ALGEBRA 3

Principles and Sample

Problems
3.1 PROBABILITY
3.2 STATISTICS
3.3 PROBLEMS FOR SOLUTIONS
 ALGEBRA 3.1 Probability
❑ Probability of Single Events
total favorable outcomes
pE =
total number of outcomes
❑ Complimentary Probability (used in “at
least “ and “at most” conditions)
p not E = 1 − p E
❑ Probability of Simple Events
(h=probability of an event to happen ;
f= probability of failure)
h
pE =
h +f
Demonstration: Ans. 3/13
What is the probability of drawing a face
card from a standard deck of cards?
❑ Probability of Compound Events
▪ Mutually Exclusive Events ( Disjoint,
w/out duplication, w/o common
outcome)
p(M or N) = pM + pN
Demonstration: Ans. 2/13
What is the probability of obtaining a
red ace card or a red face card from a
standard deck of cards?
▪ Mutually Inclusive Events ( Joint, with
duplication, with common outcome)
p(M or N) = pM + pN – p(M & N)
Demonstration: Ans. 4/13
What is the probability of obtaining a
Queen card or a heart card from a
standard deck of cards?
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❑ Conditional Probability
▪ Dependent Events: Events M and N
are dependent events if the
occurrence or nonoccurrence of one
of them affects the probability of the
occurrence of the other.
p(M & N) = pM pN/M
where pN/M is the probability of event
N given that M has occurred.
Demonstration: Ans. 3/124
An Algebra class consists of 14 CE, 10
ECE, and 8 ME students. The teacher
shuffles their class cards. What is the
probability that the first three drawn
class cards are ECE students?
▪ Independent Events: Events M and N
are independent if the occurrence or
nonoccurrence of one of them does
not affect the probability of the
occurrence of the other.
p(M & N) = pM pN
Demonstration: Ans. 7/30
One bag contains 4 green balls and 2
black balls while the second bag
contains 3 yellow balls and 7 white
balls. What is the probability of
obtaining a black ball in the first bag
and a white ball in the second?
❑ Mathematical Expectation
ME is the product of the probability
of winning and the corresponding
expected amount to be won.
Demonstration: Ans. P120
In a gambling game, a man is paid P360
if he draws a jack or a queen and P420
if he draws an ace or a king from a
standard deck of 52 cards. If he draw
any other card, he loses. How much
should he pay to play if the game is fair?
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❑ Probability in Repeated Trials
This is also known as the binomial
probability.
p(h)= nCm(f)n-m(s)m
p(h) = the probability that an event
happens(succeeds) exactly m times.
nCm = the number of combinations that
that the event happens exactly m times.
f= the probability of failure of a single
event
s= the probability of success of a single
event
Features of a Binomial Experiment
➢ There are fixed number of trials.
➢ The n trials are independent and
repeated under identical conditions.
➢ Each trial has only two outcomes:
success(s) and failure(f)
➢ For each individual trial, the
probability of success is the same.
➢ The central problem of a binomial
experiment is to find the probability
of x successes in n trials.
❑ Geometric Distribution
A geometric distribution is a discrete
probability distribution of a random
variable x that satisfies the following
conditions:
➢ A trial is repeated until a success
occurs
➢ The repeated trials are
independent of each other
➢ The probability of success s is
constant for each trial.
The probability that the first
success will occur on trial number
x is
p(s=x)= (1-s)x-1s
The probability that the kth
success will occur on trial number
x is
p(x)= (x-1)C(k-1)(1-s)x-ksk
Demonstration: Ans. 45/512
In a multiple choice-type questions with
four choices, you attempt to answer 5
questions by pure guessing. What is the
probability of getting exactly 3 correct
answers?
Demonstration: Ans. 1/16; 15/128
Find the probability that a person
flipping a coin gets (a) the first head on
the fourth flip; (b) the third head on the
seventh flip.
p= T T T H
T T H T T H H set.
p=
p =6C2(1-1/2)7-3(1/2)3
6C2
ALGEBRA 3.2 Statistics
❑ The median of a set of numbers is
the middle number when these
numbers are arranged in numerical
order. If the number of entries is even,
the median is the average of the two
middle entries.
❑ The mode of a given distribution is
the entry ( or entries) that occurs most
frequently. The mode maybe unimodal,
bimodal, …multimodal.
❑ The mean of the entries is the average
of all entries.
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥
𝜇=
𝑛
❑ Range is the difference between the
largest and the smallest values of the
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❑ The average of the squared deviation ❑ Normal Distribution:
from the mean is called variance, V. This is the most important continuous
σ𝑛 2 probability distribution in the entire
𝑖=1 𝑥−𝜇
𝜎2 = field of statistics.
𝑛
❑ The standard deviation , is the The density function of the random
square root of the variance. variable X, with mean  and variance
2, is
= V 1 1 𝑥−𝜇 2
−
❑ The relative variability 𝛚 is defined 𝑛 𝑥; 𝜇, 𝜎 = 𝑒 2 𝜎 ,
2𝜋 𝜎
as the ratio of the standard deviation −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
and the mean.
𝜎
ω=
𝜇
❑ The Z-score is the measure of the 
position that takes into account both
the center and the dispersion of the x

distribution.
𝑥−𝜇
𝑍= 1
𝜎 2
❑ Quartiles
Each of the three values of the x
1 2
random variable that divide the
population into four groups. Normal curves with 1<2 and 1=2
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 StilHOT
1
CALTECH:
=1 Q(-2)+Q(2) = 2Q(2)
2
A=0.9545
x
z 1 = 2
-2 =0 2 Normal curves with 1=2 and 1<2

CALTECH: 1
Q(-1)+Q(1) = 2Q(1) 2
=1
A=0.6827 x
x 1 2
-1 =0 1
Normal curves with 1<2 and 1<2
❑ Areas Under the Normal Curve:
CALTECH:
A=2[Q(0.6745)
=1
A=0.50
x1  x2 x
x 𝑥2
-0.6745 0.6745 1 𝑥−𝜇 2
1 −
𝑃 𝑥1 < 𝑋 < 𝑥2 = න 𝑒 2 𝜎 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 𝜎
𝑥1
Since Z(the Z-score) = (X-)/, and
whenever X assumes a value x, the =1

corresponding value of z is given by
𝑥−𝜇 x z
𝑧= x1 x2  z 1 z2 0
𝜎
𝑥 = 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑𝑧 ❑ Exponential Distribution:
𝑧2 The density function of the exponential
𝑃 𝑥1 < 𝑋 < 𝑥2 =
1
න
1
− 𝑧2
𝑒 2 (𝜎𝑑𝑧)
distribution is given by f(x)=𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑥
2𝜋 𝜎 1
𝑧1 Where 𝜆 =
𝛽
𝑧2 and 𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛
1 1
− 𝑧2
𝑃 𝑥1 < 𝑋 < 𝑥2 = න 𝑒 2 𝑑𝑧 failures and 𝜆 may be interpreted as the
2𝜋
𝑧1 mean number of events per unit time.
𝑃 𝑥1 < 𝑋 < 𝑥2 = The probability that the time to failure T
is exceeded is:
𝑧2 ∞
𝑃 𝑥 > 𝑇 = න 𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
න 𝑛 𝑧; 0,1 = 𝑃(𝑧1 < 𝑍 < 𝑧2 ) 𝑇
∞
𝑧1
𝑃 𝑥 > 𝑇 = − න 𝑒 −𝜆𝑥 (−𝜆𝑑𝑥)
Where Z is seen to be a normal random 𝑇
−𝜆𝑥 ∞
variable with mean zero and variance 1 𝑃 𝑥 > 𝑇 = − 𝑒 𝑇
and is called standard normal distribution.
StilHOT
 This probability distribution is closely
𝑃 𝑥 > 𝑇 = − 𝑒 −𝜆∞ − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇
related to the Poisson probability
𝑃 𝑥 > 𝑇 = − 0 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇 distribution.
𝑇 In exponential probability distribution,
−
𝑃 𝑥>𝑇 =𝑒 𝛽 we deal with the lapse of time between
any two successive occurrences. For
instance, we can find the probability that
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎/ 𝑁 the next customer in the bank will not
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣. 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 arrive for the next 10 minutes.
𝑁 is taken.
Demonstration
Suppose that the amount of time a
passenger spends in paying a terminal
fee is exponentially distributed with a
mean of 20 seconds. What is the
probability that a passenger will spend
more than 25 seconds? Ans. 0.2865
P(x ≥ a) = e-λa
P(x  a) = 1-e-λa
P(ax  b) = e-λa-e-b

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❑ Poisson’s Distribution: Bxe-B/x! The following three conditions must be
 is the average/mean value satisfied to apply Poisson probability
of the distribution distribution:

x is the mean number of occurrences ➢ x is a discrete random variable

desired in that interval. ➢ The occurrences are random
➢ The occurrences are independent
Experiments yielding number of
outcomes during a given time interval or Demonstration: Ans. 0.1247
in a specified region are often called A lathe machine in a mechanical shop
Poisson Experiments. The given time breaks down at an average of 5 times per
interval may be of any length, such as year. Find the probability that at most 2
minute, a day, a week, a month, or even a break downs will occur each year.
year.
In this probability distribution, we deal
with arrival or occurrence rates per
interval, such as, the number of
customers arriving at a bank during half-
hour interval.

StilHOT
3.3 Problems for Solutions:
Problem 1: Compute the value of the
variance of the following sets of
numbers: 13.40, 10.25, 12.65, 11.28, and
15.22.
Problem 2: If a letter is chosen at
random from the English alphabet, find
the probability that the letter
(2.1) is a vowel exclusive of y.
(2.2) is listed somewhere ahead of letter
j.
(2.3) is listed somewhere after letter g.
Ans. 5/26 ; 9/26; 19/26
Problem 3: If each coded item in a
catalogue begins with 3 distinct letters
followed by 4 distinct non-zero digits,
find the probability of randomly
selecting one of these coded items with
the first letter a vowel and the last digit
even.
Ans. 10/117
Problem 4: Two cards are drawn in
succession from a deck without
replacement. What is the probability
that both cards are greater than 2 but
less than 8?
Ans. 95/663
Problem 5: According to a study
conducted by a certain company, the
probable location of personal computers
(PC) in the home is as follows:
Adult bedroom: 0.03 Office or den: 0.40
Child bedroom: 0.15 Other rooms: 0.28
Other bedroom: 0.14
(5.1) What is the probability that a PC is
in a bedroom?
(5.2) What is the probability that it is not
in the bedroom?
(5.3) Suppose a household is selected at
random from households with a PC: in
what room would you expect to find a
PC? Ans. 8/25; 0.68; office or den
Problem 6: A random sample of 200
adults are classified below by sex and
their level of education attained.
Education Male Female
Elementary 38 45
Secondary 28 50
College 22 17
If a person is picked at random from this
group, find the probability that
(6.1) the person is a male, given that the
person has a secondary education.
(6.2) the person does not have a college
degree, given that the person is a
female. Ans. 14/39 ; 95/112
Problem 7: In the senior year of a high
school graduating class of 100 students,
42 studied mathematics, 68 studied
psychology, 54 studied history, 22
studied both mathematics and history,
25 studied both mathematics and
Psychology, 7 studied history but neither
mathematics nor psychology, 10 studied
all three subjects, and 8 did not take any
of the three. If a student is selected at
random, find the probability that
(7.1) a person enrolled in psychology takes
all three subjects;
(7.2) a person not taking psychology is
taking both history and mathematics.
Ans. 5/34; 3/8
Problem 8: The probability that a married
man watches a certain television show is
0.4 and the probability that a married
woman watches the show is 0.5. The
probability that a man watches the show,
given that his wife does, is 0.70. Find the
probability that
(8.1) a married couple watches the show;
(8.2) a wife watches the show given that
her husband does;
(8.3) at least 1 person of a married couple
will watch the show. 0.35; 0.875; 0.55
Problem 9: The probability that a vehicle (11.1) between 84 and 95 inclusive
entering NLEX has NCR license plates is survive?
0.12; the probability that it is a camper is (11.2) fewer than 86 survive?
0.28; and the probability that it is a Ans. 0.9515; 0.06681
camper with NCR license plates is 0.09.
Problem 12: Given a standard normal
What is the probability that
distribution, find the area (probability)
(9.1) a camper entering the NLEX has NCR
under the curve which lies
license plates?
(12.1) to the left of z=1.43;
(9.2) a vehicle with NCR license plates
(12.2) to the right of z=-0.89;
entering the NLEX is a camper?
(12.3) between z=-2.16 and z=-0.65;
(9.3) a vehicle entering NLEX does not
(12.4) to the left of -1.39;
have NCR plates or is not a camper?
(12.5) to the right of z=1.96;
Ans. 9/28; ¾; 0.91
(12.6) between z=-0.48 and z=1.74.
Problem 10: Evaluate P(1X4) for a Ans. 0.9236; 0.8133; 0.2424; 0.0823;
binomial variable with n=15 and p=0.2 0.0250; 0.6435
using the normal-curve approximation.
Ans. 0.7803
Problem 11: The probability that a
patient recovers from a delicate heart
operation is 0.90. Of the next 100
patients having this operation, what is
the probability that
Problem 13: A research scientists reports 𝑝𝑎𝑡 1 = 𝑝𝑚 ∗ 1 − 𝑝𝑊 + pW ∗ p M
that mice will leave an average of 40 𝑀 W

months when their diets are sharply +𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒

restricted and then enriched with 𝑝𝑎𝑡 1 = 0.4 1 − 0.875 + 0.5(1 − 0.7)
vitamins and proteins. Assuming that the +0.35
lifetimes of such mice are normally 𝑝𝑎𝑡 1 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓
distributed with a standard deviation of
6.3 months, find the probability that a 9. 𝑝𝐶,𝐿 = 𝑝𝐶 ∗ 𝑝 𝐿
given mouse will leave 𝐶
(13.1) more than 32 months; 0.09 = 0.28 ∗ 𝑝 𝐿
𝐶
(13.2) less than 28 months; 𝑝𝐿/𝐶 = 𝟗/𝟐𝟖
(13.3) between 37 and 49 months.
Ans. 0.8980; 0.0287; 0.6080 𝑝𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝑝𝐶 ∗ 𝑝𝐶
𝐿
8. 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝 = 𝑝𝑤 ∗ 𝑝 𝑀 = 𝑝𝑀 ∗ 𝑝𝑊 0.12 + 0.09 = 0.28 ∗ 𝑝𝐶
𝐿
𝑊 𝑀 𝑝𝐶/𝐿 = 𝟑/𝟒
𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝 = 0.5 0.7 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝑝𝑁𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐶 = 1 − 𝑝𝐶,𝐿
0.5 0.7 = 0.4 ∗ 𝑝𝑊 𝑝𝑁𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐶 = 1 − 0.09
𝑀
𝑝𝑊 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝑝𝑁𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐶 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏
𝑀
Problem 14: Statistics released by the 49.5 − 40
14.2) 𝑧2 = = 1.58
CTTMO show that on an average 6
weekend night, 1 out of 10 drivers on the 𝑝 > 49 = 0.5 − 𝑄(1.58)
road is drunk. If 400 drivers are randomly 𝑝>49 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟓
checked next Saturday night, what is the
probability that the number of drunk
34.5 − 40
drivers will be 14.3) 𝑧1 = = −0.9167
(14.1) less than 32? 6
47.5 − 40
(14.2) more than 49? 𝑧2 = = 1.25
(14.3) at least 35 but less than 47? 6
𝑝35<𝑥<47 = 𝑄 −0.9167 + 𝑄(1.25)
Ans. 0.0778; 0.0571; 0.715
1 𝑝35<𝑥<47 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟓
14. 𝑝 = = 0.1 𝑓 = 0.9
10
𝑛 = .1 400 = 40
𝜎 = 400 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 0.9
𝜎=6
31.5 − 40
14.1) 𝑧2 = = −1.42
6
𝑝 < 32 = 0.5 − 𝑄(−1.42)
𝑝<32 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟖
Problem 15: Ans. 10.81
Compute the value of the variance of the
following sets of numbers: 8, 10, 12, 14,
15, 18.
Problem 16: Ans. 1/6
Roll a pair of dice. What is the
probability of obtaining a sum of at
most 4?
Problem 17: Ans. 0.910
The probability that a family owns a
washing machine is 0.78 and the
probability that it owns a VCR is 0.71.
The probability that it owns both a
washing machine and a VCR is 0.58.
What is the probability that a randomly
selected family owns a washing machine
or a VCR?
Problem 18: CE BD Nov. 07’ Ans. 50/81
A store has three kinds of toys given in
every purchase. What is the probability
of getting all three toys in five
purchases?
Problem 19: Ans. 35/64 ; 29/64
One bag contains 4 white balls and 3
black balls, and a second bag contains 3
white balls and 5 black balls. One ball is
drawn at random from the second bag
and is placed unseen in the first bag.
What is the probability that a ball now
drawn is (a) white?; (b) black?
Problem 20: CE MAY 2012
A manufacturer estimates that 1.5% of
his output of a small item is defective.
Find the probability that in a pack of 200
items:
(1) none is defective. Ans. 0.04867
(2) two are defective. Ans. 0.2246
(3) more than three are defective.
Ans. 0.3528
Problem 21:
Find the probability that in a group of
eight students at least two of them have
the same birthday. Ans. 0.0743
Problem 22: Normal Approximation:
A multiple-choice quiz has 200 questions
each with 4 possible answers of which
only 1 is the correct answer. What is the
probability that sheer guesswork yields
from 25 to 30 correct answers for 80 of
the 200 problems about which the
student has no knowledge? Ans. 0.1193
Problem 23:
An electrical firm manufactures light
bulbs that have a length of life that is
normally distributed with a mean equal
to 800 hours and a standard deviation of
40 hours. Find the probability that a bulb
burns between 778 and 834 hours.
Ans. 0.5112
Problem 24:
Given a normal distribution with =50
and =10, find the probability that X
assumes a value between 45 and 62.
Ans. 0.5764
Problem 25 :CE BD Nov. 2012 : Given
the sets of numbers:
1, 2, 3, 4, 7,7,10,10, 11, 14, 19, 19, 23,
24, 24, 26. Find Q1, Q2, Q3 and the
ratio of the largest item in the second
quartile to the average value in the 4th
quartile.
Ans. Q1=5.5; Q2=10.5; Q3=21; 40/97
Another example: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 ,7.
Problem 26:
A bag contains 3 white and 5 black balls.
If two balls are drawn in succession
without replacement, what is the
probability that (a) both balls are black;
(b) both are white; (c) one is black and
the other is white; and (d) both have the
same color. 5/14; 3/28; 15/28; 13/28
Problem 27:
In a family of five children, what is the
chance that there are three boys and
two girls? Ans. 5/16
Problem 28: Example 16:
In a poker hand consisting of five cards, In a high-school graduating class of 100
find the probability of holding students, 54 studied mathematics, 69
(a) 3 aces ; (b) 4 hearts and 1 club. studied history, and 35 studied both
mathematics and history. If one of these
Solution: students is selected at random, find the
4𝐶3 48𝐶2 probability that
𝑎 𝑝= Ans. 94/54,145
52𝐶5 (a) The student took mathematics or
history.
13𝐶4 13𝐶1
𝑏 𝑝= Ans. 143/39,984 (b) The student did not take either of
52𝐶5 these subjects.
Example 15: (c) The student took history but not
The probability that a doctor correctly mathematics. M H
diagnoses a particular illness is 0.7. Given Solution:
that the doctor makes an incorrect 19 35 34
diagnosis, the probability that the patient
enters a law suit is 0.90. What is the 19 + 35 + 34
𝑎 𝑝 = Ans. 22/25
probability that the doctor makes an 100
incorrect diagnoses and the patient sues? 22
𝑏 𝑝=1− Ans. 3/25
Solution: 25
34
𝑝 = 1 − 0.7 0.9 Ans. 0.27 𝑐 𝑝= Ans. 17/50
100
Problem 29:
The probability that an automobile being 𝑏 𝑝 𝑓𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑐 =
𝑝(𝑓𝑐) × 𝑝(𝑜𝑐)/(𝑓𝑐)
filled with gasoline will also need an oil
change is 0.25; the probability that it 0.14 = 0.40 × 𝑝(𝑜𝑐)/(𝑓𝑐)
needs a new oil filter is 0.40; and the
probability that both the oil and filter 𝑝(𝑜𝑐)/(𝑓𝑐)= 0.35
need changing is 0.14.
Problem 30:
(a) If the oil had to be changed, what is
The probability that any given person
the probability that a new oil filter is
will believe a tale about life and death is
needed?
0.80. What is the probability that the 6th
(b) If a new oil filter is needed, what is
person to hear it is the (a) 4th one to
the probability that the oil has to be
believe it? (b) the first to believe it?
changed?
Solution:
Solution:
p = (x-1)C(k-1)(1-h)x-khk
𝑎 𝑝 𝑜𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑐 =
𝑝(𝑜𝑐) × 𝑝(𝑓𝑐)/(𝑜𝑐)
6−4 4
0.14 = 0.25 × 𝑝(𝑓𝑐)/(𝑜𝑐) 𝑝 = 5𝐶3 1 − 0.8 0.8
𝑝(𝑓𝑐)/(𝑜𝑐)=0.56 𝑝 = 512/3125 = 0.16384
𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = B B N B N B

𝑝 = 5𝐶3 0.2 2 0.8 4

Problem 31 : Problem 32:
A real state agent has 8 master keys to A washing machine in a laundry shop in
open several new homes. Only 1 master Sampaloc breaks down an average of
key can open any given house. If 40% of three times per month. Using the Poisson
these homes are usually left unlocked, probability distribution formula, find the
what is the probability that the real probability that during the next month
estate agent can get into a specific home this machine will have
if the agent selects 3 master keys at (a) Exactly two breakdowns
random before leaving the office? (b) At most one breakdown.
Solution: Solution:
𝑝𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 2 −3
3 𝑒
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝2𝑏𝑑 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒
= prob. of picking the only 1 2!
master key that can open any 1 −3
𝑒3
7𝐶3 𝑝1𝑏𝑑 = = 0.1494
0.6 𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 1 − 1!
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 8𝐶3 3 0 𝑒 −3
5 𝑝0𝑏𝑑 = = 0.04979
0.6 𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 1 − 0!
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 8
𝟓 𝑝𝑟≤1𝑏𝑑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟐
𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 =
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝟖
 Measures of Central Tendency
Central tendency is the typical value of a set of
data. The most commonly used measures of central
tendency are the mean, median and mode.
The Mean
The mean is the sum of all the values divided by the
number of values.
The Median
The median is the middle value when the values are
arranged in order.
The Mode
The mode is the most commonly occurring value.
Measures of Spread or Variability
Spread or variation describe how similar or varied
the set of observed values are for a particular
variable. The most common measures of variability
are the range, variance, and standard deviation.
The Range
The range is the difference between the largest and
the smallest number in the set.
The Variance
The variance of a set of data is defined as the
average of the squared distances from the mean.
Another version of the formula that is generally
easier to work is
The Standard Deviation Quartiles
The standard deviation is the square root of the Quartiles are values that divide a set of observation
variance. It is a measure of how dispersed the set into 4 equal parts. These values, denoted by Q1, Q2,
of data are, and it is in the same unit as the data. and Q3 are such that 25% of the data falls below Q1,
50% falls below Q2, and 75% falls below Q3.
FRACTILES: Percentiles, Deciles, and
are numbers that partition, or divide, an ordered
Quartiles The Interquartile Range (IQR)
data set into equal parts. The IQR indicates the spread of the middle 50% of
values.
Percentiles
Percentiles are values that divide a set of
observation into 100 equal parts. These values,
denoted by P1, P2, …, P99, are such that 1% of the
data falls below P1, 2% falls below P2, …, and 99%
falls below P99.

Deciles
Deciles are values that divide a set of observation
into 10 equal parts. These values, denoted by D1,
D2, …, D9 are such that 10% of the data falls below
D1, 20% falls below D2, …, and 90% falls below D9.
 Mean (Mn), Median(Med), and Mode (Mo) ∆𝑓ℎ𝑙 𝑖
𝑀𝑜 = 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜 +
of a Class Group ∆𝑓ℎ𝑙 + ∆𝑓ℎ𝑢
𝑚𝑝 𝑓 lbmo = the lower boundary of the modal class=lc-0.5
𝑀𝑛 = ෍
σ𝑓 fhl = highest frequency minus the frequency of the
next lower class
mp = midpoint of a class
f = frequency of the class fhu = highest frequency minus the frequency of the
f = total frequency next upper class

σ𝑓 Problems
−< 𝑐𝑓 𝑖
2
𝑀𝑒𝑑 = 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑐 + 1. A group of students were given a short mental
𝑓𝑚𝑐 arithmetic test. Their scores were 7, 6, 7, 5, 6, 8, 5, 7,
lbmc = the lower boundary of the median class=lc-0.5 8, 9. For this group, calculate (a) the mean; (b) the
median; (c) the mode.
f/2 = half of total frequency Answer: mean = 6.8, median = 7, mode = 7
fmc = frequency of median class
i = class width = difference of two lower classes from
median class 2. Find the mean and standard deviation of the
following set of data: 11, 13, 14, 16, 18.
Answer: mean = 14.4,  = 2.42
3. The frequency table below shows the number of 6. The ages of 45 persons are shown in the grouped
children that 45 women have. frequency table.

Find (a) the mean; (b) the median; (c) the mode.
Answer: mean = 1.1, median = 1, mode = (a) Calculate the mean age. Answer: 28.6
1 yr old
4. The number of working days lost due to accidents for (b) Find the median age. Answer: 27.7 yr old
each of the 12 months in a one-year period are as (c) Determine the modal age. Answer: 26.8 yr old
follows: 27, 37, 40, 28, 23, 30, 35, 24, 30, 32, 31, 28. 7. The heights of 142 plants are recorded below.
Determine the first quartile value for this data.
Answer: 27.5
5. The scores of a group of students in a short mental
test (from Problem 1) were, in order, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7,
8, 8, 9. Calculate (a) the quartiles; (b) the interquartile
range.
Answer: Q1 = 6, Q2 = 7, Q3 = 8, IQR = 2
Calculate (a) the mean and (b) the variance.
Answer: mean = 71.9, 2 = 30.0