TOPIC 7C Operators and observables

Discussion questions
D7C.1 How may the curvature of a wavefunction be interpreted?
ANS:
The operator which represents kinetic energy is . The
expectation value of the kinetic energy is therefore related to the average value
of , that is the average of the second derivative or curvature of the
wavefunction. Sharply curved regions of the wavefunction will make a larger
contribution to the kinetic energy than less sharply curved regions. The
expectation value of the kinetic energy will have contributions from all parts of
the wavefunction.
D7C.2 Describe the relation between operators and observables in quantum
mechanics.

D7C.3 Use the properties of wavepackets to account for the uncertainty relation
between position and linear momentum.
ANS:
In quantum mechanics an observable quantity (such as energy, position or
momentum) is represented by a particular operator . If the wavefunction is ,
the average value of the quantity represented by the operator is given by
, called the expectation value. For the special case that, ψ
is an eigenfunction of , the expectation value is the eigenvalue
corresponding to this eigenfunction.
Exercises
E7C.1(a) Imagine a particle confined to move on the circumference of a circle
('a panicle on a ring'), Such that its position can be described by an angle ϕ in
the range 0-π. The wavefunctions for this system are of the form Ψ(𝜙) = e–imIϕ

with mI an integer. Show that the wavefunctions with mI =+1 and +2 are
orthogonal.
(Hint: Note that (eix)* = e–ix, and that eix =cos x + i sin x.)
ANS:
The identity exp(ix) = cos x + i sin x is used to evaluate
exp(i2π) = cos(2π) + i sin(2π) = 1 + 0 = 1. The integral is zero, so the
functions are indeed orthogonal.

E7C.1(b) For the same system as in Exercise E7C.1(a) show that the
wavefunctions with mI =+1 and –2 are orthogonal.
ANS: with mI =+1 and nI = –2

E7C.2(a) An electron in a region of length L is described by the normalized

wavefunction Ψ(x) = (2/ L)1/2 sin(2πx/L) in the range x = 0 to x = L; outside this
range the wavefunction is zero. Evaluate <x>. The necessary integrals will be
found in the Resource section.
ANS: The normalized wavefunction is Ψ(x) = (2/ L)1/2 sin(2πx/L).The operator
for
position is 𝑥̂= x, therefore the expectation value of the position of the electron
is

with k = 2π/L and a = L

Because the probability density |𝜓(𝑥 )|2 is symmetric about 𝑥 = 𝐿⁄2, the
expected result is 〈𝑥 〉 = 𝐿⁄2.

E7C.2(b) For the same system as in Exercise E7C.2(a) find <x> when the
wavefunction is ψ(x) = (2/L) 1/2 sin(nx/L).
ANS:

with k = π/L and a = L

Or usong the integral :

E7C.3(a) An electron in a one-dimensional region of length L is described by

the normalized wavefunction Ψ(x) = (2/L)1/2 sin(2πx/L) in the range x = 0 to x =
L; outside this range the wavefunction is zero. The expectation value of the
momentum of the electron is found from eqn 7C.11, which in this case is
2 𝐿 2π𝑥 2π𝑥
〈𝑝𝑥 〉 = ∫ sin ( ) 𝑝̂𝑥 sin ( ) d𝑥
𝐿 0 𝐿 𝐿
2ℏ 𝐿 𝑑
= ∫ sin(2π𝑥/𝐿) 𝑑𝑥 sin(2π𝑥/𝐿)d𝑥 . Evaluate the differential and then the
𝑖𝐿 0

integral, and hence find <px>. The necessary integrals will be found in the
Resource section.
ANS:
The normalized wavefunction is Ψ(x) = (2/L)1/2 sin(2πx/L). The expectation
value of the momentum is ∫ 𝜓 ∗ 𝑝𝑥 𝜓 𝑑𝑥, and the momentum operator is 𝑝̂𝑥 =
ℏ 𝑑
, therefore
𝑖 𝑑𝑥

This result is interpreted as meaning that there are equal probabilities of having
momentum in the positive and negative x directions.

E7C.3(b) For the same system as in Exercise E7C.3(a) find <px> for the case
where the normalized wavefunction is Ψ(x) = (2/L)1/2 sin(πx/L).
ANS:
for n = 1, <px> = 0
This result is interpreted as meaning that there are equal probabilities of having
momentum in the positive and negative x directions.
E7C.4(a) For the 'particle on a ring' system described in Exercise E7C.1a) the
expectation value of a quantity represented by the operator Ω ̂ is given by

where Ψ(ϕ) are the normalized wavefunctions Ψ (ϕ)

= (1/ 2π)1/2 e–imIϕ, with mI an integer. Compute the expectation value of the
position, specified by the angle 𝜙, for the case mI = +1, and then for the general
case of integer mI.
ANS:
For the case when ml = +1 the normalized wavefunction is Ψ+1(x) = (2π)–1/2 e iϕ
This is complex, and so Ψ*+1(x) = (2π)–1/2 e –iϕ . The expectation value of the
position, specified by the operator ϕ, is
E7C.4(b) For the system described in Exercise E7C.4(a), evaluate the
expectation value of the angular momentum represented by the operator
(ℏ/i)d/dϕ for the case mI = +1, and then for the general case of integer mI.
ANS:

E7C.5(a) Calculate the minimum uncertainty in the speed of a ball of mass 500
g that is known to be within 1.0 μm of a certain point on a bat. What is the
minimum uncertainty in the position of a bullet of mass 5.0 g that is known to
have a speed somewhere between 350.00001 m s–1 and 350.00000 m s–1?
ANS: The uncertainty in the momentum is given by Δp = mΔv where m is the
mass and Δv is the uncertainty in the velocity. The uncertainties in position
(Δq) and momentum (Δp) must obey the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
ΔpxΔq ≥ (ℏ/2), which in this case is expressed as mΔvΔq ≥ (ℏ/2). This is
rearranged to give the uncertainty in the velocity, Δv ≥ ℏ⁄(2𝑚Δ𝑞 ). The
minimum uncertainty in the speed is therefore Δvmin = ℏ⁄(2𝑚Δ𝑞 ) which is
evaluated as
m = 500 g = 500×10–3 kg; ∆q = 1.0 μm = 1.0 ×10–6 m,

Δvmin =

The uncertainty principle can be rearranged for the uncertainty in the position
Δq ≥ ℏ⁄(2𝑚Δ𝑣)., and so the minimum uncertainty of position is Δqmin =
ℏ⁄(2𝑚Δ𝑣) The uncertainty in the position of the bullet is 1 × 10−5 m s−1, and

hence
COMMENT. These uncertainties are extremely small; thus, the ball and bullet
are classical particles.
E7C.5(b) An electron is confined to a linear region with a length of the same
order as the diameter of an atom (about 100 pm). Calculate the minimum
uncertainties in its position and speed.
ANS: The uncertainty in the momentum is given by Δp = mΔv where m is the
mass and
Δv is the uncertainty in the velocity. The minimum uncertainty in the position
of the electron is given as 100 pm. The uncertainties in position and momentum
are must obey the Heisenberg uncertainty principle Δp Δq ≥ (ℏ/2), which in
this case is expressed as mΔvΔq ≥ (ℏ/2).. This is rearranged to give the
uncertainty in the velocity,
Δv ≥ ℏ⁄(2𝑚Δ𝑞), giving a minimum uncertainty of Δvmin = ℏ⁄(2𝑚Δ𝑞 ),
which is evaluated as

E7C.10(6a) The speed of a certain proton is 0.45 Mm s-1. If the uncertainty in

its momentum is to be reduced to 0.0100 per cent, what uncertainty in its
location must be tolerated?
ANS: The desired uncertainty in the momentum is

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is rearranged to give the uncertainty in

the position as Δq ≥ ℏ⁄(2Δ𝑝), which gives a minimum uncertainty of
Δqmin = ℏ⁄(2Δ𝑝). This is evaluated as

E7C.6(b) The speed of a certain electron is 995 km s s-1. If the uncertainty in its
momentum is to be reduced to 0.0010 per cent, what uncertainty in its location
must be tolerated?
ANS:

E7C.7(a) Construct the potential energy operator of a particle with potential

energy V(x) = t k1x2 , where k1 is a constant.
ANS:
To construct the potential energy operator, replace the position x in the
1
classical expression by the operator for position 𝑥̂ to give 𝑉̂ = 𝑘𝑓 𝑥̂ 2 ×.
2

1
However, because 𝑥̂ = x × the potential energy operator is 𝑉̂ = 𝑘𝑓 𝑥 2
2

E7C.7(b) Construct the potential energy operator of a particle with potential

energy V(x) = De (1 – e–ax)2 , where De and a are constants.
ANS: To construct the potential energy operator, replace the position x in the
classical
expression by the position operator ˆx.is operator is just multiplication
by x, 𝑥̂ = x ×, therefore the potential energy operator is
E7C.8(a) Identify which of the following functions the eigenfunctions of the
2
operator d/dx: (i) cos(kx), (ii)e𝑖𝑘𝑥 , (iii) kx, (iv) e−𝑎𝑥 . Give the corresponding
eigenvalue where appropriate.
ANS: A function ψ is an eigenfunction of an operator Ω ̂ if Ω̂ 𝜓 = 𝜔𝜓, where
𝜔 is a constant called the eigenvalue.
d d
(i) cos 𝑘𝑥 = –k sin kx cos kx is NOT an eigenfunction of operator
d𝑥 d𝑥

d d
(ii) 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 = (𝑖𝑘)𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 Now e𝑖𝑘𝑥 IS an eigenfunction of operator
d𝑥 d𝑥

with an eigenvalue of (ik)

d d
(iii) 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘 kx is Not an eigenfunction of operator
d𝑥 d𝑥

d 2 2 2
(iv) e−𝑎𝑥 = (−2𝑎𝑥 )𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 Hence e−𝑎𝑥 is NOT an eigenfunction
dx

d
of operator
d𝑥

E7C.8(b) Identify which of the following functions are eigenfunctions of the

2
operator d2/dx2: (i) cos(kx), (ii)e𝑖𝑘𝑥 , (iii) kx, (iv) e−𝑎𝑥 .Give the corresponding
eigenvalue where appropriate.
d2
ANS: (i) cos 𝑘𝑥 = –k2 cos kx Hence cos kx is an eigenfunction of
d𝑥 2

𝑑2
operator with an eigenvalue of (–k2)
d𝑥 2

d2
(ii) 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 = (𝑖𝑘)2 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 an eigenfunction with an eigenvalue of (–k2)
d𝑥 2

d2
(iii) 𝑘𝑥 = 0 = (0)𝑘𝑥 an eigenfunction with an eigenvalue of (0)
d𝑥 2

d2 2
(iv) e−𝑎𝑥 =
d𝑥 2

2
= = 2𝑎(2𝑎𝑥 2 − 1)e−𝑎𝑥 Not an eigenfunction of

𝑑2
operator
d𝑥 2

E7C.9(a) Functions of the form sin(nπx/L), where n = 1, 2, 3 ... , are

wavefunctions in a region of length t (between x = 0 and x = L). Show that the
wavefunctions with n = 1 and 2 are orthogonal; you will find the necessary
integrals in the Resource section. (Hint: Recall that sin(nπ) = 0 for integer n.)
ANS: Wavefunctions 𝜓1 and , 𝜓2 are orthogonal if ∫ 𝜓1⋆ 𝜓2 𝑑𝜏 = 0.
Here , 𝜓1 (x) = cos(nπx/L), 𝜓2 (x) = sin(nπx/L), and the region is –L/2 ≤ x ≤
L/2. The integral is evaluated as

or
𝐿
𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑥 𝐿 sin 3𝜋 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = (sin 𝜋 − − sin 0 + sin0) = 0
0 𝐿 𝐿 2𝜋 3 3
where sin(nπ) = 0 for integer n is used. Thus, the two wavefunctions are
orthogonal.
E7C.9(b) For the same system as in Exercise E7C.9(a) show that the
wavefunctions with n = 2 and 4 are orthogonal.
ANS: Wavefunctions 𝜓1 and , 𝜓2 are orthogonal if ∫ 𝜓1⋆ 𝜓2 𝑑𝜏 = 0. Here,
𝜓1 (x) = sin(4πx/L), 𝜓2 (x) = sin(2πx/L), and the region is 0 ≤ x ≤ L. The
integral is evaluated using

𝐿 2𝜋𝑥 4𝜋𝑥 𝐿 sin 6𝜋 1

or ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = (sin 2𝜋 − − sin 0 + sin0) = 0
𝐿 𝐿 4𝜋 3 3

where sin(nπ) = 0 for integer n is used. Thus, the two wavefunctions are
orthogonal.
E7C.10(a) Functions of the form cos(nπx/L), where n =1, 3, 5 .. . , can be used
to rondel the wavefunctions of particles confined to the region between x = –
L/2 and x = +L/2. The integration is limited to the range –L/2 to +L/2 because
the wavefunction is zero outside this range. Show that the wavefunctions are
orthogonal for n = 1 and 3. You will find the necessary integral in the Resource
section.
ANS:

+𝐿/2
𝜋𝑥 3𝜋𝑥 𝐿 sin 2𝜋 1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = (sin 𝜋 + − sin(−𝜋) + sin(−𝜋))
−𝐿/2 𝐿 𝐿 4𝜋 2 2

=0
E7C.10(b) For the same system as in Exercise E7C.4(a) show that the
wavefunctions with n = 3 and 5 are orthogonal.
ANS:

where sin(nπ) = 0 for integer n is used. us, the two wavefunctions are
orthogonal.

or

+𝐿/2
3𝜋𝑥 5𝜋𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
−𝐿/2 𝐿 𝐿

𝐿 sin 4𝜋 1
= (sin 𝜋 + − sin(−𝜋) + sin(−4𝜋)) = 0
4𝜋 4 4