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The Colloidal “Activity” of Clays
L’Activité colloïdale des argiles
by A .W . S k e m p t o n , D .S c., A .M .I.C .E ., F .G .S ., University Reader in Soil M echanics and A ssistant Professor at Imperial College,
U niversity o f L ondon, England
Summary
In any particular clay stratum the ratio o f the plasticity index to
the clay fraction content is approximately constant, and may be
defined as the “ activity” of the clay. Values of activity are given
for many clays and also for the more common minerals. It is shown
that activity is related to the mineralogy and geological history of
clays, and to the proportion of their shear strength contributed by
true cohesion. Field data is presented which indicates that the diffi­
culties o f taking satisfactory undisturbed samples in deep beds of
sensitive clay are restricted to those clays with an activity of less
than 0.75.
Introduction
The properties o f a clay are determined fundam entally by
the physico-chem ical characteristics o f the various constituent
minerals and by the relative proportions in which the minerals
are present. The determ ination o f these characteristics is a
lengthy and difficult process requiring the use o f an X-ray
spectrometer, thermal analysis, etc., and it is evident that such
techniques can never becom e part o f the norm al laboratory
procedure in soil mechanics. Som e sim ple tests are therefore
required that give a quantitative measure o f the com posite
effects o f all the basic properties o f a clay and, as is well know n,
the Atterberg lim its fulfill this function in large measure. But
they are n ot w holly sufficient, and in the present paper evidence
is given which show s that valuable additional inform ation is
provided by an index property com bining the Atterberg limits
and the particle size distribution o f a clay; yet requiring for
its determ ination only the results o f these routine tests.
The R atio: P//C lay Fraction
If a number o f sam ples are taken from a particular clay
stratum and the clay fraction content (percentage by weight
o f particles finer than 2 microns) and the Atterberg plasticity
index (P I) are determined for each sample, then there is gene­
Session 1/14
Sommaire
Dans une couche d’argile le rapport de l’indice de plasticité à la
proportion d’argile (moins de 2 microns) est presque constant et
peut être défini comme « l’activité» de la couche. Les valeurs de
cette activité sont données pour diverses argiles et aussi pour les
minéraux les plus répandus. Il est démontré que l’activité dépend
de la minéralogie et de la géologie des argiles et de leur résistance
au cisaillement due à la cohésion vraie. Les observations sur le
terrain montrent que l’extraction d’échantillons satisfaisants, dans
de profondes couches d’argile sensitive, ne présentent des difficultés
que pour les argiles dont l’activité est inférieure à 0,75.
rally a quite wide range in the numerical values for both pro­
perties. Y et if the plasticity index is plotted against clay frac­
tion it will be found that the points lie about a straight line
w hich extrapolates back to the origin. Typical sets o f results
obtained from such tests on four clays are given in Fig. 1.
The degree o f scatter about the mean line is presumably a
measure o f the variations in com position within the stratum.
N o w it is widely recognised that the higher the plasticity
index the more pronounced are the colloidal properties o f a
clay. M oreover the colloidal properties are contributed largely
by the finest particles and, in particular, by the “ clay fraction” .
B ut reference to Fig. 1 w ill at once show that tw o clays which
may have the sam e content o f clay fraction can have widely
different plastic indexes, and it w ould seem logical to assume
. that the clay with the higher P I, for a given clay fraction con ­
tent, is more colloidally active than the clay with a lower PI,
for the sam e given clay fraction content.
T he direct linear relationship between P I and clay fraction
content for any particular clay enables this degree o f colloidal
activity to be expressed very simply by the ratio:—
plasticity index
activity = ---------------- :------
clay fraction
57
This ratio is, in fact, the slope o f the lines such as those in The three minerals quartz, calcite and mica, tested by von
Fig. 1; and it provides a convenient single-valued parameter M oos, were ground to a very sm all particle size and the P I
for any particular clay. then determined on the fraction finer than 2 microns. The
The above definition o f activity was given by the author in activity o f these minerals is low , as m ight be expected from
1950, and is a developm ent o f an earlier conception (Skem pton, their relatively simple crystal structure. O f the true clay m ine­
1948 c) in which liquid lim it w as plotted against clay fraction. rals so far examined kaolinite has the low est activity. Illite is
probably the m ost widespread o f all clay minerals but it usually
occurs in conjunction with other minerals. Fortunately, h ow ­
ever, a clay shale exists in Illinois, the clay fraction o f which
consists alm ost entirely o f illite. A large sam ple if this material
was kindly sent by Professor Grim and the average result o f
tests carried out by Dr. N or they, in the author’s laboratory,
is given in Table 1. The clay know n as bentonite consists al­
m ost exclusively o f the mineral m ontm orillonite. In its natural
state bentonite is usually a sodium clay and, in this state, it
has a very exceptionally high activity. By effecting a base ex­
change from sodium (m onavalent) to calcium (bivalent),
Samuels (1950) has shown by repeated tests that the activity
is considerably lowered; although even the Ca-bentonite has
a high activity. H e has also show n that bentonite carrying a
tri-valent base A l has an activity o f about 1.3. In contrast,
Samuels (1950) found that base exchange has only a minor
influence on kaolinite. N o base exchange tests appear to have
been m ade on illite but, since this mineral shows m oderate
activity, the effect w ould probably be appreciable.
F ig. 1 R ela tio n B etw een P lasticity In d ex and C lay F raction It is clear from the above results that activity is, broadly
R e la tio n entre l’in d ice de plasticité e t le p o u rcen ta g e d ’argile speaking, related to the structural com plexity o f the minerals;
ranging from quartz through kaolin up to m ontm orillonite.
In the 1948 paper three classes o f clay were recognised, from
this point o f view, nam ely “ in active” , “ n orm al” and “ active” . Activity and Geological History
D ata obtained subsequently has not lead to any essential
Inform ation concerning 27 clays is given in Table 2, from
change in this classification which, in terms o f the ratio P //clay
which it m ay be deduced that there is som e degree o f correla­
fraction, may be stated as follow s:—
tion between activity and the m ineralogy and geological his­
inactive clays — activity < 0 .7 5 tory o f a clay.
norm al clays — activity 0.75 to 1.25 The “ inactive” clays (activity less than 0.75) seem to possess
active clay — activity > 1.25 one or more o f the follow ing characteristics:—
(a) clay fraction either consists predom inantly o f kaolinite, or
The relation between liquid lim it and clay fraction, although
contains little true clay mineral;
linear, is not one o f direct proportion and is therefore less con ­
(b) deposition in fresh water;
venient than the ratio P I Id a y fraction. For the idea o f plotting
(c) deposition in salt water, but subsequently leached by per­
clay fraction against plasticity index rather than liquid limit,
colation o f fresh water.
the author is indebted to a graph in a paper by A. Casagrande
and Shannon (1948). Clays com bining the characteristics (a) and (6 ) or (a) and (c)
form the least active group I (activity less than 0.5). Apart
from kaolin the typical members o f this group are late-glacial
Activity o f Various Minerals clays derived largely by m echanical erosion o f non-argillaceous
rocks by ice-sheets, and deposited in ice-dam m ed lakes; and
In exam ining more fully the significance o f activity it is in
post-glacial marine or estuarine clays which have subsequently
the first place o f interest to discover the values o f PIIclay frac­
been leached by fresh water, usually follow ing isostatic uplift.
tion for the com m only occurring minerals in clays. The prin­
There is evidence, both from the field and the laboratory, that
cipal data are assembled in Table 1.
m any o f the extra sensitive clays belong to this category o f
leached post-glacial marine deposits (Rosenquist, 1946; S kem p­
Table 1 Values of /7/Clay Fraction for some Clay-Minerals ton and N orthey, 1952). Clays form ed by normal weathering
and deposited in fresh water seem to fall into the group 2 with
Minerai Activity Reference activities between about 0.5 and 0.75.
The largest group is that with activities between 0.75 and
Quartz 0.0 von Moos (1938) 1.25, and it includes the marine and estuarine clays with illite
Calcite 0.18 von Moos (1938) as the predominant clay mineral. Only 8 exam ples are given
Mica (muscovite) 0.23 von Moos (1938) in T able 2, but m any m ore clays could be included ranging in
/ 0.33 Northey (1950)
Kaolinite geological age from the Jurassic to the post-glacial periods.
\ 0.46 Samuels (1950)
Illite 0.90 Northey ( 1950) Group 4, the members o f which may be described as “ a ctive”
Ca-montmorillonite 1.5 Samuels (1950) clays, consists o f deposits which contain an appreciable am ount
Na-montmorillonite 7.2 Samuels (1950) o f organic colloids, although in other respects they w ould be
classed as “ norm al” . It may be expected that clays containing

58
Table 2 Correlation between Activity and the Mineralogy and Geology of Some Clays

M ineralogy o f
Range
Clay Fraction
Group of Location Geology A ctivity A uthority
A ctivity M ajor M inor

Inactive less St. T huribe, near Q uebec P o st G la cia l m arine or estuarine,

I than leached Q Mi 0.33 Peck e t al., G rim
0.5 C ornw all, E ngland F orm ed in situ by pn eu m atolysis
(k aolin) k 0.39 N orth ey
C h ica g o , U .S .A . L ate G la cia l, lacustrine 0.41 R utled ge
B o sto n , U .S .A . L a te G la cia l, m arine 0.42 T aylor
H orten, N o r w a y P o st G la cia l, m arine, leached Q Mi i mo k 0.42 H ansen, N orth ey, G rim
D etro it, U .S .A . L ate G la c ia l, lacustrine Mi i C Q mo 0.49 Peck, G rim

Inactive 0.5 to W rexham , W ales L ate G la cia l, p robab ly lacustrine 0.54 B .R .S .

2 0.75 R . L idan, Sw eden P o st G la cia l, probab ly as H orten 0.58 C adling
W eald (various sites), E ngland W eald C lay, C retaceous, lacustrine i k verm iculite 0.63 B .R .S ., A .O .R .G .
R eading, E ngland R ea d in g C lay, E ocen e, fresh-w ater 0.72 B .R .S .
Seagrove B ay, I.O .W ., Engl. O ligocen e, fresh-w ater 0.73 Sk em pton
G ran gem ou th , S cotlan d L a te G la cia l, E stuarine 0.74 Sk em pton

N orm al 0.75 to P eterb orou gh , E ngland O xford C lay, Jurassic, m arine 0.86 B .R .S .
3 1.25 G o sp o rt, E ngland P o st G la cia l, m arine i h 0.88 S k em p ton , N agelsch m it
G rund y C o u n ty , 111., U .S .A . U p p er C arboniferous (illite.) i 0.90 N o r th e y , G rim
A ylesb ury, E ngland K im m erid ge C lay, Jurassic, m arine 0.93 B .R .S .
L o n d o n (various sites) L o n d o n C la y , E ocen e, m arine i k mo 0.95 C oolin g, S k em p ton , G rim
V arious sites, S.E . E ngland G a u lt C lay, C retaceous, m arine i k mo 0.96 B .R .S ., A .O .R .G .
N o r fo lk F ens, E ngland P o st G la cia l, m arine and estuarine 1.06 B .R .S .
V ienna, A ustria W iener T egel, M iocen e, m arine 1.08 H vorslev
K lein -B elt, D enm ark K lein -B elt-T o n , E ocen e, m arine 1.18 H vorslev

A ctive 1.25 to S h ellhaven, E ngland P o st G la cia l, organic and estuarine i k 1.33 S k em p ton , G rim
4 2.0 La G uardia A irport, N e w Y ork P o st G la cia l, organic, m arine 1.45 H arris et al.
R . S h a n n o n , Eire R ecent river allu vium , organic 1.5 B .R .S .
B elfast, N . Ireland P o st G la cia l, organic, estuarine 1.6 B .R .S .
C hin gford, E ngland - R ecen t river allu vium , organic 1.7 B .R .S .
P an am a, C entral A m erica R ecen t organic, m arine 1.75 C asagrande

A ctive m ore M ex ico C ity B en to n ite C lay mo 4.3 M arsal e t al.

5 than W y o m in g , U .S .A . B en to n ite mo — 6.3 Sam uels, N o rth ey
2.0

C = C alcite h = H a llo y site "j

Mi = M ica i = Illite I clay — negligible
Q = Q uartz k = K a o lin ite | m inerals - - n o t determ ined
mo = M o n tm orillon ite j

C a-m ontm orillonite w ould also fall into this group, but the rf = cr + <rn' tan <pr
author does not know o f any data on such materials. Group 5
where an' is the effective pressure norm al to the shear plane.
includes only bentonitic clays, no others are know n with such
If a clay is norm ally-consolidated from a slurry under a pres­
high activity values; and the reason is im mediately apparent
sure cr„' and is then sheared sufficiently slow ly for all the pore
from the fact that they consist predom inantly o f N a-m ont- water pressure to be fully dissipated (a “ drained” shear test),
m orillonite (see Table 1). then:
Boulder clays have not been given in Table 2 since they can
Tf = an' tan <pd
vary between G roups 1 to 4, depending upon the nature o f
the ground from which the glacier or ice-sheet derived the where <pd is the angle o f shearing resistance in the “ drained”
material. Thus the boulder clays o f East A nglia, being derived state. If, moreover, cT is the cohesion o f the clay at the water
from the Jurassic and Cretaceous clays o f the southern and content at failure in the drained shear test, then the proportion
eastern M idlands, fall into group 3. But som e o f the boulder o f the shear strength due to cohesion is
clays o f northern England and Scotland fall into groups 1 or 2 Cr
as they consist largely o f finely ground rock minerals with cr,,' tan <pd
little if any true clay minerals incorporated in the matrix.
and the proportion due to internal friction is
A c itiv ity an d T ru e C o h esio n tan <pr Cr
tan <pa a,,' tan if d
The shear strength o f a clay is m ade up o f tw o parts, the
cohesion cr and the coefficient o f internal friction tan <pn In Fig. 2 the com ponents o f shear strength in 8 normally-
according to the expression (H vorslev, 1937) consolidated materials are plotted against their activity. It is

59
not to be expected that there w ould be an exact correlation,
but the results show beyond doubt that the greater the activity
the greater the contribution o f cohesion to the shear strength.
O f these tests tw o clays were investigated by H vorslev in his
A C T IV IT Y = P LA STIC IT Y IN D EX / C LA Y FRA C T IO N
Fig. 2 R ela tio n B etw een the C o m p o n en ts o f Shear Strength and the
A ctiv ity o f N o rm a lly C o n so lid a ted C lays
R ela tio n entre les co m p o sa n tes de la résistance au cisaillem en t
et l’activité d ’argiles n orm alem en t c o n so lid és
classic research (1937) and the others have been studied by
Gibson (1951), working at Imperial College.
Fig. 2 provides evidence supporting the suggestion m ade in
an earlier paper (Skem pton, 1948 c) that there is likely to be
a correlation between the cohesion o f clays and their minera­
logy and, in particular, that the true cohesion in som e o f the
N orth American clays (Boston Clay, M assena Clay, Chicago
Clay, etc.) is probably only a sm all proportion o f their shear
strength. This conclusion may go far towards resolving an
apparent conflict in view point between som e investigators
working in America and those working in Europe; the former
maintaining that in norm ally consolidated clays true cohesion
LIQ UID ITY IN DEX
Fig. 4 R elation B etw een D e p th , L iq u id ity In d ex and A ctiv ity and F e asib ility o f Sam pling
R elation entre la profon deur, l’in d ice de liq u id ité, l’activité e t la p ossib ilité d ’obten ir d es é ch an tillon s
6 0
is either negligible or non-existant (for exam ple Taylor, 1943)
and the latter maintaining, with H vorslev, that true cohesion
must, in general, be present in clays (for exam ple Skem pton
and Bishop, 1950; Bjerrum, 1950).
F ig . 3 R e lation B etw een Sen sitivity and L iq u id ity Index
R e lation entre la sen sitivité e t l’in d ice de liq uidité
A c tiv ity and S a m p lin g D ifficu lties
From the investigations o f Carlson (1948), Skem pton (1948 b)
and especially Cadling and O denstad (1950), it is know n that
there are a number o f norm ally-consolidated clays in w hich it
seems to be im possible to take satisfactory sam ples from depths
o f more than about 20 or 30 f t .; even with the best available
sam pling techniques. In contrast, cases have been reported by
Skem pton (1948a), H arris,M u eser and P orter (1948) and others
where it proved to be possible to obtain satisfactory samples
from depths o f 40 ft. to 70 ft. in norm ally-consolidated clays.
It may be m entioned that no difficulties in this respect have
been encountered in any over-consolidated clays.
LIQ U ID ITY IN D EX
 N ow although in all norm ally-consolidated clays (including
those from which satisfactory samples cannot be obtained at
depth) the in-situ vane test gives a sufficiently correct measure
o f undrained shear strength, it is nevertheless generally desir­
able to take sam ples in order to carry out tests for the deter­
m ination o f properties other than the undrained shear strength.
Consequently it is im portant to understand as far as possible
the reasons for the sam pling difficulties m entioned above. This
problem was briefly considered in an earlier paper (Skem pton,
1948 b) and subsequently som e valuable data from Sweden has
becom e available (Cadling and Odens tad, 1950) which can be
used to throw more light on the subject. The m ost obvious
suggestion is that satisfactory sam pling at depths o f more than
about 20 ft. to 30 ft. becomes increasingly difficult as the sensi­
tivity1) o f the clay increases. A s show n in Fig. 3 the liquidity
index may be used as a simple measure o f sensitivity, where
(Terzaghi, 1936)
....................... water content — plastic limit
liquidity index = -------------— —— :—----------------
plasticity index
If the liquidity index o f a sam ple is plotted against the depth
from which the sam ple was taken, and if the point is given
a sym bol show ing whether the sam ple was satisfactory or not,
then it becom es clear that the unsatisfactory samples all lie to
the right o f the heavy line shown in Fig. 4. But it is also found
that in this zone there are a number o f perfectly satisfactory
samples. Som e other factor m ust therefore be involved, and
this appears to be the activity o f the clay since, in the cases
know n to the author, the unsatisfactory samples all have an
activity o f less than 0.75, while the satisfactory samples lying
in the zone to the right o f the line in Fig. 4 all have an activity
o f more than 1.0. In order to make this apparent the data
has been separated, in Fig. 4, into tw o graphs (a) for inactive
and (b) for norm al and active clays.
The inform ation at present available is n ot sufficient to
enable any detailed or final deductions to be made, but the
evidence does at least suggest that the sam pling difficulties at
depth, in normally consolidated clays, m ay be restricted to
sensitive clays o f low activity; and that neither sensitivity or
activity are by them selves a sufficient criterion. The im por­
tance o f sensitivity is evident, and the influence o f activity may
perhaps be explained by the proportionately low cohesion in
clays o f low activity, see Fig. 2. It seems not unreasonable to
assum e that in sam pling tw o clays o f the sam e sensitivity, and
at the sam e depth, more difficulty w ould be experienced with
the clay in which the majority o f the strength derived from
internal friction, and less difficulty with the clay between the
particles o f which there were appreciable cohesion forces. The
clarification o f the problem, however, awaits further research
and the publication o f additional case records o f field investi­
gations.
undisturbed strength
') D efined by T erzagh i (1944) as
rem oulded strength
A ck n o w led g m en ts
The author is indebted to many friends who have supplied
data during the past years. Professor Grim, Dr. Nagelschm it
and Dr. H oneyborne have given great help in connection with
m ineralogical analyses, Mr. Smith and Mr. Evans o f the Army
Operational Research Group have contributed inform ation on
activities measured by them at various sites. Professor P eck
has very kindly sent many results supplementing those in his
own and his students’ publications. The data attributed to the
B .R .S. has been included by permission o f the D irector o f
Building Research, Departm ent o f Scientific and Industrial
Research.
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61