Network Modeling

Definition :
•A network model is a database model that is designed as a flexible approach to representing objects and their
relationships.
History :
•Charles Bachman was the original inventor of the network model.
•In 1969, the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) Consortium developed the network model into a
standard specification.
•A second publication was introduced in 1971, which later turned into the basis for virtually all implementations.

Feature Of Network Model :

•A unique feature of the network model is its schema, which is viewed as a graph where relationship types are arcs and
object types are nodes. Unlike other database models, the network model's schema is not confined to be a lattice or
hierarchy; the hierarchical tree is replaced by a graph, which allows for more basic connections with the nodes.

Concepts :
•Simple Concept: Similar to the hierarchical model, this model is simple and the implementation is effortless.
•Ability to Manage More Relationship Types: The network model has the ability to manage one-to-one (1:1) as well as
many-to-many (N: N) relationships.
•Easy Access to Data: Accessing the data is simpler when compared to the hierarchical model.
•System Complexity: Each and every record has to be maintained with the help of pointers, which makes the database
structure more complex.
•Functional Flaws: Because a great number of pointers is essential, insertion, updates, and deletion become more
complex.
•Lack of Structural Independence: A change in structure demands a change in the application as well, which leads to lack
of structural independence.

Logical Network Modeling

Definition :
•A logical network is one that appears to the user as a single, separate entity although it might in fact be either an entity
created from multiple networks or just a part of a larger network. A logical network
is defined by its IP addressing scheme.
Explanation :
•"When designing a network, the "logical" part refers to the IP addressing scheme
used within the network. For example, 192.168.0.0/24 could be the logical network
used for our design. Breaking up our example, our logical network consists of a few
important points, which we should be aware of:
•Network ID (192.168.0.0)
•Subnet mask (/24 = 255.255.255.0)
•Usable IP addresses (254 IP addresses)
•Broadcast address (192.168.0.255)
•This information exists in every logical network and is vital information as it helps
us determine how the design will be usable according to our needs.
•Selecting the appropriate IP numbering scheme and subnet mask will determine
how many usable IP addresses will be available for you. If you have many networks within your company, you should then
be careful not to have overlapping or similar networks. Each network must be unique, otherwise routing problems can
occur."

Data Representation and Processing

•Capabilities required of any data/information processor–organic, mechanical, electrical, optical:
 Recognizing external data and converting it to an appropriate internal format
 Storing and retrieving data internally
 Transporting data among internal storage and processing components
  Manipulating data to produce desired results or decisions

Data Representation
•Binary Notation •Decimal Notation •Boolean
•Octal Notation •Hexadecimal Notation

Binary Notation
•Binary number -Only one of two possible values (0 or 1) per digit
•Reliably transported among computer system components
•Can be processed by two–state electrical devices (relatively easy to design
and fabricate)
•Correspond directly with values in Boolean logic
Decimal Notation
A representation of a fraction or other real number using the base ten and
consisting of any of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and a decimal point.

Octal Notation
•Uses base 8 numbering system •Has a range of digits from 0 to 7
•Expresses large numeric values in:
 One-third the length of corresponding binary notation
 Double the length of corresponding hexadecimal notation

Hexadecimal Notation
•Uses 16 as its base or radix (hex = 6, and decimal = 10)
•Compact; advantage over binary notation
•Often used to designate memory addresses

Boolean
•Boolean –true/false •Correspond directly with values in Binary logic

Goals of Computer Data Representation

 Compactness:
•Describes number of bits used to represent a numeric value
•More compact data representation format; less expense to implement in computer hardware
 Accuracy:
•Precision of representation increases with number of data bits used
 Ease of manipulation:
•Machine efficiency when executing processor instructions (addition, subtraction, equality comparison)
•Processor efficiency depends on its complexity
 Standardization:
•Ensures correct and efficient data transmission
•Provides flexibility to combine hardware from different vendors with minimal data communication problems

CPU Data Types

•Primitive data types:
•Integer •Character •Memory address
•Real number •Boolean
•Representation format for each type balances compactness, accuracy, ease of manipulation, and standardization

Integers
•A whole number—a value that does not have a fractional part
•Data formats can be signed or unsigned
 Determines largest and smallest values that can be represented
•Excess notation •Two’s complement notation (most common) •Range and overflow

Real Numbers
•Contain both whole and fractional components
•Require separation of components to be represented within computer circuitry
•Fixed radix point (simple) •Floating point notation (complex)
Character Data
•Represented indirectly by defining a table that assigns numeric values to individual characters
•Characteristics of coding methods
 All users must share same coding/decoding method
 Coded values must be capable of being stored or transmitted
 Specific method represents a tradeoff among compactness, ease of manipulation, accuracy, range, and
standardization

Common Coding Methods

•EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
•ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
•Subset of Unicode •Device control •Software and hardware support

Boolean Data
•Has only two data values—true and false
•Potentially most concise coding format; only a single bit is required

Memory Addresses
•Identifying numbers of memory bytes in primary storage
•Simple or complex numeric values depending on memory model used by CPU
 Flat memory addresses (single integer)  Segmented memory addresses (multiple integers)
•Require definition of specific coding format
Data Structures
•Related groups of primitive data elements organized for a type of common processing
•Defined and manipulated within software
•Commonly used data structures: arrays, linked lists, records, tables, files, indices, and objects
•Many use pointers to link primitive data components
Pointers and Addresses
•Pointer: Data element that contains the address of another data element
•Address: Location of a data element within a storage device
Arrays and Lists
•List: A set of related data values
•Array: An ordered list in which each element can be referenced by an index to its position

Linked Lists
•Data structures that use pointers so list elements can be scattered among no sequential storage locations
•Singly linked lists •Doubly linked lists
•Easier to expand or shrink than an array

Records and Files

•Records: Data structures composed of other data structures or primitive data elements. Used as a unit of input and
output to files
•Files: Sequence of records on secondary storage

Methods of Organizing Files

•Sequential: Stores records in contiguous storage locations
•Indexed: An array of pointers to records. Efficient record insertion,
deletion, and retrieval
Classes and Objects
•Classes: Data structures that contain traditional data elements and
programs that manipulate that data. Combine related data items and
extend the record to include methods that manipulate the data items
•Objects: One instance, or variable, of the class
Summary
•How data is represented and stored within computer hardware
•How simple data types are used as building blocks to create more complex data structures
(e.g., arrays, records)
•Understanding data representation is key to understanding hardware and software technology