St.

Paul University Philippines

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan 3500

GRADUATE SCHOOL

MCC201- Methods of Research

SUMMER 2020
R E Q U I R E M E N T
(Questions for Discussion)

Chapter 1 – Research and the Problem for Investigation

1. What is research? Why is its process considered cyclical in nature?
Research is the systematic investigation into study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions. Akin to this, research is undertaken to increase the
stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this
stock of knowledge to devise new applications and new knowledge akin to the needs of society.
In this sense, research is cyclical. A good study must lead to another study. Thus, research study
must not stop in there. It is a continuous cycle.

2. How is a problem known to be a research problem?

Often than, we used research problem and problem statement as synonyms. However,
they are different from each other. We all know that a research problem revolves around to an
area of concern. It is a question that a researcher wants to answer[Dr. Maheswari Jaikumar]. It is
also a statement about a condition that needs improvement, a difficulty to be eliminated or a
troubling statement from a scholarly articles and literatures. Therefore, we can say that a problem
is a research problem it points us for further meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.
3. What are the elements of a research problem?
A good research problem statement according to library.sacredheart.edu must have the
following elements.
a) Clarity and precision. A good research problem statement does not make
sweeping generalizations and irresponsible statements.
b) Identification of what should be studied.
c) Articulation of the study’s boundaries or parameters.
d) Identification of key concepts and terms.
e) Conveyance of the study’s importance, benefits, and justification.
Components of a research problem according to R.S. Woodsworth.
a) Relevance of the study.
b) Title of the study
c) Operational definitions of the variables.
d) Objectives of the study.
e) Delimitations of the study.
f) Scope and limitations of the study.
4. How is a good research problem selected? What are the guidelines in selecting a research
problem?
 According to research experts, selection of a good research problem depends on several
factors. It depends on your knowledge, skills, interest, expertise, motivation and creativity akin
to the chosen subject. Research studies needs ample time for the selection of research problem.
Guidelines in choosing a research problem.
1. Know your field of interest.
2. Know its significance to the present time and situation.
3. There must be consideration of the hazards involved, either physical, social, or legal.
4. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher.

5. How is the title of a research problem formulated?

The formulation of a research problem consists of the following steps:
(https://www.studyandexam.com/problem-formulation.html)
1. Identify a broad research area of your interest. A research must always start with
knowing your interest, specialty, knowledge, expertise and profession.
2. Dissect the broad are into sub-areas. You need to narrow down the area of interest into a
specific topic that is researchable and manageable akin to your skill, time, and resources.
3. Select one of the Sub-areas. Of course it is not feasible for a researcher to study all areas
of interest. You need to select one sub-area that interests you most and is most feasible
and manageable for you.
4. Raise research question. After selecting your area of interest, start thinking about what
should you explore about this topic/area.
5. Formulate the objectives
6. Write the research problem.
6. How are the general and the specific statement of the problem formulated?
Steps in formulating general problem statement.(https://www.scribbr.com/Research-
process/problem-statement)
1. Put the problem in context. Example, in blended education, ask what the public know
about blended education.
2. Describe the precise issue that the research will address. Example, ask what the public
need to know about blended education.
3. Show the relevance of the problem. Why would the public need to know it/
4. Define the general problem statement.
5. After defining the general problem statement, set the objectives of the research. Then
write the specific problem statements.
7. Why are assumptions and hypotheses important in research? What functions do they serve?
How are they formulated? Are hypotheses always explicit? Why?
Assumptions and hypothesis are important in a study because it force the researcher to
think about what result he/she should look for in a study. Its purpose is to find an answer to a
study. In addition to, hypothesis is formulated to talk about the research problem and/or to
address any phenomenon. Hypothesis therefore, laid a blueprint for the researcher to develop a
specific direction and a better understanding about the subject matter of the study.
A hypothesis may be drawn from a from a theory or from belief. To form a hypothesis a
researcher must consider the following.
a. Collect as many observations about a problem as you can.
b. Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
c. Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
 d. Think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis.

Chapter 2 – Review of Related Literature and Studies

1. What is the nature of related studies and literature?
Since Related studies and literature help the researcher to understand his topic better by
giving clarity to vague points about his problem, it is necessary to have true value. Its contents
were based on facts and therefore factual. In other words, it is composed of discussion of facts
and principles. Content of the material should be valid and reliable.

2. How are related literature and studies formulated?

Writing a related literature for the study, a researcher must consider the following:
a) Conduct a literature review.
a. Define your research question.
b. Decide on the scope of your review.
c. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searchers
d. Conduct your searches and find the literature.
e. Review the literature.
b) Write the literature review.
a. Consider organization. First, cover the basic categories then organize the body. A
researcher must consider how he will present the sources within the body.
b. Compose your literature review. In composing, use evidences, be selective, and
use quotes sparingly. A researcher has to keep his own voice in the review.
c. Manage citations. It is very important to include citations in the review.
3. Why are related studies and literature important in research? What are their functions?
Related literature and studies are important in a research because it provides the
researcher a better understanding about the topic at hand. It will also guide the researcher in
making comparisons between his findings with the findings of other similar studies. Related
literature also can be a source where a hypothesis is drawn for the current study.

4. What are the characteristics of good related literature and studies?

A good related literature and studies should have the following characteristics:
a) It should be as recent as possible. It is very important to consider the recency of the
material to be reviewed because of the rapid change in technology, social, economic,
scientific and human lifestyle.
b) Reviewed materials should be objective and unbiased. A researcher must avoid related
literatures and studies that are onesided, extremely political and religious.
c) Surveyed materials should be related to the study. Review only literatures that are
relevant to the study.
d) The reviewed materials should be based upon genuinely original and true facts or data
must be valid and reliable. Avoid materials where fictitious data are supplied.
e) Reviewed materials should not be too few and too many.
5. From what sources may related literature and studies located?
Literature and related studies typically found in primary sources like scholarly
journals, scholarly books, and authoritative databases. These are the origin of information
under study, fundamental documents relating to a particular subject or idea. They are
firsthand accounts written by a witness or researcher at the time of an event or discovery.
And secondary sources like newspapers, magazines, other books, films, and audio and
video tapes. These are documents or recordings that relate to or discuss information
originally presented elsewhere.
These sources are located in libraries, either government, school, or private
libraries. National libraries and the library of the Department of Education.

Chapter 3 – Historical Research

1. What is a historical research?
Historical research is a qualitative technique. It studies the meaning of past events in an
attempt to interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their effects in the present
events. [ https://clinfowiki.org/wiki/index.php/Historical_research ]
Historical methods of research provide understanding of the present by studying the past,
and gaining awareness of the long term economic, social, and political forces that shapes
events(Toland and Yoong, 2013).

2. How is a problem or topic chosen for historical research?

In choosing a topic a topic for historical research, researchers rely heavily on primary
historical data(direct accounts of events, archival data – official documents, personal records,
and records of eyewitnesses) and less frequently on secondary historical data(information from
persons who didn’t witness the event e.g. textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias)

3. From where are the data for historical research gathered? What are the sources?
Data for historical researchers may be gathered from the following:
a) Primary Sources. These are first hand information. They include remains of relic
associated with persons, groups, periods or events. These also include fossils,
skeletons, tools, weapons, utensils, clothing, buildings, furniture, pictures, paintings,
coins and art objects. Documents classified as primary sources are law, court rulings,
official records, autobiographic letters, diaries, deeds, wills, licenses, declarations,
certificates, bills, receipts, newpaper, magazines, research reports, and maps.
b) Secondary sources. The writer of the secondary sources was not on the scene of the
event. Secondary sources of data are usually limited worth because of the usual
errors that the results when information is passed on from one person to another like
history books.

4. How are data analyzed by internal criticism? By external criticism?

Historical research is subject to external and internal criticisms. Since historical research
has time and place dimensions, simple chronology is not considered because it does not interpret
the meaning of the events.
In external criticism the validity and genuineness of the sources are verified while for
internal criticism, a researcher explores the meaning of the sources.
 External criticism is a preliminary and preparatory step, providing data to be used in the
second phase known as internal criticism. It primarily deals with relating to form and
appearances rather than meaning of contents.

For internal criticism, the use of original, authentic sources are used to ensure that
interpretations are correct. This process entails seeking collaboration with individuals who may
have witnessed the events in question as well as determining the meaning of words

5. Why is it important to use both internal and external criticism?

The authenticity of the evidence is determined by external criticism, whereas the
credibility is establish by internal criticism(Shafer 1980). Therefore, it is important to use both
external and internal criticisms in historical research to come up with a valid, authentic, and
reliable historical data.

6. What are the guidelines in writing an effective historical research?

a) Data Collection
Comprehensive data gathering is undertaken from historical sources, be it primary or
secondary.
b) Criticism of data
The second step necessitates a comprehensive review of gathered materials. The process of
document review has two pronged activity; external criticism and internal criticism.
c) Presentation of facts.
A well written history provides information on the conditions of the past. The writing of
history demands a careful avoidance of the following facts.
7. What characterizes a historical research?
Historical research focuses on a careful study and analysis of data about past events.
a. Historical research is a critical investigation of events, their development, and
experiences of the past and a careful weighing of evidence of the validity of information
of the past and interpretation of the evidence.
b. The purpose of historical research is to gain a clear understanding of the impact of the
past on the present and future events related to the life process.
c. It involves detailed analysis of what has been written or done and is used to describe,
explain or interpret these events.
d. Historical research involves the review of written materials but many include oral
documentation as well.
e. Historical research relies on available data usually in the form of written narrative records
of the past, diaries, letters, newspapers, minutes of meeting, reports etc.
f. The results of historical research studies contribute to clear understanding of past, present
or future events.
g. Historical method of research also covers categories such as historical, legal,
documentary, bibliographical, bio graphical, ideational, institutional and organizational.
h. Sources of historical research are hospital records, order sheets, purchases orders.
Records are an economical and convenient source of information.
8. What could be good topics for historical research?
History papers can take a long time to write. A researcher must not tie himself to a topic
without a thorough evaluation of available sources and it must be a topic that best suit his
 interest. Good research topic depends on the interest of the researcher akin to his
knowledge and research skills.
Some examples of historical research may be:
a. Reasons why Teachers don’t want to stay long in a remote multi-graded station.
b. Academic performance of the institution for the past five years relative to the current
school year.

Chapter 4 – Descriptive Research

1. Explain what is a descriptive research?
Descriptive research aims to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it
naturally occurs. It may sometimes serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory
development. [Maheswari Jaikumar]

2. Give the characteristics of descriptive studies.

The following are characteristics of descriptive studies:
a. Descriptive designs are used to observe, document and describe a phenomenon occurring
in its natural setting without any manipulation or control.
b. Descriptive are studies are designed to gain more information about characteristics
within a select or a particular field of study.
c. Descriptive studies provide a picture of a situation as it occurs in natural setting.
d. The design does not involve the manipulation of variables.
e. Descriptive research are used to develop theories, identify problems with current
practices, make judgment or determine alternative solutions for existing practices.
f. Bias is prevented in descriptive studies through operational definitions of variables.
g. Descriptive designs include identification of a phenomenon of interest, identification of
variables.
3. What are the advantages of descriptive researches?
a. Effective to analyze non-quantified topics and issues.
b. The possibility to observe the phenomenon in a completely natural and unchanged natural
environment.
c. The opportunity to integrate the qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection.
d. Less time consuming than quantitative experiments.
[Ethridge, D.E.(2004) “Research Methodology in Applied Economics” John Wiley &
Sons, p.24
4. What techniques of research are used under descriptive researches? Explain each.
a. Univariant descriptive design. This design is primarily used to identify and describe the
perception, awareness, behavior, attitude, knowledge, practices of people. This is used to
describe the frequency of a phenomenon. The design does not focus on the study of a
single variable. Two or more variables are studied. The basic purpose of this design is not
only to describe each of the variable, but also to establish the relationship between two
variables.
Example. A study to present the effects of a broken family of a Grade 2 pupil at Bacagan
Elementary School.
b. Exploratory Study. It is used to identify, explore and describe the existing phenomenon
and its related factors. It is an in-depth exploration and study of the related factors to
improve further understanding about a less understood phenomenon.
 Example. An exploratory study to assess the multi-factorial dimensions and classroom
safety measures for kindergarten pupils of Bacagan Elementary School.
c. Comparative design. This design is involved in comparing and contrasting two or more
samples of study subjects on one or more variables at a single point of time. This research
design is used to compare two distinct groups on the basis of selected attributes such as
knowledge and attitude, etc.,
Example. A comparative study on the study habits of public and private elementary
pupils.

5. Differentiate between normative survey and case study.

A case study refers to research in which an individual, group or a particular situation is
studied. The duration of the study tends to be relatively long. While a survey refers to research
where data is gathered from an entire population or a very large sample in order to comprehend
the opinions on a particular matter. The key differences between the two methods is that while
case studies produce rich descriptive data, surveys do not. Instead, the data is collected from
surveys are more statistically significant.

6. What are the advantages of surveys over case studies? Its disadvantages?
Advantages of surveys over case studies.
a. Surveys are mostly used in quantitative researches.
b. Surveys produce numerical data
c. High representativeness. A large population can be used as a sample in survey.
d. Low costs. When conducting surveys, a researcher only need to pay for the
production of survey material (questionnaire) or can use the web [via google forms,
survey monkey forms, and Microsoft forms) to do the survey.
e. Convenient data gathering. Surveys can be administered to the participants through a
variety of ways. Like face to face, mails, or online surveys.
f. Good statistical significance. Due to its high representativeness, it is often easier to
find statistically significant results that other data gathering methods.
g. Little or no observer subjectivity. Surveys are ideal for scientific research studies
because they provide all the participants with a standardized stimulus.
h. Precise results. As questions in the survey should undergo careful scrutiny, and
standardization, they provide uniform definitions to all the subjects who are to
answer the questionnaires.
Disadvantages.
a. Inflexible design. The survey that was used by the researcher from the very
beginning, as well as the method of administering it, cannot be changed all
throughout the process of data gathering.
b. Not ideal for controversial issues. Questions that bear controversies may not be
precisely answered by the participants because of the probably difficulty of recalling
the information related to them.
c. Possible inappropriateness of questions. Questions in surveys are always
standardized before administering them to subjects. The researcher is therefor force
to create questions that are general enough to accommodate the general population.
 [Sincero, Sara Mae (2012). Advantages and Disadvantages of Surveys. Retrieved
June 24 2020 from https://explorable.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
surveys ]
7. What is content analysis? What are its uses?
Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words,
themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data(i.e. text).
A technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special
characteristics of messages. [Holsti, 1968]. It is also an interpretative and naturalistic approach.
It is both observational and narrative in nature and relies less on experimental elements normally
associated in scientific research(reliability, validity and generalizability)[Ethnography,
Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry, 1994-2012]

Uses of Content Analysis

a. Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or
institution
b. Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications
c. Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups
d. Reveal international differences in communication content
e. Reveal patterns in communication content
f. Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch
g. Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to complement
quantitative data

Chapter 5 – Experimental Research

1. Explain the process of experimental research?
the research design is a logical model that shows the strategies for sample selection,
development of measurement tools, data collection as well as methods of data processing
and analysis. The process of doing the research activity is very delicate.

2. Differentiate a dependent from an independent variable. What are their functions in an

experimental research?
a. Dependent variables or measured variables are variables that changes because of
another variable. Its effect and outcome.
b. Independent variable is presumed to cause changes to occur in another variable,
experimental or treatment variable.

3. Give the distinguishing features of experiments.

a. The researcher manipulates the independent variable.
b. They decide the nature and the extent of the treatment.
c. After the treatment has been administered, researchers observe or measure the groups
receiving the treatments to see if they differ.
d. Experimental research enables researchers to go beyond description and prediction,
and attempt to determine what caused effects.
e. Comparison of groups.
f. Manipulation of independent variable
g. Randomization of samples.
 4. Explain how experimental designs are conducted.
a. Identifying a research problem
The process starts by clearly identifying the problem you want to study and
considering what possible methods will affect a solution. Then you choose the method
you want to test, and formulate a hypothesis to predict the outcome of the test.
b. Planning an experimental research study
The next step is to devise an experiment to test your hypothesis. In doing so, you
must consider several factors. For example, how generalizable do you want your end
results to be? Do you want to generalize about the entire population of high school
seniors everywhere, or just the particular population of seniors at your specific school?
This will determine how simple or complex the experiment will be. The amount of time
funding you have will also determine the size of your experiment.
c. Conducting the experiment
At the start of an experiment, the control and treatment groups must be selected.
Whereas the "hard" sciences have the luxury of attempting to create truly equal groups,
educators often find themselves forced to conduct their experiments based on self-
selected groups, rather than on randomization.
d. Analyzing the data
The fourth step is to collect and analyze the data. This is not solely a step where you
collect the papers, read them, and say your methods were a success. You must show how
successful. You must devise a scale by which you will evaluate the data you receive,
therefore you must decide what indicators will be, and will not be, important
e. Writing the paper/presentation describing the findings
Once you have completed the experiment, you will want to share findings by
publishing academic paper (or presentations)

5. Describe fully the activities in an experimental plan.

Activities in an experimental plan.
a. Planning. Plan the experiment in advance. Plan for the best and get the best result.
b. Selecting the problem. All can’t be studied under experimental design. The capacity
to manipulate the independent variables and their effect could be studied.
c. Formulation of hypothesis and variables. It is important to craft what is the expected
result or outcome. It will serve as a guide towards the experiment.
d. Selection of setting. It is the background in which the phenomena is to be enacted.
e. Pilot study. This is important to understand the first hand information while
conducting the main study.
f. Research design. Choose the appropriate experimental research design for the study.
It is important to apt the design akin to the study.

Chapter 6 – Collection of Data

1. How are data classified according to source? What are their advantages and
disadvantages?
Classification is the process of arranging the collected data into classes and to subclass
according to their common characteristics.
In statistical analysis, there are four classifications of data.
a. Geographic classification
 When data are classified on the basis of location or areas.
b. Chronological Classification
Means classification on the basis of time, like months, years etc.
c. Qualitative Classification
Data are classified on the basis of some attributes like sex, hair colour, literacy and
religion. In this classification, the attribute under study cannot be measured. It can
only be found out whether it is present or absent in the units of study.
Advantages of qualitative data
a. Provides depth and detail. Look deeper by analyzing ranks and counts by
recording attitudes, feelings and behavior.
b. Creates openness. Encouraging people to expand on their responses can open up
new topic areas not initially considered.
c. Simulates people’s individual experiences. A detailed picture can be built up
about why people act in certain ways and their feelings about their action.
d. Attempts to avoid pre-judgement. If used alongside quantitative data collection, it
can explain why a particular response was given.
Disadvantages
a. Usually fewer people studied. Collection of qualitative data is generally more time
consuming than that of quantitative data collection and therefor it is generally
necessary to include smaller sample size.
b. Less easy to generalize. Because of lesser people are generally studied it is not
possible to generalize results to that of the population. Usually exact numbers are
reported rather than percentages.
c. Difficult to make systematic comparison. Say for example, if people give widely
differing responses that are highly subjective then it is difficult to make
comparisons and conclusions.
d. Dependent on skills of the researcher. This is particularly on the case of
conducting interviews, focus groups and observations.
d. Quantitative Classification
Refers to the classification of data according to some characteristics which can be
measured such as weight, height, income, profits and the likes.

Advantages
a. Allow for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing
the generalization of the results
b. Can allow for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative
methods are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalisations
about the phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative
research usually involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed
procedures to ensure validity and reliability
c. Using standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analysed and
compared with similar studies. Kruger (2003) confirms that 'quantitative methods
allow us to summarize vast sources of information and facilitate comparisons across
categories and over time'
d. Personal bias can be avoided by researchers keeping a 'distance' from participating
subjects and employing subjects unknown to them
 Disadvantages
a. Collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset
b. Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed
narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception
c. The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a
level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not
normally be in place in the real world yielding laboratory results as opposed to real
world results
d. In addition preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a
subject and in some cases might just be the closest match.
e. The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to 'structural' bias
and false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of them instead of
the participating subject.

2. What are the characteristics of a good research instrument? Explain each.

a. RELIBILITY - is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an

instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with
the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is
considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. It is
important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated. A good
instrument will produce consistent scores. An instrument’s reliability is estimated
using a correlation coefficient of one type or another.

b. VALIDITY - Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to

measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately
applied and interpreted. Validity isn’t determined by a single statistic, but by a body
of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and the behavior it is
intended to measure. There are three types of validity: It is the strength of our
conclusions, inferences or propositions. More formally, Cook and Campbell (1979)
define it as the "best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given
inference, proposition or conclusion."

c. PRACTICIBILITY - It should be feasible & usable. Quality of being usable in

context to the objective to be achieved.

d. USABILITY(practicality) ease in administration, scoring, interpretation and

application, low cost, proper mechanical make – up

e. MEASUREABILITY - It should measure the objective to be achieved.

[http://priyankaaggarwal1.blogspot.com/2017/04/characteristics-of-good-measuring_1.html]

Chapter 7 – The Questionnaire

1. What is a questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents. Questionnaires can be thought of as a
 kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, computer or
post.
Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining
large amounts of information from a large sample of people.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire as a means of

gathering data?

Advantages
a. Practical
b. Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a
short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way
c. Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect
to its validity and reliability
d. The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by
either a researcher or through the use of a software package
e. Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research
f. When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research
and may be used to measure change
g. Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or
test existing hypotheses
Disadvantages
a. Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of
emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.
b. Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the
researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation
c. Lacks validity
d. There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
e. There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in
f. The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation
g. People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone
else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged
h. There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the
questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what
is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance
 i. The process of coding in the case of open-ended questions opens a great possibility of
subjectivity by the researcher
References
K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959), reprinted (2004) by Routledge, Taylor &
Francis
S. Ackroyd and J. A. Hughes, Data Collection in Context (1981) Longman

3. What are the guidelines in the formulation of questions in a questionnaire? Explain,

justify and give examples each.
The following are useful guidelines in the construction of questions for questionnaire.
a. Make all directions clear and unequivocal. As much as possible, make all directions
clear, definite, and brief. There should also be a direction for every type of questions.
See to it that respondents know what to do.
Example. Choose the item that would best answer the question. Write a check mark
on the small circle before the option.
b. Use correct grammar. Punctuation marks especially should be placed properly to
avoid misinterpretation.
Example. Please accomplish the questionnaire and return it as much as possible.
c. Make all questions unequivocal. Avoid making double barreled questions, questions
which can be interpreted in two ways.
Example. Are you ready for the school opening this August. () Yes I am, () No, I’m
not.
Is a your father a college graduate?
d. Avoid asking biased questions. A biased question is one in which there is a veiled
suggestion for an answer.
Example. Which network provided you use for internet connectivity?
e. Objectify the responses. This is for the standardization of responses and easier
tabulation.
Example. Which of the following gadgets you can use in learning? check all that is
applied.
__TV __Smartphone __Radio __Laptop __Tablet
__Desktop
f. Rebate all questions to the topic under study. All questions should gather data
relevant to the study.
g. Create categories or classes for approximate answers. There are questions which
cannot be given exact answers and so there is a necessity of creating categories or
classes to accommodate the approximate replies.

Chapter 8 – The Interview

1. What is an interview? What are the functions of the participants in an interview?
An interview is a conversation for gathering information. A research interview involves
an interviewer, who coordinates the process of the conversation and asks questions, and
an interviewee, who responds to those questions. Interviews can be conducted face-to-
face or over the telephone. The internet is also emerging as a tool for interviewing.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the interview as a means of
gathering data?

Advantages of interview
a. It provides flexibility to the interviewers
b. The interview has a better response rate than mailed questions, and the people who
cannot read and write can also answer the questions.
c. The interviewer can judge the non-verbal behavior of the respondent.
d. The interviewer can decide the place for an interview in a private and silent place,
unlike the ones conducted through emails which can have a completely different
environment.
e. The interviewer can control over the order of the question, as in the questionnaire,
and can judge the spontaneity of the respondent as well.
Disadvantages of interview
a. Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well as very time-consuming.
b. An interview can cause biases. For example, the respondent’s answers can be
affected by his reaction to the interviewer’s race, class, age or physical appearance.
c. Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a big concern for many
respondents.
d. There is a lack of accessibility to respondents (unlike conducting mailed
questionnaire study) since the respondents can be in around any corner of the world
or country.

3. What are the types of interviews?

Interviews can be designed differently depending on the needs being addressed and the
information. They can be grouped into three types:
a. Structured interviews: In a structured interview, the interviewer asks a set of
standard, predetermined questions about particular topics, in a specific order. The
respondents need to select their answers from a list of options. The interviewer may
provide clarification on some questions. Structured Interviews are typically used in
surveys (see our “Survey Research Methods” Tip Sheet for more information).
b. Semi-structured interviews: In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses a
set of predetermined questions and the respondents answer in their own words. Some
interviewers use a topic guide that serves as a checklist to ensure that all respondents
provide information on the same topics. The interviewer can probe areas based on the
respondent’s answers or ask supplementary questions for clarification. Semi-
structured interviews are useful when there is a need to collect in-depth information
in a systematic manner from a number of respondents or interviewees (e.g., teachers,
community leaders).
c. Unstructured interviews: In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has no
specific guidelines, restrictions, predetermined questions, or list of options. The
interviewer asks a few broad questions to engage the respondent in an open,
informal, and spontaneous discussion. The interviewer also probes with further
questions and/or explores inconsistencies to gather more in-depth information on the
topic. Unstructured interviews are particularly useful for getting the stories behind
respondents’ experiences or when there is little information about a topic.
4. What are the steps necessary for an effective interview? Explain each.

Steps in Conducting an Interview

A. Before the Interview:
1. Define your objectives → identify what you want to achieve and the information
you need to gather. Make sure an interview is the appropriate way to meet your
objectives.
2. Choose the type of interview → Review your required information, budget, time,
and potential respondents and decide whether you need to conduct structured,
semi-structured, or unstructured interviews.
3. Choose the appropriate respondents → Depending on the type of interview,
decide on the characteristics of interviewees and the number of interviews
required.
4. Decide how you will conduct the interviews → Consider telephone or face-to
face interviews. For large surveys, consider computer-aided interviewing and
recording.
5. Decide how to recruit your respondents → Obtain contact information for a
number of respondents larger than the number of interviews you need, since
some may not respond. Contact them by phone, e-mail, or regular mail and
introduce yourself, your organization, and your project. Explain the purpose of
the interview, the importance of their participation, and set up an appointment.
6. Decide how you will record the interviews → Depending on the type of
interview, you may fill in a prepared form, use written notes, voice recorders, or
computer-aided devices.
7. Make a list of questions and test them with a sample of respondents → the
questions must be aligned with the type of interview. If you are running
structured interviews, see our Tip Sheets on “Questionnaire Design” and Survey
Research Methods” for more information.
8. Decide who will conduct the interviews → develop an information kit that
includes an introduction to the research topic and instructions. For unstructured
interviews, you may need to hire skilled interviewers.

B. During the interview:

1. Introduce yourself and initiate a friendly but professional conversation.
2. Explain the purpose of your project, the importance of their participation, and the
expected duration of the interview.
3. Be prepared to reschedule the interview if a respondent has a problem with the
timing.
4. Explain the format of the interview.
5. Tell respondents how the interview will be recorded and how the collected
information will be used → if possible, obtain their written consent to participate.
6. Ask respondents if they have any questions.
7. Control your tone of voice and language → remain as neutral as possible when
asking questions or probing on issues.
 8. Keep the focus on the topic of inquiry and complete the interview within the
agreed time limit.
9. Ensure proper recording → without distracting the respondent, check your notes
and voice recorder regularly.
10. Complete the session → make sure all questions were asked, explain again how
you will use the data, thank the respondent, and ask them if they have any
questions.
C. After the interview
1. Make sure the interview was properly recorded → make additional notes, if
needed.
2. Organize your interview responses → responses from unstructured and semi-
structured interviews need to be transcribed. Responses from structured
interviews need to be entered into a data analysis program.
3. Get ready for data analysis → search for resources for analyzing qualitative
and/or quantitative data.

Chapter 9 – Observation
1. Define observation in research.

Observation is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their

senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations.

Observation of a field setting involves prolonged engagement in a setting or social

situation clearly expressed, self-conscious notations of how observing is done methodical
and tactical improvisation in order to develop a full understanding of the setting of
interest imparting attention in ways that is in some sense 'standardized' recording one's
observations

2. Why is observation needed in research? What are its purposes?

There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of these
reasons include:

When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on answering a how-
or what-type question
When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the behavior of
people in a particular setting
When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable
When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting
When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be different from actual
behavior (what people actually do). One example of this seen in the difference between
self-reported versus observed preventive service delivery in health care settings.
When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be used in
conjunction with other quantitative data collection techniques. Observational data can
help researchers evaluate the fidelity of an intervention across settings and identify when
'stasis' has been achieved.
Observation fosters an in depth and rich understanding of a phenomenon, situation and/or
setting and the behavior of the participants in that setting. Observation is an essential part of
gaining an understanding of naturalistic settings and its members' ways of seeing.
Observation can provide the foundation for theory and hypothesis development.

3. What are the types of observation? Explain each.

When it comes to observational research, you have three different types of

methodologies: controlled observations, naturalistic observations, and participant
observations.
A. Controlled observation
Controlled observations are typically a structured observation that takes place in a
psych lab. The researcher has a question in mind and controls many of the variables,
including participants, observation location, time of the study, circumstances surrounding
the research, and more.

During this type of study, the researcher will often create codes that represent
different types of behaviors. That way, instead of writing a detailed report, they can
classify behavior into different categories and analyze the data with more ease.

The advantages of controlled observation include:

a. You can make an observation schedule for your sampling, and have other
market researchers use the same codes if they replicate the study. This helps
test for reliability.
b. The coded data is easy to analyze and quantify.
c. Controlled studies aren’t as time-consuming.
Limitations of a controlled observation include:
a. It may be challenging to determine the validity of the study if participants
know they are being watched.

B. Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation is another type of observation research method used by
market researchers. This type of observation is when market researchers study the behaviors
of participants in a natural surrounding. There are typically no predetermined behavioral
codes. Instead, the researcher will take rigorous notes and code the data later.

Some advantages of naturalistic observation include:

a. The study ensures validity when participants are in their natural setting.
b. This type of study can generate new ideas and research questions.
c. It opens researchers minds to possibilities they might not have considered
before.
d. Researchers can collect authentic data and avoid any potential problems with
self-reported data.

Some limitations include:

 a. You can’t control different variables, making it difficult to replicate the study
and test for reliability.
b. It may be challenging to conduct this type of study on a wide scale.
c. You have to use skilled researchers, so you don’t risk missing critical
behavioral data.
d. You aren’t able to manipulate any variables.

C. Participant observation
The last type of observation method is participant observation. This is a type of
naturalistic observation in the fact that market researchers will observe participants in their
natural habitat. The difference is market researchers will insert themselves into the
environment.

Some advantages of this type of observation include:

a. You can control some of the variables by being part of the natural environment.
b. You can still observe participants in their natural habitat, even if they know
you are part of the study.
c. You can avoid incorrect self-reported data through this method of observation
as well.
Here are some limitations to this type of study to consider:
a. It can be challenging to take notes openly without blowing your cover as the
market researcher.
b. If you can’t take notes openly, you’ll have to rely on memory for note-taking,
and memory can be faulty.
c. If a researcher becomes too involved in the study, they could become less
objective. This could threaten the validity of the study.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using observation as a means of gathering
data?

Advantages of Observation:
(1) Simplest Method:
Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection.
It does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled
observation requires some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other
methods. Everybody in this world observes many things in their daily life. A little
training can make a person perfect, to observe his surroundings.

(2) Useful for Framing Hypothesis:

Observation is one of the main bases of formulating hypothesis. By observing a
phenomenon continuously, the researcher may get well acquainted with the observed.
He came to know about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perception, different
activities and so many other things. All these help him a lot to form a hypothesis on
them. Any researcher, therefore, has to be a good observer.

(3) Greater Accuracy:

In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has to depend on
information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here the
investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by
them. But in observation the observer can directly check the accuracy from the
observed. He can apply various devices to test the reliability of their behaviour. So
very often the data collected through observation is more reliable than these collected
through interview or questionnaire.

(4) An Universal Method:

Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether physical or social. So it
has greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed
and accepted.

(5) Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases:

Observation can deal with phenomena which are not capable of giving verbal
information about their behaviour, feeling and activities simply for the reason that they
cannot speak e.g. infants or animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on
infants who can neither understand the quarries of the researcher nor express
themselves clearly. In the case of animals observation is the only way out. For deaf
and dumb persons, for serious cases of abnormality or mad persons, for non-
cooperative persons, for too shy persons and for persons who do not understand the
language of researcher, observation will be the only appropriate tool.

(6) Independent of People’s Willingness to Report:

Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various
information about them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about themselves
to an outsider. Some people do not have time or required skill to provide important
information to the researcher. Although observation cannot always overcome such
problems, still relatively speaking it requires less active co-operation and willingness
of respondents. Observation is ever possible without the knowledge of the
respondents.

Limitations of Observation:
(1) Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation:
There are many personal behaviours or secret activities which are not open for
observation. For example, no couple will allow the researcher to observe their sexual
activities. In most of the cases people do not allow the outsider to study their activities.

(2) Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is
at Hand:
Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are
very much uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to
determine their time and place. The event may take place in the absence of the
observer. On the other hand, it may not occur in the constant presence of the observer.
For example, the quarrel and fight between two individuals or groups is never certain.
Nobody knows when such an event will take place.
(3) Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study:
Most of the social phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, love, affection,
feeling and emotion of parents towards their children are not open to our senses and
also cannot be quantified by observational techniques. The researcher may employ
other methods like case study; interview etc. to study such phenomena.

(4) Lack of Reliability:

Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments,
generalizations made by observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of
the social phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty for
making valid generalization in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in observation,
no attempt is made to use instruments of precision to check the accuracy of the
phenomenon.

(5) Faulty Perception:

Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the
same as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena
differently. One person may find something meaningful and useful from a situation but
the other may find nothing from it. Only those observers who are having the technical
knowledge about the observation can make scientific observation.

(6) Personal Bias of the Observer:

The personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way often creates
obstacle for making valid generalization. The observer may have his own ideas of
right and wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which
kills the objectivity in social research.

(7) Slow Investigation:

Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid
observation cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period
through observation. It sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed
to continue their observation process.

(8) Expensive:
Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort.
Observation involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing of
sophisticated equipment’s. Because of this it is called as one of the most expensive
methods of data collection.

(9) Inadequate Method:

According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation alone”.
Therefore many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other methods
also.

(10) Difficulty in Checking Validity:

 Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the phenomena of
observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and does not help in drawing a
valid generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may hamper validity and
reliability of observation.

5. How can observation be made more valid and reliable?

Observation as a method of data gathering is more valid and reliable especially in the
context of social studies. Because the researcher see and observe for himself the real
scenario or situation. Observation then will give a valid, reliable and factual information
prior to what is observed.

Chapter 10 – Ethical Standards

1. Why are ethical standards important in research?
“One must be responsible of his action”. Thus, our actions come with
consequences or will have an impact on us; either in positive or negative effect. Think
before you act as they say. In the context of research processes and in conducting
researches, a researcher must be mindful of ethical standards and issues. Ethical standards
are important because they seek to work towards protecting the individuals, communities
and environment involved in the studies against any form of harm, manipulation or
malpractices.
On the part of the participants or sample population, ethical standards seek to
protect better the rights of the research participants. This means, ethical standards require
a researcher not to put participants in a situation where they might be at risk of harm as a
result of their participation – neither physical nor psychological. Another thing is the
privacy of the participants. Akin to this, the researcher must ensure confidentially and
anonymity of the research participants.
On the part of other researcher, ethical standards ensure that their works will not
be plagiarized. This will demand researchers to refrain from copying and owning one’s
work.
“…ethical behavior helps protect individuals, communities and environments,
and offers the potential to increase the sum of good in the world. As a social scientists
‘trying to make the world a better place’ we should avoid (or at least minimize) doing
long-term, systematic harm to those individuals, communities and environments…”(Israel
and Hay, Research Ethics for Social Scientists, 2006).
Ethics likewise suggest that a research or study needs not only to avoid harm, but
to ensure that its purpose is to do good. Like in our case today, numbers of scientists are
doing their best to seek solution for the pandemic, thus these researches are for the
common good or for the world.