INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION OF PRESSURE VESSEL

a) DEFINITION
b) TYPES
c) APPLICATION

2. MANUFACTURING PROCESS ON PRESSURE VESSEL

a) DESIGN PARAMETERS
b) SEQUENTIAL PROCESSES

3. SETUP OF PRESSURE VESSEL

a) SHELL TO SHELL SETUP
b) SHELL TO DISH END SETUP
c) SHELL TO NOZZLE SETUP
d) DISH END TO NOZZLE SETUP

4. TESTING METHODS ON PRESSURE VESSEL

a) MATERIAL TESTING
b) LIQUID PENETRATE TESTING
c) MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
d) RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
e) ULTRASONIC TESTING

5. SURFACE PREPARATION ON PRESSURE VESSEL

a) SAND BLASTING
b) PAINTING

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6. HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION OF PRESSURE VESSEL

1. INTRODUCTION

A) DEFINITIONS

 VESSEL: - Vessels are working under higher pressure and

temperature, this becomes mandatory to design, manufacture, test, and
transport these vessels with levels of its built quality and reliability.

 PRESSURE VESSEL: - “ Pressure vessels are vessels working under

internal or external vacuum pressure with various temperature
conditions.”
Pressure vessel is the basic equipment for any fluid processing
system. The liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons are processed in these
reactors or vessels or towers.

The various processes that are processed in this equipment are as follow

1. Regeneration
2. Separation
3. Splitters
4. Buffers
5. Chemical reactions.

2
 These processes take places only in predetermined pressure temperature
condition. For example, Reactors use various catalyst beads to
enhance/control the rate at reactions.

SIMPLE PRESSURE VESSEL

B) TYPES OF PRESSURE VESSEL

There are various types of pressure vessel defined based upon its
construction and manufacturing.
1) SINGLE – WALL VESSEL: -
These vessels are made of Carbon-
manganese steel or alloy having single wall. These vessels generally
operate, at lower pressure and temperature. Due to the lower pressure
the thickness required to withstand the pressure is less and can be

3
 achieved with normal plate rolling mill. This type of vessel is
preferred in industries as it is easier to manufactured and cheaper in
cost.

2) MULTI – WALL VESSEL: -

Fertilizer plants use vessels like Ammonia
converter baskets etc. These vessels are working at very high pressure
and temperature, which in turn requires very high thickness. It is
difficult to roll such high thickness and weld as pressure joint. In such
cases, the technology used for manufacturing is opting for multi-wall
vessel.

3) CLADED VESSEL: -
The SS cladding is applied to protect the vessel
from corrosion. So we can improve the life of vessel. The vessel is
specially designed for corrosive service. The tower or reactors or
vessel which process under corrosive fluids or which process in highly
acidic fluids is handled in stainless steel environment. Clad vessels are
manufactured out of clad plates. Establishing little more, clad plates
are the plate having alloyed steel plates and stainless steel plates
rolled together at higher temperature that allow bonding. Generally
the thickness of cladding or the thickness of vessel is which we add
than requirement is 3 mm to 20 mm.

4) OVERLAYED VESSEL: -
This vessel is also designed for corrosive
service. The tower or reactor or vessels, which process corrosive

4
 fluids or highly acidic fluids, are also constructed by this method. In
this type long strip are used, and the strips are put inside the vessel by
welding. The width of strip may be 60mm to 90mm or more. This
type of vessel is more preferred when the thickness of clad is more, at
that time cladding is more done by overlapping.

5) HIGH THICK PRESSURE VESSEL: -

As the chemical technology
advances with fast pace, the refineries have now started using high
production rate with smaller sizes of plants. In turns the refiners high
thickness pressure vessel made of costly alloy steel contain Chromium
vanadium. These towers or reactors work are high thick vessel
(Approx. 200mm and above) with special manufacturing technology
and special skill.

2. MANUFACTURING PROCESS

A) DESIGN PARAMETERS.

 Most of the pressure or storage vessels in service in the United States

will have been designed and constructed in accordance with one of the
following two design codes:
 The ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Code: -
 Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
 The API (American Petroleum Institute) Code: -
 Standard 620 or the Code, which provides rules for lower pressure
vessels not covered by the ASME Code.

5
  In addition, some vessels designed and constructed during 1934 to
1956 may have used the rules in the API-ASME Code for Unfired
Pressure Vessels for Petroleum Liquids and Gases. This code was
discontinued in 1956.
 The criteria listed in this section apply to pressure vessels used for
manned-area operations. For remote operations, the extent to which
these criteria apply depends on the required functional reliability.
 Use a safety factor of 4 based on the known or calculated failure
pressure of the vessel or ultimate strength of the material when
designing for normal manned-area operation. Use a higher factor if an
operation involves detrimental conditions, such as vibration,
corrosion, shock, or thermal cycling.
 Never use a safety factor less than 4 when designing a vessel for
manned-area operation unless the design conforms to the ASME code
or to the requirements listed in Section 4.9 of this document and is
approved by the division leader.
 Have the Deputy Associate Director for Mechanical Engineering
approve any manned-area vessel design that is based on a safety factor
of less than 3.
 Design any vessel or system containing hazardous materials such that
the contained fluid leak rate will not pose a hazard to personnel or the
environment.

B) DESIGN CONSIDERATION


Specify that all purchase-fabrication welding be done by certified
ASME welders in accordance with the approved ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code.1

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
Avoid longitudinal welds in vessels less than 6 in. (0.15 m) in
diameter. Seamless tubing or pipe, or bar stock is usually available in
these smaller diameters.

Avoid stress concentrations. This is most critical when vessel material
elongation or fracture toughness is relatively low.

Adjust the design and the allowable stresses to compensate for
environmental conditions such as vibration, cycling, temperature
fluctuation, shock, corrosion, and extreme thermal operating
conditions.

Specify inspection by appropriate nondestructive detection methods,
such as radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrate, and magnetic particle
inspection, when designing a high-strength, high-pressure vessel.
Specify appropriate ultrasonic inspection of all manned-area pressure
vessels with wall thickness over 2 in. (50 mm). Maximum permissible
defects should be based on the capability of the vessel material to
resist crack growth under the specified operating conditions. Contact
the subject-matter expert for assistance with properly specifying
ultrasonic inspection.

Prepare a Fracture Control Plan for all gas-pressure vessels with wall
thickness over 2 in. (50 mm) that are to be operated in a manned area.
These vessels should be periodically monitored using appropriate
nondestructive inspection techniques to assure that previously
undetectable, undetected, and detected cracks are not approaching
critical size. Contact the subject-matter expert for assistance. A plan
should be prepared for vessels with thinner wall thick nesses wherever
radioactive, toxic, explosive, or flammable materials are involved.

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 
WHEN SPECIFYING WELDING OF PRESSURE VESSEL
COMPONENTS, CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING:

Checking a weld cross-section for toughness, because a weld might be
brittle and welding might embitter the material in the heat-affected
zone.

Including realistic joint efficiencies in calculations (see Ref. 1, Table
UW-12), because a weld might not penetrate to the full thickness of
the parent material.

Including the reduced properties of the heat-affected zone when
calculating the overall strength of the vessel, because welding
normally anneals the material in this zone.

Consulting with a welding or materials expert when planning to weld
a vessel that will contain a high-pressure hydrogen gas, because
welding reduces resistance of some materials to hydrogen
embitterment.

Use a realistic MAWP as a basis for design calculations. Select an
MAWP that exceeds the highest anticipated MOP by 10-20% (see
Fig. 2). This permits proper relief protection against overpressure
without degrading the dependable leak-tight function of the vessel at
its operating pressure.

Provide positive protection against overpressure by installing a relief
device set at a pressure not exceeding the MAWP of the vessel.
 Design all barricades for remote-operation pressure systems in
accordance with the requirements in Ref. 5.

C) DESIGN CRITERIA

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  Use a safety factor of 4 based on the known or calculated failure
pressure of the vessel or ultimate strength of the material when
designing for normal manned-area operation. Use a higher factor if an
operation involves detrimental conditions, such as vibration,
corrosion, shock, or thermal cycling.

 Never use a safety factor less than 4 when designing a vessel for
manned-area operation unless the design conforms to the ASME code
or to the requirements listed in Section 4.9 of this document and is
approved by the division leader.
 Have the Deputy Associate Director for Mechanical Engineering
approve any manned-area vessel design that is based on a safety factor
of less than 3.
 Design any vessel or system containing hazardous materials such that
the contained fluid leak rate will not pose a hazard to personnel or the
environment.

D) MATERIAL SELECTION

 Select materials that remain ductile throughout the working

temperature range of the vessel. If you cannot avoid using a brittle
material for the body of a manned-area pressure vessel, your
Department Head must sign the ESN.

 Select materials that are compatible with the liquid or gas to be

contained in the vessel.
 Beware of hydrogen embitterment. High-pressure hydrogen gas
drastically degrades the ductility of highly stressed, high-strength

9
 pressure vessel materials. This problem can be solved using either one,
or both, of the following methods.

1. Use lower-strength vessel materials such as type 304, 316, 321,

347, or 21-6-9 stainless steel; 2024 or 6061 aluminum alloy;
oxygen-free copper; phosphor bronze; beryllium copper; or other
materials recommended by a recognized expert in the field or
through a peer review.
2. Include an inner liner (or bladder vessel) made of one of these
hydrogen-resistant materials. When designing such a liner, be sure
that it will withstand working and testing stresses. Consider
positively venting the liner/body interspaced so that any hydrogen
that penetrates the liner cannot subject the high-strength vessel
body to high-pressure hydrogen. Provide means for periodic
verification that the vent path is open to the atmosphere.
 Design any vessel or system containing hazardous materials such that
the contained fluid leak rate will not pose a hazard to personnel or the
environment.

MATERIALS

1) Material is the important factor within which be decided the

material of construction for pressure vessels.
2) The ASME section II (part A, B, C, D) lists out a long list of
materials, which can be used as material of construction (MOC)
for these vessels.

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3) The material used to construct pressure vessel will be suitable for
the intended service to retention of satisfactory mechanical
properties, and resistance to corrosion, erosion, oxidation, and
other deterioration during their intended service life.

4) Generally materials used in pressure vessels are: -

a) Carbon steel
b) Carbon manganese steel
c) Carbon manganese silicon steel
d) Chromium steel
e) Stainless steel
f) Titanium steel

5) Generally Carbon steel is used to construct vessel. But sometimes

where the corrosion is higher than normal corrosion at that time
Stainless steel may be used. Titanium also used due to process
requirement and highly corrosive service condition, although it is
highly expensive.
6) The raw material used in pressure vessel are generally plates,
pipes, forging and casting which are to be formed to the desired
shape and assembled through welding or other joining techniques.

BILL OF MATERIAL

11
Sr. Material Size Qty Weight
no. description
1 Shell Ø 218 x 600 x 14 THK 3 41.96 Kg
2 D’END Ø 270 x 10 THK 2 8.92 Kg
3 Pipe of Ø 50 x 60 x 2.5 THK 4 0.697 Kg
nozzle
4 Flange Ø 80 x I.D. 45 x 10 THK 4 0.977 Kg
5 Base plate 200 x 50 x 20 THK 2 3.12 Kg
6 Support R 109 x h 50 x 10 THK 2 3.74 Kg
Total = 17 59.51kg
TOTAL WEIGHT CALCULATION

1) WEIGHT OF SHELL

Volume = ¼ x  x (OD² - ID²) x length

= ¼ x 3.147 x [(21.8) ² - (19) ²] x 60
= 0.785 x [(475.24) – (361)] x 60
= 0.785 x [114.24] x 60
= 5380.7 cm³
Weight = volume x density
= 5380.7 x 7.85
= 41969.46 gm
= 41.96 Kg

2) WEIGHT OF D’ENDS

Volume = ¼ x π x D² x THK.

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 = ¼ x 3.14 x (27) ² x 1
= 3.14/4 x 729 x 1
= 0.785 x 729
= 572.26 cm³
Weight = volume x density
= 572.26 x 7.8
= 4463.62 gm
= 4.46 Kg
= 4.46 x 2
= 8.92 kg

3) WEIGHT OF FLANGE

Volume of V1 = ¼ x π x D² x THK.
= ¼ x 3.14 x 8² x 1
= 0.785 x 64
= 50.24 cm³
Volume of V2 = ¼ x π x D² x THK.
= 0.785 x 4.5² x 1
= 15.89 cm³
Volume of V3= ¼ x π x D² x THK.
= 0.785 x 0.8² x 1
= 0.50 x 6
= 3 cm³
V= V1 – (V2 + V3)
= 50.24 – (15.89 + 3)
= 50.24 – 18.90

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 = 31.34 cm³
Weight = volume x density
=31.34 x 7.85
= 244.25 gm
=0.244 Kg
=0.244 x 4

Total weight of flange= 0.977 Kg

3. WEIGHT OF PIPE

Volume= ¼ x π x (OD² - ID²) x L

= 0.785 x [(5) ² - (4.5) ²] x 6
= 0.785 x [25 – 20.25] x 6
=0.785 x [4.75] x 6
= 22.372 cm³
Weight = volume x density
= 22.37 x 7.85
= 174.48 gm
= 0.174 Kg
= 0.174 x 4
Total weight of pipe= 0.697 Kg

4. WEIGHT OF BASE PLATE

Volume =lxbxh
= 20 x 5 x 2

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 = 200 cm³
Weight = volume x density
= 200 x 7.85
= 1560 gm
= 1.56 Kg
= 1.56 x 2
Total weight of base plate= 3.12 Kg

6. WEIGHT OF SADDLE

Volume =lxbxh
= 200 x 12 x 1
= 240 cm³
Weight = volume x density
= 240 x 7.85
= 1872 gm
= 1.87 Kg
= 1.87 x 2
Total weight of saddle= 3.7kg

E. PROBLEMS FACED WHILE MAKING SHELL

 When initial setup of Bottom dished end from the four petals is
completed, the inspection of various dimensions like ID, OD,
circumference (in/out), thickness, inside height, ovality etc. is done.

15
 Once this inspection is cleared, Bottom Dished end is then
permanently welded.
 Ovality, Peak in and peak out are checked after complete welding.

1) OVALITY
 If ovality is not within tolerance limit, it has to be brought under
tolerance limit.
 This done by using a hydraulic jack, which opens up the faces that are
inwards and thus brings ovality within limits.
 In case of the bottom dished end of HF#1 Reactor (Item no. 45250)
tolerance in ovality was 12mm.

2) PEAK IN/PEAK OUT

 This phenomenon is seen in shells as well as dished ends. In shells,
when the L/S welding is done from outer side, due to local heating of
WEP, expansion takes place.
 As the liquid metal fills in WEP, it contracts (as it solidifies). As it
solidifies, it tends to bring the two faces together, but due to gravity,
the faces of the shell bend downwards.
 The amount by which WEP edges deviate from normal required
position is called peak in.
 When L/S welding is done from inner side, the above phenomenon
causes peak out.

HOW TO COUNTERACT?
Peak in/out in shell causes ovality to exceed the tolerance limit. To
prevent this, following method is employed:

16
1. The roots run of any one petal # petal joint is carried out.
2. After this, root run of the wep opposite to above is done.
3. Then the root run of any adjacent wep and its opposite wep is carried
out in that sequence.
4. The subsequent passes are carried out in the above sequence.
5. In case, the peak in/out is more than normal value, necessary chip
back is carried out.

3. SEQUENCIAL PROCEDURE
1. Purchase material as per requirements
2. Material received
3. Material identification & inspection
4. Plate cutting layout (PCL)

5. Marking of Plate (With the help of 345 rules and divider)

6. Cutting of Plate
7. WEP (Weld Edge Preparation)
8. Edge breaking
9. Rolling & re-rolling
10.Long seam set-up & inspection after and before welding
11.D’end inspection
12.Circular seam set-up & inspection after welding
13.(Shell to shell or D’end to shell or Cone to shell set up)
14.Inspection and testing
15.Nozzle marking and punching
16.Nozzle set-up inspection before and after welding

17
 17.Assembly
18.Final dimension checking and surface finishing
19.Heat treatment
20.Hydro test and other helium test etc.
21.Final inspection and painting

 After make layout that layout give to the person which is marking the
plate for the cutting purpose. Marking is done as per given layout.
 When we buy any plate side of that plate is not in right angle.
 In marking procedure when we want to draw line at right angle the given
method is generally used.

SHELL PLATE MARKING

 When we want to marking of shell plate at that time the given method are
used for marking and find out the shell plate length.
 Shell length and its diameter is given in drawing but there shell plate
length is not given in drawing. To find out the shell plate length first of
all find out their mean Dia with the help of given equation.
 Mean dia = outside diameter + inside diameter
2
 Now this mean dia is calculate with  (3.14)
 Length of the shell plate = mean dia of shell X 3.14
 Length of shell = as per drawing
 Thickness of shell = as per drawing

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3 4 5 RULE

 As per 345 rule marking is done with as per given sequence

 First of all select plate, which is used for cutting.
 After selection of plate clean plate dust, rust, oil, grease and other foreign
particle, which is, removed either mechanically or chemically.
 After cleaning the plate whitener or chalk will be spray on plate than
after light pointer punch will be used for marking.

5
3

900
B C
4

 In 345 rule 3 Number related in mm, cm, inch are taken as per
requirements 3 number taken in width or length side.
 Here draw line in width sideline AB (3). Number 4 is also taken on
length or width in mm, cm or inch but always opposite side of number
three means draw a line of BC (4).

19
 And then draw AC (5) numbers line in length to width direction and
mark a point on 3 numbers line then draw a line center point and
intersection of 3 & 5 that line is perfectly right angle (900) through the
length.

DIVIDER METHOD

 For marking right angles line at the middle point of the plate.
 First of all draw a straight line on length side of plate and taken one
center point O on line at nearest to the middle point.
 Then take any radius in divider and mark point on both side of that
straight line and mark point A and B.

 And then take dimension A to B on divider and draw a radius the point
where two radiuses will match their point is known as a point C.
 Then draw a line, which is a pass through O and point C.
 That point is at right angle to the base line, which we drawn first at length
side.

900

B
A
O

20
CUTTING OF PLATE

 After marking the plate properly check the marking is ok or not if

marking is ok then cut the plate as per facilities available in industries
1. Oxy-acetylene cutting
2. Plasma cutting machine
3. CNC gas cutting machine
 In plasma and CNC gas cutting machine we speedily work done with
good quality with minimum machining requirement as per comparatively
oxy-acetylene cutting work. Cutting allowances are comparatively lower
in plasma and CNC machines.

WELD EDGE PREPARATION

 After cutting the plate edge preparation is required to joining the two
edge of plate in long seam of shell and in circumferential joint also edge
preparation is required.
 Edge preparation is necessary to get good quality joint.
 The strength of edge prepared joint is comparatively higher than without
edge prepared joint.
 Due to edge preparation we get good penetration.
 So edge preparation is necessary in 5 mm or higher thickness.

EDGE BREAKING

 Edge breaking is done before rolling procedure, because without edge

breaking we not get required radius at the two rolling side edge of the
shell.

21
 Because end portion of the plate cannot be rolled it is observed that when
rolling, the end portion is left unrolled and ovality in shell shape is
observed.
 To edge braking the sheet first of all we made template of the required
radius. And edge breaking is done with the help of power press.

ROLLING

 In rolling procedure 3 roll shell rolling machine is used rolling procedure

is done in two ways (hot rolling, cold rolling) depending on the following
parameters

1. Thickness of the plate

2. Width of the plate
3. Strength of the plate
4. Dia of the roller

22
 After rolling process when we not get required radius at that time Re-
rolling process is done to get perfect circularity.

LONG SEAM SET-UP AND INSPECTION AFTER AND BEFORE

WELDING

 Long seam set-up is done after rolling of plate for long seam welding.
 Long seam is welding is process of joining of two ends of rolled plate to
form a complete shell.
 Long seam set-up can be done in two ways.

1. SINGLE SEGMENTED
2. MULTIPLE SEGMENTED

 A single plate is rolled completely to form a shell. In this case only one
welding seam will be there.
 When dia of the shell became to large at that time shell made in number
of petals at that time two or longer seam are present in shell.

INSPECTION BEFORE WELDING

1. Check welds edge preparation as per drg.

2. Wire wheel 50-mm area around seam.
3. Check the screw.
4. Measure the outside circumference at both the ends and at center.
5. Ensure proper root gap & root face.
6. Ensure offset within tolerance.

23
 7. Put run in - run out plates & PTC as per job requirement.
8. Recheck the circumference at both the ends & at center.
9. Offer the set-up for inspection.

WELDING PROCEDURE
 Welding is a process, which is used to join similar or dissimilar metals
 At this time number of welding processes available in industries. But
generally arc-welding process is most popular in industries due to their
advantages.
 The popular arc welding process in industries are given below.
1. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
2. Submerged arc welding (SAW)
3. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
4. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
5. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
 Shielded metal arc welding is manual welding process it is also known as
manual metal arc welding (MMAW). When job is small or complicated
at that time MMAW welding process is very useful.
 In this welding process flux coated electrodes are used.
 Submerged arc welding is an automatic welding process. When job is
heavy or thickness of job is high at that time submerged arc welding
process is used for get good quality of weld.
 In this welding process bare metal electrodes are used electrodes are
generally copper coated. During welding flux is automatically feed from
hopper.
 In heavy engineering division SAW process is widely used.

24
 In GTAW process non-consumable tungsten electrodes are used in this
welding process after arc striking welding is carried out as a gas welding
process. And welding is carried out in inert atmosphere of helium or
argon to protect weld metal from environmental oxygen and nitrogen.
And get good quality of joint.
 In GTAW process DCEN polarity is used because electrodes are non-
consumable.

INSPECTION AFTER WELDING

1. In after welding inspection measure outer dia of the shell.

2. Circularity of the shell if shell is not completely circular then remove
ovality with the help of spider.
3. Measure the length of the shell if length is higher than required length
then trim the extra length of shell.
4. Quality of the joint appearance of the weld is also check during after
weld inspection.
5. To eliminate or reduce distortion appropriate jigs and fixture used.

DISHED END MANUFACTURING AND INSPECTION

1. Dished end either made in own industries if facilities available or get

from other d’end manufacturing industries.
2. Dished end is manufacture in one parts or number of parts. When dia
or size of the d’end is smaller at that time d’end is manufacturing in
one part.

25
 3. When dia or size of the d’end is too large at that time d’end is
manufacture in the number of parts.
4. Dished end is generally made through forming for form the dished
end heavy hydraulic or power press became used.

INSPECTION OF DISHED END

1. In inspection of the dished end first of all made one template of

relative d’end radius.
2. All radiuses and their height are checked with the relative tolerance
limits.
3. If the radius of the d’end is not match in tolerance limit of the d’end at
that time reforming is done and adjust radius and dimension of the
d’end.
4. If height of the dished end is higher than required height the extra
length is trim.
5. After trimming check the entire dimension carefully their height,
knuckle radius, crown radius, straight face of the dished end within
tolerance limit given in the drawing.
6. If dished end is made in other industries at that time all the inspection
done as possible as manufacturers sight so if dimension is not match
with the required dimension than repair is done at manufacturers
sight.

PROCEDURE OF CIRC/SEAM SET-UP

1. Align shell positioners (Tank Rotators)

26
 2. Keep both the Shells on the shell positioners
3. Match the end of shell to shell or shell to d’end
4. Keep Root Gap as per Requirement Check the root gap between shell
and d’end with the help of filler gauge
5. Lock Four Orientation (0, 90, 180, 270)
6. (Keep offset as per the Circumference Difference.)
7. Check Total Length
8. After check root gap between shell and d’end and final length tack the
joint
9. After set-up completion set-up issue for inspection

HEAT TREATMENT

INTRODUCTION
 During fabrication material under goes different process such as welding,
rolling, machining etc. in this type of process stresses is developed in
material and remains as a residual stress. Due to these phenomena
bearing capacity of material is reduced. To remove this type of residual
stresses heat treatment is to be carried out.
 Heat treatment may be define as an operation involving the heating of
solid metals to definite temperature followed by cooling at suitable rates
in order to obtain certain physical properties which are associated with
change in the nature from size and distribution of the micro-constituents.
 Heat treatment is to achieve one or more of the following objective.
1. To relieve internal stresses set up during cold working casting welding
and hot working operations.
2. To improve machinability
3. To change grain size

27
 4. To improve mechanical properties

HYDRO TEST

 To ensure the integrity have the vessel and system operation under
pressure.
 Recommended for pressure vessel operating under pressure ensures the
strength of weld joints and material.
 Ensure the nozzle flange joint.
 Test the strength of the vessel at 1.5 times the design pressure.
 Ensure safe and reliable performance during the operational life.

FINAL INSPECTION AND PAINTING

 After hydro test final inspection is done because some defects may be
occur during hydro test After final inspection job is released for painting
 Painting is done as per customer requirement as per nature of service
condition
 After painting job is not directly lift by crane suitable wooden and other
packing is required for eliminate scratches and other defects on
completed job.

28
 4. TESTING METHODS

1. NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION METHODS

 Of the various conventional and advanced nondestructive examination

(NDE) methods, five are widely used for the examination of pressure
vessels and tanks by certified pressure vessel inspectors. The names and
acronyms of these common five methods are:
1. VT Visual Examination
2. PT Liquid Penetrate Test
3. MT Magnetic Particle Test
4. RT Gamma and X-ray Radiography
5. UT Ultrasonic Test.

29
a. VT, PT and MT can detect only those discontinuities and defects that are
open to the surface or are very near the surface. In contrast, RT and UT
can detect conditions that are located within the part. For these reasons,
the first three are often referred to as surface examination methods and
the last two as volumetric methods. Table II of PUB 8-1.5 summarizes
the main features of these five methods.

VISUAL EXAMINATION (VT)

 A visual examination is easy to conduct and can cover a large area in a

short time.
 It is very useful for assessing the general condition of the equipment and
for detecting some specific problems such as severe instances of
corrosion, erosion, and hydrogen blistering. The obvious requirements
for a meaningful visual examination are a clean surface and good
illumination.

LIQUID PENETRANT TEST (PT)

 This method depends on allowing a specially formulated liquid

(penetrate) to seep into an open discontinuity and then detecting the
entrapped liquid by a developing agent. When the penetrate is removed
from the surface, some of it remains entrapped in the discontinuities.
Application of a developer draws out the entrapped penetrate and
magnifies the discontinuity. Chemicals which fluoresce under black
(ultraviolet) light can be added to the penetrate to aid the detect ability
and visibility of the developed indications. The essential feature of PT is

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 that the discontinuity must be open, which means a clean, undisturbed
surface.
 The PT method is independent of the type and composition of the metal
alloy so it can be used for the examination of austenitic stainless steels
and nonferrous alloys where the magnetic particle test is not applicable.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST (MT)

 This method depends on the fact that discontinuities in or near the surface
perturb magnetic flux lines induced into a ferromagnetic material. For a
component such as a pressure vessel where access is generally limited to
one surface at a time, the prod technique is widely used. The magnetic
field is produced in the region around and between the prods (contact
probes) by an electric current (either AC or DC) flowing between the
prods. The ferromagnetic material requirement basically limits the
applicability of MT to carbon and low-alloy steels.
 Applying fine particles of a ferromagnetic material to the surface reveals
the perturbations of the magnetic lines. The particles can be either a dry
powder or a wet suspension in a liquid. The particles can also be treated
to fluoresce under black light. These options lead to variations such as
the wet fluorescent magnetic particle test (WFMT).

 MT has some capability for detecting subsurface defects. However, there

is no easy way to determine the limiting depth of sensitivity since it is
highly dependent on magnetizing current, material, and geometry and
size of the defect. A very crude approximation would be a depth no more
than 1.5 mm to 3 mm (1/16 in to 1/8 in).

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 A very important precaution in performing MT is that corners and
surface irregularities also perturb the magnetic field. Therefore,
examining for defects in corners and near or in welds must be performed
with extra care. Another precaution is that MT is most sensitive to
discontinuities, which are, oriented transverse to the magnetic flux lines
and this characteristic needs to be taken into account in determining the
procedure for inducing the magnetic field.

RADIOGRAPHY (RT)

 The basic principle of radiographic examination of metallic objects is the

same as in any other form of radiography such as medical radiography.
Holes, voids, and discontinuities decrease the attenuation of the X-ray
and produce greater exposure on the film (darker areas on the negative
film).
 Because RT depends on density differences, cracks with tightly closed
surfaces are much more difficult to detect than open voids. Also, defects
located in an area of an abrupt dimensional change are difficult to detect
due to the superimposed density difference. RT is effective in showing
defect dimensions on a plane normal to the beam direction but
determination of the depth dimension and location requires specialized
techniques.

 Since ionizing radiation is involved, field application of RT requires

careful implementation to prevent health hazards.

ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)

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 The fundamental principles of ultrasonic testing of metallic materials are
similar to radar and related methods of using electromagnetic and
acoustic waves for detection of foreign objects. The distinctive aspect of
UT for the inspection of metallic parts is that the waves are mechanical,
so the test equipment requires three basic components.
1) Electronic system for generating electrical signal.
2) Transducer system to convert the electrical signal into mechanical
vibrations and vice versa and to inject the vibrations into and extract
them from the material.
3) Electronic system for amplifying, processing and displaying the
return signal.
 Very short signal pulses are induced into the material and waves reflected
back from discontinuities are detected during the receive mode. The
transmitting and detection can be done with one transducer or with two
separate transducers (the tandem technique).

 Unlike radiography, UT in its basic form does not produce a permanent

record of the examination. However, more recent versions of UT
equipment include automated operation and electronic recording of the
signals.

 Ultrasonic techniques can also be used for the detection and measurement
of general material loss such as by corrosion and erosion. Since wave
velocity is constant for a specific material, the transit time between the
initial pulse and the back reflection is a measure of the travel distance
and the thickness.

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 5. COMPONENTS

A) SHELL

1) The portion between top dish end and bottom dish end is known as
shell.
2) Shell is made from rectangle plate.
3) The material used for shell is SA 516 Gr.70 (Carbon steel).
4) Cladding material is also used for protecting the shell from corrosion,
but in our case cladding is not required.
5) Thickness of shell plate is depending upon two stresses given as
below.

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 Where, P = Design Pressure
S = Stress
E = Modulus of elasticity
R = Radius of shell

Where, P = Design Pressure

S = Stress
E = Modulus of elasticity
R = Radius of shell

B) DISH-END

1) The portion above and below of the shell is known as dish-end or

head. The portion above the shell is known as top dish-end and the
portion below the shell is known as bottom dish-end.
2) There are many types of dish-end like as: -
a) Hemispherical head
b) Elliptical head
c) Torispherical head
d) Conical head

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 e) Toriconical head

A) HEMISPHERICAL HEAD

As the name implies, the profile of this type head is half of sphere. This
type of head has all through constant radius. This is also widely used
head especially for high thick vessel like REACTORS. Its benefits are it
gives half thickness but we have very small space at that time it is not
use.

B) ELLIPTICAL HEAD

This type of head consists 2:1 ellipse profile as shown in tower. This type
of head is widely used in pressure vessel, which is use in TOWER
(stabilizer, neptha splitter).

C) TORISPHERICAL HEAD
As shown, in this type of head consists of profile generated by two
different circles having crown radius and knuckle radius. There various
aspects for selection of type head like volume inside of head are used for
low thick vessel.

D) CONICAL HEAD
This type of head consists of inside radius of cone head at the point
under consideration-measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
This is not generally used as a dished of pressure vessel because this
is worked under lower pressure.

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 E) TORICONICAL HEAD
This type of head consists of profile generated by different radius like
crown, knuckle, and cone etc. This type of head is used when there is
different diameter of shell are used and we want to join these to shell.

C) VARIOUS OPENINGS:
 There are various nozzles attached to heat exchanger according to its
functional requirement such as
i. Input and output nozzles
ii. Instrumentation nozzle
iii. Manhole
iv. Handhold etc.
 Opening on vessels or formed heads may produce stress concentrations
adjacent to the opening and weaken that portion of the vessel.
 In order to minimize such stress concentrations, it is preferable that
openings be circular and properly reinforced.

NOZZLES

 Assembly of pipe or forging to flange is called nozzle.

TYPES OF NOZZLE

1. RADIAL NOZZLE

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2. OFFSET NOZZLE
3. TANGENTIAL NOZZLE
4. ANGULAR NOZZLE

1. RADIAL NOZZLE
 A nozzle, which is perpendicular to base of the shell or dished end lies
on the orientation line is called radial nozzle.

2. OFFSET NOZZLE
 A nozzle, which is similar to radial nozzle but offset from orientation
line, is called as offset nozzle.

3. TANGENTIAL NOZZLE

38
 A nozzle, which is on any tangential line of the shell, is called
tangential nozzle.

4. ANGULAR NOZZLE
 A nozzle, which is at an angle from the reference line, is called as
angular nozzle.

 First mark the orientation of nozzle on shell or dished end. The

elevation is marked and the radius of the nozzle is measured and
marked on the shell.
 The marked line is punched
 The cut out on shell or d’end is made with the help of any cutting
machine.

39
  The cut out area is machined for welding and to get required surface
roughness.
 The reinforcement pad is made ready for the set-up
 The reinforcement pad is mounted on nozzle cut out area
 The nozzle is checked for the ovality if found it is removed
 Then the nozzle is taken to the cut out and set-up begins
 The orientation of the nozzle is checked
 The elevation of the center is matched
 The orientation, elevation and level of the nozzle is rechecked
 Than tack weld is done
 Inspector checks these set-ups before full welding if the entire
dimension is ready than full welding are done.

DEVELOPMENT FOR ANGULAR NOZZLE

ASSEMBLY

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  Assembly means join two or more parts for get final job. The part is
joined for get final assembly is known as sub-assemblies the sub-
assemblies are finally made in various shops and complete with
inspection and checking.

MANHOLE

 Manhole is also a nozzle of very big inside diameter. This serves the
purpose of vessel opening for man to go inside. This is the only way to
clean / repair components of heat exchanger during maintenance. This is
made up of heavy forging & weld neck type of construction. The
manhole is required to reinforce properly for the opening made in reactor
top dish.

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