Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Abstract
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) play a bigger and bigger role in our everyday life because of
recent development of smart cities. The deployment problem in WSNs are vital, where sensor
nodes are deployed and must remain active to gather and transfer data from one location to
another location. Generally large number of sensor nodes are deployed in operating region.
Hence, minimum number of node deployment to cover full coverage is of enormous significance
for research. This report present an idea to optimize the area coverage rate using particle swarm
optimization with constriction coefficients. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a simple,
effective, and computationally efficient optimization algorithm. It has been applied to address
WSN issues such as optimal deployment, node localization, clustering, and data aggregation.
Introduction
With the rapid advancement in science and technology, we are dwelling into more sophisticated
and out of the box approaches. Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the flag bearers in these state of
the art technologies[1]. IoT facilitates us to sense and control the desired objects remotely.
Wireless sensor nodes sense the data, process it for better performance and then transmit it to the
sink through many intermediate nodes[2]. The whole network of these nodes forms the wireless
sensor network which has the capability of gathering information and sending it to the requester
(sink). Wsn can be used to collect information like the condition of the environment, the position
of a target, some real-time event etc. The basic entity of the WSN is its sensor nodes. A sensor
node comprises of sensing, processing, storage unit and a communication unit. The sensing unit
of a sensor node interfaces with its physical surroundings to gather the required information[3].
The transmission of data and control packets across the network is taken care by the
communication unit of the wireless sensor node. Sensor nodes are also equipped with a
processing unit which can process the data. This unit generally consists of a microcontroller or a
microprocessor. The sensor node is also laced with a memory unit which is used to store an
instruction set and sensed data.The desired application of WSN is to monitor and observe the
target inside the Field of Interest (FoI). Target may be any physical actuation such as heat,
sound, light etc. Sensor node detects these stimuli and process it to convert into a compatible
format of data. Now, this data needs to reach the sink in an effective way. Targets in the given
FoI can be localized differently, some may be deterministically located, for some may be
randomly scattered throughout the FoI. In some cases, the targets may be on the boundary of the
FoI. Based on which type of targets we are dealing with, coverage is divided into three sections:
blanket coverage, point coverage, and target coverage. The blanket (or area) coverage focuses on
monitoring the whole FoI by a group of active sensor nodes. The idea of the point coverage is to
observe given static targets on some given location interior to the FoI. In barrier coverage the
borders of the given FoI in monitored. In recent times, wireless sensor networks have achieved
tremendous attention and are being implemented for many uses and applications. WSN is being
used for military applications, business applications, industrial applications, environmental
applications, home applications, healthcare application and many more. But there are still a lot of
challenges and issues which have impinge on the performance of the sensor network. Deploying
the sensor nodes in the FoI in a cost effective and optimum way is one of them.
The deployment of nodes is a basic yet and an important parameter to determine the
performance of the WSN[4]. Some nodes are deployed randomly while some are deployed
deterministically. Random deployment of nodes is generally preferred for an adverse
environmental condition or to hostile condition. The deployment of nodes must be done by
taking into account some crucial things like energy utilization, coverage and connectivity.
Coverage of a node is a function of the sensing range(rs) of the sensor node. The FoI is said to be
fully covered if each pixel of the interested area lies within the sensing range of at least one
sensor node. Nodes are designed to detect event happening in their sensing range and pass this
occurrence of the event to the interested nodes and the sink. The communication between the
nodes is determined by the communication range(rc) of the sensor node[5]. The network is said
to be connected in at least one path exist between the sink node and rest of the nodes. The
wireless sensor network is supposed to have coverage with full connectivity for better
performance.
This report introduces the idea of optimizing coverage area in terms of coverage area rate
using particle swarm optimization with constriction coefficients.
Preliminaries
Architecture of sensor node:
The sensor node is the basic component of the WSN. The main components of a sensor node are
sensing unit, communication unit, processing unit and storage unit.
Sensing unit: -This unit is responsible to capture the data from their surroundings. They produce
a measurable response to a desired physical stimulus like pressure, temperature, humidity etc[6].
On the basis of working principle sensor node usually be divided into two types active sensor
node and passive sensor node. An active sensor node is a device that is used for evaluating the
signal power produced by the sensor node that was echoed by the target. It needs an additional
power source for producing the signal. The necessity for the extra power source is conspicuous
as they can transmit and receive signals at the same time. A passive sensor node monitors the
signal strength released from the physical environment. A passive sensor does not need an
additional power source for producing the signal. It is conspicuous that the passive sensor node
will consume less energy than the active sensor node. Sensor nodes can be further classified into
digital and analogue notes depending upon what kind of signal they are producing.
Sun
Generated Pulse
Earth
Reflected Pulse
Definition 1: Sensing Range: it is the maximum distance between a sensor node and a position
present in the given FoI up to which any event occurring can be detected by the sensor node. It is
required any event occurring inside the sensing range of a node must be detected by that sensor
node. It is convenient to use the contour of sensing region similar to a disc for a two-dimensional
network and like a sphere for a three-dimensional wireless sensor network. Sensing range can be
depicted by the radius of the disc or the sphere.
Communication unit: - This unit is responsible for the communication between the sensor
nodes. Control and data packets are transferred among the nodes of the network with the help of
this unit. Furthermore, the communication between sensor nodes have been segregated into two-
way and one-way communication[7].
MICRO-CONTROLLER ADC
MEMORY
Coverage models focus on the efficiencies of the following capability of the interested event
inside the field of interest (FoI). It works on a liaison between the Euclidean separation
(distance) between the position of the sensor node & the target and the sensitivity of the sensor
node[8].
Let us assume a point ρ is located at the coordinates (x , y) and a node si is present at the
coordinates or location (xi , yi). The Euclidean separation (distance) between sensor si and point ρ
is given in Eq. 1:
d(si , ρ)
= √(xi − x)2 + (yi − y)2 (1)
𝛿
(𝑠𝑖 , ρ) = 𝑘 (2)
(𝑑(𝑠𝑖 , ρ))
Where 𝑑(𝑠𝑖 , ρ) is the Euclidean seperation between node and the point ρ. Δ and k are a positive
sensor dependent constants.
1. Binary coverage model: - In this model, it is assumed that each sensor flaunts a sensing
disc with radius equal to its sensing range rs. Any node can detect only those points
which lie inside their respective sensing disc. Mathematically binary coverage model can
be given in Eq. 3
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑑(𝑠𝑖 , ρ)
𝐶𝑥𝑦 (𝑠𝑖 ) = { (3)
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Where 𝐶𝑥𝑦 (𝑠𝑖 ) is the coverage of point ρ by the sensor si.
PSO
Grid-Based Force-Based Computational
Techniques Techniques Geometry
ABC
VFA Delauny
Hexagonal Grid
TRingulator GA
the FoI. Some regions of FoI may have a dense amount of sensor node while at the same time
some regions may not have enough sensor node. Also, coverage holes are bound to appear which
further makes achieving full coverage difficult.
1. Force-based technique
This strategy uses the idea of virtual forces, which may be repulsive, attractive on null virtual
forces. These forces are exercised on the pair of an adjacent sensor node depending on their
separation to each other. If the remoteness amid two adjacent sensor nodes it is bigger than a
predefined threshold value then the attractive force will be acting, similarly, if the distance is
smaller than the predefined threshold value then the force acting will be repulsive in nature and if
the separation is equal to the given threshold value null force will be exerted.
There are several types of virtual forces that can act on a sensor node such as the force acting on
a node due to its adjacent node, the friction force (opposes the movement of the node) and also
force employed by the event which we are interested in. For convenient if we do not consider the
environmental effect on the sensor node Then the net force on any sensor node can be given as
Eq.5
𝑓
𝐹𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐹𝑖𝑒 + 𝐹𝑖 (5)
Here Fie(t) denotes the exchange process between the nodes and Friction force is represented by
Fif (t). The exchange force is assumed to be Van der Waal forces.
II) Virtual Force Algorithm[11]
For virtual force algorithm, three points are to be assumed. First, each node should have relative
position other sensor nodes which are there in their communication range. Secondly, all the
nodes have identical sensing capability and are omnidirectional in nature. Third, all nodes can
move on a path as decided by the algorithm. In VF each node experience three varieties of
forces, first a repulsive force offered by the obstacles in the FoI, second, an attractive force
offered by area of favored coverage, and another force Fij from the sensor node Sj. This force can
be repulsive for attractive depending upon the orientation and separation of the two nodes i & j.
Now the net force on a sensor node Si can be given as Eq. 6
𝐾
Where dij represents the separation between nodes si and sj and Dth is the threshold value of
distance, and θij is the orientation between node si and sj.
In Distributed virtual force algorithm (DVFA) mobile sensor node are redeployed which were
initially deployed randomly to make sure a desired degree of coverage and connectivity while
achieving low power node. Also, no synchronization is required between sensor notes and they
can move as per the force exerted on them by their neighbour nodes.
2. Grid-based Technique[12]
In the grid-based technique the site of sensor nodes is determined on the basis of a grid pattern,
such as rectangular grid, triangular grid and hexagonal grid shape. The sensor nodes are placed
on the grid center and monitoring area is divided into smaller chunks of area. The authors
provide a solution to find optimal deployment for having p-coverage and q-connectivity for some
general values of rc/rs. The authors have proposed three different shapes viz. triangular lattice,
square lattice and a hexagonal pattern. They have used the following equation to compare the
different numbers of sensor nodes required to achieve p coverage and q coverage.
𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 = (8)
𝑇𝑎,𝑆𝑎,𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑎
Where 𝑇𝑎 is triangular area, 𝑆𝑎 is square area and 𝐻𝑎 is hexagonal area. Fig 19. shows different
types of grid patterns.
x
(a1)
(b1)
d sin(Ѳp)
d/2
(a2) d/2 (b2)
(C1)
d/
2
(C2)
Fig. 8 Sensor node deployment using triangular, square and hexagonal pattern
3. Techniques based on computational geometry
Two of the basic and most popular algorithms are Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation.
In the Voronoi diagram, the FoI is partitioned into Voronoi polygons on the basis of separation
of sensor nodes. Each node resides in a unique polygon. Also, each node inside a polygon will be
closest to that node than any other node residing in different polygons.
Delaunay triangulation[13] also is used to reduce coverage holes in the network. As discussed
earlier Delaunay triangulation for a given set P of discrete points in a plane is a triangulation
such that no point in P is inside the circumcircle of any triangle. Fig 9a. and Fig 9b represents the
Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation schemes respectively.
Metaheuristics are higher-level mathematical optimization techniques which are designed to find
or generate the solution to an optimization problem even with incomplete data or limited
computational capacity.
The authors of [14] have proposed two approaches for relay node positioning which offers K
connectivity. The former one is a genetic algorithm & the latter one is a greedy approach. The
semblance amid these two algorithms exhibits that the genetic algorithm is better than the greedy
approach. The genetic algorithm requires lesser sum of sensor nodes to support connectivity,
also it provides a globally optimal solution while the greedy approach requires a comparatively
higher number of relay notes providing K connectivity and provides a locally optimal solution.
The author of applied ant Colony optimization for randomly deployed mobile sensor node and
concluded that this algorithm gives minimum energy and delay with compared to GPSR. The
ACO provides a dynamic implementation of the network while considering all the significant
parameters reasonable to get an optimal path among all the shorter paths. ACO also guaranteed
the Convergence of the network but do not consider the obstacle.
Simulated annealing is a metaheuristic approach to find the global optimum for a given
function. Annealing is a process in which a metal is heated above its melting point, then that
temperature is held and then it is cooled down very slowly to give the metal a perfect crystalline
structure. For the optimal deployment of a wireless sensor network, the authors have proposed a
hybrid algorithm. It solves both blanket and barrier coverage problem, for one coverage & one
connectivity usages. This approach is a hybrid of gradient method in addition to SA algorithm
and focuses on using less number of sensor nodes. This approach has been able to optimize the
position of the node and the number of the node, in order to achieve maximum coverage of the
FoI. Table 1. Shows different meta-heuristic technique along with their advantages and
disadvantages.
Table 1. Different coverage algorithm
Regular sensor
Multiple area Multiple Grid- based(regular
deployment Fixed
coverage connectivity pattern)
patterns[19]
Optimal
Grid based(optimal
deployment Full area coverage N/A Fixed
patterns)
patterns[21]
Grid based(Square
VSGCA[19] Full area coverage Full Connectivity Fixed
pattern)
Computational
True (min.
VOR[22] True geometry based(vornoi- Mobile
Coverage hole)
diagram)
Computational
True (min.
VEC[22] True geometry based(vornoi- Mobile
Coverage hole)
diagram)
Computational
Voronoi-based
Area Coverage N/A geometry based(vornoi- Fixed
diagram[23]
diagram)
Full area
Simulated
coverage(Area and Full Connectivity Meta-Heuristics based Fixed
Annealing[5]
Barrier)
Maximizing area
ABC[16] N/A Meta-Heuristics based Mobile
Coverage
Maximize
PSO[25] coverage( 3D- N/A Meta-Heuristics based Fixed
space)
Literature survey
How to install the nodes into a grid An incorporated linear programming solution
[27] configuration for a complete coverage WSN for curtailing the expenses of sensor nodes for
with minimum cost? full coverage of the Field of interest.
What is the optimum number of sensors The triangular lattice, square grid, and hexagon
nodes required to attain:- “each pixel in the deployment patterns have been proposed to
FoI is sensed by at least p sensor nodes (p- achieve p-coverage and q-connectivity. The
[19]
coverage)” and “q-connectivity is achieved in relation-ship between rc & rs is found in order to
the network” where p and q are positive estimate the coverage level of the FoI after the
integers? deployment of sensors.
A distributed, almost load-balanced data
How to set up the nodes in the area to
amassing algorithm formed to convey data
[28] monitor such that nodes produce lowest
packets to the sink node thru minimum-hop
traffic, just enough for coverage?
routes that aids to restrict the network traffic.
In PSO Each particle remembers its current position; xid, current velocity; vid and the best
position; pid it has visited so far (i is the particle’s number and d is the dimension. Particles will
explore the d-dimensional search space to search for the optimum solution directed by the
velocity; vid, A particle’s movement in the search space is controlled by its pid and the best
solution in its neighborhood; pgd.
Start
NO
Maximum
iteration
achieved?
End
𝑎 = 𝑑(𝑠𝑖 , 𝑝) − 𝑟𝑠 − 𝑟𝑒 (11)
1. Calculate the coverage rate of one pixel to each sensor node using (10);
3. Repeat step 1) and 2) to calculate the joint coverage rate of each pixel;
5. Apply constrictive PSO to maximize the area coverage rate for a certain amount of
iteration.
To optimize coverage area in terms of energy consumption and life time of the network
• PSO with constrictive coefficient is being used to optimize the coverage area.
References
1. Yaqoob, I., Ahmed, E., Hashem, I. A. T., Ahmed, A. I. A., Gani, A., Imran, M., &
Guizani, M. (2017). Internet of Things Architecture: Recent Advances, Taxonomy,
Requirements, and Open Challenges. IEEE Wireless Communications.
doi:10.1109/MWC.2017.1600421
2. Husain, S., Prasad, A., Kunz, A., Papageorgiou, A., & Song, J. (2015). Recent Trends in
Standards Related to the Internet of Things and Machine-to-Machine Communications.
Journal of information and communication convergence engineering.
doi:10.6109/jicce.2014.12.4.228
3. Rawat, P., Singh, K. D., Chaouchi, H., & Bonnin, J. M. (2014). Wireless sensor networks:
A survey on recent developments and potential synergies. Journal of Supercomputing.
doi:10.1007/s11227-013-1021-9
4. Zhang, H., & Hou, J. C. (2006). Is deterministic deployment worse than random
deployment for wireless sensor networks? In Proceedings - IEEE INFOCOM.
doi:10.1109/INFOCOM.2006.290
5. Zhu, C., Zheng, C., Shu, L., & Han, G. (2012). A survey on coverage and connectivity
issues in wireless sensor networks. Journal of Network and Computer Applications.
doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2011.11.016
6. Xie, T., Zhang, C., Zhang, Z., & Yang, K. (2019). Utilizing Active Sensor Nodes in Smart
Environments for Optimal Communication Coverage. IEEE Access, 7, 11338–11348.
doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2889717
7. Akan, O., Talha Isik, M., & Baykal, B. (2009). Wireless passive sensor networks.
Communications Magazine, IEEE (Vol. 47). doi:10.1109/MCOM.2009.5181898
8. Farsi, M., El-Hosseini, M., Badawy, M., Arafat, H., & Zaineldin, H. (2019). Deployment
techniques in wireless sensor networks, coverage and connectivity: A survey. IEEE
Access, PP, 1. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2902072
9. Sharma, V., Patel, R. B., Bhadauria, H. S., & Prasad, D. (2016). Depl oyment schemes in
wireless sensor network to achieve blanket coverage in large-scale open area: A review.
Egyptian Informatics Journal. doi:10.1016/j.eij.2015.08.003
10. Yu, X., Liu, N., Huang, W., Qian, X., & Zhang, T. (2013). A node deployment algorithm
based on van der Waals force in wireless sensor networks. International Journal of
Distributed Sensor Networks. doi:10.1155/2013/505710
11. Abidin, H. Z., Din, N. M., Radzi, N. A. M., & Rizman, Z. I. (2017). A review on sensor
node placement techniques in wireless sensor networks. International Journal on
Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 7(1), 190–197.
12. Liu, Y., Suo, L., Sun, D., & Wang, A. (2013). A virtual square grid-based coverage
algorithm of redundant node for wireless sensor network. Journal of Network and
Computer Applications. doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2012.12.003
13. Lee, D. T., & Schachter, B. J. (1980). Two algorithms for constructing a Delaunay
triangulation. International Journal of Computer & Information Sciences.
doi:10.1007/BF00977785
14. Gupta, S. K., Kuila, P., & Jana, P. K. (2016). Genetic algorithm for k-connected relay
node placement in wireless sensor networks. In Advances in Intelligent Systems and
Computing. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2517-1_69
15. Fan, Z., & Zhao, W. (2011). Network Coverage Optimization Strategy in Wireless Sensor
Networks Based on Particle Swarm Optimization.
16. Öztürk, C., Karaboǧa, D., & Görkemli, B. (2012). Artificial bee colony algorithm for
dynamic deployment of wireless sensor networks. Turkish Journal of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Sciences, 20(2), 255–262. doi:10.3906/elk-1101-1030
17. Dorigo, M., & Blum, C. (2005). Ant colony optimization theory: A survey. Theoretical
Computer Science, 344(2–3), 243–278. doi:10.1016/j.tcs.2005.05.020
18. Mougou, K., Mahfoudh, S., Minet, P., & Laouiti, A. (2012). Redeployment of randomly
deployed wireless mobile sensor nodes. In IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference.
doi:10.1109/VTCFall.2012.6399012
19. Kim, Y. H., Kim, C. M., Yang, D. S., Oh, Y. J., & Han, Y. H. (2012). Regular sensor
deployment patterns for p-coverage and q-connectivity in wireless sensor networks.
International Conference on Information Networking, 290–295.
doi:10.1109/ICOIN.2012.6164394
20. Maksimović, M., & Milošević, V. (2016). Evaluating the optimal sensor placement for
smoke detection. Yugoslav Journal of Operations Research.
doi:10.2298/YJOR140312002M
21. Ziqiu Yun, Xiaole Bai, Dong Xuan, Lai, T. H., & Weijia Jia. (2010). Optimal Deployment
Patterns for Full Coverage and $k$-Connectivity $(k \leq 6)$ Wireless Sensor Networks.
IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 18(3), 934–947. doi:10.1109/tnet.2010.2040191
22. Fortune, S. (2017). Voronoi diagrams and delaunay triangulations. In Handbook of
Discrete and Computational Geometry, Third Edition. doi:10.1201/9781315119601
23. Sung, T.-W., & Yang, C.-S. (2014). Voronoi-based coverage improvement approach for
wireless directional sensor networks. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 39,
202–213. doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2013.07.003
24. Rebai, M., Le Berre, M., Snoussi, H., Hnaien, F., & Khoukhi, L. (2015). Sensor
deployment optimization methods to achieve both coverage and connectivity in wireless
sensor networks. Computers and Operations Research, 59, 11–21.
doi:10.1016/j.cor.2014.11.002
25. Cao, B., Zhao, J., Lv, Z., Liu, X., Kang, X., & Yang, S. (2018). Deployment optimization
for 3D industrial wireless sensor networks based on particle swarm optimizers with
distributed parallelism. Journal of Network and Computer Applications.
doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2017.08.009
26. Yu, J., Wan, S., Cheng, X., & Yu, D. (2017). Coverage Contribution Area Based $k$ -
Coverage for Wireless Sensor Networks. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology,
66(9), 8510–8523. doi:10.1109/TVT.2017.2681692
27. Chakrabarty, K., Iyengar, S. S., Qi, H., & Cho, E. (2002). Grid coverage for surveillance
and target location in distributed sensor networks. IEEE Transactions on Computers.
doi:10.1109/TC.2002.1146711
28. Al-Karaki, J. N., & Gawanmeh, A. (2017). The Optimal Deployment, Coverage, and
Connectivity Problems in Wireless Sensor Networks: Revisited. IEEE Access, 5, 18051–
18065. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2740382
29. Ghosh, A. (2004). Estimating coverage holes and enhancing coverage in mixed sensor
networks. In Proceedings - Conference on Local Computer Networks, LCN.
doi:10.1109/LCN.2004.53
30. Abbasi, F., Mesbahi, A., & Mohammadpour Velni, J. (2019). A new voronoi-based
blanket coverage control method for moving sensor networks. IEEE Transactions on
Control Systems Technology. doi:10.1109/TCST.2017.2758344
31. Eberhart, R., & Kennedy, J. (2002). A new optimizer using particle swarm theory.
doi:10.1109/mhs.1995.494215