carbo-

(also known as sugars or saccharides) are aldehyde (R-

COH) or ketone (R-COR) compounds that contain multiple
hydroxyl (-OH) groups. Of the four main classes of
biomolecules, carbohydrates are the most abundant on
earth. These molecules are used as energy stores,

hydrates
metabolic intermediates and structural components;
furthermore, carbohydrates that are linked to lipids and
proteins can also mediate interactions among cells or
between cells and other molecules.

A single unit typically consists of three to nine carbon atoms chained together to form a central backbone. These units
are called monosaccharides, and they can be further divided into two major classes: aldoses (those with an aldehyde
group) and ketoses (ketone compounds). Some open-chain monosaccharides (or disaccharides with an open-chain
moiety) can reduce a copper(II) ion to copper(I); hence, they are called reducing sugars.

These monomers—with the exception of dihydroxyacetone—contain at least one chiral carbon. The chirality of a
monosaccharide is determined by looking at the orientation of the hydroxyl group at the second to the last carbon; as
opposed to the L amino acids, the D monosaccharides are the ones that are found in living systems. In 5- or 6-membered
monomers, this hydroxyl group may attack the carbonyl carbon to form cyclic structures (furanose and pyranose), which
are best illustrated by Haworth projections. These cyclic monosaccharides can be named according to the orientation of
the newly-formed asymmetric (anomeric) carbon: α if the hydroxyl group at the anomeric carbon lies below the plane of
the ring, and β if it is located above the plane. Consequently, the name the cyclic monosaccharide could be illustrated as
anomer-enantiomer-sugar identity-ring type (e.g. α-D-glucopyranose).

Monosaccharides are also capable of forming O-glycosidic bonds with their hydroxyl groups to create disaccharides,
oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Disaccharides are often characterized by the types of monomers used and the
position of the O-glycosidic bond. Maltose, or α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-D-glucopyranose, contains an α-1,4
glycosidic linkage. Carbons 1, 2, 4 and 6 are usually involved in the formation of glycosidic bonds.

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides can be created by joining one or more than one type of monomer through various
glycosidic linkages. Polysaccharides that contain only one type of monomer are called homopolysaccharides.
Homopolysaccharides include: cellulose and the branched (amylopectin) and unbranched (amylose) forms of starch in
plants; glycogen in animals; and chitin, which is mainly found in exoskeletons. Heteropolysaccharides, on the other
hand, contain more than one type of monomer. Glycosaminoglycans, for example, are composed of repeating aminated
and/or sulfated disaccharides; and these structural heteropolysaccharides can form linkages with protein units to build
more complex structures called proteoglycans (the main component of the extracellular matrix in animals).
Glycoproteins are also protein-carbohydrate structures, but the protein serves as the primary unit; the oligosaccharide
units act as receptors and are capable of interacting with other molecules.

ajasolidum@mapua.edu.ph CARBOHYDRATES 1
 Figure 1: Aldoses

Figure 2: Ketoses

ajasolidum@mapua.edu.ph CARBOHYDRATES 2
 Figure 3: Linear and cyclic forms of glucose (an aldose) Figure 4: Linear and cyclic forms of fructose (a ketose)

Figure 5: Glucose undergoing oxidation (as reducing sugar)

Figure 7: Disaccharides

Figure 6: Comparison between structural (linear) and storage (globular)

polysaccharides

References Figure 8: Branching in glycogen due to α-1,6 linkages

Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer (2006). Biochemistry (6th ed). W. H. Freeman, Inc.
Medh, J.D. Carbohydrates. Retrieved July 28, 2010, from http://www.csun.edu/~jm77307/Carbohydrates.pdf

ajasolidum@mapua.edu.ph CARBOHYDRATES 3