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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES
Influences of Diamond Material on Heat
Dissipation Capabilities of Helical
Slow Wave Structures
Yan-Wen Liu , Hong Tian, Yu-Xin Lu, and Wen-Qi Shi
Abstract — From theoretical calculations, simulations,
and emulations, as well as laboratory testing, we evaluated
the influences of both diamond and diamond-film-coated
support rods, as well as diamond-film-coated helices,
on the heat dissipation capabilities of slow wave structures
(SWSs). A comparison between the experiment and sim-
ulation data shows that the computer simulation results
are in good agreement and offer an important reference
for the application of diamond in SWSs. An expression for
the coefficient of thermal conductivity for the helix material
and for the support rod material indicates that the greater
their value, the better the heat dissipation capability of
the helical SWS. The simulation and emulation analysis
results show that when the helix reaches the same tem-
perature, SWSs made of diamond-film-coated support rods
and helix are able to consume 20%–60% more heating
power than normal SWSs. Similar to a purely diamond
support rod, a diamond-film-coated helix and support rod
are able to improve the heat dissipation capabilities of SWSs
effectively. In experiments, we tested the heat dissipation
capabilities of SWSs with their helix surfaces plated with
high-performance gold/copper films and BeO/BeN support
rods. The experimental results agree well with the ANSYS
simulation and emulation results.
Index Terms — Diamond, heat dissipation capability, helix
traveling-wave tube (TWT), slow wave structure (SWS).
I. I NTRODUCTION
H ELIX traveling-wave tubes (TWTs) are widely applied
in receiving amplifiers, satellite telecommunications,
electronic countermeasures, and radar [1], [2]. Because the
properties of helix TWTs dictate how these systems oper-
ate, and helical slow wave structures (SWSs) are key parts
governing these properties, it is crucial to pursue broadband,
highly efficient, and more thermally conductive SWSs in
fabricating high-performance helix TWTs [3], [4]. Currently,
many researchers are studying the heat dissipation of helix
TWTs [5], [6]. The heat dissipation capabilities of the helix
support structures have always been a major interest of study
for enhancing the output-power capacities of continuous-wave
Manuscript received August 8, 2019; revised September 17, 2019 and
September 29, 2019; accepted October 3, 2019. This work was sup-
ported by the National Basic Research Program of China under Grant
61771454. The review of this article was arranged by Editor M. Thumm.
(Corresponding author: Yan-Wen Liu.)
The authors are with the Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100190, China (e-mail: liuyanwen58@sina.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TED.2019.2945969
0018-9383 © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1
helix TWTs. For example, in [7], a quick method of testing
was proposed regarding the supporting performance of helical
SWSs. This method determines the supporting performance
of a device through real-time monitoring of helix and barrel
temperature distributions [7]. Numerous studies suggest that
the performance of the dielectric support rod, which serves
to support and insulate the SWS, is a key factor [8], [9].
Compared with aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ), beryllium oxide
(BeO), and beryllium nitride (BeN), diamond has superior
properties. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of dia-
mond is much higher than that of several currently common
dielectric materials—at ambient temperature, it is five times
that of oxygen-free copper [10], [11]. Other properties of
diamond, such as the coefficient of heat expansion, dielectric
constant, and dielectric loss, are superior to those of the
above materials [12], [13]. As early as the 1970s, several
researchers had begun to study the diamond support rod.
Its thermal conduction properties were quantified, particu-
larly with regard to the dielectric–metal interfacial thermal
resistance as a function of temperature, pressure, and surface
finish. The diamond-supported helical structure was found to
have a power capacity of up to 165 W/in [14]. In the late
1980s, U.S. researchers achieved several results from studies
of SWSs made of natural diamond and diamond materials
produced in chemical vapor-deposition [15], [16]. However,
these methods have problems such as high cost, stringent
equipment requirements, and difficulties with implementation.
For these reasons, we decided to deposit films of diamond onto
the surfaces of normal dielectric support rods and helices [17],
which circumvents both the above problems arising from the
use of pure diamond as dielectric support rods and remedies
the weaknesses of the low coefficient of thermal conductivity
of normal dielectric support rods. We conducted a theoretical
calculation and analysis of the influences of the diamond-film-
coated support rod, the diamond-film-coated helix, and the
diamond support rod on the heat dissipation capability of an
SWS. The results provide an important reference concerning
the application of diamond material in SWSs.
II. T EMPERATURE C ALCULATION OF
THE H ELIX IN AN SWS
Fig. 1 shows a helical SWS.
In most of the experimental studies and theoretical analyses,
the SWSs are made of a Monel barrel, a molybdenum helix,
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2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES

Fig. 3. 1-D approximation of a support rod.

Fig. 1. Schematic of a helical SWS.

the heat current (Fig. 2), we substitute all constraints into (3)
to obtain
Wp
2×3 Wp
d Th = − dx = − d x. (4)
kh wδ 6kh wδ
Fig. 2. 1-D approximation of the helix. Integrating both sides of (4) yields
 Th min  lh
Wp
and support rods of BeO, BeN, and diamond. We adopted d Th = − d x. (5)
Th max 0 6k h wδ
a three-prong support rod structure, assembled using the
distortion-less hot extrusion method [18]. Therefore, the temperature gradient of the helix is written [5]
The object of thermal analysis is a helical SWS composed πr p
Th = Th max − Th min = W (6)
of metal helix, ceramic support rod, and metal barrel. As the 18kh wδ cos ϕ
helix TWT is vacuum-packaged, there is no convection under where kh is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the helix
vacuum. In addition, as the temperature gradient between material, r the mean radius of the helix, p the pitch of the
the metal helix and the outer metal barrel is not large, helix, w the bandwidth of the helix, δ the band thickness of
the radiation effect from the helix is negligible. We assume the helix, ø the pitch angle of the helix, and W the dissipated
then that the heat is transferred outward from the helix to the power over the unit axial length of the helix.
vacuum-packaged barrel through the support rods by way of
conduction only. B. Temperature Gradient Associated With the Support
When a given dissipated power is applied, the temperature Rod
distribution over the helical SWS can be studied, beginning
The support rod receives heat from the helix and conducts
with the thermal resistance as a function of temperature,
it to the barrel. The heat transfer is approximately 1-D
pressure, and surface finish, and the diamond-supported helical
(Fig. 3), and the heat conducted over this section of the support
structures with power capacities can be determined by the
rod is one-third that of a turn of the helical SWS.
basic heat conduction equation [5], [19]
Approximating the equivalent heat transfer area by Ar =
T (b/2)(w + p) and substituting it into (3), we obtain
Q = kA (1)
δ 2W p
where Q is the heat transferred, A the heat transfer area, δ the d Tr = − d x. (7)
3kr b(w + p)
heat transfer path, T the heat transfer temperature gradient,
Next, integrating both sides, we obtain the temperature gradi-
and k the coefficient of thermal conductivity.
ent of the support rod [5]
The helical SWS is fairly symmetric and thus enables a
1-D approximation analysis, which primarily evaluates the 2hp
Tr = Tr max − Tr min = W (8)
temperature gradient of each component. From the basic law 3kr b(w + p)
of heat conduction, the 1-D mathematical representation (1) where kr is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the
can be expressed as support rod material, h the length of the support rod, and
dT p, w, and b are the base dimensions and height, respectively,
q = −k (2) of the trapezoidal support rod.
dx
The outward temperature gradient of the SWS consisting of
where q is the heat flux, q = (Q/A). Rearranging (2) yields
helix and support rods is then
q Q
d T = − d x = − d x. (3) Thr = Th + Tr . (9)
k kA
Coupled with (6) and (8), we find that the greater the kh and
A. Temperature Gradient Associated With the Helix kr , the smaller the Thr , and the better the heat dissipation
If we make an approximate expansion of a one-third section capability of the helical SWS. Therefore, a material with a
of the helix in contact with one support rod (Fig. 2), its high coefficient of thermal conductivity should be selected in
equivalent length is expressed as lh = (πr /3 cos ϕ). making the helix and support rods of an SWS. The coefficient
Within this section of the helix, the heat conducted is one- of thermal conductivity of diamond is as high as 2000 W/m·K,
third that of one turn of the helical SWS, and the part of the and because of its superior thermal performance, diamond has
helix analyzed is one-half of this section, the heat transfer area attracted a wide attention from researchers, many of whom
being the helix cross section. Depending on the direction of have used diamond materials to fabricate SWSs for TWTs.
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LIU et al.: INFLUENCES OF DIAMOND MATERIAL ON HEAT DISSIPATION CAPABILITIES OF HELICAL SWSs 3

Fig. 4. Helix temperature versus power dissipated as heat.

Fig. 5. Comparison of simulated heat dissipation capabilities among

SWSs with different support rods.
III. T HERMAL A NALYSIS OF H ELIX SWS
U SING ANSYS S OFTWARE
High-frequency loss and electron beam bombardment cause
heat to emanate from the helix during the operation of a real
TWT, with heat sources inside the helix and the internal sur-
face. For our experimental study, we conducted experimental
tests and implemented an assessment method used in [18],
applying current and voltage to provide heat for the helix.
When using ANSYS software to perform a finite-element
analysis, we simulated the actual heat load by setting the heat
generation rate and heat flux.
Applying a gradually varying heat load to the SWS, we con-
ducted steady-state and transient analysis recording the helix Fig. 6. Comparison between simulated heat dissipation capabilities of
temperature under different conditions and then used a plotting SWSs with different support rods and experimental results.
tool to obtain a plot of the heat load versus temperature
(Fig. 4), specifically helix temperature versus heating power
(power dissipated as heat).
The influences of various factors contributing to the heat
dissipation of an SWS can be fully analyzed through com-
puter simulation with ANSYS software. We tested the heat
dissipation with an assessment system described in [18] and
estimated it accordingly using a theoretical calculation method.
A comparison of the results with the results of computer
simulations and emulations established the feasibility of the
scheme and enabled us to obtain efficient improvements in
the heat dissipation capability of the helical SWS. Fig. 7. Cross section of an SWS with diamond-film-coated support rods.

A. Simulation of the Heat Dissipation Capability of an
SWS With Diamond Support Rods
Using ANSYS simulation software, we simulated and emu-
lated the heat dissipation capability of an SWS with the dia-
mond support rods and compared them with SWSs with BeN
and BeO support rods (Fig. 5). When the helix temperature
is constant, the diamond support rod component is able to
take up 60%–85% more heating power than the BeO and BeN
support rods; that is, using a support rod made only of diamond
effectively improves the heat dissipation capability of an
SWS.
With the existing experimental conditions, we ran laboratory
tests on SWSs with BeO and BeN support rods and compared
them with the simulated results (Fig. 6). A comparison of the
data suggests that the experimental and computer simulation
results agree well. Because the experimental conditions were
constraining, we were unable to measure the heat dissipation
capability of an SWS with a diamond support rod.
Nevertheless, we may conclude from Figs. 5 and 6 that the
experimental results for the diamond support rods agree well
with the computer simulation results; that is, experimentally,
an SWS with a diamond support rod has a greater heat
dissipation capability than an SWS with either a BeO support
rod or a BeN support rod.
However, diamond is very difficult to process; even more
difficult is processing a profiled diamond support rod. More-
over, diamond is very expensive. Because of this, we decided
to deposit a diamond film onto the surfaces of the dielectric
support rod and helix.
B. Simulated Heat Dissipation Capabilities of
Diamond-Film-Deposited Support Rod
and Helical SWS
First, we analyzed the influence of depositing diamond film
onto the outer surface of a support rod on the heat dissipation
capability of an SWS. Fig. 7 shows its structural components
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4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES
Fig. 8. Helix temperature as a function of power dissipated on the SWS.
Fig. 9. Cross section of the SWS with diamond-film-coated helix.
from which we configured an ANSYS simulation model and
used a comprehensive thermal analysis method to assess its
heat dissipation capability. This analysis of the SWS made of
diamond-film-coated support rods enables a comparison of this
SWS with one made of normal support rods. A 5-μm-thick
diamond film was deposited onto the outer surface of a BeO
support rod (see simulation results in Fig. 8).
Depositing diamond film onto a support rod surface has
produced a large improvement in the heat dissipation capa-
bility of an SWS (Fig. 8). When the helix reaches the same
temperature, the component with diamond-film-coated support
rods takes up 30%–40% more heating power than an SWS
made of normal support rods. The deposition of diamond
film onto the surface of a normal support rod has reduced
the thermal resistance of the support rod to some extent and
decreased the coefficient of thermal resistance at points on the
support rod in contact with barrel and helix. The effect is more
evident at elevated temperatures.
We then analyzed the influence of depositing diamond film
onto the helix’s outer surface on the heat dissipation capability
of an SWS (Fig. 9).
We configured a model for computer simulations.
A 5-μm-thick diamond film was deposited onto the outer
surface of a molybdenum helix. The simulation analysis results
are displayed in Fig. 10.
From Fig. 10, depositing a diamond film onto the helix
surface has enhanced the heat dissipation capability of the
helical SWS. When the helix reaches the same temperature,
the component using a diamond-film-coated helix is able to
take up about 20% more heating power, compared with an
SWS made of a normal helix. While improving the interfacial
Fig. 10. Helix temperature as a function of power dissipated in the SWS.
Fig. 11. Film deposition system.
Fig. 12. View of three helices.
thermal resistance between the helix and support rods, the use
of a diamond film means that heat conducts quickly over the
helix surface so that it does not build up.
The above simulations were conducted without any corre-
sponding laboratory tests because of the limitations in the
experimental setup. To be able to perform an experimental
study in the future, we investigated in this article molybdenum
helices plated with a 5-μm film of copper and gold. The
vacuum sputter method was used in the film preparation; the
system is shown in a photograph (Fig. 11).
The helices on which the thin films were to be deposited
were kept in the dc magnetron sputter chamber and heated
until the temperature reached 100 ◦ C–400 ◦ C. When the
pressure in the chamber went below 5 × 10−4 Pa, nitrogen
was injected into the chamber. The sputtering lasted about
40 min with the gas pressure in the chamber kept at 0.1–1 Pa.
Fig. 12 shows the images of the Cu and Au films deposited on
the helix. The three helices look quite similar because coating
with Cu and Au does not alter their appearance.
In a vacuum, we applied a dc voltage to both ends of the
helix, recorded the current–voltage relationships of the three
helixes for the SWSs, and calculated and plotted the variation
in helix resistance with heating power (Fig. 13).
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LIU et al.: INFLUENCES OF DIAMOND MATERIAL ON HEAT DISSIPATION CAPABILITIES OF HELICAL SWSs 5

conductivity is significantly greater [20] with thicker diamond

films. Therefore, increasing the film’s thickness, and using
a diamond-film-coated helix and support rod, would further
enhance the heat dissipation capability of an SWS. The
deposition rate of diamond is painfully low. It takes several
hundred hours to deposit a bulk diamond of 1-mm thickness.
While the time needed for depositing a diamond thin film of
5-μm thickness is greatly shortened to 1 or 2 h. Thus, it is
very obvious that depositing a diamond thin film is much more
economical.

Fig. 13. Helix temperature as a function of power dissipated in the SWS.
as well as laboratory tests, we studied the influences of helices
and support rods made of different materials on the heat
dissipation capabilities of SWSs. From our results, we draw
the following main conclusions.
Fig. 14. Helix temperature as a function of power dissipated on the
SWS.
The result indicates that compared with an SWS made of a
normal molybdenum helix set at the same helix temperature,
both the gold-plated helix and the copper-plated helix were
able to take up 5.51%–16.61% more heating power. The heat
dissipation capability of the copper-plated helix was the best,
whereas the normal component performed the worst.
We used ANSYS software to configure a model and con-
ducted computer simulations on the SWSs made of a molyb-
denum helix, a copper-plated molybdenum helix, and a gold-
plated molybdenum helix. The variation in helix temperature
with power was analyzed (Fig. 14), with simulations showing
that using the plated helix yields obvious improvements in
heat dissipation capability of an SWS.
When the helix reaches the same temperature, compared
with an SWS made of a normal molybdenum helix, the SWS
with a gold-plated helix took about 3.78%–8.33% more
heating power, whereas that with copper-plated helix took
about 6.18%–13.97%. The simulation results for the heat
dissipation capability agree well with the experimental results.
The existing discrepancy mainly relates to the differences in
the assembling method, measurement error, and parameter
settings of the simulations. However, we conclude that the
experimental results obtained from the diamond-film-coated
support rod and the helical SWS agree well with the simulation
results; that is, in experiments, the structure with diamond film
deposited onto the support rod surface is able to take up 30%
more heating power, whereas the structure with diamond film
deposited onto the helix surface is able to take up 20% more
heating power.
Our research studied only an instance in which the diamond
film has a thickness of 5 μm; its coefficient of thermal
IV. C ONCLUSION
From theoretical calculations, simulations, and emulations,
1) A formula for the heat dissipation capability of SWSs
was derived from a heat conduction equation obtained
empirically from prior experiments. This formula indi-
cates that helix materials and support rod materials with
larger values for their coefficient of thermal conductivity
establish better heat dissipation capability in helical
SWSs.
2) A technical method of depositing diamond films onto
the surfaces of the dielectric support rod and helix was
proposed to enhance the heat dissipation capability of
SWSs, which resolved problems such as high costs and
difficulties in the processing of diamond support rods.
The simulation and emulation analysis results indicate
that when the helix reaches the same temperature, SWSs
made of diamond-film-coated support rods and helix are
able to consume 20%–60% more heating power than
normal SWSs. Similar to a purely diamond support rod,
a helix and support rods coated in a diamond film are
able to improve the heat dissipation capabilities of SWSs
effectively.
3) Experimental tests of the heat dissipation capabil-
ities of SWSs with their plated helix surfaces of
high-performance gold/copper films and their BeO/BeN
support rods accorded well with the ANSYS simulation
and emulation results. They provide support to the fact
that the experimental results for diamond-film-coated
support rods and helical SWSs, and purely diamond sup-
port rods are reproduced well in our computer simula-
tions. Moreover, diamond films can improve effectively
the heat dissipation capability of SWSs.
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