Actuators: Damage Detection Using d15 Piezoelectric Sensors in A Laminate Beam Undergoing Three-Point Bending

actuators
Article
Damage Detection Using d15 Piezoelectric Sensors in
a Laminate Beam Undergoing Three-Point Bending
Hussain Altammar 1, * , Anoop Dhingra 2 and Nathan Salowitz 2
1 Department of Engineering, University of Jamestown, Jamestown, ND 58405, USA
2 Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA;
Dhingra@UWM.edu (A.D.); Salowitz@UWM.edu (N.S.)
* Correspondence: Hussain.Altammar@UJ.edu

Received: 27 July 2019; Accepted: 24 September 2019; Published: 29 September 2019
Abstract: A major inhibition to the widespread use of laminate structures is the inability of
nondestructive testing techniques to effectively evaluate the bondline integrity. This work proposes
and analyzes a bondline-integrity health monitoring approach utilizing shear-mode (d15) piezoelectric
transducers. The d15 transducers were embedded in the bondlines of symmetric laminate structures
to monitor and evaluate the bondline integrity using ultrasonic inspection. The d15 piezoelectric
transducers made of lead zirconate titanate (PZT) enabled ultrasonic inspection of bonds by actuating
and sensing antisymmetric waves in laminate structures. Design considerations, fabrication process,
and experimental methods for testing a laminate specimen are presented. Designs included
bondline-embedded d15 PZT piezoelectric transducers with surface-mounted transverse (d31)
piezoelectric transducers for signal comparison. Defects in the bondline were created by a quasi-static
three-point bending test, with results showing the ability of d15 piezoelectric transducers to detect
bondline damage. Two damage indices based on Pearson correlation coefficient and normalized signal
energy were implemented to evaluate the presence of damage and its severity. The experimental
results demonstrate the ability of bondline-embedded d15 piezoelectric transducers to be used as
actuators and sensors for ultrasonic health monitoring of bondline integrity. A comparison between
surface-mounted d31 PZT and bondline-embedded d15 PZT sensors was also conducted. It was
seen that signals sensed by bondline-embedded d15 PZTs showed higher distortion due to bondline
defects compared with the sensed signals from the surface-mounted d31 PZT.
Keywords: shear-mode piezoelectric transducers; antisymmetric waves; laminate structures;

structural health monitoring
1. Introduction
Ultrasonic non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDT/E) techniques are commonly used for
inspection of structures including complex laminate structures. However, a major roadblock to the
widespread use of laminate structures is the inability of NDT/E techniques to effectively discriminate
between a pristine bond and a damaged bond [1]. As a result, use of adhesive bonding is limited to
secondary loaded structures or reinforced with mechanical fasteners negating some of its benefits.
Ultrasonic structural health monitoring (SHM) methods employ embedded sensors with the goals of
automating damage detection to improve safety and reliability while reducing maintenance costs in
engineering structures. The use of internally embedded sensors presents new opportunities to inspect
laminate structures with the potential to expand the use of laminate structures beyond their current
limit. Various researchers have experimented with internally embedded bondline damage detection
using electromechanical impedance methods [2,3]. This paper presents a study into ultrasonic health
Actuators 2019, 8, 70; doi:10.3390/act8040070 www.mdpi.com/journal/actuators

Actuators 2019, 8, 70 2 of 22
monitoring of adhesive joints using shear-mode piezoelectric transducers internally embedded within
the bondline of laminate structures.
Ultrasonic inspection methods such as conventional ultrasonic C-scan (two dimensions imaging
technique) and contact ultrasonic testing have been used to detect surface and joint defects in composite
and laminate structures [4–10]. Ultrasonic shear waves [4] and fundamental mode antisymmetric
Lamb (A0) waves [5] propagating in laminate structures have been consistently found to be more
sensitive to joint defects than axial and symmetric Lamb (S0) waves. The A0 mode was also used to
inspect composite laminates containing delamination at different interfaces by employing air-coupled
ultrasonic transducers [6]. In other studies, standard wedge ultrasonic transducers were employed to
actuate high frequency guided waves including S0 and A0 modes for detection of small notches in a
multilayered structure consisting of two adhesively bonded aluminum plates [7]. Their results showed
that the guided waves can be used for detection of hidden defects. Ultrasonic methods provide a
viable solution for detection of joint defects but these inspection methods and NDT/E techniques in
general are often expensive, require access to inspect a region, cannot be easily used on large structures,
and lack the means to measure the bond strength [11–13].
Recent research has developed methods for bondline inspection using electromechanical
impedance (EMI) methods employing surface-mounted and bondline-embedded lead zirconate
titanate (PZT) transducers. Investigations included the use of EMI methods to monitor the degradation
of bonded joints [14] and to measure the adhesive bond strength by analyzing the characteristics of
EMI response [15]. In these experiments, contamination of the bond interface and altering the curing
temperature were used to control the level of ‘damage’. Previous studies also examined the effects
of embedding piezoelectric transducers into adhesive bond joints on EMI response and strain wave
actuation and sensing intended for bondline inspection [2,3,16]. While many promising results have
been achieved in detecting joint defects with embedded PZT transducers, EMI inspection is limited to
the region adjacent to the PZT transducers.
Ultrasonic guided wave-based inspection techniques offer a wide-area coverage with a relatively
small number of sensors. Fundamental Lamb (S0 and A0) modes were investigated extensively for
damage detection in laminate structures using piezoelectric wafer active sensors (PWAS), actuated based
on the d31 property, mounted on the surface [17–20]. The A0 Lamb waves generated by surface-mounted
d31 PZTs were found to effectively detect delaminations in a composite beam [17] and to identify
damage in a foam core of a sandwich plate [18]. The PZT actuators were excited at low actuation
frequency (<100 kHz) to ensure the dominance of A0 mode in the inspected structure.
Recently there has been increasing interest in using shear-mode PZTs, including d15 PZTs and
d36 PZTs, for SHM applications due to their unique characteristics in actuating and sensing ultrasonic
waves when mounted on the surface or embedded within the bondline of laminate structures [21–26].
Square d15 piezoelectric transducers attached to the surface of aluminum plates were studied through
simulation and experiments [21]. They were found to generate maximum fundamental Lamb modes
(A0 and S0) in their polarization direction while shear horizontal (SH) waves were dominant in the
perpendicular direction. Another study focused on the properties of ultrasonic waves actuated and
sensed by d15 PZT transducers internally embedded within the bondline of laminate structures [16,25].
It was found that the elastic waves generated by d15 PZT actuators along their polarization direction
exhibit the characteristics of antisymmetric (flexural) waves coupled with strong transverse shear
stress across the bondlines. The ultrasonic waves of square d36 piezoelectric actuators mounted on
the surface of an aluminum plate were also investigated [24]. This type of piezoelectric actuator
was found to generate SH waves in the orthogonal directions while maximum fundamental Lamb
modes propagated in the polarization direction. Similarly, they were also used for detection of surface
defects [22]. The majority of state-of-the-art methods explored have employed shear-mode piezoelectric
transducers adhered to an external surface for damage detection in plate-like structures.
This paper presents an investigation into the ability of d15 PZT transducers embedded inside a
laminate structure to monitor adhesive joint integrity using ultrasonic wave propagation methods
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 3 of 22
during a destructive three-point bending test. The shear-mode PZTs have a stronger piezoelectric
coupling (d15) than d31 or d33, making them efficient for actuation and sensing shear strains [27].
Placing d15 PZT transducers at the mid-plane of a laminate structure results in selective actuation and
sensing of antisymmetric waves which have been found to be sensitive to joint defects due to direct
coupling between transverse shear and bending. This approach places the transducers in direct contact
with the bondline of interest. Also, embedding d15 PZT actuators inside the structure provides them
with supporting material to act against, which should result in higher actuation strength than if they
were lacking the structure against which to react.
In this paper, the ultrasonic waves generated by bondline-embedded d15 PZTs in a pitch–catch
configuration were examined. A d31 PZT sensor was also mounted on the surface of the laminate
structure for comparison purposes. EMI analysis of d15 PZTs was implemented to monitor the integrity
of the piezoelectric transducers themselves during the experiment. A three-point bending test was
performed cyclically to produce increasing joint defects by applying a quasi-static load at mid-span
of the structure. The waveform signals obtained from d15 PZT and d31 PZT sensors were processed
for evaluation of bondline integrity through damage index methods and comparison of waveform
signals from pristine and damaged states. Finally, the main findings from this research as well as future
extensions of the proposed methodology are presented.
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Shear-Mode (d15) PZTs

The relation between the mechanical and the electrical properties are expressed in IEEE standard
format [28] as:
Sij = sEijkl Tkl + dkij Ek (1)
Di = dikl Tkl + εTik Ek (2)
In Equations (1) and (2), Sij is the mechanical strain, sEijkl is the material compliance coefficient at zero
electrical field, Tkl is the mechanical stress, Ek is the electrical field, Di is the electrical displacement,
εTik is the material dielectric permittivity at zero mechanical stress, dkij and dikl are the piezoelectric
coupling coefficients between mechanical and electrical domains. Shear-mode piezoelectric transducers
polarized in the 3–direction with an electric field applied in the 1–direction will undergo shear motion
in 1 − 3 plane and decoupled shear strains among the principal planes. Therefore, the general
constitutive equations for a shear-mode (d15) piezoelectric transducer having a linear relation between
the mechanical and the electrical properties are [28]:
S5 = sE55 T5 + d15 E1 (3)
D1 = d15 T5 + εT11 E1 (4)
Equation (3) represents the converse piezoelectric effects of shear-mode transducers where the
applied electric field, E1 across its thickness induces the mechanical shear strain, S5 in the 1–3 plane.
Equation (4) represents the direct piezoelectric effects, where the applied shear stress, T5 induces the
electric displacement, D1 .
As previously mentioned in Section 1, d15 PZT actuators are capable of simultaneously generating
fundamental Lamb waves (S0 and A0 modes) and shear horizontal waves. Actuation and propagation
direction for the fundamental wave and shear horizontal wave modes are shown in Figure 1. Depending
on the frequency-thickness product, the contribution of each wave mode may vary, and higher modes
can also exist in the medium. Additionally, the location of the transducer will affect its coupling to the
structure and wave propagation modes. When d15 PZT actuator is subjected to a time-varying voltage
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 4 of 22
Actuators 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23
toonpropagate
its surfaceinelectrodes,
3–directionthe
with particle
first motion
symmetric S0 aligned
mode isalong its propagation
expected to propagatedirection. Similarly,
in 3–direction with
the A0 mode which is characterized by particle motion in 1–direction. The direction of A mode
particle motion aligned along its propagation direction. Similarly, the A0 mode which is characterized
propagation is predicted
by particle motion to travelThe
in 1–direction. along with S0
direction of Ainmode
the polarization
propagation direction of to
is predicted the actuator.
travel along
However, the shear horizontal waves are predicted to propagate in 2–direction with their particle
with S0 in the polarization direction of the actuator. However, the shear horizontal waves are predicted
motion in 3–direction.
to propagate in 2–direction with their particle motion in 3–direction.
Schematicofofa ad15
Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure d15piezoelectric
piezoelectrictransducer
transducerwith
withfundamental
fundamentalwave
wavemodes
modesdepicted
depictedininthe
the
directionofofwave
direction wavepropagation.
propagation.
Several experiments and extensive simulation of d15 PZT have been conducted in literature
Several experiments and extensive simulation of d15 PZT have been conducted in literature to
to study the characteristics of ultrasonic waves generated by d15 PZTs mounted on the surfaces of
study the characteristics of ultrasonic waves generated by d15 PZTs mounted on the surfaces of plates
plates [21] and internally embedded within the bondline of laminate structures [25]. It should also
[21] and internally embedded within the bondline of laminate structures [25]. It should also be
be mentioned that at relatively low actuation frequency, the behavior of fundamental Lamb waves
mentioned that at relatively low actuation frequency, the behavior of fundamental Lamb waves (S0
(S0 and A0 modes) propagating in a plate-like structure approach the behavior of flexural waves and
and A0 modes) propagating in a plate-like structure approach the behavior of flexural waves and
axial waves, respectively [29].
axial waves, respectively [29].
2.2. Damage Index
2.2. Damage Index
Damage indices are scalar quantities used in structural health monitoring and damage assessment
Damage indices are scalar quantities used in structural health monitoring and damage
to provide a measure of the difference between two signals produced by the same entity. In literature,
assessment to provide a measure of the difference between two signals produced by the same entity.
many damage indices have been defined that have different sensitivities to signal changes and therefore
In literature, many damage indices have been defined that have different sensitivities to signal
to different types of damage. In this study, two damage indices were employed to detect and evaluate
changes and therefore to different types of damage. In this study, two damage indices were employed
bondline integrity: Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), and normalized signal energy (NSE) [30,31].
to detect and evaluate bondline integrity: Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), and normalized
Existing literature indicates that PCC was found to show uniform and consistent increase in magnitude
signal energy (NSE) [30,31]. Existing literature indicates that PCC was found to show uniform and
with the increase in damage severity (size) compared to root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) and mean
consistent increase in magnitude with the increase in damage severity (size) compared to root-mean-
absolute percentage deviation (MAPD) methods [32]. NSE is inherently sensitive to signal amplitude
square deviation (RMSD) and mean absolute percentage deviation (MAPD) methods [32]. NSE is
and therefore selected to measure the attenuation in waveform signals. It was shown in the literature
inherently sensitive to signal amplitude and therefore selected to measure the attenuation in
that Pearson correlation coefficient is more sensitive to phase shifts in received signals while the
waveform signals. It was shown in the literature that Pearson correlation coefficient is more sensitive
normalized signal energy method was found to be more sensitive to amplitude of waveform signals.
to phase shifts in received signals while the normalized signal energy method was found to be more
Therefore, the PCC and NSE methods were used to process waveform signals in the time domain as:
sensitive to amplitude of waveform signals. Therefore, the PCC and NSE methods were used to
process waveform signals in the time domain as: X N
1
cov(X, x) = X i − X (xi − x) (5)
1N i=N 1
cov ( X , x ) =
N
(
i =1
)
X i − X ( xi − x ) (5)
cov(X, x)
PCC = (6)
σX(σXx , x)
cov
PCC =P (6)
Xσ X σ x x2
N N
2−
P
i i
i=1 i=1
NSE = (7)
N N N
 X −x
2 X2
P
2
i
i=i 1 i
NSE = i =1 i =1
(7)
where X and x are the means of the pristine waveform Nand the
X2 comparison signal, respectively, cov(X, x)
is covariance, σX and σx are the standard deviations, Xi iis the pristine state at the ith measurement
i =1
point, xi is the comparison signal (damaged state) at ith measurement point, and N is the number of
where X and x are the means of the pristine waveform and the comparison signal, respectively,
cov( X , 2019,
Actuators x ) is8, covariance,
70 σ X and σ x are the standard deviations, X i is the pristine state at5 of
the22
ith measurement point, xi is the comparison signal (damaged state) at ith measurement point, and
N is the number
measurements. Forofthe
measurements. For thebetween
sake of consistency sake of consistency between
PCC and NSE, PCC and
the damage NSE,
index the damage
based on PCC
index based on PCC
was calculated as 1 −was
PCCcalculated
such thatas 1 −value
zero PCC such that zero
indicates value
that no indicates
damage that
exists no damage
while exists
a value of one
while a value of one denotes
denotes complete failure. complete failure.
3.
3.Experiment
Experiment
3.1.Specimen
3.1. SpecimenDesign
Designand
andFabrication
Fabrication
A laminate
A laminatespecimen
specimenwas wascarefully
carefullydesigned
designedto to investigate
investigatethethe use
use of
of bondline-embedded
bondline-embeddedd15 d15
PZTpiezoelectric
PZT piezoelectrictransducers
transducerstoto monitor
monitor thethe bondline
bondline integrity
integrity usingusing ultrasonic
ultrasonic guidedguided
waves.waves.
The
The specimen consisted of two adhesively bonded aluminum sheets with
specimen consisted of two adhesively bonded aluminum sheets with two d15 PZT transducers two d15 PZT transducers
embeddedinside
embedded insidethe
thebondline
bondlineat atthe
the mid-plane
mid-planeof of the
the symmetric
symmetric structure.
structure. AAsurface-mounted
surface-mountedd31 d31
PZTsensor
PZT sensorwaswasalso
alsointegrated
integratedintointothe
thespecimen
specimenfor forcomparison
comparison and andanalyses.
analyses. AAschematic
schematicdiagram
diagram
of the laminate specimen is shown in Figure 2. The global coordinates <x, y, z>
of the laminate specimen is shown in Figure 2. The global coordinates <x, y, z> are aligned with theare aligned with the
length, width, and thickness of the overall plate, respectively, as shown in Figure
length, width, and thickness of the overall plate, respectively, as shown in Figure 2. The direction of 2. The direction
of positive
positive polarization
polarization (P)(P)
forfor piezoelectric
piezoelectric transducers
transducers definesthe
defines <3>axis
the<3> axisofofaalocal
local piezoelectric
piezoelectric
coordinate system of <1, 2, 3>. Therefore, the d15 piezoelectric transducer
coordinate system of <1, 2, 3>. Therefore, the d15 piezoelectric transducer is embedded within is embedded withinthe
the
plate with
plate with the <3>aligned
the <3> alignedwith <x>,
with<x>, <2>
<2> aligned
aligned with
with <-y>,
<-y>, <1><1>
andand aligned
aligned <z>.<z>.
withwith
Figure 2.
Figure Schematicdiagram
2. Schematic diagramofoflaminate
laminatespecimen
specimenwith
withtwo
twod15
d15lead
lead zirconate
zirconate titanate
titanate (PZT)
(PZT)
transducers (15 mm × 15 mm × 1 mm) embedded in the bondline and d31 PZT sensor (6
transducers (15 mm × 15 mm × 1 mm) embedded in the bondline and d31 PZT sensor (6 mm × 0.25 mm × 0.25
mm)mounted
mm) mountedon onthe
thesurface
surfaceof
ofthe
thebottom
bottom aluminum
aluminum sheet.
sheet.
The6061-T6
The 6061-T6aluminum
aluminumsheetssheetsmeasured
measured305 mm ××15
305 mm 15mmmm××11mm. mm.The Thed15
d15PZT
PZTand andd31d31PZT
PZT
transducerswere
transducers weremademadeof of APC
APC 850850 piezoceramic
piezoceramic material
material (a (a Navy
Navy II II material).
material). Material
Material properties
properties
of the laminate specimen including shear-mode PZT transducers are given
of the laminate specimen including shear-mode PZT transducers are given in Table 1. The d15 in Table 1. The d15PZT
PZT
transducers which measured 1 mm × 15 mm × 15 mm were adhered on
transducers which measured 1 mm × 15 mm × 15 mm were adhered on the surface of one aluminum the surface of one aluminum
sheetusing
sheet usingChemtronics
ChemtronicsCircuitWorks
CircuitWorks (CW2400)
(CW2400) conductive
conductive epoxy.
epoxy. This
This aluminum
aluminum sheet
sheetalso
alsoserved
served
as a common ground for the PZT transducers. The d15 PZTs were placed
as a common ground for the PZT transducers. The d15 PZTs were placed 135 mm apart on center 135 mm apart on center and
85 mm
and fromfrom
85 mm the endtheboundaries with their
end boundaries withpolarization directiondirection
their polarization aligned along thealong
aligned lengththeof aluminum
length of
sheet in the <x>
aluminum sheet in the <x> direction. Thin wires were attached to the hot terminals of thePZTs
direction. Thin wires were attached to the hot terminals of the d15 using
d15 PZTs
using the same conductive epoxy. The aluminum sheets were then bonded together using Hysol9394
the same conductive epoxy. The aluminum sheets were then bonded together using Hysol EA EA
nonconductive epoxy in order to protect the hot terminals from shorting against
9394 nonconductive epoxy in order to protect the hot terminals from shorting against the ground the ground terminal
(the bottom
terminal (thealuminum sheet). The
bottom aluminum adhesive
sheet). layer thickness
The adhesive was controlled
layer thickness by placing
was controlled by1.75-mm-thick
placing 1.75-
spacers and
mm-thick applying
spacers andlow, uniform
applying pressure
low, uniformon pressure
the specimen
on thewhile curing.while
specimen The adhesive thickness
curing. The was
adhesive
measured at 1.8 ± 0.2 mm after curing. A round d31 PZT with 6 mm diameter
thickness was measured at 1.8 ± 0.2 mm after curing. A round d31 PZT with 6 mm diameter and 0.25 and 0.25 mm thickness
was then attached on the surface of the bottom aluminum sheet (ground terminal) using CW2400
mm thickness was then attached on the surface of the bottom aluminum sheet (ground terminal)
using CW2400 conductive epoxy. The center of d31 PZT was aligned to coincide with the center of
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 6 of 22
d15 PZT-2 making both transducers equidistant from d15 PZT-1.
Table epoxy.
conductive 1. Material properties
The center of d31ofPZT
the was
shear-mode piezoelectric
aligned to transducer,
coincide with Hysol
the center EA9394,
of d15 and
PZT-2 making
Aluminum 6061
both transducers [16].
equidistant from d15 PZT-1.
Property Unit Symbol PZT-5A Adhesive Aluminum
Table 1. Material properties of the shear-mode piezoelectric transducer, Hysol EA9394, and Aluminum
6061 [16]. 109 N/m2 Y11 61.0 4.24 68.9
Young’s Modulus
109 N/m2 Y33 53.2 4.24 68.9
Property Unit Symbol PZT-5A Adhesive Aluminum
109 N/m2 G12 22.6 1.46 25.9
Young’sShear’s Modulus
109 N/m2 Y11 2 G13 61.0 4.24 68.9
109 N/m 10.5 1.46 25.9
Modulus 109 N/m2 Y33 53.2 4.24 68.9
Shear’s Poisson’s109 N/m2 1G12 v12 22.6 0.35 0.45
1.46 0.3325.9
ratio
Modulus 109 N/m2 1G13 v13 10.5 0.44 1.46
0.45 0.3325.9
1 v123 0.35 7600 0.45 27000.33
Poisson’s ratio Density kg/m ρ 1360
1 v13 0.44 0.45 0.33
8.854 µF/m ε 11
Density kg/m 3
Dielectric permittivity ρ 7600 1851 ------
1360 ------2700
Dielectric 8.854 µF/m 8.854 εµF/m
11
ε 33 1851 1581 ------
—— ------——
permittivity 8.854 µF/m 10−12 εm/V
13 d15 1581 584 ——
------ ------——
10−12 m/V d15 584 —— ——
Piezoelectric coefficient
Piezoelectric 10 m/V
−12 d31 −171 ------ ------
10−12 m/V d31 −171 —— ——
coefficient 10−12 dm/V d33
10−12 m/V 33 374 374 ------
—— ------——
3.2.Quasi-Static
3.2. Quasi-StaticThree-Point
Three-PointBending
Bending
AAquasi-static
quasi-staticthree-point
three-pointbending
bendingtest testwas
wasperformed
performedcyclically
cyclicallyononthe
thelaminate
laminatespecimen
specimentoto
investigate the capability of bondline-embedded d15 PZTs for bondline
investigate the capability of bondline-embedded d15 PZTs for bondline damage detection and damage detection andhealth
health
monitoring of laminate structures. The experimental setup including the laminate
monitoring of laminate structures. The experimental setup including the laminate specimen loaded in specimen loaded
ain a three-point
three-point bending
bending fixture
fixture withwith cylindrical
cylindrical rollers
rollers for loading
for the the loading point
point andand supports
supports is shown
is shown in
in Figure 3. The specimen was tested in a pitch–catch configuration by actuating
Figure 3. The specimen was tested in a pitch–catch configuration by actuating d15 PZT-1 and sensing d15 PZT-1 and
sensing
with bothwith
PZT-2 both
andPZT-2 and surface-mounted
surface-mounted d31 PZT-3 d31 PZT-3
sensors. sensors.
The reversedThe reversed
path path ofinactuation
of actuation which thein
waves propagate from d15 PZT-2 to d15 PZT-1 was also tested for comparison. As shown in As
which the waves propagate from d15 PZT-2 to d15 PZT-1 was also tested for comparison. shown
Figure 3,
in Figure 3, the d15 PZT and d31 PZT transducers were connected to a Tektronix
the d15 PZT and d31 PZT transducers were connected to a Tektronix MDO3014 Domain Oscilloscope MDO3014 Domain
toOscilloscope
collect voltageto collect
signalsvoltage signals
across the across the
transducers at transducers at no-load
no-load condition. Thecondition. The d15was
d15 PZT actuator PZT
actuator was excited with a five-peak Hann windowed signal centered at 30
excited with a five-peak Hann windowed signal centered at 30 kHz using a KEYSIGHT 33500B Series kHz using a KEYSIGHT
33500B Series
waveform waveform
generator generator
connected to aconnected
Krohn-Hite to a7602M
Krohn-Hite
Wideband7602M Wideband
Amplifier to Amplifier
amplify the to output
amplify
the output
actuation actuation signal.
signal.
Figure 3. Experimental setup of health monitoring experiment and magnified view of laminate
Figure 3. Experimental setup of health monitoring experiment and magnified view of laminate
specimen under three-point bending test.
specimen under three-point bending test.
A close-up view of the laminate specimen under three-point bending fixture is given in Figure 3
along with a schematic diagram shown in Figure 4. A quasi-static force was applied cyclically at
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 7 of 22
A close-up view of the laminate specimen under three-point bending fixture is given in Figure 3
along with a schematic diagram shown in Figure 4. A quasi-static force was applied cyclically at mid-
span to degrade
mid-span the adhesive
to degrade joint using
the adhesive jointa mechanical test machine
using a mechanical test (3369 Instron
machine Universal
(3369 Instron Machine).
Universal
The load wasThe
Machine). applied
loadatwas
a constant
applieddisplacement
at a constant rate of 1.35 mm/min
displacement rate(quasi-static).
of 1.35 mm/min The displacement
(quasi-static).
at mid-span
The was measured
displacement constantly
at mid-span was throughout the experiment
measured constantly using thethe
throughout displacement
experimenttransducer
using the
embedded in the mechanical test machine. After the load was quasi-statically
displacement transducer embedded in the mechanical test machine. After the load applied and the mid-
was quasi-statically
deflection reached
applied and a certain threshold,
the mid-deflection reached theaload wasthreshold,
certain graduallythe removed at the
load was same rate.
gradually The testatwas
removed the
then paused to obtain the electromechanical impedance response of d15 PZT
same rate. The test was then paused to obtain the electromechanical impedance response of d15 transducers and to
perform ultrasonicand
PZT transducers inspection.
to performThis cycle was
ultrasonic repeated while
inspection. incrementally
This cycle increasing
was repeated the mid-span
while incrementally
deflection by 0.1 mm until 3.3 mm mid-span deflection was achieved. After each
increasing the mid-span deflection by 0.1 mm until 3.3 mm mid-span deflection was achieved. After loading cycle,each
the
specimen was unloaded but was not removed from the fixture to maintain accurate
loading cycle, the specimen was unloaded but was not removed from the fixture to maintain accurate and consistent
displacement
and consistentmeasurements
displacement throughout
measurements the throughout
experiment.the experiment.
Figure 4. Laminate specimen under a quasi-static three-point bending force applied cyclically
Figure 4. Laminate specimen under a quasi-static three-point bending force applied cyclically at
at mid-span.
mid-span.
As shown in Figure 4, the specimen was subjected to a quasi-static load at mid-span. The applied
As
load wasshown in Figure
expected 4, the specimen
to induce bending was subjected
stresses to ato
coupled quasi-static
transverseload at mid-span.
shear Thelaminate
stress in the applied
load was expected
specimen. Thus, toto induce abending
maintain pristinestresses
condition coupled
for thetod15
transverse
PZTs andsheartheirstress in the laminate
surrounding bonding
specimen. Thus,
region during thetotest,
maintain
the span a between
pristine condition for the was
loading supports d15 set
PZTs
at 50and
mmtheir
and surrounding
42.5 mm distancebonding
from
region during the test, the span between loading supports was set at 50 mm and
the PZT transducers. Flexural rigidity was used to define the failure state of the laminate specimen42.5 mm distance
from the PZT transducers.
and consequently Flexural for
to set a threshold rigidity was used
terminating to define
the test. the failure
The flexural stateofof
rigidity the laminate
a beam under a
specimen
three-point bending configuration similar to the laminate shown in Figure 4 is given as [33]: a beam
and consequently to set a threshold for terminating the test. The flexural rigidity of
under a three-point bending configuration similar to !the laminate shown in Figure 4 is given as [33]:
L3 Fn

G f n =  L3   F  (8)
G fn =  48 δn n  (8)
 48  δ n 
where Gfn is the combined flexural rigidity of the laminate specimen at nth loading cycle, L is the
length G
where between
fn is the loading
combined flexuralFrigidity
supports, is the mid-span load at nth
of the laminate loading
specimen atcycle, and δ iscycle,
nth loading the mid-span
L is the
deflection at nth loading cycle. The stress induced in the laminate specimen can be calculated
length between loading supports, F is the mid-span load at nth loading cycle, and δ is the mid-span as [34]:
deflection at nth loading cycle. The stress induced in the laminate specimen can be calculated as [34]:
3LFn
σ= (9)
3LF 2
σ = 2bh 2n (9)
where b is the width and h is the thickness of the 2laminatebh specimen. The deflection at mid-span
was controlled
where whileand
b is the width thehapplied load wasofmeasured
is the thickness the laminatein order to avoid
specimen. Thehigh crack at
deflection propagation
mid-span wasrate
and catastrophic
controlled while thefailure of the
applied specimen
load while increasing
was measured in order tothe damage
avoid highseverity. In this experiment,
crack propagation rate and
the deflection
catastrophic at theofmid-span
failure was increased
the specimen in increments
while increasing of 0.1severity.
the damage mm until In failure while voltage
this experiment, the
measurements were captured by the PZT sensors at no-load condition.
deflection at the mid-span was increased in increments of 0.1 mm until failure while voltage
measurements
Actuators 2019, 8, 70were
captured by the PZT sensors at no-load condition. 8 of 22
3.3. Experimental Method

3.3. Experimental Method
Figure 5 shows a flowchart of the ultrasonic health monitoring experiment that summarizes the
Figure
methodology 5 shows a flowchart
implemented of the
herein toultrasonic
investigatehealth monitoring
the ability experiment
of d15 PZTs to that summarizes
monitor the
and assess
methodology implemented herein to investigate the ability of d15 PZTs to monitor and
bondline integrity. The experiment consists of three major tests which are performed sequentially assess bondline
integrity. The the
starting with experiment consists
application of three major
of three-point testsload
bending which are performed
followed sequentially
by a sine-sweep starting with
for measuring the
the application of three-point bending load followed by a sine-sweep for measuring
EM impedance of d15 PZTs. The cycle ends with ultrasonic inspection using d15 PZTs in a pitch–the EM impedance
of d15 orientation.
catch PZTs. The cycleThe ends
next with
cycle ultrasonic inspection
is then repeated withusing d15mid-span
higher PZTs in a deflection,
pitch–catchand
orientation.
the test
The next cycle is then
continues until failure. repeated with higher mid-span deflection, and the test continues until failure.
Figure 5. Flowchart of ultrasonic health monitoring experiment for a laminate specimen with
Figure 5. Flowchart
surface-mounted andofbondline-embedded
ultrasonic health monitoring experiment for a laminate specimen with surface-
PZT transducers.
mounted and bondline-embedded PZT transducers.
The health monitoring experiment was automated to sequentially perform all tests cyclically as
described in the monitoring
The health following steps:
experiment was automated to sequentially perform all tests cyclically as
described in the following steps:
1. Apply an increasing quasi-static load on the specimen until mid-span deflection reaches δn ,
1. Apply an increasing
then remove quasi-static
the applied mid-span load on the specimen until mid-span deflection reaches δn, then
load.
2. remove the condition
At no-load applied mid-span load.d15 PZTs with a voltage frequency sweep (Vi ) from 200 kHz
state, actuate
2. At no-load
to 1600 kHzcondition state, actuate
by measuring d15 PZTs
the voltage with aavoltage
(Vo ) across sensingfrequency
resistor (Rsweep (Vi) from 200 kHz
s = 100 Ω) and the PZT
to 1600 kHz by measuring the voltage (V ) across
element, then calculate the impedance, Z = Rs (Vi /Vo ).
o a sensing resistor (R s = 100 Ω) and the PZT
3. Apply fast
element, Fourier
then transform
calculate method and
the impedance, Z= (
Rs Vi Vofilter
band-pass )
. to the harmonic signals and identify
the firstfast
resonance EM
f1 , for and
3. Apply Fourier frequency,
transform method eachband-pass
d15 PZT. filter to the harmonic signals and identify
4. Continue
the the test iffrequency,
first resonance the difference between
f1EM the d15
, for each baseline
PZT.resonant peak and the measured resonant
is less than α, which is set as 1% of the baseline resonant peak.
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 9 of 22
5. Perform ultrasonic inspection by actuating bondline-embedded d15 PZTs. The excitation signal
shown in Figure 6 is a five-peak sine signal centered at 30 kHz and modulated by a Hann window,
w(n) = 0.5[1 − cos(2πn/N )], 0 ≤ n ≤ N, where N + 1 is the length of the window.
6. Denoise senor signals using discrete wavelet transform with Coiflet wavelet performed at level six
p
wavelet decomposition and applying the universal threshold 2 ln(.), to the wavelet coefficients.
7. Determine the maximum voltage, Vmax of the first arrival in sensor signals and the phase shift,
φmax with respect to baseline signals.
8. Calculate damage index values based on PCC and NSE methods using Equations (6) and
(7), respectively.
9. Repeat loading the specimen at a higher mid-span deflection by β increment, 0.1 mm herein.
10. Stop the test when mid-span deflection reaches δm that is calculated based on flexural rigidity of
the laminate specimen.
100 0.3
d15 PZT-1 d15 PZT-2
0.2
50
0.1
Actuation, V
Received, V
0 0
-0.1
-50
-0.2
-100 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time, msec
(a)
100 0.3
d15 PZT-1 d31 PZT-3
0.2
50
0.1
Actuation, V
Received, V
0 0
-0.1
-50
-0.2
-100 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time, msec
(b)
Figure6.
Figure 6. Waveform
Waveformsignals
signalsobtained
obtainedfrom
fromlaminate
laminatespecimen
specimenwith
withd31
d31PZT
PZTand
andd15
d15PZT
PZTtransducers
transducers
forwave
for wavepropagation
propagationpaths:
paths:(a)
(a)PZT-1
PZT-1→ PZT-2and
→PZT-2 and(b)
(b)PZT-1
PZT-1→ PZT-3.
→PZT-3.
Theanalysis
For first propagation
of bondlinepath (PZT-1
integrity, the→ PZT-2)
first waveispacket
dictatedwasby exciting
selected d15 PZT-1
because and sensing
later waves via
represent
d15 PZT-2 as shown in Figure 2. The same elastic waves generated by d15 PZT-1 were simultaneously
reflections that are often complex superposed waves yielding higher uncertainties in the outcomes.
Italso sensed
should by d31 PZT-3
be mentioned thatand this propagation
the width path is
of the first wave labeled
packet wasasidentified
(PZT-1 → byPZT-3).
assumingThethe
opposite
width
propagation path (PZT-2 → PZT-1) is also considered by actuating d15 PZT-2 and sensing signals
of the actuation signal is close to the width of the first arrival. Despite the dispersive nature of
with d15 PZT-1. In this experiment, a five-peak Hann windowed voltage signal centered at 30 kHz
antisymmetric waves, the dispersion effects are expected to be relatively small given the short distance
was usedthe
between totransducers.
actuate bondline-embedded d15 PZT piezoelectric transducers and was kept the same
throughout the pitch–catch ultrasonic inspection. The signals sensed by PZTs mounted on the surface
and within the bondline of the laminate specimen were recorded at a sampling rate of 10 MHz. The
sensor signals are shown in Figure 6.
At 30 kHz excitation frequency, the bondline-embedded d15 PZT actuators at the neutral axis of
a symmetric structure were expected to generate antisymmetric (A0) waves which are coupled with
transverse shear strain with negligible other modes [25]. This finding was supported with numerical
and experimental results, and discussed in more detail in [25]. As can be observed from the received
signals in Figure 6, there are two main wave packets. The first wave packet travels the shortest
distance directly from the actuator to the sensor. The second wave packet is a reflection from the end
of the structure. Signals from both d15 PZT and d31 PZT sensors appear to have similar responses in
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 10 of 22
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Wave Propagation Analysis

The experiment was performed at near-constant-condition temperature, pressure, and environmental
conditions to mitigate environmental effects. The experiment was also performed at no-load condition to
produce baseline signals that can be utilized for the analyses of damage detection in the subsequent sections.
The first propagation path (PZT-1 → PZT-2) is dictated by exciting d15 PZT-1 and sensing via d15
PZT-2 as shown in Figure 2. The same elastic waves generated by d15 PZT-1 were simultaneously
also sensed by d31 PZT-3 and this propagation path is labeled as (PZT-1 → PZT-3). The opposite
propagation path (PZT-2 → PZT-1) is also considered by actuating d15 PZT-2 and sensing signals with
d15 PZT-1. In this experiment, a five-peak Hann windowed voltage signal centered at 30 kHz was used
to actuate bondline-embedded d15 PZT piezoelectric transducers and was kept the same throughout
the pitch–catch ultrasonic inspection. The signals sensed by PZTs mounted on the surface and within
the bondline of the laminate specimen were recorded at a sampling rate of 10 MHz. The sensor signals
are shown in Figure 6.
At 30 kHz excitation frequency, the bondline-embedded d15 PZT actuators at the neutral axis of a
symmetric structure were expected to generate antisymmetric (A0) waves which are coupled with
transverse shear strain with negligible other modes [25]. This finding was supported with numerical
and experimental results, and discussed in more detail in [25]. As can be observed from the received
signals in Figure 6, there are two main wave packets. The first wave packet travels the shortest distance
directly from the actuator to the sensor. The second wave packet is a reflection from the end of the
structure. Signals from both d15 PZT and d31 PZT sensors appear to have similar responses in the
pristine state, but they were intrinsically generated with different dynamic mechanisms. The d15 PZT
sensor signal was a result of shear strains in the x–z plane induced by the antisymmetric waves across
the thickness. The shear strain is negligible at the proximity of free surfaces, nor is a d31 PZT sensitive
to shear strain. The signal received by d31 PZT sensor primarily resulted from the normal strains in the
x direction carrying the energy of the antisymmetric waves on the free surfaces. The time of flight (ToF)
at which the A0 waves reach the sensors was determined by setting a 1% threshold of the maximum
sensor voltage. The ToF and group velocity were calculated for the waveform signals received by PZT
sensors and are summarized in Table 2. The ToF of d15 PZT signal sensor shown in Figure 6a is 116.6 µs
with a group velocity of 1157.8 m/s. The same propagating waves were also captured simultaneously
by the surface-mounted d31 PZT sensor showing slightly slower signal with a ToF of 118.2 µs due to
the smaller size of d31 PZT sensor. This indicates that the same wave mode being captured by both
d15 PZT and d31 PZT sensors. The small difference in ToFs captured by d15 PZT and d31 PZT sensors
is attributed to different geometric and electromechanical properties among the sensors.
Table 2. Summary of wave propagation results including time of flight (ToF) and group velocity
for waveform signals from bondline-embedded d15 and surface-mounted d31 PZT sensors at
no-load condition.
Wave Propagation Path Time of Flight (µs) Group Velocity (m/s)

PZT-1 → PZT-2 116.6 1157.8
PZT-1 → PZT-3 118.1 1143.1
PZT-2 → PZT-1 116.4 1159.8
The reversed wave propagation (PZT-2 → PZT-1) for bondline-embedded d15 PZTs shows the
antisymmetric waves have a ToF reaching the sensor at about 116.4 µs which matches well with
ToFs obtained for other sensors. The variation in sensing mechanisms between surface mounted and
bondline-embedded d15 PZT sensors further justifies the small difference in ToFs between d15 PZT
and d31 PZT sensors.
The reversed wave propagation (PZT-2 → PZT-1) for bondline-embedded d15 PZTs shows the
antisymmetric waves have a ToF reaching the sensor at about 116.4 μs which matches well with ToFs
obtained for other sensors. The variation in sensing mechanisms between surface mounted and
bondline-embedded d15 PZT sensors further justifies the small difference in ToFs between d15 PZT
and d31 PZT sensors.
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 11 of 22
4.2. Joint Degradation

4.2. Joint Degradation
A plot of the applied load versus deflection is shown in Figure 7. The mid-span deflection was
increased
A plotfrom
of the0 applied
to 3.3 mm loadinversus
0.1 mmdeflection
increments. It can in
is shown beFigure
noted 7. from
TheFigure
mid-span7 that the laminate
deflection was
specimen from
increased has an initial
0 to peakinat0.1
3.3 mm about
mm1450 N indicating
increments. It canflexural strength
be noted of 502.17 N/mm
from Figure 2 at
that the which a
laminate
mixed-mode
specimen has (flexural) crackatdeveloped
an initial peak about 1450 and was located
N indicating 21 mmstrength
flexural from the ofapplied load.2 The
502.1 N/mm mixed-
at which a
mode crack (flexural)
mixed-mode was formed at developed
crack about 45 degrees
and wasplane
located as21result of the
mm from adhesive
the layer The
applied load. between loading
mixed-mode
supports
crack being subjected
was formed at about 45todegrees
both normal
plane asand transverse
result shear layer
of the adhesive stresses. Residual
between stresses
loading supportsthat
accompany
being plastic
subjected deformation
to both normal andintransverse
localizedshear
areasstresses.
such asResidual
at the applied
stresses load or at the loading
that accompany plastic
supports caninmodulate
deformation localized the
areaspropagating waves
such as at the in the
applied load laminate,
or at thetherefore distortions
loading supports caninmodulate
received
signals
the prior to the
propagating flexural
waves cracking
in the aretherefore
laminate, expected distortions
to reflect theineffects
receivedof plastic
signalsdeformation
prior to the and joint
flexural
defects. are expected to reflect the effects of plastic deformation and joint defects.
cracking
1500
1000
Load, N
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Deflection, mm
Figure 7.7. (a)

Figure (a) Load–deflection
Load–deflectionresponse
responseofoflaminate
laminatespecimen
specimen under
under three-point bending
three-point bending testtest
at: at:
(b)
pristine
(b) state;
pristine (c) (c)
state; flexural cracking
flexural at 0.9
cracking at mm mid-span
0.9 mm deflection;
mid-span and and
deflection; (d) disbonding at 3.3atmm
(d) disbonding 3.3 mid-
mm
span deflection.
mid-span deflection.
The purpose
The purpose ofof this
this test
test was
was to
to degrade
degrade the
the adhesive
adhesive joint
joint beyond
beyond the the mixed-mode
mixed-mode crack,
crack,
accumulating higher
accumulating higher level
level of
ofcombined
combineddamage.
damage. For
For this
this reason,
reason, the
the test
test continued
continued past
past the
theinitial
initial
peak,producing
peak, producingdisbonds
disbonds(slippage)
(slippage)among
amongthe
thelaminate
laminatelayers.
layers. While
While loading
loading the
thespecimen
specimento tothe
the
next cycle at 1 mm mid-deflection, a small disbond that is about 5 mm long was also observed along
next cycle at 1 mm mid-deflection, a small disbond that is about 5 mm long was also observed along
the bondlines. As can be noted from Figure 7c,d, the disbond initiated at the onsets of the mixed-mode
crack and propagated further while increasing the mid-span deflection. In Figure 7a, the flexural
rigidity of the specimen was calculated 4.1 × 106 N/mm2 for the deflection range between 0–0.9 mm
using Equation (8). This was followed by a significant drop in the flexural strength by more than 65%.
By increasing mid-span deflection from 1 mm to 3.3 mm, its flexural rigidity significantly reduced
and continuously decreased beyond 1 mm mid-deflection. Furthermore, flexural rigidity provides an
indication of damage severity, particularly disbonding among the laminate layers. The three-point
bending test was stopped when flexural rigidity reached almost zero.
4.3. Electromechanical Impedance

EMI method was used to inspect and ensure that no damage occurred to bondline-embedded d15
PZTs and their bonding regions during the three-point bending test. This analysis is of considerable
importance, as the subsequent analyses involved the same PZT transducers for detection of joint defects.
The EM impedance of bondline-embedded d15 PZT transducers were recorded after each individual
cycle at no-load condition. By assuring pristine state for d15 PZTs, distortions in received signals can
be mainly attributed to bondline integrity. In this analysis, the first EM frequency was monitored,
therefore each d15 PZT transducer was excited with a frequency sweep from 200 kHz to 1600 kHz.
The impedance responses from both transducers are shown in Figure 8. The first EM resonance
detection of joint defects. The EM impedance of bondline-embedded d15 PZT transducers were
recorded after each individual cycle at no-load condition. By assuring pristine state for d15 PZTs,
distortions in received signals can be mainly attributed to bondline integrity. In this analysis, the first
EM frequency was monitored, therefore each d15 PZT transducer was excited with a frequency
sweep2019,
Actuators from 200 kHz to 1600 kHz. The impedance responses from both transducers are shown
8, 70 12 of 22in
Figure 8. The first EM resonance was collected repeatedly after each loading cycle from bondline-
embedded
was collectedd15 PZTs throughout
repeatedly the experiment.
after each loading The
cycle from mean and standardd15
bondline-embedded deviation of the firstthe
PZTs throughout EM
resonance were calculated for d15 PZT-1 to be 912.8 kHz and 0.0194 kHz, respectively.
experiment. The mean and standard deviation of the first EM resonance were calculated for d15 PZT-1 Likewise, d15
toPZT-2
be 912.8haskHz
a mean andof0.0194
918.8 kHz,
kHz and standard deviation
respectively. Likewise, of 0.114
d15 kHz.
PZT-2 The
has lack ofofsignificant
a mean 918.8 kHzchange
and
standard deviation of 0.114 kHz. The lack of significant change in EMI response indicates thatthe
in EMI response indicates that the d15 PZTs have maintained a pristine state throughout thethree-
d15
point
PZTs bending
have test. a pristine state throughout the three-point bending test.
maintained
1.4 1.4
1.2
1.2
1
)|
)|
1
0.8
Log of | Z(
Log of | Z(
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2 0.4
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Frequency, kHz Frequency, kHz
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 8. 8. Electromechanical
Electromechanical impedance
impedance (EMI)(EMI) response
response of bondline-embedded
of bondline-embedded d15 PZTsd15 PZTs
at the at the
pristine
pristine
state with state with a frequency
a frequency range containing
range containing theresonance
the first EM first EM resonance
for: (a) d15for: (a) d15
PZT-1 andPZT-1
(b) d15and (b) d15
PZT-2.
PZT-2.
4.4. Ultrasonic Inspection
4.4.As
Ultrasonic
shown in Inspection
the flowchart in Figure 5, the EM impedance is followed by ultrasonic inspection in
a pitch–catch
As shown scheme
in theofflowchart
actuatingind15 PZT-1
Figure 5, with
the EMfive-peak
impedancesignal centered at
is followed by30 kHz andinspection
ultrasonic sensing
voltage
in a pitch–catch scheme of actuating d15 PZT-1 with five-peak signal centered at 30 kHz and PZT-2
signals simultaneously via surface-mounted d31 PZT-3 and bondline-embedded d15 sensing
sensors. The same actuation signal was then used to excite d15 PZT-2 and the
voltage signals simultaneously via surface-mounted d31 PZT-3 and bondline-embedded d15 PZT-2 propagating waves
were picked
sensors. Theupsame
by d15 PZT-1. signal
actuation The sensed waveforms
was then were first
used to excite d15 de-noised
PZT-2 andusing discrete wavelet
the propagating waves
transform
were picked up by d15 PZT-1. The sensed waveforms were first de-noised usingAfter
with Coiflet mother wavelet performed at level six wavelet decomposition. identifying
discrete wavelet
the first wavewith
transform packet, the maximum
Coiflet voltage and
mother wavelet the phase
performed atshift
levelwith
sixrespect to baseline
wavelet signals were
decomposition. After
determined for each individual cycle of mid-span deflection.
identifying the first wave packet, the maximum voltage and the phase shift with respect to baseline
The were
signals waveform signalsfor
determined at each
1 mm and 3.3 mm
individual mid-span
cycle of mid-spandeflections were compared against the
deflection.
baseline signals for each corresponding PZT sensor and are given in Figure 9. The results show that
the signals received at 1 mm mid-span deflection lead the baseline signals by about 60 degrees but are
associated with relatively small attenuation compared to baseline signals. The signals appeared to
lead the baseline signals after the initiation of mixed-mode crack along with smaller cracks, as can
be seen from Figure 7c. This event may also cause a change in the thickness of the damage region
yielding higher frequency-thickness product which results in slightly faster propagating waves in
the laminate specimen. At 3.3 mm mid-span deflection, an opposite behavior was observed in which
the recorded signals lag the baseline signals by about 80 degrees and have substantial attenuation in
amplitudes. The antisymmetric waves generated by bondline-embedded d15 PZT actuators traveled
through the laminate specimen governed by maximum normal strain in the x-direction on the surface
and maximum xz shear strain at the neutral axis. The normal strain was mainly captured by the
surface-mounted d31 PZT, while the maximum xz shear strain was sensed by bondline-embedded
d15 PZTs. It can also be observed from the results in Figure 9 that the signals obtained from d15 PZT
sensors show higher attenuation compared to the d31 PZT sensor signal.
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 13 of 22
0.3 0.3
Pristine Damage Pristine Damage
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
Voltage, V
0
Voltage, V
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time, msec Time, msec
(a) (b)
0.3 0.3
Pristine Damage Pristine Damage
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
Voltage, V
Voltage, V
0 0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(c) (d)
Figure 9. Comparison of waveform signals collected from bondline-embedded d15 PZT and surface
Figure 9. Comparison of waveform signals collected from bondline-embedded d15 PZT and surface
mounted d31 PZT sensors at 1 mm deflection (left column) and 3.3 mm deflection (right column) for
mounted d31 PZT sensors at 1 mm deflection (left column) and 3.3 mm deflection (right column) for
wave propagation paths: (a,b) PZT-1 → PZT-2 and (c,d) PZT-1 → PZT-3.
wave propagation paths: (a,b) PZT-1 → PZT-2 and (c,d) PZT-1 → PZT-3.
Sensor waveform signals collected during the experiment were processed to determine the
Similar trends were also observed from the signals received by the surface-mounted d31 PZT
maximum voltage in the first arrival and the phase shift with respect to the reference signals.
sensor as shown in Figure 10c,d. It can be observed from the results that the phase shift in d31 PZT
The results are shown in Figure 10. It can be seen from Figure 10a that the voltage amplitude displays
signals also shows a significant drop at 0.9 mm mid-span deflection. The higher voltage amplitude
little change until 2.3 mm deflection at which it shows a start of sharp decline in the amplitude reaching
generated by d31 PZT sensor compared to d15 PZT senor was attributed to the variation in
about 0.05 volts for d15 PZT-2 sensor. Over the mid-span deflection 0–3.3 mm, there is about 70%
electromechanical properties as well as differing mechanisms of sensing elements and the forces
voltage reduction in the measured signals compared to the baseline signal. On the contrary, the phase
acting on these sensing elements. As previously mentioned, the normal strains induced by the d15
shift in sensor signals (Figure 10b) has an increasing trend until 0.9 mm (prior to the mixed-mode
PZT actuator are small in the adhesive joint and maximum at the free surface, where the d31 PZT
crack) and lagging baseline signals by about 50 degrees followed by an abrupt drop by 110 degrees
sensor was mounted. However, the shear strains are negligible at the surface and maximum at the
when cracking occurs, leading the baseline signals by 60 degrees. The increasing trend in the phase
neutral axis, where d15 PZT sensors were embedded. The surface-mounted d31 PZT sensor measured
shift prior to the sharp drop at 0.9 mm mid-span deflection is attributable to the process of damage
maximum normal strains while d15 PZT sensors measured the maximum shear strain in the
during cyclic loading developing into a flexural cracking as well as the effect of plastic deformation
bondline. In Figure 10e,f, similar trends were observed in which the mixed-mode crack in the
resulting in modulation of the propagating waves. After 0.9 mm mid-span deflection, the sensed
bondline resulted in a significant effect on antisymmetric waves transmitted through it with
signals show an increasing trend which crosses to the positive phase and extends past the initial peak,
negligible voltage drop.
reaching 85 degrees at 3.3 mm deflection.
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 14 of 22
0.2 100
0.15 50
Phase, deg
Voltage, V
0.1 0
0.05 -50
0 -100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Deflection, mm Deflection, mm
(a) (b)
0.3 100
0.25
50
0.2
Phase, deg
Voltage, V
0.15 0
0.1
-50
0.05
0 -100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
(c) (d)
0.2 100
0.15 50
Phase, deg
Voltage, V
0.1 0
0.05 -50
0 -100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
(e) (f)
FigureFigure 10. Maximum

10. Maximum voltage
voltage amplitude
amplitude (leftcolumn)
(left column) and
and phase
phaseshift
shift(right column)
(right from
column) waveform
from waveform
signals collected from bondline-embedded d15 PZT and surface mounted d31
signals collected from bondline-embedded d15 PZT and surface mounted d31 PZT sensors PZT sensors for wave
for wave
propagation
propagation paths:paths:
(a,b)(a,b) PZT-1
PZT-1 →→ PZT-2;
PZT-2; (c,d)PZT-1
(c,d) PZT-1→ PZT-3; and
→PZT-3; and (e,f)
(e,f)PZT-2
PZT-2→→PZT-1.
PZT-1.
SimilarThe change
trends werein also
PCCobserved
and NSEfromdamage indicesreceived
the signals calculated oversurface-mounted
by the the first wave packet
d31 PZT were
sensor
correlated with damage through this test. It can be observed from the results in Figure 11 that PCC
as shown in Figure 10c,d. It can be observed from the results that the phase shift in d31 PZT signals
increases as the deflection increases until reaching an initial peak at about 0.9 mm at which the mixed-
also shows a significant drop at 0.9 mm mid-span deflection. The higher voltage amplitude generated
mode crack was fully developed in the specimen. The increasing trend of PCC before the mixed-
by d31mode
PZTcracking
sensor compared to d15 PZT
can also be attributed senor
to the was attributed
progressive damage into athe variation
form in electromechanical
of small defects and plastic
properties as well as differing mechanisms of sensing elements and the forces
deformation in the region between the loading supports. This was followed by a decreasing acting on these
trendsensing
in
the damage index value reaching a local low at 2.3 mm. That was next followed by increasing trends
elements. As previously mentioned, the normal strains induced by the d15 PZT actuator are small
in thereaching
adhesive thejoint
maximum index value
and maximum at at
the3.3free
mmsurface,
deflection. Thisthe
where behavior
d31 PZT was sensor
observedwasfrom all
mounted.
embedded
However, sensors
the shear in the
strains arespecimen.
negligible The
at NSE damageand
the surface index is less sensitive
maximum to phaseaxis,
at the neutral shiftwhere
in the d15
signals and
PZT sensors wereexhibits constantly
embedded. decreasing
The trend from 0–2.3
surface-mounted mm deflection
d31 PZT suggestingmaximum
sensor measured that the change
normal
in energy of the received signals is relatively small. This behavior
strains while d15 PZT sensors measured the maximum shear strain in the bondline. reversed to an upward trend10e,f,
In Figure
indicating a significant drop in the signal energy reaching its maximum at 3.3 mm mid-span
similar trends were observed in which the mixed-mode crack in the bondline resulted in a significant
effect on antisymmetric waves transmitted through it with negligible voltage drop.
The change in PCC and NSE damage indices calculated over the first wave packet were correlated
with damage through this test. It can be observed from the results in Figure 11 that PCC increases as
the deflection increases until reaching an initial peak at about 0.9 mm at which the mixed-mode crack
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 15 of 22
was fully developed in the specimen. The increasing trend of PCC before the mixed-mode cracking
can also be attributed to the progressive damage in a form of small defects and plastic deformation
in the region between the loading supports. This was followed by a decreasing trend in the damage
index value reaching a local low at 2.3 mm. That was next followed by increasing trends reaching the
maximum index value at 3.3 mm deflection. This behavior was observed from all embedded sensors
in the specimen. The NSE damage index is less sensitive to phase shift in the signals and exhibits
constantly decreasing trend from 0–2.3 mm deflection suggesting that the change in energy of the
received signals is relatively small. This behavior reversed to an upward trend indicating a significant
deflection. This behavior can be observed from d15 PZT sensors as well as d31 PZT sensor with minor
drop in the signal energy reaching its maximum at 3.3 mm mid-span deflection. This behavior can be
variation.
observed from d15 PZT sensors as well as d31 PZT sensor with minor variation.
1
PCC
NSE
0.8
Major Transition
0.6
Damage index
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Deflection, mm
(a)
1
PCC
NSE
0.8
Major Transition
0.6
Damage index
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Deflection, mm
(b)
1
PCC
NSE
0.8
Major Transition
0.6
Damage index
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Deflection, mm
(c)
Figure
Figure 11.Damage
11. Damageindexindexvalues
valuesbased
basedon onPearson
Pearsoncorrelation
correlationcoefficient
coefficient(PCC)
(PCC)and
andnormalized
normalized signal
signal
energy(NSE)
energy (NSE)methods
methodscalculated
calculatedfor
for the
the first
first arrival
arrival of
of sensor
sensor signals
signalsreceived
receivedby:
by:(a)(a)
d15 PZT-2;
d15 (b)
PZT-2;
(b)d31
d31PZT-3;
PZT-3;and
and(c)(c)d15
d15PZT-1.
PZT-1.
The damage index ratios of d15 PZT to d31 PZT for PCC and NSE were calculated to compare
the sensitivity of both sensors. The results are displaced in Figure 12. A ratio value of one indicates
both sensors have the same sensitivity whereas a ratio value greater than one indicates d15 PZT
sensor has higher sensitivity than d31 PZT sensor, and vice versa. It can be observed from Figure 12
that the majority of PCC and NSE ratios show values above unity. This can be attributed to the
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 16 of 22
The damage index ratios of d15 PZT to d31 PZT for PCC and NSE were calculated to compare
the sensitivity of both sensors. The results are displaced in Figure 12. A ratio value of one indicates
both sensors have the same sensitivity whereas a ratio value greater than one indicates d15 PZT sensor
has higher sensitivity than d31 PZT sensor, and vice versa. It can be observed from Figure 12 that
the majority of PCC and NSE ratios show values above unity. This can be attributed to the optimal
location advantage of d15 PZTs being internally embedded within the adhesive layer, resulting in
direct coupling to the bondline.
PCC d15/d31
NSE d15/d31
1.5
1
Ratio
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Deflection, mm
Figure 12. Damage index ratios of d15 PZT to d31 PZT for PCC and NSE.
Figure 12. Damage index ratios of d15 PZT to d31 PZT for PCC and NSE.
The damage index values of PCC in Figure 11 reveals the interaction level of antisymmetric
The damage index values of PCC in Figure 11 reveals the interaction level of antisymmetric
waves with the damage. It can be noted from Figure 11, despite the increase in damage severity of the
waves with the damage. It can be noted from Figure 11, despite the increase in damage severity of
laminate specimen, the values of NSE and PCE show decreasing behavior until loading cycle reached
the laminate specimen, the values of NSE and PCE show decreasing behavior until loading cycle
2.3 mm. This trend could be due to the change in damage characteristics resulting in low interaction
reached 2.3 mm. This trend could be due to the change in damage characteristics resulting in low
between the antisymmetric waves and the bondline damage. Antisymmetric waves tend to interact
interaction between the antisymmetric waves and the bondline damage. Antisymmetric waves tend
much less with linear defects, such as voids, than with nonlinear defects such as disbonds and cracks.
to interact much less with linear defects, such as voids, than with nonlinear defects such as disbonds
The high sensitivity of antisymmetric waves to nonlinear defects is often attributed to the change in the
and cracks. The high sensitivity of antisymmetric waves to nonlinear defects is often attributed to the
contact length of a defect during the propagation of waves [35–37]. Therefore, when the mixed-mode
change in the contact length of a defect during the propagation of waves [35–37]. Therefore, when
crack initiated over the mid-span deflection 0–0.9 mm, the crack has the characteristics of a nonlinear
the mixed-mode crack initiated over the mid-span deflection 0–0.9 mm, the crack has the
defect that has strong interaction with antisymmetric waves. Thus, the PCC damage index from all
characteristics of a nonlinear defect that has strong interaction with antisymmetric waves. Thus, the
sensors shows an increasing trend until the mixed-mode crack fully developed at 0.9 mm mid-span
PCC damage index from all sensors shows an increasing trend until the mixed-mode crack fully
deflection. The decreasing trend beyond 0.9 mm suggests the damage evolution was not favorable
developed at 0.9 mm mid-span deflection. The decreasing trend beyond 0.9 mm suggests the damage
to antisymmetric waves and reached its maximum growth at 2.3 mm deflection. Higher deflection
evolution was not favorable to antisymmetric waves and reached its maximum growth at 2.3 mm
exacerbated the level of damage; both damage indices predicted low values suggesting antisymmetric
deflection. Higher deflection exacerbated the level of damage; both damage indices predicted low
waves have minimal interaction with damage at 2.3 mm mid-span deflection. Over the deflection
values suggesting antisymmetric waves have minimal interaction with damage at 2.3 mm mid-span
range 1–2.3 mm, the laminate specimen is expected to be accompanied by plastic deformation causing
deflection. Over the deflection range 1–2.3 mm, the laminate specimen is expected to be accompanied
the mixed-mode crack to gradually develop into a large void such that the crack remains open at
by plastic deformation causing the mixed-mode crack to gradually develop into a large void such
no-load conditions resulting in less interaction with antisymmetric waves.
that the crack remains open at no-load conditions resulting in less interaction with antisymmetric
Despite the presence of disbonds at the early stage over 1–2.3 mm mid-span deflection range, it is
waves.
expected the contribution of disbonds to voltage waveform distortion is minimal as the results suggest
Despite the presence of disbonds at the early stage over 1–2.3 mm mid-span deflection range, it
that disbonds were either zero-volume disbonds or were comparatively not long enough to interact
is expected the contribution of disbonds to voltage waveform distortion is minimal as the results
with 36-mm-wavelength antisymmetric waves. The damage index values from both NSE and PCC
suggest that disbonds were either zero-volume disbonds or were comparatively not long enough to
reveal a turning point at 2.3 mm with a sharp upward trend until failure. It was noted that the flexural
interact with 36-mm-wavelength antisymmetric waves. The damage index values from both NSE and
rigidity of the specimen constantly decreased while the disbond grew, resulting in longer disbonds
PCC reveal a turning point at 2.3 mm with a sharp upward trend until failure. It was noted that the
which were expected to be the main source for the noticeable distortion in the received waveform
flexural rigidity of the specimen constantly decreased while the disbond grew, resulting in longer
signals over the mid-span deflection range 2.3–3.3 mm. This finding agrees well with state-of-the-art
disbonds which were expected to be the main source for the noticeable distortion in the received
ultrasonic wave interaction with defects supporting that elastic waves including antisymmetric waves
waveform signals over the mid-span deflection range 2.3–3.3 mm. This finding agrees well with state-
have higher sensitivity to nonlinear defects such as cracks and disbonds than linear defects such as
of-the-art ultrasonic wave interaction with defects supporting that elastic waves including
voids [35–38].
antisymmetric waves have higher sensitivity to nonlinear defects such as cracks and disbonds than
linear defects such as voids [35–38].
The PCC damage index is more sensitive to phase shift while the NSE damage index is more
sensitive to amplitude of voltage waveform signals as reflected in Figure 10 and 11. Despite the
existence of a combined defect in the bondline, the amount of distortion inflicted on the propagating
antisymmetric waves is determined by the dominant type of defect. In this study, the defect type was
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 17 of 22
The PCC damage index is more sensitive to phase shift while the NSE damage index is more
sensitive to amplitude of voltage waveform signals as reflected in Figures 10 and 11. Despite the
existence of a combined defect in the bondline, the amount of distortion inflicted on the propagating
antisymmetric waves is determined by the dominant type of defect. In this study, the defect type was
not controlled thus multiple joint defects were present simultaneously. This presented a challenge to
correlate change in waveform signals with a certain type of defect.
4.5. Influence of Preload Condition

This test was performed after the mixed-mode crack initiated in the same laminate specimen used
in this experiment. In this analysis, actuation of bondline-embedded d15 PZTs and the sensing of
elastic waves in the laminate specimen has occurred at a preload condition such that the mid-span load
was not fully removed during ultrasonic inspection. An application of a small load on the specimen
is expected to alter the characteristics of the combined defects and consequently the propagation of
ultrasonic waves.
The waveform signals picked up by the bondline-embedded d15 PZT and the surface-mounted
d31 PZT for the three-point bending cycle of 1.3 mm mid-span deflection at no-preload condition are
presented in Figure 13. The received signals were superimposed with baseline signals for comparison
purposes, and the scattered signals which are the difference between the measured signals and the
baseline signals were also calculated and displayed in Figure 14. The received and scattered signals
when a 50 N force was applied are shown in Figures 13 and 14. Despite the small magnitude of
the applied load, the mid-span deflection was about 0.18 mm due to the preexisting damage in the
specimen. Therefore, the analysis indicates a significant difference between received signals from
preload condition and no-preload condition. It can be noted from Figures 13 and 14 that the captured
signals at preload condition are lagging the baseline signals with significant phase shift and voltage
reduction as compared with received signals at no-preload condition. The damage indices based on
PCC and NSE methods were also calculated for both loading conditions with results given in Table 3.
The damage index values indicate that the damage exists with high severity at 1.3 mm mid-span
deflection. Using Equation (9), the amount of stress induced by the applied load was estimated to be
about 17 N/mm2 . The applied load at mid-span produces normal stresses across the thickness between
loading supports, thus the propagating waves are anticipated to be modulated and be reflected on
the received signals. However, this resulting distortion from a small applied load is expected to
have negligible effect as compared to the effect of damage on the propagating waves. The results
strongly suggest that the applied load on the specimen caused a geometric change to the bondline
damage resulting in significant distortion to the propagating waves. As previously discussed in
Section 4.4, the mixed-mode crack was observed and fully developed in the bondline at 0.9 mm
mid-span deflection, and that was followed by plastic deformation causing the crack to remain open
resulting in low distortion in received signals over the range 1–2.3 mm mid-span deflection as shown
in Figure 11. Therefore, in the preload condition at 1.3 mm mid-span deflection, the applied load is
anticipated to open the mixed-mode crack and disbonds while the antisymmetric waves transmitted
through the bondline cause higher scattering of the propagating waves.
Table 3. Damage indices of PCC and NSE for signals obtained from d15 PZT-2 and d31 PZT-3 at 0 N
(no-preload condition) and at 50 N preload applied on the specimen at 1.3 mm three-point loading cycle.
Wave Propagation Path 0N 50 N

PCC NSE PCC NSE
PZT-1 → PZT-2 0.5644 0.1790 1.2886 0.6947
PZT-1 → PZT-3 0.5398 0.1657 1.1829 0.6724
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 18 of 22
0.3 0.3
Pristine 0N Pristine 50 N
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
Voltage, V
Voltage, V
0 0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(a) (b)
0.3 0.3
Pristine 0N Pristine 50 N
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
Voltage, V
Voltage, V
0 0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(c) (d)
FigureFigure 13. Comparison

13. Comparison of voltage
of voltage signals
signals from from laminate
laminate specimen
specimen at no-preload
at no-preload condition
condition (left
(left column)
Actuators 2019, 8,and
and 50 N mid-span preload (right column) at 1.3 mm three-point loading cycle: (a,b) d15 PZT-2 20
column) x FOR
50 PEER
N REVIEWpreload (right column) at 1.3 mm three-point loading cycle: (a,b) d15
mid-span of 23
sensor
PZT-2 sensor and (c,d) d31 PZT-3 sensor.
and (c,d) d31 PZT-3 sensor.
0.3 0.3
Scatter Scatter
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
Voltage, V
Voltage, V
0 0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(a) (b)
0.3 0.3
Scatter Scatter
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
Voltage, V
Voltage, V
0 0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(c) (d)
14. Scattered
FigureFigure signals
14. Scattered from
signals laminate
from laminatespecimen
specimen at
at no-preload condition
no-preload condition (left
(left column)
column) andand
50 N50 N
mid-span
mid-span preload (right column) at 1.3 mm three-point loading cycle: (a,b) d15 PZT-2 sensor and and
preload (right column) at 1.3 mm three-point loading cycle: (a,b) d15 PZT-2 sensor (c,d) (c,d)
d31 PZT-3 sensor.
d31 PZT-3 sensor.
The results in Table 3 indicate that the damage index values calculated for bondline-embedded
d15 PZT sensor are consistently higher than the surface-mounted d31 PZT sensor in both preload
conditions. As mentioned in earlier literature [4,5], ultrasonic waves that put the bondline in shear
interact profoundly with nonlinear defects; this study supports this finding as well. It is worth
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 19 of 22
The results in Table 3 indicate that the damage index values calculated for bondline-embedded
d15 PZT sensor are consistently higher than the surface-mounted d31 PZT sensor in both preload
conditions. As mentioned in earlier literature [4,5], ultrasonic waves that put the bondline in shear
interact profoundly with nonlinear defects; this study supports this finding as well. It is worth
mentioning that the presented damage detection methodology has two obvious issues concerning its
applications in real-life structures: (a) Embedding PZT sensors in bondlines of laminate structures
could potentially weaken the bond strength and make it susceptible to defects. (b) The tested
adhesive layer is considered too thick and often not desirable. Potential methods to address this are
mentioned in the future work section and could include miniaturized sensing elements which have
been developed already and are used to monitor various structures [39,40]. The development and
evaluation of embedding sensing elements inside the bondline of laminate structures for structural
integrity assessment using piezoelectric transducers has shown promising results and is still under
investigation [2,3,41]. Furthermore, despite differing sensitivity of antisymmetric waves to the inflicted
damage, bondline-embedded d15 PZTs provide a promising initial step forward for health monitoring
of bondline integrity.
5. Conclusions
This paper presented an investigation into bondline damage detection employing d15 piezoelectric
transducers that were embedded within the bondline of a laminate structure. Two methods were
implemented in this experiment to assess the ability of d15 PZT transducers to monitor adhesive
joint integrity: (1) ultrasonic wave propagation method to inspect the regions between the sensors
and (2) EMI method to inspect the regions at the location of sensors using its inherent sensitivity
to structural stiffness. An aluminum–epoxy–aluminum specimen consisting of surface-mounted
d31 PZT and bondline-embedded d15 PZT transducers was carefully designed to test sensitivity to
joint defects. The joint defects in the bondline were created by quasi-static three-point bending test,
and electromechanical impedance of d15 PZTs was measured after each three-point loading cycle to
ensure they did not incur damage throughout the experiment. A five-peak tone burst signal centered
at 30 kHz was used throughout the experiment to excite bondline-embedded d15 PZTs to generate
antisymmetric waves in the laminate specimen. It was observed that antisymmetric waves generated
by d15 PZT actuators exhibited strong interaction with joint defects, especially nonlinear defects such as
cracks and disbonds, supporting the capability of the proposed methodology for ultrasonic inspection
of adhesively bonded structures. It was observed from experimental results that d15 PZT sensors
consistently showed larger changes in voltage amplitude due to bondline defects when compared to
the signals produced by the surface-mounted d31 PZT sensor. This was due to a combination of the
location advantage of d15 PZT sensor being in the bondline sensing shear strain, and the different
electromechanical coupling properties. Two damage indices based on Pearson correlation coefficient
and normalized signal energy were investigated to detect the presence of damage and its severity.
It was found that Pearson correlation coefficient is more sensitive to phase shift in received signals
while normalized signal energy method more sensitive to amplitude of voltage waveform signals.
The proposed approach provides novel insights into the benefits offered by bondline-embedded d15
PZT transducers for the health monitoring of adhesive bond joints.
6. Future Work
This work represents a large-scale investigation of the feasibility of a novel approach using
shear-mode PZTs for damage detection. The use of three-point bending test introduced different
types of defects and plastic deformation in the specimen. The effects of plasticity and different types
of defects presented a challenge to clearly distinguish distortions in propagating waves caused by
defects from the ones resulting from plastic deformation. Further investigation is necessary to fully
understand the capabilities and drawbacks of midline shear actuation and sensing for damage detection.
Miniaturization of the system is also necessary to make shear-mode PZTs embeddable in realistic
Actuators 2019, 8, 70 20 of 22
bondlines with a goal of reducing the size of components to that of a scrim of adhesive films. Optimizing
design and miniaturization of shear-mode piezoelectric transducers are of considerable interest to
accelerate their integration into ultrasonic structural health monitoring systems. Furthermore, this
work was limited to a specific actuation frequency throughout the ultrasonic inspection test, thus
further investigation concerning the relation between actuation frequency and sensitivity of waves to
joint defects needs to be considered. Employing more sophisticated signal extraction methods could
improve damage detection capabilities, identifying the characteristics of existing defects, their severity,
and the remaining useful life of a structure.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.A. and N.S.; Methodology, H.A. and N.S.; Experiments and data
analysis, H.A., Writing—original draft preparation, H.A.; Writing—review and editing, H.A., N.S. and A.D.;
Supervision, N.S. and A.D.; Funding acquisition, N.S.
Funding: This work was supported in part by funding from University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Actuators: Damage Detection Using d15 Piezoelectric Sensors in A Laminate Beam Undergoing Three-Point Bending

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actuators

Keywords: shear-mode piezoelectric transducers; antisymmetric waves; laminate structures;

Actuators 2019, 8, 70; doi:10.3390/act8040070 www.mdpi.com/journal/actuators

2.1. Shear-Mode (d15) PZTs

Di = dikl Tkl + εTik Ek (2)

S5 = sE55 T5 + d15 E1 (3)

D1 = d15 T5 + εT11 E1 (4)

3.3. Experimental Method

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Wave Propagation Analysis

Wave Propagation Path Time of Flight (µs) Group Velocity (m/s)

4.2. Joint Degradation

Figure 7.7. (a)

4.3. Electromechanical Impedance

Frequency, kHz Frequency, kHz

Time, msec Time, msec

Time, msec Time, msec

FigureFigure 10. Maximum

4.5. Influence of Preload Condition

Wave Propagation Path 0N 50 N

Time, msec Time, msec

Time, msec Time, msec

FigureFigure 13. Comparison

Time, msec Time, msec

Time, msec Time, msec

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