing is that all of that are linkages and
balancing of linkage is also big problem.
 As there is faster motion in the piston it causes the heat which results in loss of energy via heat.
 Another disadvantage is friction in the slider and in piston.
 More power is required to work the mechanism as the normal.

Applications

Quick return mechanisms are found throughout the engineering industry in different machines:

1) Shaper
2) Screw press
3) Power-driven saw
4) Mechanical actuator
5) Revolver mechanisms

Table

Sr. No Crank angle Slider movement Mean vale

(degree) (mm)

1 0 0 0 0 0

2 20 3 2 3 2.66

3 40 12 13 12 12.33

4 60 31 31 32 31.33

5 80 54 53 53 53.33

6 100 71 72 71 71.33

7 120 83 83 83 83

8 140 85 85 85 85

9 160 84 84 83 83.6

10 180 78 78 78 78

11 200 69 68 69 68.66

12 220 59 59 59 59

13 240 48 48 47 47.66

14 260 36 37 37 36.66

15 280 25 25 26 25.33

16 300 16 15 16 15.66

17 320 7 7 7 7
18 340 2 2 2 2

19 360 0 0 0 0

Conclusion

Crank angle increases with slider movement, also increase angle of the slider movement. After that point,
slider comes back and slider movement is decreased on increasing crank angle called ass peak peak
point.

Lab# 09

Objective

To determine moment of inertia of a Fly wheel by a falling weight method.

Apparatus

Figure 9.1

Introduction

Flywheel:
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy (kinetic
energy). Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia.

The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed and its
mass.

1
E= I ω2
2
The way to change a flywheel stored energy without changing its mass is by increasing ordecreasing its
rotational speed.

Moment of Inertia Definition:

So, we have studied that inertia is basically mass. In rotational motion, a body rotates about a fixed axis.
Each particle in the body moves in a circle with linear velocity, that is, each particle moves with an angular
acceleration. Moment of inertia is the property of the body due to which it resists angular acceleration,
which is the sum of the products of the mass of each particle in the body with the square of its distance
from the axis of rotation.

I =m r 2
Measurement of moment of inertia of a flywheel:

A flywheel is essentially a very heavy wheel that takes a lot of force to spin around. It might be a large-
diameter wheel with spokes and a very heavy metal rim, or it could be a smaller- diameter cylinder made
of something like a carbon-fiber composite. Either way, it's the kind of wheel you have to push really
hard to set it spinning. Just as a flywheel needs lots of force to start it off, so it needs a lot of force to
make it stop. As a result, when it's spinning at high speed, it tends to want to keep on spinning (we
say it has a lot of angular momentum), which means it can store a great deal of kinetic energy. You can
think of it as a kind of mechanical battery, but it storing energy in the form of movement (kinetic energy,
in other words) rather than the energy stored in chemical form inside a traditional, electrical battery.

Flywheels come in all shapes and sizes. The laws of physics tell us that large diameter and heavy wheels
store more energy than smaller and lighter wheels, while flywheels that spin faster store much more
energy than ones that spin slower.

Advantages

 They are cheaper, last about 10 times longer (there are still many working flywheels in
operation dating from the Industrial Revolution).
 They are environmentally friendly (produce no carbon dioxide emissions and contain no
hazardous chemicals that cause pollution).
 They can work in almost any climate
 They are very quick to get up to speed (unlike batteries, for example, which can take many
hours to charge). 
 They're also extremely efficient .

Disadvantages
  The biggest disadvantage of flywheels (certainly so far as vehicles are concerned) is the weight
they add. 
 Heavy wheel spinning inside a moving car will tend to act like a gyroscope, resisting changes in
its direction and potentially affecting the handling of the vehicle.
 A further difficulty is the huge stresses and strains that flywheels experience when they rotate at
extremely high speeds, which can cause them to shatter and explode into fragments. 

Application

 Common uses of a flywheel include:

 Smoothing the power output of an energy source. For example, flywheels are used in
reciprocating engines because the active torque from the individual pistons is intermittent.
 Energy storage systems.
 Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is achieved by collecting
energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that exceed the abilities of
the energy source.
 Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction wheel.

Table

Sr. No m n1 n2 h t1 v ω I

(Kg) (m) (sec) (m/s) (rad/sec) (kgm 2 ¿

1 0.4 1.5 70 1.14 1.7 1.34

2 0.8 1.5 144 1.14 1.18 1.93

3 1.2 1.5 225 1.14 0.98 2.32

Conclusion

The flywheel is an essential component in the automotive as it resist the moment of inertia and tend to
continue it rotating motion for a long internal without any input. It does not need to continuous input , the
falling weight method was implemented in the experiment .
 Lab# 10

Objective

To study and determine the characteristics of Porter Governor.

Introduction

Porter Governor:

This Porter Governor is also a type of the Centrifugal Governor with an additional central load on the
sleeve to increase the speed of the balls required to lift the sleeve on the spindle. Which will enable the
governer to operate the mechanism to give necessary change in the fuel supply. So that we can use this
Porter Governor for much more higher engine speeds than the watt Governor.

Figure 10.1

Construction and Working of Porter Governor:

As you can see the above schematic diagram of the Porter Governor, it consists of two balls of equal
mass, which are attached to the arms as shown above diagram. These balls got a name governor balls or
the fly balls.

 These balls will be revolving around the spindle which is driven by the engine.
 As you can see the above schematic diagram of a porter governor, there are links joined to a
sleeve where it can translate on the spindle freely.
 A central load of W is added on the sleeve to increase the revolution speed of the balls required
to lift the sleeve on the spindle.
  A bell crank lever is connected to the sleeve and the other end of it will be connected to throttle
valve located in the fuel supply passage.
 As the engine working, these balls also revolving around the spindle at a certain speed and
maintained at a mean position radially with the speed of the engine due to the centrifugal force.
 Whenever there is a decrease in the engine speed due to the load, then the speed of the balls
also changes and due to the less centrifugal force outwards, the balls revolve bit lower their
means radial position.
 Then the sleeve connected by the links will automatically move downwards on the spindle, the
bell crank lever opens the throttle valve to pass the more amount of fuel.So that the engine speed
will be increased to its mean speed.

This is how the Porter Governer works to govern the fuel supply and regulates the mean speed of the
engine when there is a variation in the load.

The movent of the sleeve on the spindle is a bit more sensitive when the engine is running at higher
speeds due to the central load on the sleeve. This is an advantage of the porter Governor over the Watt
Governor.

Table

Sr. No Sleeve Rotational speed

Lift N (Rev/min)

(mm) Sleeve Mass=300 g Sleeve mass=342 g Sleeve mass=385g

Raising Falling Raising Falling Raising Falling

1. 0 - 136 - 140 - 158

2. 4 155 145 157 148 162 162

3. 8 156 151 162 151 168 164

4. 12 160 155 165 156 172 168

5. 16 166 157 172 163 178 174

6. 20 171 163 176 167 184 182

7. 24 182 - 184 - 190 -

Conclusion

It is calculated that by increasing mass sensitivity of governor increases, the rpm increases. Sensitivity of
governer is much greater then its insensitivity. By increasing load, more fuel is required and rpm
decreases.

Graph
 Graph 5

Lab# 11

Objective

 To study and determine the characteristics of Hartnell Governor.

Introduction

Hartnell Governor:

Hartnell Governor is basically a Centrifugal governor with a spring-loaded weight instead of dead weight
on the sleeve to increase the speed of the balls required to lift the sleeve on the spindle. Which will
enable the governor to operate the mechanism to give necessary change in the fuel supply.

Hartnell governor is also working the same as all the other centrifugal governors such as the Proell, porter
governors, but instead of the dead load, we have a spring-loaded weight on the sleeve.
 Figure 11.1

The spring-loading :

With the pre-compression spring, we can adjust the spring, such that the Engine Nominal speed can be
easily adjusted. For dead weight governors, it is not that easy to change the governor central load every
time to change the engine nominal working speed.

Construction and Working of Hartnell Governor:

This governor has two bell crank levers pivoted at the points O, the pivoted point O connected to the
frame as you can see the schematic diagram of the Hartnell governor below.

 This frame is attached to the spindle so that the frame and balls also rotate with it.
 On the bell crank lever, there will be two balls attached to the arms OB as shown
 above.
 There will be a roller setup on the other end of the horizontal arm of the bell crank
 lever.
 A helical spring is compressed and provides equal downward forces on the two rollers
 through a collar on the sleeve.
 The spring force may be adjusted by screwing a nut up or down on the sleeve.
 With the spring force adjustment, we can change the Engine normal operating speed
 (Equilibrium speed). This is the one advantage of the spring-loaded Governors than
 the deadweight governors.
 This governor can also work at higher engine speeds as like the dead weight
 governors. This governor is much more compact in design than the dead weight
 governors.
 This is how the Hartnell Governor works to govern the fuel supply and regulates the
 mean speed of the engine when there is a variation in the load. And this Governor is
  capable of adjusting the engine nominal speed.

Advantage

 The spring force may be adjusted by screwing a nut up or down on the sleeve.
 With the spring force adjustment, we can change the Engine normal operating speed
(Equilibrium speed). This is the one advantage of the spring-loaded Governors than the
deadweight governors.
 This governor can also work at higher engine speeds.
 This governor is much more compact in design than the dead weight governors.

Table

Sr. No Sleeve Rotational speed

Lift N (Rev/min)

(mm) Sleeve Mass=300 g, a=52.2 mm Sleeve mass=342 g, a=70 mm

Raising Falling Raising Falling

1. 0 0 111 0 118

2. 4 132 138 136 136

3. 8 163 162 152 148

4. 12 182 179 163 157

5. 16 197 187 170 162

6. 20 209 205 176 165

7. 24 217 - 187 -

Conclusion

It is concluded that as the speed increases, its rpm decreases and more fuel is require to compensate the
decrement in rpm. By increasing load the sensitivity increases.

Graph
 Graph 6

Lab# 12

Objective

Derivation of controlling force characteristics curves for Porter Governor & comparison with theoretical
predictions.

Introduction

Controlling Force

It is the resultant of all the external forces which oppose the centrifugal force. It can be regarded as single
radial inward force acting on the centre of ball. When the ball is in equilibrium the controlling force is
equal, in magnitude, to the centrifugal force acting on the ball.

When a body rotates in a circular path, there is an inward radial force or centripetal force acting on it. In
case of a governor running at a steady speed, the inward force acting on the rotating balls is known as
controlling force. It is equal and opposite to the centrifugal reaction. Controlling force,

The controlling force is provided by the weight of the sleeve and balls as in Porter governor and by the
spring and weight as in Hartnell governor (or spring controlled governor). When the graph between the
controlling force (FC) as ordinate and radius of rotation of the balls (r) as abscissa is drawn, then the
graph obtained is known as controlling force diagram. This diagram enables the stability and
sensitiveness of the governor to be examined and also shows clearly the effect of friction.
 Figure 12.1

Source of Controlling Force :

 The controlling force is provided by the weight of the fly balls in Watt governor.
 The controlling force is provided by the weight of the sleeve and balls in Porter governor.
 The controlling force is provided by the spring and weight as in Hartnell governor (or spring
controlled governor).

Nature of Controlling Force Diagram :

 For the case of Watt,Proell and Porter governor the controlling force diagram will be curve
shaped.
 For the case of Hartnell governor the controlling force diagram will be straight line.

Controlling Force Diagram for Porter Governor :

The controlling force diagram for a Porter governor is a curve as shown in Fig.

Figure 12.2

 We know that controlling force

 
F c =m ω2 r

2 πN 2
F c =m ( )
60
r

1 60 2
Fc
N 2= ( )(r )
m 2π

Fc
As =tan ∅
r

1 60 2
N 2= ( )
m 2π
tan ∅

1
60 tan ∅
N=
2π m( ) 2

60
N= √ tan ∅
2 π √m

60 Fc
N=
2 π √m r √
 where ∅ is the angle between the axis of radius of rotation and a line joining a given point (say A)
on the curve to the origin O.

Condition for Sensitivity :

 For the governor to be more sensitive, the change in the value of ∅ over the change of radius of
rotation should be as small as possible.

Condition for Stability :

 In case the governor satisfies the condition for stability, the angle ∅ must increase with radius of
rotation of the governor balls. In other words, the equilibrium speed must increase with the
increase of radius of rotation of the governor balls.
Condition for Isochronism :

 For the isochronous governor, the controlling force curve is a straight line passing through the
origin.

 The angle ∅ will be constant for all values of the radius of rotation of the governor

Formulas :

r −15
sin θ=
85

r −26
sin ∅=
85

r
h=
tan θ

g M tan ∅
ω 2=
h [
1+
2m
1+ (
tan θ )]
F=mr ω2
Table

Theoretical:

Ball Radius 50 55 60 65 70

Angle 24.31 28.07 31.96 36.03 40.32

(ϑ )

Angle 21.66 26.49 31.53 26.86 42.60

(∅ )

Sleeve lift 0.126 4.82 10.48 17.25 25.34

H 110 103.1 96.16 89.36 82.48

Governor Speed 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.55

Controlling force 2.14 2.56 3.05 3.60 4.26

Experimental:
Sleeve lift 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Ball radius 50 55 59 62 65 68 71

Governor speed 15.89 15.81 16.44 16.75 17.38 17.90 18.64

Controlling 2.49 2.74 3.18 3.49 3.92 4.35 4.93

force

Conclusion

As the ball radius increase, there is a linear relationship between controlling force ad radius of rotation
and there is small in theoretical and experimental result.

Graph

Graph 7
 Lab# 13

Objectives

 To study and determine Static & Dynamic balancing of distributing masses for more than three
mass systems.

Apparatus:

Figure 13.1

Introduction :

Balancing of Rotating Bodies

The balancing of rotating bodies is important to avoid vibration. Dynamic and Static Balancing in Heavy
Industrial machinery such as generators and motors can cause catastrophic failure, as well as noise and
discomfort. To help with balancing, it involves simply moving the centre of gravity to the centre of rotation.
For systems to be completely balanced both the force and couple polygons should be closed.

Static Balancing:
The system is statically balanced if the centre of mass (COG). of the system of masses lies on the axis of
rotation. Hence, the object can remain stationary, with the axis horizontal, without the application of any
braking force.

Figure 13.2

Condition for Static Balancing:

For the system to be statically balanced, the resultant of all the dynamic forces acting on the system
during rotation must be zero.

∑ Dynamic forces (centrifugal forces) acting on the system = 0

Dynamic Balancing:

In this type, of balancing the rotation does not produce any resultant centrifugal force or couple. The
system will rotate without the application of any external force or couple, other than that required to
support its weight. When a system or machine is unbalanced then a counterbalancing weight is added, to
avoid stress being put upon the bearings.

Using Dynamic balancing, machines are balanced by rotating parts quickly and then measuring the
imbalance using electronic equipment. After calculating imbalance, it can then be added or subtracted
from the weight until the vibration of the parts is reduced.

Condition for Dynamic Balancing:

1. The resultant of all the dynamic forces (centrifugal forces) acting on the system during rotation must be
zero.

∑ Dynamic forces acting on the system = 0.

2. The resultant couples due to all the dynamic forces (centrifugal forces) acting on thesystem during
rotation, about any plane must be zero.

∑ Couple due to dynamic forces acting on system = 0

Unbalanced System:

in a system having one or more rotating masses, if the centre of mass of a system does not lie on the axis
of rotation, then system is called unbalanced system.  

If centre of gravity (C.G) of mass does not lie on the axis of rotation, then the system is called
unbalanced.

Figure 13.3

 Dynamic force (Centrifugal force)

F c =m ω2 r (Radially outward)

Where

m = Mass of disc

r = Distance of C.G from axis of rotation

ω = angular speed (rad/sec)

Figure 13.4

Advantages
  Increase quality of operation.
 Minimize vibration.
 Minimize audible and signal noises.
 Minimize structural fatigue stresses.
 Minimize operator annoyance and fatigue.
 Increase bearing life.
 Minimize power loss.

Table

Sr. No Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4

x1 θ1 x2 θ2 x3 θ3 x4 θ4

1 29 0 129 100 5 194 162 268

2 50 0 25 189 100 215 143 26

Conclusion

The purpose of this lab is about the learning about the static and dynamic balancing.we observe four
masses have specific position and angle relative to scale given on apparatus. We also observed that the
system if dynamically balanced it will be also balanced statically.