LESSON 1: Principles of Food

Processing
TOPIC 1:Salting,Curing and Smoking
Introduction
Food is processed for several reasons – to add value to raw agricultural products, to
extend shelf-life, to create new food products, to improve the nutritional value of
products, to create new food products and more. Food processing has introduced so
many products – from bacon to pickles, canned goods, even candies! In this lesson, you
will learn about five (5) clustered methods of food processing.

Salting involves introducing salt into the flesh of fish or meat. Water moves out of the meat or
fish and is absorbed by the salt. Microbial cells die in the meat from the loss of water, therefore,
preventing spoilage.
Common raw materials for salting include egg, meat, fish and other marine productscold
TOPIC 2: Fermentation and Pickling

Fermentation has three different types:

1. Lactic Acid fermentation  

Lactic acid fermentation is the anaerobic microbial breakdown of sugar which yields energy in
the form of ATP and produces a byproduct called lactic acid. 

Lactic acid fermentation is caused by good bacteria. The most important bacteria being
Lactobacillus – which you may have heard is an ingredient of a probiotic drink. 

Lactic acid improves the microbiological stability of food by fighting off the bad bacteria.

The most common products of lactic acid fermentation are yogurt and sauerkraut.

2. Alcoholic fermentation

Alcoholic fermentation is the anaerobic microbial breakdown of sugar into alcohol and carbon
dioxide due to the addition of yeast. The final product of alcoholic fermentation is ethanol. 

Some of the products of alcoholic fermentation include beer and wine.

3. Acetic acid fermentation

In acetic acid fermentation, ethanol undergoes oxidation to produce vinegar. This type of
fermentation follows alcoholic fermentation and uses a mother/starter vinegar from the genus
Acetobacter to feed on the alcohol to produce acetic acid. 

Pickling is a much simpler method than fermenting. It uses acidic brine to preserve food. This
brine consists of vinegar and sugar which are brought to a boil. The brine is then poured into a
container of vegetables or fruits. The use of heat and acid kills the bacteria while the vinegar
makes the texture of the food softer. 

Popular pickled products are cucumber pickles and binurong mangga.

TOPIC 3: Sugar Concentration

The secret to their preservation is in the concentration of three key ingredients: sugar,
pectin, and acid. These three ingredients lower the pH and bind available water. Hence,
the growth of microorganisms is slowed down.

Pectin is a soluble gelatinous polysaccharide present in ripe and under-ripe fruits. It is

the setting agent of jams and jellies. 

Sugar has the same osmotic effect as salt that reduces the amount of free water in food
where microorganisms multiply. Sugar also gives the distinct taste that many ‘sweet
tooths’ enjoy. Jams and jellies require a final sugar concentration of 65-69%. 

Acidity pertains to the level of acid in fruits and is measured by using a pH meter. Acid
toughens the fibers of the gel network. The recommended pH level for sugar-
concentrated products should be between 2.8-3.3. 

When fruit is boiled, pectin is released to form a gel network. Sugar draws out water
from the pectin and binds itself with the water. Acid helps gel formation by toughening
the fibers of the gel network. 

Knowing the right concentration of the ingredients requires testing fruit for
acidity and pectin content. If the pectin content of the fruit is low, a commercial source
may be added. If the acid content of the fruit is low, lemon juice or other sources of citric
acid can be added. 

TOPIC 4: Drying and Dehydration

TOPIC 5: Thermal Application
Thermal application is the application of heat to ensure microbial destruction. There
are two methods: pasteurization and pressurization. 
LESSON 2: The Food Processing Plant
Introduction
In this lesson, you will familiarize yourself with the key elements of a food processing
facility. You will also learn about the tools, equipment, and utensils that you may find
inside one. 

This lesson will cover the knowledge, skills, and attitude required to operate food
processing tools, equipment, and instruments in the workplace. 

Towards the end of the unit, you will also learn about the difference between cleaning
and sanitizing which are essential in maintaining the cleanliness and sanitation of a food
processing facility.

TOPIC 1: The Food Processing Facility

A food processing facility is a facility where food for human consumption is:

 manufactured; 
 packaged; 
 labeled; and 
 stored.

Each food processing facility is designed differently depending on the cost of

production, type of product, safety, capacity, hygiene, and sanitation. Being familiar with
the key elements of a food processing facility will help you navigate your way in the
workplace. Explore the layout to learn about the key elements of a food processing
facility.
TOPIC 2: Equipment
In food processing, equipment refers to a set of mechanical tools designed to achieve a
particular objective. In this topic, you will encounter food processing equipment in
accordance with industry standards. 

 Chest Freezer - Freezers can reduce the temperature of objects within the range
-1 to -13 degrees Celsius. Only food intended for freezing can be placed inside
the freezer.
 Chiller - Chillers are used to lower the temperature of liquids within the range 2
to 7 degrees Celsius.
 Juice Extractor – squeezes out the juice from fresh vegetables and fruits
 Meat Slicer – also called a slicing machine. It is used to slice meats, sausages,
cheeses, and other deli products.
 Mixer – a machine used for mixing ingredients. Often used in baking. 
 Pressure Cooker - sealed pot with a valve that controls the steam pressure
inside to cook food faster and make the meat tender
 Pressure Canner – has a dial that indicates the pressure inside the canner and
a weighted gauge that allows steam to come in and out. It works by trapping
steam and building up pressure inside the pot.
 Smokehouse– an equipment used to cure meat or fish with smoke
 Boiler – It is used to contain a liquid for pasteurization. A modern version such
as the steam jacketed kettle boils liquid through steam. It is enclosed by a ‘jacket’
to ensure even heating.
 Steamer – used to cook or prepare various foods with steam heat by means of
holding the food in a closed vessel, reducing steam escape. Food is placed at
the top, over boiling water that produces hot moist air. 
 Sterilizer – equipment used to destroy microorganisms by bringing to a high
temperature with steam, dry heat, or boiling liquid
 Trolleys – a small vehicle with wheels that can carry things. Used for
transporting heavy loads.
 Vacuum Packaging Machine – a machine that removes air from the package
prior to sealing.
 Hot Water Bath Canner - a large kettle used for water bath. It has racks for
glass jars to sit on whilst submerged in water and boiled to 100 C.
 Silent cutter – used to chop and mix meat as well as cut into identical sizes to
make sausages

TOPIC 3: Tools/Utensils
Tools are handheld devices used to carry out particular functions. Utensils are tools,
containers, or other articles specifically used for household tasks like cooking. Let’s
explore them in this topic!
Containers

 Bowl – a round dish used to prepare and serve food. It can be made of different
materials such as aluminum, enamel, glass, stainless steel, or stoneware.
 Casserole – a large, deep dish used both in the oven and as a serving vessel
 Enamel Kettle - is a type of pot, specialized for boiling water, with a lid, spout, and
handle
 Food Tray - flat dish or container that's used to carry or serve food. It can also be used
for storing or displaying.
 Jars – a glass container ideal for packaging fermented and sugar concentrated products 
 Mixing Bowl – a stainless steel bowl used for mixing ingredients together in. 
 Non-Stick Pan – cooking pans that have non-stick properties. They do not require any
amount of oil and work well with food that generally sticks.
 Perforated Tray – a pan that has holes in the bottom. It allows steam and/or oil to
escape the food.
 Saucepan – a deep cooking pan, typically round, made of metal, and with one long
handle and a lid used for general range-top cooking
 Soaking Container – used for containing curing or brining solutions along with the meat,
fruit, or vegetable
 Utility Tray – designed for carrying items, it can be utilized for a number of functions. A
utility tray can be used when mixing liquids or transferring products from one container to
another. It can hold product to avoid spills.
 Wire Basket –it is a metal container used to sort and store items in the food processing
plant

Hand Tools

 Basting Spoons – used to scoop liquid at the bottom of the pan and pour it into the
foodstuff being cooked
 Can Opener – a mechanical device used to open tin cans
 Colander – a bowl-shaped strainer, it is usually made of metal that has holes through
which liquid can drain. It is typically used to drain boiled foods such as pasta and
potatoes. It can also be used in rinsing fruits and vegetables.
 Cook’s Fork – heavy, two-pronged fork with a long handle. Used for lifting and turning
meat or another foodstuff.
 Fish Descaler – a small hand tool used to remove the scales attached to the skin of fish
with ease
 Food Tongs – spring-type tools used to grip and lift foodstuff.
 Funnel – a tube or pipe, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom. It is used for guiding
liquid or powder into a small opening.
 Jar Lifter – works like a tong, is used to grip and lift jars with hot contents
 Squeezer – a hand-pressed tool used for squeezing juice from fruit.
 Mandoline – has a flat surface with a razor-sharp blade that can be adjusted to cut thick
or thin slices. 
 Strainer – a handheld tool used to strain food 
 Syringe – a tube with a needle and pump used to inject curing solution into meat
  Wooden Ladle – a long-handled spoon with a cup-shaped bowl made of wood. It can be
used for lifting liquid out of a pot.
 Wooden Spoon – a spoon that can be for stirring sauces, mixing ingredients, or cooking.
It is preferred over metal spoons because it does not transfer heat. 

Cutting Tools

 Boning Knife – used for boning raw meat and poultry. A flexible boning knife is used for
filleting and light cutting. It is thin and pointed usually about 6 inches long.
 Bread Knife – used for slicing bread, cake, pastry
 Chef’s Knife – most used knife in the kitchen for chopping, slicing, dicing, etc. The blade
is wider nearing the handle and tapers until it reaches the sharp point. 
 Chopping Board – where food items to be sliced or chopped are placed
 Cleaver – used to hack and cut through bones. It is a very heavy and broad knife.
 Honing Rod – used to realign the knife’s edges quickly
 Sharpening Steel / Stone – same as honing rod
 Paring Knife – This is a small and pointed knife around 2 to 4 inches long. This is used
for trimming and paring vegetables and fruits.
 Peeler – used for peeling vegetables and fruits with a revolving blade mechanism
 Utility Knife – used for cutting and preparing fruits, as well as carving roast chicken and
duck. It is a narrow knife about 6 inches in length.

TOPIC 4: Apparatus/Instrument
Apparatus refers to a special set of tools often used in the laboratory. But they remain
useful in food processing. Let’s see why!

Measuring glass – used to measure liquid ingredients. 

Measuring cups – used to measure dry ingredients such as sugar and flour.  Each cup
in the set measures a specific amount as indicated on its handle.

Measuring spoons – used to measure small amounts of ingredients. Each spoon in the
set measures a specific amount as indicated on its handle.

Moisture Analyzer – used to determine moisture content of a sample by determining

the weight loss of that sample after heating. This will be very helpful in monitoring water
content of the food that you process.

pH meter – an instrument used to measure acidity or alkalinity. 

Refractometer – used to measure sugar concentration when processing jams, jellies,

preserves, and marmalades. For starters, you will most likely encounter this when
making solutions with water and sugar. 
Salinometer – an instrument for measuring the salinity of a solution. It has various
types: digital, digital handheld pocket, pen-type, and combination.

Hydrometer – used to measure relative density of liquids based on the concept of

buoyancy

Water Activity Meter – used to measure water activity by allowing free water from food
sample to escape to the meter chamber. 

Thermometer – measures temperature of food, has many types including meat and
digital thermometer.

Meat Thermometer – used to measure internal temperature of meat. Depending on

manufacturer specifications, some meat thermometers can be left during cooking for
monitoring of temperature.

Digital Thermometer – also used to measure the temperature of food, it gives digital
reading of the temperature.

Timer – usually comes in an hour range, it will help you perform different tasks at the
same time.

Weighing scale – Most recipe ingredients are measured by weight so accurate scales
are very important. Portion scales are used for measuring ingredients as well as for
portioning products for service.

TOPIC 2: HACCP
Under the Republic Act. 10611, the Department of Health shall ensure the safety of all
food processing and product packaging activities. For this reason, the Food and Drug
Center for Food Regulation and Research enforces HACCP and other risk-based
control measures in food processing. 

Hazard Analyses at Critical Control Points (HACCP) refers to a food safety

management system which identifies, evaluates and controls hazards which are
significant for food safety at critical points during a given stage in the food supply chain.

Food Safety Hazards is any biological, chemical, or physical agent in food with the
potential to cause adverse effects on health.

Examples:

o Biological: bacteria, viruses, parasites, molds

o Chemical: pesticides, processing chemicals, drug residue, allergens
o Physical: bones, pits, glass, metal, hair
Risk is the result of exposure to a hazard.

How to Develop a HACCP Plan

There are five (5) steps that you must first take in order to develop the HACCP Plan.

1. Assemble the HACCP Team. Ideally, the HACCP Team is composed of members
from different departments: Top Management, Purchasing, Food Safety and Quality
Assurance, Production, Maintenance, and Sales.

2. Describe the product. What are the raw materials? What are the product
specifications? What should be the conditions for storage?

3. Specify intended use and target consumers. Who can consume the product? Who
should not?

4. Draw a flow diagram to describe the process steps. Begin with the supplier and take
note of every step that the product undergoes up until distribution.

5. Visit the plant for on-site confirmation of flow diagram.

LESSON 3: Food Manufacturing
Practices
TOPIC 1: Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
TOPIC 2: Occupational Safety and Health
Fire Safety
The following are the measures you can take to ensure fire safety:

 Inspect wires, plugs, gas range, and other equipment on a regular basis.

 Extinguish the fire! Pull pin. Aim at the base. Squeeze handle. Sweep from side
to side.

 Not all fires are the same. Use the right Class of fire extinguisher for every type
of fire.

o Class A - ordinary combustibles such as wood and paper

o Class B - combustible liquids and gases such as alcohol, LPG, grease
o Class C - electrical fire
o Class D - combustible metals such as aluminum
TOPIC 3: 5S of Good Housekeeping
5S of Good Housekeeping is another management approach for productivity and
quality that focuses on maintaining orderliness and cleanliness in the workplace. It is
derived from the Japanese words: seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu, and shitsuke.
TOPIC 4: Cleaning and Sanitizing Equipment, Tools,
and Utensils Cleaning
Cleaning means to remove unnecessary and unpleasant matter like garbage, food
waste, and grease. Cleaning equipment differs from cleaning tools and utensils.
Equipment is usually bigger and involves electrical wiring.

It is always best to refer to the manufacturer’s instructions when cleaning and sanitizing
equipment. However, there are general rules that must be observed when cleaning
equipment:

1. Make sure that the power is turned off and power cords are unplugged.

2. Gas equipment should be turned off.

3. Proper protective clothing must be worn when cleaning equipment that deals with
chemicals.

4. Ventilation should be provided.

TOPIC 4: Cleaning and Sanitizing Equipment, Tools,
and Utensils
Sanitizing
Sanitizing involves the use of a chemical agent to reduce the number of bacteria to
safe levels.

Sanitizing generally consists of three steps:

1. Soaking tools and utensils in hot, clean, and potable water (75 °C) for at least 2
minutes.

2. Immersing in sanitizing solution for at least one minute.

3. Leaving tools and utensils to air dry in a draining rack.

Preparing a Sanitizing Solution

1 Teaspoon Bleach + 1 Gallon Water

Tips in Cleaning and Sanitizing Tools

1. Pre-cleaning and main cleaning can be combined if there is only light

contamination.

2. If using a hose to wash equipment, use high-volume, low-pressure hose in order

to prevent splashing and spraying pathogens onto surfaces. 

3. Sanitize items that come into direct contact with food or with the hands of the
food handlers.

4. Sanitizers work best at the correct dilution. Be sure to check the label before
applying them.

5. Always label chemical agents.

6. Store chemical agents and cleaning materials away from where food is being
handled.
 7. Be sure to clean and dry the cleaning equipment.

TOPIC 5: Proper Waste Disposal

In this topic, you will learn about two common types of waste in food processing. You
will then learn how to manage these wastes. Towards the end, you will learn about the
Food Recovery Hierarchy Model which illustrates different steps on how to reduce
waste. 

TOPIC 5: Proper Waste Disposal

Chemical Waste Management
Chemical waste is any solid, liquid, gaseous matter that when improperly managed or
disposed of may pose harmful effects on the environment and to the surrounding
community. Examples:

 Used oil

 Contaminated syringe

 Denatured alcohol

 Industrial cleaners

 Pesticides

 Batteries

 Degreasing solvents

How to Dispose of Chemical Waste:

1. Identify the type of chemical waste.

2. Select appropriate container.

3. Label chemical waste. Include chemical name, quantity, the date the waste was
generated, place of origin (what part of the production line, room number),
assigned personnel. For mixtures, include each chemical along with their weight
or volume.
 4. Store in appropriate cabinets and wait for the Pollution Control Officer to collect.

Republic Act 6969

DENR AO 36 s. 2004
LESSON 4: Dietary Laws
Next: TOPIC 1: Halal Guidelines in Food Processing ►

Introduction
Dietary laws are special laws followed by a community or a group of people that permit
or prohibit certain foods. Dietary laws cover food origin, slaughtering, preparation,
processing, packaging, transportation, storage, and labeling. Studying dietary laws are
valuable in serving export markets. In this lesson, we will discuss three dietary laws that
are widely followed in the food processing industry. 

TOPIC 1: Halal Guidelines in Food Processing

This guideline is followed by Muslims or believers of the Islamic religion. Islamic Law has a
concept of lawful food. The following are the food sources they do not consider sourcing their
food from:

Sources Examples
Animal (a) Pigs and boars.

(b) Dogs, snakes, and monkeys.

(c) Carnivorous animals with claws and fangs such as lions, tigers, bears and other
similar animals.

(d) Birds of prey with claws such as eagles, vultures, and other similar birds.

(e) Pests such as rats, centipedes, scorpions, and other similar animals.

(f) Animals that are forbidden to be killed in Islam i.e., ants, bees and woodpecker
birds.

(g) Animals which are considered repulsive generally like lice, flies, maggots and
other similar animals.

(h) Animals that live both on land and in water such as frogs, crocodiles, and other
similar animals.

(i) Mules and domestic donkeys.

(j) All poisonous and hazardous aquatic animals.

 (k) Any other animals not slaughtered according to Islamic Law.

(l) Blood
Plant Intoxicating and hazardous plants except where the toxin or hazard can be
eliminated during processing
Drink (a) Alcoholic drinks.

(b) All forms of intoxicating and hazardous drinks.

Food All food additives derived from prohibited animals, plants, and drinks.
Additives

To be considered Halal Food, the following conditions must be met:

 Condition #1: does not consist of unlawful food;

 Condition #2: has not been prepared, processed, transported or stored using any
appliance or facility that has made contact with unlawful food
 Condition #3: has not been in direct contact with any food that fails to satisfy the 1st two
conditions

However, halal food can be processed in different sections within the same premises
where non-halal foods are processed provided that necessary measures are taken
to prevent any contact between halal and non-halal foods

Halal food can also be prepared, processed, transported or stored using facilities that
have been previously used for non-halal foods provided that proper cleaning
procedures, according to Islamic requirements, have been observed.

Additionally, certain preparations may only be done by a Muslim.

Halal certification is required before food can be marketed as halal food.

TOPIC 2: Kashrut Guidelines in Food Processing
This guideline is followed by Jews or believers of Judaism. Kashrut has a concept of permitted
and forbidden animals. Permitted animals and those that conform to the laws of Kashrut are
called Kosher foods. The following are the permitted and forbidden food sources:

Permitted Forbidden
meat from animals that “have cloven hooves” meat from animals that only fulfill one
and “chew the cud” condition such as:

(a) Pigs (have cloven hooves but does not chew

cud)

(b) Camel (chews the cud but does not have

cloven hooves)
milk derived from kosher animals (have cloven dairy products that are derived from non-kosher
hooves and chew the cud) sources
goose, duck, chicken, turkey birds of prey such as eagle, owl, vulture, stork
eggs of kosher birds eggs of non-kosher birds and eggs that contain
blood inside the shell
fish with fins and scales such as tuna, salmon, shellfish such as shrimps, crabs, mussels, and
and herring lobsters
all products that grow in the soil – plants, insects and infested plants
bushes, trees
wine produced in a kosher winery (a) hybrid fruits

(b) fruits from trees planted within the last three

years

Kosher Food

B’lios or the concept of absorbed flavors prohibits Kosher foods from:

 Being cooked with an equipment that was used to cook a non-Kosher food at a temperature
above  yad soledes bo (120°F)
 Being cooked in the same space where non-Kosher foods are cooked
 Sharing a common wall with another product

Additionally, Kosher food does not allow dairy to be mixed with meat. Therefore, the equipment used to
cook dairy must not be used to cook meat. 
Kosher certification is also required before food can be marketed as Kosher food.

TOPIC 3: Organic Food Processing

Organic food processing is different from Kosher and Halal as it is not guided by religion
but of a lifestyle choice. Organic food is minimally processed and boils down to the
following restrictions:
TOPIC 2: Washing and Cleaning
Washing and Cleaning Meat
If the meat is from an accredited supplier and that proper handling and sanitation are
ensured, washing is no longer necessary. 

Washing meat before cooking it is not recommended for two things. First, cross-
contamination may occur when bacteria in raw meat and poultry juices spread on to
other food, utensils, equipment, or surfaces. Second, bacteria in the meat can only be
killed by cooking it to the right temperature so washing meat is no longer necessary. 

Washing meat for food processing will make mixtures watery and will invite microbial
growth. 

If unsure of the source, wash meat gently under cold running water and strain with a
colander before storing it in the freezer. 

LESSON 1: Basic Skills in Preparing

Raw Materials
◄ Previous: Washing and Cleaning Fruits and VegetablesNext: Mincing ►

TOPIC 3: Cutting Techniques

Knife skills are one of the basic requirements in preparing raw materials for
food processing. Knowledge  of appropriate cutting tools , as well as their
proper handling, is required.

Cutting is reducing the size of fibrous material in order to prepare foods for
further processing. 

Some of the basic knife cuts in food processing include:

Mincing

Mincing is mainly done for size reduction and homogenization.

Slicing

Slicing refers to cutting food into broad or flat thin pieces.

Julienne
Julienne refers to cutting thinner and thinner lengthwise strips of food.

Rondelle

Rondelle or rounds refers a type of cut that creates round or oval, flat pieces
by cutting a cylindrical vegetable crosswise.

Filleting

Filleting is a cutting technique for cutting off meat or fish from the bone. 

Trimming

Trimming is the removal of inedible parts or parts with defects and cutting it to
a size appropriate for further processing.

Peeling

Peeling is the removal of the outer covering or skin of a fruit or vegetable. It is

achieved by mechanical cutting or by application of steam, hot water or
heated air. In large-scale operations it is done through abrasion or caustic
peeling.

In knife peeling, fruits and vegetables are pressed against stationary or

rotating blades to remove the skin. Knife peeling is used for fruits where the
skin can be easily removed with little damage.

In abrasion peeling, the material is fed onto roller peelers or fed into a rotating
bowl line with carborundum. Abrasion peeling is ideal for root crops although it
has higher product loss than knife peeling.

In caustic peeling, a fruit or vegetable is submerged in a diluted solution of

sodium hydroxide. The skin may be then removed by mechanical scrubbers or
high-pressure water sprays.

TOPIC 1: Standard Measuring Devices and

Instruments
Earlier we discussed the devices and instruments that you will find in The Food
Processing Plant. Let’s refresh your memory!

Measuring glass – a transparent cup with marker lines used to measure liquid
ingredients.1
 Measuring cups – set of marked cups used to measure dry ingredients
such as sugar and flour. They are either made of plastic, aluminum, or stainless steel.
Each cup in the set measures a specific amount as indicated on its handle.

Measuring spoons – a set of spoons used to measure small amounts of

ingredients. Each spoon in the set measures a specific amount as indicated on its
handle.

Weighing scale – used for measuring ingredients as well as for portioning

products for service.

TOPIC 2: Measurements and Conversion

Common Measurements in Food Processing

Measurement Equivalent
Pinch 1/8 tsp
1 tbsp 3 tsp
2 tbsp 1 oz
4 tbsp ¼ cup
8 tbsp ½ cup
12 tbsp ¾ cup
16 tbsp 1 cup
1 cup of liquid ½ pint
2 cups of liquid 1 pint
4 cups of liquid 1 quart/ 1 liter
2 pints of liquid 1 quart
4 quarts 1 gallon
16 ounces 1 pound
 1 pound 454 grams

Weight and Volume Conversions

Weight ounces (net wt oz) are used in measuring dry food while volume ounces (net fl
oz) are used in measuring fluid substances and food products. When products are
labeled in grams (g) and milliliters (mL), knowledge of weight and volume conversions
might come in handy.

Weight Conversion

To convert ounces to grams, multiply the number of ounces by 28.35

¼ oz 7g
½ oz 14g
1 oz 28g
4 oz (1/4 lb) 113g
8 oz (1/2 lb) 227g
16 oz (1 lb) 454g
24 oz (1 ½ lb) 680g
32 oz (2 lbs) 907g
40 oz (2 ½ lbs) 1.13kg
48 oz (3 lbs) 1.36kg

Volume Conversion

To convert fluid ounces to milliliters, multiply the number (fl oz) by 30

1 tsp (1/6 fl oz) 5 ml

1 tbsp (½ fl oz) 15 ml
2 tbsp (1 fl oz) 30 ml
1 cup (8 fl oz) 240 ml
1 pint (16 fl oz) 480 ml
1 qt (32 fl oz) 960 ml
1 gal (128 fl oz) 3.84 L
LESSON 3: Quality Control Parameters
Introduction
 Quality control parameters are quantitative measures of the physical and chemical
characteristics of processed food. This lesson will discuss what these parameters are
and how to measure them.

1. Total Soluble Solid

2. Temperature

3. Salinity

4. Moisture Content

5. Water Activity

6. pH

LESSON 3: Quality Control Parameters

TOPIC 1: Total Soluble Solid
Definition: Refers to sugar content in solutions wherein sugar is the major component
(honey, juice, syrup). 

Importance: determining the sugar content of the fruit

Instrument for measurement: Refractometer

Unit of measure: degree Brix

Method of measurement: (Trial 1 + Trial 2 + Trial 3)/3 = Brix

TOPIC 3: Salinity
TOPIC 4: Moisture Content
TOPIC 5: Water Activity (Aw)
TOPIC 6: pH
LESSON 4: Production Report and Costing

◄ Previous: TOPIC 1: Making the Production ReportNext: Activity: Drag and Drop ►

TOPIC 2: Computing Production Cost

When computing production costs, consider two types of expenses: direct and indirect costs.

Direct cost pertains to expenses that are directly connected to producing an output. This includes raw
materials, packaging materials, and direct labor. Direct costs can be further classified as fixed or variable.
Fixed direct cost includes labor wages which remain constant throughout the year. Variable direct cost
includes raw materials and ingredients whose prices vary depending on seasonality and quantity
ordered.

Indirect cost pertains to expenses that are not directly connected to an output but is necessary for
maintaining the entire operation. Indirect costs are classified as either fixed or variable. Fixed indirect
costs include rent and equipment. Variable indirect costs include electricity, water, and gas.

A production period can be a week, month, or quarter during which production activity is undertaken.

To compute for total production cost, add direct and indirect costs for an entire production period.

To determine the production cost per unit of the product, divide the total cost by the number of units
produced within the entire production period.

Cost-Based Pricing