Class - 10th Chemistry Chapter 1 Chemical Equations PDF

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Class10 /Science /2016-17 Scholars‟ School Srinagar-0194-2437181 1

Lesson No. 1 Chemical Reactions
Conceptutal Questions
Q.1) What is a chemical equation? What are the steps involved in writing a chemical
equation?
Ans) A shorthand representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of
different reactants and products is called a chemical equation. While writing a chemical
equation the following steps are involved:
(a) The symbols and formulae of the reactants are written on the left hand side (LHS) with
plus (+) sign between them.
(b) The symbols and formulae of the products are written on the right hand side (RHS)
with plus (+) sign between them.
(c) An arrow ( ) sign is put between the reactants and the products, pointing from
reactants towards products.
Example: Consider the reaction between zinc and sulphuric acid. This reaction can be
written as follows: Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2↑
Reactants Products
(Q.2) What are reactants and products?
Ans) Reactants: The substances which take part in chemical reaction are called as reactants.
Products: The new substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction are called as
products. For example: In the burning of coke (carbon) in air, carbon and oxygen are the reactants
while carbon-dioxide formed is the product.
C + O2 ---------------- CO2
Carbon (coke) Carbondioxide
Reactants Product
Similarly, in the burning of magnesium in air, magnesium and oxygen are the reactants, while
magnesium oxide formed is the product.
2Mg + O2 ---------------- 2MgO
Reactants Products
(Q.3) State the characteristics of chemical reactions.
Ans) The easily observable changes that take place in a chemical reaction are called the
characteristics of the chemical reaction. Some important characteristics of chemical reactions are
given below:
(i)Formation of precipitate: Precipitate is a solid substance formed on mixing of two solutions. In
the reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride, silver chloride precipitate is formed
AgNO3 (aq)+ NaCl (aq) -------------- AgCl (↓) + NaNO3 (aq)
ppt
(ii) Evolution of a gas: In some chemical reactions evolution of a gas takes place.
e.g. in the reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid hydrogen gas is evolved.
Zn + H2SO4 (aq) ------------- Zn SO4 (aq) + H2↑
(iii) Change of colour: In some chemical reactions change in colour takes place as a result of
chemical reaction e.g. Lead nitrate and potassium iodide solutions are colourless, but on mixing
the two, yellow coloured precipitate of lead iodide is formed.
PbNO3 (aq) + KI (aq) ------------- Pb I + KNO3 (aq)
(colourless) (colourless) (yellow colour ppt)
(iv) Change in state: In some chemical reactions change in state takes place as a result of
chemical reaction e.g. solid wax (in the form of candle) burns to form water vapours and carbon
dioxide which are the gases.
Wax + air ----------- CO2 + H2O
(solid) (gas) (g) (g)
(v) Change in temperature: In some chemical reactions, rise or fall in temperature takes place as
a result of chemical reaction e.g. when water is added to quick lime (CaO), it results in the
D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

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formation of slaked lime, Ca (OH)2. During this reaction a large amount of energy is evolved.
CaO + H2O ------------- Ca (OH)2 + heat
Similarly, when barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 is added to ammonium chloride NH4Cl a ppt of
BaCl2 is formed . with the absorption of heat from the surroundings.
Ba (OH)2 + 2NH4Cl + heat -------------> BaCl2 + NH4OH
(Q.4) Write short notes on: Unbalanced chemical equation?
Ans) Unbalanced chemical equation: An unbalanced chemical equation is an equation in which
the number of atoms of different elements is not equal on the two sides of the equation. Consider
the following equation:
KClO3 ------------ KCl + O2
Potassium Potassium
Chlorate Chloride
In this equation, the number of atoms of different elements on the two sides are as follows:
Element No. of atoms No. of atoms
In reactants (LHS) in Products (RHS)
K 1 1
Cl 1 1
O 3 2
In the above equation, number of K atoms and Cl atoms are equal on both sides but the number of
O atoms is not equal on both sides. Therefore, such an equation is an unbalanced chemical
equation.
(Q.5) Write down the steps involved in balancing chemical equation?
Ans) Balancing of a chemical equation means to equalize the number of atoms of different
elements or compounds present on reactant and product sides. Following steps are followed for
balancing a chemical equation:
(a) Write down the equation in the word form by writing the names of reactants and products.
(b) Write down the symbols and formulae of the various reactants and products. This gives us
the skeletal chemical equation.
(c) List the number of atoms of different elements present in the unbalanced equation.
(d) Select the compound (reactant or a product) which contains maximum number of atoms
and start balancing.
(e) To balance the atoms of an element put a small whole number, co-efficient before the
formula of the compound or symbol of the element. This gives us the partly balanced
chemical equation.
(f) To precede further pick up any of the unbalanced atoms and repeat the above procedure
till we get balanced chemical equation.
(g) Finally check the correctness of the balanced chemical equation by counting the number
of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.
Example: Write the chemical equation for the following reaction and balance it by ―Hit and Trial‖
method.
Iron + water iron oxide + hydrogen gas
Solution:
(i) The skeleton equation for the reaction is: Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2
(ii) For balancing we start with Fe3O4 because it contains maximum number of atoms. There are
four oxygen atoms on RHS and only one on LHS. To balance oxygen atoms, put co-efficient 4
before water.
Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + H2
(iii) Fe and H are still unbalanced. To equalize hydrogen atoms, make the number of molecules of
hydrogen as four on RHS.
Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2
(iv) To balance iron, count the number of iron atoms on both sides.
Atoms of iron in reactants = 1

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Atoms of iron in products = 3
To balance, multiply Fe by 3 on the LHS.
3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2
(v) Let us examine the number of atoms of different elements on both sides.
Element No. of atoms on LHS No. of atoms on RHS
Fe 3 3
H 8 8
O 4 4
(Q.6) How to make chemical equations more informative?
Ans) The chemical equations can be made more informative in following ways:
(1) By indicating the ―physical states‖ of the reactants and products.
(2) By indicating the ―heat changes‖ taking place in the reaction.
(3) By indicating the ―condition‖ under which the reaction takes place.
(i) By indicating the “physical states” of the reactants and products: The reactants and
products of a chemical reaction could be in any of following four states:
Solid state which is represented by ―S‖.
Liquid state which is indicated by ―L‖
Aqueous solution which is indicated by ―aq‖.
Gaseous state which is represented by ―g‖.
These stated symbols of the reactants and products are written just after their formula in an
equation, e.g. consider the following reaction:
Ca (OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Calcium hydroxide calcium water
carbonate
(white ppt)
Further, if a reaction involves an acid as reactant, the acid may be dilute or concentrated. For
dilute acids symbol ―dil.‖ is used and for concentrated acids symbol ―conc.‖ is used.
Zn (s) + dil. H2SO4 ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc sulphuric acid zinc sulphate hydrogen
(ii) To indicate the heat changes in an equation: There are two types of reactions on the basis
of heat changes involved. (i) Endothermic reaction (ii) Exothermic reactions
(a) Exothermic reactions: The chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out (evolved)
are called exothermic reactions, e.g.
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + heat
In exothermic reaction heat evolved is indicated by writing ―+ heat‖ on product side.
(b) Endothermic reactions: The chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed are
called endothermic reactions
CaCO3 (s) + heat CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Calcium-oxi carbon dioxide
In endothermic reaction heat absorbed is indicated by writing ―+heat‖ on reactant side
or ―– heat‖ on product side or the sign delta () is put over the arrow of the equation.
∆
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
MnO2
Potassium Potassium
Chlorate chloride
(iii) To indicate the conditions under which the reaction takes place. If the reaction takes place
in presence of a catalyst then the symbol or the formula of the catalyst is also written above or
below the arrow sign in the equation e.g.
3000C, 300 atm
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH
Carbon Hydrogen ZnO+CrO3 methanol
Monoxide (catalyst)
Q.7): When you mix the solutions of lead nitrate and potassium iodide.

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(i) What is the colour of precipitate formed?

(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction?
(iii) Is this also a double displacement reaction?
Ans: The precipitate formed is yellow in colour.
(ii) In this reaction, yellow ppt. of lead iodide is formed.
Lead nitrate + potassium iodide lead iodide + potassium nitrate
The balanced chemical equation for this reaction is follows:
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) PbI2(S) + 2KNO3 (aq)
(ii) Yes, it is double displacement reaction.
Q.8: A magnesium ribbon burning with a dazzling flame in air (oxygen) and changes into a
white substance, magnesium oxide. Is magnesium being oxidized or reduced in this reaction?
Ans: (i) The chemical reaction between magnesium and oxygen is shown below:
2Mg + O2 2MgO
(ii) In this reaction since oxygen is added to magnesium. Therefore, it is oxidation reaction and
magnesium is oxidized to magnesium oxide.
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1): Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?
Ans: Magnesium ribbon when exposed to humid air forms a white layer of magnesium oxide
over it.
2Mg + O2 2MgO (Magnesium oxide)
This oxide layer prevents it from burning. Therefore, to burn magnesium ribbon, the oxide
layer is first peeled off by rubbing it with sand paper.
Q2): Write balanced equation for the following chemical reaction.

(i) Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen Chloride
Ans) H2 + Cl2 2HCl
(ii) Barium Chloride + Aluminium Sulphate Barium Sulphate +Aluminium Chloride

Ans) 3BaCl2 + Al2 (SO4)3 3BaSO4 + 2AlCl3
(iii) Sodium + water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Ans) 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
Q.3): Write the balanced chemical equation with standard symbols for the following
reactions?
(i) Solution of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble
barium sulphate and the solution of sodium chloride.
Ans) BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)
barium chloride sodium sulphate barium sulphate sodium chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water)
to produce sodium chloride and water.
Ans) NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium hydroxide hydrochloric acid sodium chloride water
SECTION - B
Q.1): A solution of a substance “X” is used for white washing.
(i) Name the substance “X” and write its formula.
Ans) The substance ―X‖ used for white washing is quick lime (calcium oxide). The formula of ‗

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X‘ is CaO.
(ii) Write the reaction of substance „X‟ named in (i) above with water.
Ans) During mixing of Quick lime with water, following reaction takes place.
CaO(S) + H2O (l) Ca (OH)2 (aq)
Quick lime(calcium oxide). water Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).
Q.2) Why is the amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes, double of the amount
collected in the other on electrolysis of water? Name this gas
Ans) On electrolysis water decomposes into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas as follows:-
Electric
2H2O(l) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
current
From the above equation, it is clear that Hydrogen and oxygen gas are produced in the
ratio of 2:1 by volume. Therefore the volume of hydrogen gas produced is double to that
of oxygen. Because of the reason the amount of gas collected in one of the test tube is
double than the other and the name of the gas is hydrogen.
SECTION - C
Q.1) Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution changes when an iron nail is
dipped in it?
Ans: The colour of the solution is below due to the presence of copper sulphate, when iron nail
is dipped into the copper sulphate solution, iron being more reactive than copper, displaces
Cu from copper sulphate resulting in the formation of iron sulphate.
Fe(S) + CuSO4 (aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(S)
Therefore, the blue in colour of copper sulphate fades due to formation of iron sulphate.
Q.2) Give an example of a double displacement reaction other than the one between barium
chloride and sodium sulphate solutions.
Ans) The reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride is an example of double
displacement reaction.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(S) + NaNO3(aq)
Silver Nitrate Sodium Chloride Silver chloride Sodium Nitrate
Q.3) Identify the substances oxidized and the substances reduced in the following
reactions.
(i) 4Na(S) + O2(g) 2Na2O(S)
(ii) CuO(S) + H2(S) Cu(S) + H2O(l)
Ans)
(i) 4Na(S) + O2(g) 2Na2O(S)
In this reaction, oxygen gets added to Na. Therefore, sodium gets oxidized into Na2O and
oxygen itself gets reduced. Therefore in this reaction the substance which gets oxidised is
sodium and the substance which gets reduced is oxygen. Therefore in this reaction the
substance which gets oxidixed is hydrogen and the substance which gets reduced is CuO.
(ii) CuO(S) + H2(S) Cu(S) + H2O(l)
CuO loses oxygen and gets reduced to Cu and the released oxygen gets added to
hydrogen, therefore, hydrogen gets oxidised.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect ?
2 PbO (s) + C(s) 2 Pb (s) + CO2 (g)
(a) lead is getting reduced (b) carbon dioxide is getting oxdidized.
(c ) carbon is getting oxidized (d) lead oxide is getting reduced.
(i) (a) and (b) (ii) (a) and (c )
(iii) (a) (b) and (c ) (iv) All

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Ans. (a) and (b) are incorrect.
Q.2) Fe2 O3 + 2Al Al2 O3 + 2 Fe
The above reaction is an example of
(a) combination reaction (b) double displacement reaction
(c ) decomposition reaction (d) displacement reaction.
Ans) (d) displacement reaction.
Q.3) What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings? Tick the
correct answer.
(a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
(b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.
(c ) No reaction takes place
(d) Iron salt and water are produced.
Ans) (a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
Q.4) What is the balanced chemical equation? Why the chemical equation should be
balanced.
Ans) The chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element on both the sides of
the equation is equal is called balanced chemical equation.
A chemical equation must be balanced so as to obey law of conservation of mass. To
follow this law, the number of atoms of each element on reactant side must be equal to the
number of atoms on product side. -
Example; 3H2 + N2 2 NH 3
No. of hydrogen(H) atom on Left hand side =No. of hydrogen(H) atom on Right hand side = 6
No. of Nitrogen(N) atom on Left hand side =No. of Nitrogen(N) atom on Right hand side = 2
Q.5) Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
Ans) The word equation for the above reaction is as follows
Hydrogen + Nitrogen ammonia
The Skelton chemical equation is : H2 + N2 NH 3
The balanced chemical equation is : 3H2 + N2 2 NH 3
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to form water and sulphur dioxide.
The word equation for this reaction is as under:
Hydrogen Sulphide + oxygen Water + Sulphur dioxide
The Skelton chemical equation is : H2S +O2 H2O + SO2
The balanced chemical equation is : 2H2S +3O2 2H2O + 2SO2
(c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride and
precipitate of barium sulphate
The word equation for this reaction is as follows:
Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate Aluminium chloride + Barium sulphate
The Skelton chemical equation is : BaCl2+ Al2(SO4)3 AlCl3 + BaSO4
The balanced chemical equation is: 3BaCl2+ Al2(SO4)3 2AlCl3 + 3BaSO4
(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
The word equation is as follows:
Potassium + water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
The skeleton chemical equation is: K + H2O KOH + H2

The balanced chemical equation is: 2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2
Q.6) Balance the following equations.
(a) HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
Ans: 2HNO3 + Ca (OH)2 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
(b) NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O

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Ans: 2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(C) NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
Ans: The above equation is already balanced.
(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + HCl
Ans: BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2HCl
Q.7 ) Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reaction.
(a) Calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide Calcium carbonate + Water
Ans: Ca (OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
(b) Zinc + Silver Nitrate Zinc Nitrate + Silver
Ans: Zn + 2AgNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag
(c) Aluminium + Copper Chloride Aluminium Chloride + Copper
Ans: 2Al + 3CuCl2 2AlCl3 + 3Cu
(d) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate Barium Sulphate + Potassium chloride
Ans: BaCl2 + K2SO4 BaSO4 + 2KCl
Q.8) Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of reaction
in each case.
(a) Potassium bromide(aq) + Barium iodide (aq) Potassium iodide(aq) + Postassium
bromide (aq) + Barium bromide (aq)
Ans: 2KBr (aq) + BaI2 (aq) 2KI (aq) + BaBr 2 (aq)
This is a double displacement reaction.
(b) Zinc carbonate(S) Zinc oxide (S) + Carbon dioxide (g)
Ans: ZnCO3 (S) ZnO (S) + CO2 (g)
This is decomposition reaction.
(c) Hydrogen (g) + Chlorine (g) Hydrogen chloride (g)
Ans: H2 (g)+ Cl2 2HCl (g)
It is a synthesis (combination) reaction.
(d) Magnesium (S) + Hydrochloric acid (aq) Magnesium Chloride (aq) + Hydrogen gas
Ans: Mg (S) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq)+ H2 (g)
It is a displacement reaction
Q.9) What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
Ans) (1) Exothermic reaction: The chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out
(evolved) are called exothermic reactions. In exothermic reaction heat evolved is indicated
by writing ―+ heat‖ on product side For example, when carbon burns in oxygen to form
carbon dioxide, a lot of heat is produced. Therefore this reaction is exothermic reaction.
C (S) + O2 (g) CO2(g) + Heat
Carbon Oxygen carbon dioxide
Similarly, natural gas which contains methane as main constituent when burnt in presence
of oxygen, it forms carbon dioxide with the evolution of heat.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2(g) + 2H2O + Heat
Methane Oxygen carbon dioxide water
(2) Endothermic reactions: The chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed are
called endothermic reactions. In endothermic reaction heat absorbed is indicated by
writing ―+heat‖ on reactant side or ―– heat‖ on product side or the sign delta () is put
over the arrow of the equation. . For example, when nitrogen and oxygen are heated to a
very high temperature, they combine to form nitrogen monoxide, a lot of heat energy is
absorbed in this reaction.
N2(g) + O2 (g) 2NO(g) ( denotes heat)
Nitrogen + Oxygen + Heat Nitrogen monoxide

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Decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and CO2 requires heat energy.
Therefore, it is an endothermic reaction.
In fact, all decomposition reactions are endothermic in nature.
CaCO3(S) + Heat CaO(S) + CO2(g)
Calcium Carbonate Calcium oxide carbon dioxide
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

MnO2
Potassium Chlorate Potassium chloride oxygen

Q.10) Why respiration is considered as an exothermic process? Explain.
Ans) We need energy to stay alive. We get this energy from the food we eat. During digestion,
food changes into simple carbohydrate called glucose. This glucose then undergoes slow
combustion by reacting with oxygen in the cells of our body to produce energy in a
process called respiration. Thus, during respiration process heat energy is produced.
Therefore, it is an exothermic process. The reaction proceeds as follows:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Dioxide water
Q.11) Why are decomposition reactions called opposite of combination reactions? Write
equations for these reactions.
Ans) In a decomposition reaction, a single molecule splits to give two or more simpler
molecules. Where as in a combination reaction, two or more simpler substances (elements
or molecules) combine together to form a single compound. Hence, they are opposite to
each other.
(i) Example of decomposition reaction:
Heat
CaCO3 CaO(S) + CO2(g)
Calcium Carbonate Calcium Oxide + Carbon Dioxide
(Limestone) (Quicklime)
Heat
2Fe SO4(S) Fe2O3(S) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Ferrous Sulphate Ferric oxide Sulphur dioxide + Sulphur trioxide
(ii) Examples of combination reactions:
2Mg(S) + O2(g) 2MgO(S)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium Oxide
CaO(S) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
(Quicklime) (Slakedlime)
Q12) Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in the
form of heat, light and electricity.
Ans) Decomposition reactions: The reactions in which a compound breaks up into two or more
simpler compounds are called decomposition reactions. Most of the decomposition
reactions are endothermic in nature and require energy in the form of heat, light or
electricity. Hence, decomposition reactions are of three types.
(a) Thermal decomposition: It is a decomposition reaction brought about by heat, e.g.
heat
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(b) Photolysis: It is a decomposition reaction brought about by light, e.g.
2AgCl(s) sunlight 2Ag (S) + Cl2 (g)
(c) Electrolysis: It is a decomposition reaction brought about by electricity.
electric current
2NaCl 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

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Q.13) What is difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write
equations for the reactions.
Ans) Displacement reactions: Displacement reactions are also called as substitution reactions.
The reactions in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is displaced by another
atom or group of atoms are called as displacement reactions. During displacement reaction
a less active element is displaced by a more reactive element from its compound.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
2Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag(s)
Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl + Br2(l)
Double displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which there is an exchange of
atoms or group of atoms between the reactants to form new substances is called a double
displacement reaction. The reactions generally occurs in aqueous medium and such double
displacement reactions take place with the: (a) Formation of precipitate (b) Evolution of
a gas (c) Change in colour, e.g.
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4 ↓ + 2NaCl(aq)
Barium chloride sodium sulphate (Barium Suplhate)
(white ppt) sodium chloride
FeS(s) + dil. H2SO4 FeSO4(aq) + H2S(g)↑

Iron sulphide sulphuric acid iron sulphate hydrogen sulphide
CuSO4(aq) + H2S(g) CuS ↓ + H2SO4(aq)
Copper sulphate hydrogen sulphate copper sulphide sulphuric acid
(blue in colour) (black ppt)
Q.14) In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution involves
displacement by copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.
Ans) Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag(s)
Copper Silver nitrate Copper (II) nitrate Silver
Q.15) What do you mean by precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.
Ans) Precipitation reaction: Reactions which are accompanied by the formation of precipite
are known as precipitation reactions. A precipitation is the formation of a solid substance
during a chemical reaction in liquid solutions. The solid substance formed during a
precipitation reactions is called precipitate. The ↓ represents the formation of a precipitate
or settling down of solid product.
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgCl(s) ↓ + NaNO3(aq)
Sodium chloride Silver nitrate ↓Silver chloride (ppt) sodium nitrate
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) ↓ + 2NaCl(aq)
Barium chloride sodium sulphate Barium sulphate (ppt ) Sodium chloride
Q.16) Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each
(a) oxidation (b) Reduction
Ans) (a) Oxidation: It is defined as a process which involves gain of oxygen. For example
(i) 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2 MgO (s)
Magnesium oxygen Magnesium oxide
Here, Mg has gained oxygen to form MgO. Hence, Mg has been oxidized to MgO.
(ii) CuO (s) + H2 (g) Cu(s) + H2O (g)
Copper oxide Hydrogen copper water
Here, H2 has gained oxygen to form H2O. Hence H2 has been oxidized to H2O.
(b) Reduction: It is defined as a process which involves loss of oxygen. For example,
(i) ZnO (s) + C(s) heat Zn(s) + CO(g)
Zinc oxide carbon zinc carbon monoxide
Here, ZnO has lost oxygen to form zinc. Hence ZnO has been reduced to zinc.
(ii) Fe2O3 (s) + Al(s) heat 2 Fe(s) + Al2 O3 (s)
Ferric oxide Aluminium Iron Aluminium oxide

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Here, Fe2O3 ha lost oxygen to form Fe. Hence, Fe2O3 has been reduced to Fe.
Q.17) A Shiny brown coloured element „X‟ on heating in air becomes black in colour.
Name the element „X‟ and the black coloured compound formed.
Ans) The element ‗X‘ must be copper because copper is a shiny brown coloured element which
on heating in air combines with oxygen of the air to form copper oxide ,which is black in
colour.
2 Cu(s) + O2(g) heat 2 CuO(s)
Copper oxygen(from air) copper (11) oxide (Black).
Thus, black coloured compound formed is copper(11) oxide, CuO.
Q.18) Why do we apply paint on iron articles ?
Ans) Paint cover the surface of the iron articles, thereby preventing it from being in contact with
the moisture and oxygen of the air. As a result, it can not attack iron and prevents rusting of
the iron articles,
Q.19) Oil and fat containing food item are flushed with nitrogen. Why ?
Ans) In the presence of oxygen of the air, the fats present in the fatty food are oxidized to
compounds which have a bad smell i.e the food becomes rancid. Flushing with nitrogen
cuts off oxygen and protect the food from rancidity.
Q.20) What do you mean by corrosion and Rancidity? Or State the effect of oxidation
reaction in everyday life?
Ans) Corrosion: The process of slowly deterioration of the materials (metals) by
chemical interaction with atmospheric gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulphide and moisture is known as corrosion. During corrosion metals change into their
oxides, carbonates, sulphides etc.
Some examples of corrosion are:
(i) The most familiar example of corrosion is rusting of iron .Rusting is the formation of
reddish brown layer on the surface of iron articles etc. Chemically rust is hydrated ferric
oxide, i.e. Fe2O3.x H2O formed by the action of moisture and air on iron.
4Fe(s)+3O2 + H2O  2Fe2O3 x H2O.
(ii) Formation of oxide layer on the surface of aluminum.
(iii) Tarnishing of silver metal on exposure to hydrogen sulphide.
Rusting can be prevented by any of the following methods:
(a) By painting the iron articles. (b) By greasing and oiling the iron articles.
(c) By galvanization of iron objects. (d) By alloying of iron with other metals
Rancidity: Rancidity refers to the spoilage of a food in such a way that it becomes undesirable
(usually unsafe ) for consumption. Rancidity occurs in oils and fats and in foods containing oils
and fats. During rancidity oxidation of oils and fats or foods containing oils and fats takes place.
When foods containing oils and fats are exposed to air or oxygen, the oils get oxidized due to
which the food becomes stale and its colour and smell changes.
Prevention of Rancidity : The two common methods of Prevention of Rancidity are discussed
below.
(i). The rancidity of fatty foods can be prevented by adding antioxidants and flushing the food
container with nitrogen to prevent food from oxidation. These antioxidants slows down the
process of rancidity.
(ii) At home, oxidation process of food can be prevented/slowed down by keeping it in
refrigerator or air tight containers . By keeping in air tight containers, the oxygen becomes
limited , hence oxidation can be prevented.
Q.21) What are chemical reactions?
Ans) Chemical reactions are the processes in which a rearrangement of atoms takes place
between the reacting substances to form new substances having entirely different
properties. During a chemical reaction breaking down of old bonds and formation of new
bonds takes place. In a chemical reaction atoms of one element do not change into those of

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another element, only the rearrangement of atoms takes place. A few examples are rusting
of iron, spoiling of milk in summer, cooking of food, digestion of food etc.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)

Nitrogen Hydrogen Ammonia
2 Cu(s) + O2(g) heat 2 CuO(s)
Copper oxygen(from air) copper (11) oxide .
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Lesson No. 2
Periodic Classification of Elements
Conceptual Questions
Q.1) Why is there need for classifications of Elements?
Ans. There are 115 elements (natural and synthetic) known till now. It is very difficult to study
the properties of all these elements separately. To ease out this problem, there is necessity
of classifying these elements into groups having some what similar properties. Based upon
similarities in physical and chemical properties, various elements have been arranged in
several groups or families in order to simplify and systematize the study of these elements.
The arrangement of putting the elements with similar properties together and separating
the elements with dissimilar properties from one another is known as classification of
elements and the table which classifies the elements into such families is called the
periodic table.
Dobereiner‟s law of triads. :-
In 1817, Johann wolfgang Dobereiner a great German chemist identified certain groups
of three elements having similar properties. These groups of three elements were called
Dobereiner‘s triads after his name. This classification is based upon the law known as
Dobereiner‘s law of triads. The law states that the element having similar chemical
properties when arranged in order of their increasing atomic masses in the groups of three
elements, constitute a triad and the atomic mass of the middle elements is approximately
the arithmetic mean of the other two elements.
Some examples of triads are as follows:
i. The three elements Lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) have similar properties,
these elements constitute a Dobereiner Triad, because the atomic mass of middle element
i.e. sodium is 23 which is very nearly the average (22.95) of atomic masses of lithium and
potassium as shown below:-
i. Elements of Triad At. mass Arithmetic Mean
of Li & K= 7 + 39 = 23
Lithium (Li) 7 2
Sodium (Na) 23
Potassium (K) 39.
ii. Triad: At. mass Arithmetic Mean

Chlorine (Cl) 35.5 Cl & I = 35.5 + 127 =81.2
Bromine (Br) 80 2
Iodine (I) 127
iii. Triad At. mass Arithmetic Mean
Calcium (Ca) 40 Ca & Ba = 40 + 137 = 88.5
Strontium (Sr) 88 2
Barium (Ba) 137

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Q.2) What is Newland‟s law of Octaves? Explain with an example?

Ans. In 1866, John Alexander Newlands proposed a new system of grouping elements based on
Newland‘s law of octaves. According to Newland‘s law of octaves, ―when elements are arranged
in order of their increasing atomic masses, the properties of every eighth element are similar to
the first element like the eighth note of a musical scale.‖
For example, if we take lithium (Li) as the first element then the eighth element from it will be
sodium, according to Newland‘s law of octaves, these two elements must have similar properties.
Again if we take sodium (Na) as the first element then eighth element from it will be
potassium (K), according to Newland‘s law of octaves, these two elements must have similar
properties. In fact, all the three elements, Lithium. Sodium and Potassium have similar properties.
This can be illustrated by the following table.
Element H Li Be B C N O
At. mass 1 7 9 11 12 14 16
F Na Mg Al Si P S
19 23 24 27 28 31 32
Cl K Ca
35.5 39 40
Q. 3) State Mendeleev‟s Periodic Law.
Ans. Mendeleev‘s Periodic Law states that, ―the physical and chemical properties of elements
are a periodic function of their atomic masses. It may also be stated as:
When elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic masses, elements with
similar properties are repeated after certain regular intervals.
Q.4) What is Mendeleev‟s Periodic table? Describe the essential features of Mendeleev‟s
periodic table.
Ans. Mendeleev‟s Periodic Table:-
It is a table or chart in which the various elements have been arranged in order of their increasing
atomic masses, such that the elements having similar properties occur in the same vertical column
(or group). It is based upon the Mendeleev‘s periodic law.
Essential or main features of Mendeleev‟s periodic table:-
The essential or main features of Mendeleev‘s Periodic table are as under:-
(i) It is based upon Mendeleev‘s periodic law.
(ii) The table is divided vertically into columns called groups. These are numbered I, II, III,
IV, V, VI, VII and VIII.
(iii) Except group VIII each group is further divided into two sub- families called sub-groups
A and B.
(iv) The elements placed to the left in the column form sub-group A. These are called normal
or representative elements.
(v) The elements placed to the right in the column form the sub-group B. These are called
transition elements.
(vi) Group VIII contains transition elements in three sets. Each set contains three elements.
These three sets lie in the 4th, 5th and 6th period.
(vii) The horizontal rows are called periods. There are seven periods which are numbered as 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Q.5) What are the merits of Mendeleev‟s Periodic table?
Ans. 1. It made the study of elements simple and systematic.
2. It is based upon fundamental property of an element i.e. atomic weight or mass.
3.In Mendeleev‘s periodic table some gaps were left for the undiscovered elements like
gallium (Ga) and Germanium (Ge). When these elements were discovered later on, they were
placed in the gaps/spaces left by Mendeleev for these elements without disturbing the existing
elements.

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Q.6) What are the limitations of Mendeleev‟s periodic table?

Ans. The limitations of Mendeleev‘s Periodic Table are discussed as follows:-
i. Position of hydrogen:- The position of hydrogen is undecided in Mendeleev‘s Periodic
table. It shows some chemical properties similar to both the alkali metals and the halogens. And
Mendeleev could not decide whether it should be placed at the head of the table in group I along
with alkali metals or in group VII along with halogens
ii. Position of Isotopes:- Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having different atomic
masses but the same atomic no. Therefore according to Mendeleev‘s classification, these should
be placed at separate positions in the periodic table. For example three isotopes of hydrogen
namely Protium (H), Deuterium (D) and Tritium (T) with atomic masses 1, 2 and 3 respectively,
have been placed in the same group in the periodic table. The placing of these three isotopes in
the same group of periodic table could not be explained by M.P. law in Mendeleev‘s Periodic
table,
iii. Anomalous Pairs of elements:- In Mendeleev‘s periodic table, the elements are
arranged on the basis of their increasing atomic masses. However, there are such pairs in which
atomic masses of preceding elements is more than that of the following elements e.g.
Preceding elements Following elements
Cobalt (58.9) Nickel ( 58.7)
Tellurium (127.6) Iodine (126.9)
iv. Uncertainty in prediction of new elements:-
It was not possible to predict the number of elements that can be discovered between the
two known elements especially among heavier elements. This is because atomic masses do not
increase in regular manner in going from one element to another.
v. No attempt has been made to place metals and non-metals separately in the periodic table.
vi. Cause of Periodicity:-
Mendeleev did not explain the cause of periodicity among the elements when arranged in
the order of increasing atomic mass.
Q.7) State Modern periodic law?
Ans. Modern periodic law:- In 1913 Henry Moseley showed that atomic number of an element
is a more fundamental property than its atomic mass. Therefore, he suggested that the basis of
classification of elements should be atomic number. This led to modern periodic law which states
that, ―the physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic
numbers.‖
It means that if the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers, the
elements with similar properties are repeated after certain regular intervals.
These regular intervals are called magic number which are 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, & 32
Q.8) What is modern periodic table? Give description of modern periodic table in detail.
Ans. It is a table or chart based upon modern periodic law. In this table the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers such that the elements having similar
properties occur in the same vertical column called group.
The periodic table is based on valence shell electronic configuration of elements. This
table is also called as Bohr‟s periodic table. Since it follows the Bohr‘s scheme for
arrangement of various electrons around the nucleus. The table is also called long form
periodic table.
Structural features of long form of periodic table or Modern periodic table:-
The long form of the periodic table or modern periodic table consists of 18 vertical
columns called groups and 7 horizontal rows called periods. The description of the various
groups and periods is as follows:-
(A) Groups:- Vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups or families. These are
18 in number. These groups are designated as IA, IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIIIB,
IB, IIB, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and zero. According to IUPAC system, these are

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numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. The important
groups are.
a) Group 1 elements are called alkali metals.
b) Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals.
c) Group 17 elements are called halogens.
d) Group 18 elements are called noble gases or zero group.
e) The elements of groups 1,2 on the extreme left and groups 13 to 17 on the extreme right
are called normal or typical or representative elements.
f) The elements of groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.

(B) Periods:- Horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. There are seven periods
and each period begins with an alkali metal and ends up with a noble gas.
i. The first period contains only two elements i.e, H and He and is the shortest period.
ii. The 2nd and 3rd periods contain 8 elements each i.e. Lithium to Neon (Ne) and Sodium
(Na) to Argon (Ar) respectively. These are also known as short periods.
iii. The 4th and 5th periods contain 18 elements each i.e. Potassium (K) to Krypton (Kr) and
Rubidium (Rb) to Xenon (Xe) respectively. These are also called long periods
iv. The sixth (6th) period is the longest and contains 32 elements i.e. cesium (Cs) to Radon
(Rn)
v. The 7th (seventh) period is an incomplete long period of 26 elements i:e Francium (Fr) to
Ununbium (Uub)
vi. The two series of elements known as the lanthanides and actinides have been placed
separately at the bottom of the periodic table. These are collectively known as inner
transition elements.
(C) Blocks:- In the modern P. T. on the basis of outer electronic conjugation the elements
have been classified into four blocks. These are
a. S- Block elements
b. P. block elements
c. D- block or transition elements
d. F- block or inner transition elements.
(D) In modern periodic table there are four types of elements 1. metals, 2. Non-metals, 3.
Metalloids and 4. Noble gases.
Q.9) List the merits (Advantages) of modern periodic table.
Ans. Following are the main advantages of modern periodic table.
(i) It has simplified the study of elements.
(ii) The arrangement of the elements is based on a more fundamental basis i.e. atomic
number.
(iii) It is a chart easy to remember and to reproduce.
(iv) It relates the position of an element to its outer electronic configuration.
(v) It reflects the similarities, differences and trends in chemical properties more clearly.
(vi) Noble gases have been arranged at proper position in the periodic table.
(vii) It explains variations and similarities in properties of elements in terms of their
electronic configuration.
(viii) The Isotopes of an element occupy the same position in the modern periodic table.
(ix) In this table, there is a clear demarcation between active metals, non-metals,
metalloids, transition elements, inert gases, lanthanides and actinides.
Q.10) List the demerits of modern periodic table.
Ans. Following are the disadvantages (demerits) of modern periodic table:-
(i) The position of hydrogen is not certain in the periodic table.
(ii) Lanthanides and Actinides do not find a proper position in the periodic table.
(iii) It doses not reflect the exact distribution of electrons among all the elements.

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Q.11) What is meant by the term periodicity? What is the cause of periodicity?
Ans. Periodicity:- The repetition of elements with similar properties after certain fixed intervals
when arranged in order of their increasing atomic numbers is called periodicity
Cause of Periodicity:- After intervals of 2,8,8,18,18 and 32 the elements with similar
valence shell electronic configuration get repeated. Hence the cause of periodicity in the
properties of elements is the repetition of elements with similar outer electronic configuration
after certain, fixed intervals of atomic numbers.
In any group, the elements have similar outer electronic configuration and hence they have similar
properties.
Q.12) State the trends in the physical and chemical properties of elements in the modern
periodic table.
Ans. The physical and chemical properties of elements show regular gradation along a period
and down a group. In the periodic table, some of these properties are described below:-
(A) Valency:- It is defined as the combining capacity of an atom or element. It is equal to the
numbers of electrons present in outer most shell for the elements in groups 1, 2, 13 and 14.
For elements in groups 15, 16, 17 and 18 it is equal to eighteen minus group no (18-group
No.)
Variation of valency (for the elements of groups 1,2,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, & 18 )
a. Down Group:- In a group all the elements have same no. of electrons in their valence
shells hence in a group all the elements have same valency. e.g. consider Group 1
elements, all the elements of group 1 show valency one because they have one electron in
their valence shells.
(B) Along a Period:- As we move from left to right along a period, valency changes from 1 to
4 and 4 to zero . e.g. consider the elements of 2nd period
Group No. 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Elements Li Be B C N O F Ne
No of Valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Electrons.
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
(18-15) (18-16) (18-17) (18-18)
2. Atomic Radius (Atomic Size):-
Ans. Atomic radius (or atomic size) may be defined as,
the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outer most shell which contains
electrons. Atomic size is expressed in Angstrom unit or Ao (1Ao = 10-10m)
Variation of atomic radius:-
a. Down a Group:- As we move from top to bottom in a group, the number of
electronic shells increases which tends to increase atomic radius. Also the
magnitude of nuclear charge increases which tends to decrease atomic radius.
Since the first factor predominates the second factor, therefore, atomic size
increases along a group.
b. Along a period:- As we move from left to right along a period, the no. of
electronic shells remain the same but the magnitude of nuclear charge increases.
Due to increase in nuclear charge, the electrons in the outermost orbit are attracted
with a greater force. Thus the outermost shell is drawn closer and closer towards
the nucleus. Hence the atomic radius decreases.
It may be noted, that in any period, the noble gas has the biggest size.
(C) Metallic Character:- The elements which have a tendency to loose electrons and
form positive ions ( cations) are called metals. These elements are said to have metallic (or electro
+ve) character.
e.g. Na - e Na+
K - e K+

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The metallic character of an element also depends up on, atomic size and nuclear charge.
Variation of Metallic Character:-
a. Along a Period:- On moving from left to right along a period, the magnitude of nuclear
charge increases and atomic size decreases which decreases the tendency to loose
electrons. Therefore metallic character goes on decreasing e.g.
Consider the second period,
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Metallic character goes on decreasing
b. Down a group:-
As we move from top to bottom in a group, the increase in atomic size
predominates the increase in nuclear charge which increases the tendency to loose
electrons. Therefore metallic character goes on increasing e.g.
Consider group -1 elements
Li
Na Metallic character
K goes on increasing
Rb
Cs
Fr
(D) Non -Metallic character:- The elements that have tendency to gain electrons to form
negative ions (anion) are called non –metals. They do so in order to complete their
Octet . e.g.
Cl +e Cl + energy
O +2e O2-+ energy
Variation of Non-metallic character:-

a. Along a period:- As we move from left to right along a period, the atomic size decreases
and nuclear charge increases which increases the tendency to gain electrons. This leads in
increase in non-metallic character.
e.g. consider the third period,
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non metal Non metal Nonmetal
Non- metallic character increases.
b. Down a Group:- As we move from top to bottom in a group, there is an increase in atomic
size as well as in nuclear charge. However, increase in atomic size predominates the
increase in nuclear charge which decreases the tendency to loose electrons. Therefore, the
non-metallic character decreases. e.g. Consider group 14 elements.
N (Non-metal)
P (Non – metal) non metallic
As (Metalloid) character
Sb (metalloid) decreases.
Bi (Metal)
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) Did Dobereiner‟s triads also exist in the columns of Newland‟s octave‟s? Compare and
find out.
Ans. Yes, Dobereiner‘s triads do exist in the columns of Newland‘s Octave‘s.
Dobereiner‘s traid consists of three elements in which the atomic weight of the middle
element is the arithmetic mean of the other two, for example

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Element Li Na K
Atomic weight 7 23 39
Mean atomic weight of Ist & 3rd = Li + K = 7 + 39 = 46 = 23, which is equal to the
2 2 2
atomic weight of sodium. Thus Li , Na & K constitute a Dobereiner‘s traid.
According to Newland‘s law of octave‘s when the elements are arranged in the increasing
order of their atomic weights the properties of eighth element were similar to starting Ist
one jut like musical octave. For example: starting from Li eighth element from it is Na,
thus elements from Li to Na constitute one Newland‘s octave and similarly starting from
Na the eighth element is K, therefore elements from Na to K constitute another Newland‘s
octave.
First element eighth element first element eighth element
Li Na Na K
Newland‘s Octave Newland‘s Octave
This shows that Dobereiner‘s Triads also exist in the columns of Newland‘s Octaves.
Q.2) What were the limitations of Dobereiner‟s classification of elements? Or what were the
reasons of rejection of D – Classification?
Ans. The limitations of Dobereiner‘s classification are:-
(i) He failed to arrange all the known elements of that time into triads.
(ii) Some of the known elements in spite of having similar chemical properties do not
constitute a triad. e.g. nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and arsenic (As) in spite of
having similar chemical properties do not constitute a triad.
Thus this system of classification by Dobereiner was rejected.
Q.3) What were the limitations of Newland‟s law of classification?

OR
What were the reasons for discarding (Rejecting) Newland‟s law of octaves?
Ans (i) Newland‘s law of octaves was applicable only to the classification of elements up to
calcium because after calcium, every eighth element did not possess properties similar to
that of the first.
(ii) Newland assumed that only 56 elements existed in nature and no more elements would
be discovered in future. But, later on, several new elements were discovered whose
properties did not fit into the octaves.
(iii) In order to fit elements into his table, Newland not only placed two elements in the
same slot but also placed some unlike elements in the same column e.g. Cobalt and Nickel
were put together in one slot. The slot was placed in the column of chlorine, Bromine and
fluorine which have different properties than Co and Ni. Element iron (Fe) which has
properties similar to Cobalt and Nickel was placed far away from them.
(iv) Noble gases which were not discovered at that time, after their discovery the
properties of eighth element were no longer similar to the first one. Hence, the word
octave lost its credibility.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Use Mendleev‟s periodic table to predict the formula for the oxides of the following
elements; K, C, Al, Si, Ba
Ans. We know valency of oxygen is 2. By knowing to which group an element belong in the
Mendeleev‘s periodic table we can know its valency and therefore can predict the
formula of its oxide.
(i) Potassium (K) is an element of group 1A (alkali metals). Its valency is 1.

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(ii) Therefore, the formula of its oxide is K2O.
(iii) Carbon (C) is an element of group IV A. Its valency is 4. Therefore, the formula of
its oxide is CO2.
(iv) Aluminium (Al) is an element of group IIIA. Its valency is 3. Therefore, the
formula is its oxide is Al2O3.
(v) Silicon (Si) is an element of group IV A. Its valency is 4. Therefore, the formula of
its oxide is SiO2.

(vi) Barium (Ba) is an element of group IIA. Its valency is 2. Therefore, the formula of
its oxide is BaO.

Q.2) Besides gallium, which other elements have since been discovered that fill the gaps left
by Mendeleev in his periodic table? (Any two)
Ans. Besides gallium ,the other two elements which were unknown when Mendeleev gave his
periodic table were scandium (group III B) and germanium (group IV A). Therefore,
Mendeleev left gaps for these elements and even predicted their properties. Later on, these
elements were discovered and were found to possess almost the same properties as
predicted by Mendeleev.
Q.3) What were the criteria used by Mendeleev in creating his periodic table?
Ans. Two criteria used by Mendeleev in creating his periodic table were.
(i) Atomic masses of the elements (ii) The similarity in the formula of hydrides and
oxides of various elements. When he did so, most of the elements with similar properties
fell in the same vertical column or group Mendeleev had to place an element with a
slightly higher atomic mas before an element with a slightly lower atomic mass. For
example, tellurium with higher atomic mass (127.6u) was placed before iodine with lower
atomic mass (126.9u) since the properties of tellurium were similar to those of oxygen,
sulphur and selenium of group VIA while the properties of iodine were similar to those of
halogens (F,Cl and Br) of group VIIA.
Q.4) Why do you think the noble gases are placed in separate group?
Ans. Out of all the elements known, noble gases such as helium He, neon Ne, argon (Ar),
Krypton (Kr) and Xenon (Xe) are the most inert (unreactive) and are present in extremely
low concentrations in our atmosphere. Therefore, they are grouped together in a separate
group called zero group in the modern periodic periodic table.
SECTION - C
Q.1) How could the Modern periodic table remove various anomalies of Mendeleev‟s
Periodic Table ?
Ans) Modern periodic table removes various anomalies of Mendeleev‘s periodic table as under:
(i) Position of Isotopes:- Isotopes are the atoms of same elements having different
atomic mass therefore according to Mendeleev‘s Periodic Table they should be placed at
different places in Periodic Table but have been placed in the same group in Mendeleev‘s
Periodic Table which could not be explained by Mendeleev‘s periodic law. As all the
isotopes of an element have the same atomic number. Therefore according to modern
periodic table they can be placed at one place in the same group of the periodic table.
2
For example all three Isotopes of hydrogen ( 1H ), ( H ) and (3 H ) are placed at the same
1 1 1
place of hydrogen (group 1) in the periodic table.
(ii) Anomalous Position of some pairs of elements :- In Mendeleev‘s Periodic Table,
cobalt with slightly higher atomic mass (58.93 u) was placed before Nickel with slightly
lower atomic mass (58.71 u). This limitation has been removed in the modern periodic
tables as follows.
The atomic number of cobalt is 27 while that of nickel is 28. Since in the Modern periodic

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table, elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers, therefore cobalt
with lower atomic number comes first and nickel with higher atomic number comes later.
Similary atomic number of Tellurium (Te) is 52 while that of Iodine (1) is 53. Therefore,
Tellurium is placed before Iodine even though the atomic mass of Tellurium is higher
(127.6u) than that of Iodine (126.9u).
(iii) Uncertainty in Prediction of new elements :- Since atomic masses do not increase
in a regular manner in going from one element to the next, therefore, in Mendeleev‘s
periodic table, it was not possible to predict as to how many new elements could be
discovered between two known elements. This limitation has been removed in the modern
periodic table because atomic numbers or proton number increase by one in going from
one element to the next. Therefore, the number of new elements to be discovered in
between any two elements is equal to atomic number.
Q.2) Name two elements you would expect to show chemical reactions similar to magnesium.
What is the basis for your choice:-
Ans. Calcium (Ca) and strontium (Sr) are the two elements which show chemical reactions
similar to magnesium. The basis for the choice is that they belong to same group (2 nd) and
have similar outer electronic configuration.
In addition to this the general chemical formula of their oxides and hydrides is same. e.g.
both Ca and Sr have the general formula of their oxides as RO and hydrides RH 2. (R
represents the Ca, Sr and Mg)
Q.3) (a) Name three elements that have a single electron in their outer most shell.
Ans. Lithium (Li) sodium (Na) and potassium (K) of group 1 of .P.T. are the three elements that
have a single electron in their outer most shell e.g.
Element At. No. Electronic configuration
Li 3 2, 1
Na 11 2, 8, 1
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1
(b) Name two elements that have two electron in their valence shells,
Ans. Beryllium (Be) and Magnesium(Mg) of group 2nd of P. T. are the two elements that have
two electrons in their valence shells.

Be 4 2, 2
Mg 12 2, 8, 2
(c) Name three elements with filled outer most shells
Ans. Helium (He) Neon (Ne) and Argon (Ar) of group 18th of the periodic table have filled
outer most shells.
He 2 2
Ne 10 2, 8
Ar 18 2, 8, 8
Q.4) Answer the following (a) Lithium, Sodium, Potassium are all metals that react with
water to liberate hydrogen gas. (b) Helium is an unreactive gas and neon is a gas of
extremely low reactivity. What, if anything, do their atoms have in common?
Ans. (a) Lithium, Sodium and Potassium all react with water to form alkalies with the liberation
of hydrogen gas M+H2O MOH + ½ H2 ( where M=Li, Na ,K )
The similarity in the atoms of these elements is that all these atoms contain one electron in
their outermost shells- as shown below.
Li 3 2, 1
Na 11 2, 8, 1
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1

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(b) The atoms of He and Ne both have completely filled outer most shell. rendering them
unreactive.
He 2 2,
Ne 10 2, 8
Q.5) In the Modern periodic table, which are the metals among first ten element ?
Ans) In the Modern periodic table Lithium and Berylium are the metals among first ten
elements.
Q.6) By considering their position in the periodic table, which one of the following elements
would you expect to have the maximum metallic character?
Ga, Ge, As, Se, Be.
Ans. Arranging the above elements in different groups and periods in order of their increasing
atomic numbers we have
Periods Group1 G2 G13 G14 G15 G16
- - - - - - -
2 - Be - - - -
3 - - - - - -
4 - - Ga Ge As Se
We know that metallic character decreases from left to right in a period and increases
down a group. Therefore, out of these elements listed above, Be and Ga are expected to be
most metallic. Out of Be and Ga, Ga is bigger is size and hence has greater tendency to
loose electrons than Be therefore, Ga is more metallic than Be.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Which of the following statements is not a correct statement about the trends when
going from left to right across the periods of the periodic table.
(a)The elements become less metallic in nature
(b) The number of valence electrons increase
(c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily
(d) The oxides become more acidic.
Ans) (c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily
Q.2) Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, which is a solid with high melting
point. X would most likely to be in the same group of periodic table as (a) Na (b) Mg
(c ) Al (d) Sc
Ans) (b) Mg
Chlorine has valency 1 that means in the chlorine XCl2, X should be the element which has
valency equal to 2. If we compare the valency of Na, Mg, Al and Si.
Na belongs to group 1 therefore its valency is 1.
Mg belongs to group 2 therefore its valency is 2.
Al belongs to group 13 therefore its valency is 3.
Si belongs to group 14 therefore its valency is 4.
We find that it is the Mg which has valency of 2 and can form chloride with formula MgCl2 so X
is Mg.
Q.3) Which element has
(a) two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons?
(b) the electronic configuration 2, 8, 2
(c ) a total of three shells, with four electrons in valence shell ?
(d) a total of two shells, with three electrons in valence shell ?

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(d) Twice as many electrons in the second shell as in its first shell?
Ans) (a) Ne atomic No. 10 Electronic configuration 2, 8

Ist shell 2nd shell
(b) Mg atomic No. 12 Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 2
Ist shell 2nd shell 3rd shell
(c) Si atomic No. 14 Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 4
Ist shell 2nd shell 3rd shell
(d) Boron B atomic No. 5 Electronic configuration = 2, 3
1st shell 2nd shell
(e) Carbon C atomic No. = 6 Electronic configuration = 2, 4
1st shell 2nd shell
No. of Electrons in the ist shell = 2
No. of Electrons in the 2nd shell = 4 which is twice than in ist shell.
Q.4) (a) What property do all elements in the same column of the periodic table as Boron
have in common?
Ans. All the elements which lie in the same column as that of Boron belong to group 13 and
they have three electrons in their valance shells or outer most shell. All other elements i.e.
Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, and thallium in this group are metals, except Boron which is
a non-metal. Therefore all the elements in the same column of Pperiodic table as Boron
have three electrons in their valence as common.
(b) What property do all elements in the same column of periodic table as fluorine have
in common?
Ans. The elements which lie in the same column as fluorine are called halogens. They belong
to group- 17. All these elements have 7 electrons in their valance shell. Therefore, their
valency is 8-7 = 1. All these elements, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine are non-
metals.
Q.5) An atom has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.
(a) What is the atomic number of this element ?
(b) To which of the following elements would it be chemically similar? (atomic
numbers are given in parenthesis)
N(7), F(9), P(15), Ar(18).
Ans) (a) Atomic number of this element = 17. (chlorine )
(b) The element would be chemically similar to F(9) because both of the elements contain
7 electron in their valence shell. Therefore they have similar chemical property.
Q.6) The position of three elements A, B and C in the periodic table are shown below:
Period Group 16 Group 17
2
3 A
4
5 B C
(a) State whether C is a metal or a non metal
(b) State whether C is more reactive or less reactive than A
(c ) Will C be larger or smaller in size than B ?
(d) Which type of ion, cation or anion, will be formed by element C ?
Ans) (a) Elements of group 17 have 7 electrons in their respective valence shells and thus have
a strong tendency to gain one more electron to complete their respective octets, Thus, C
which is an element of group 17 is a non metal.

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(b) As we move down a group, the atomic size increases. Therefore, the force of attraction
of the nucleus for the incoming electron decreases and hence the reactivity decreases
down the group, since element has larger atomic size than element A, therefore C is less
reactive than the element A.
(c ) elements B and C belong to the same period i.e 5th period. As we move from left to
right in a period, the nuclear charge increases but the number of shells remains to be the
same. Therefore, the size decreases from left to right. Thus, the atomic size of C is smaller
than that of B.
(d) Since element C has 7 electrons in the valence shell, therefore it has a high tendency to
gain one electron to complete its octet. Thus, element C forms an anion ie
C + e C
Atom Electron Anion
Q.7) Nitrogen (atomic number 7) and phosphorus (atomic number 15) belong to group 15
of the periodic table. Write the electronic configuration of these two elements. Which
of these will be more electronegative ? Why.
Ans) The electronic configurations of nitrogen and phosphorous are given below:
Element Atomic No Electronic Configuration

Nitrogen (N) 7 K L M
2 5 −
Phosphorous (P) 15 2 8 5
Both these elements have 5 electrons in their respective valence shells and thus have a
high tendency to gain 3 more electrons to form negative ions by completing their
respective octets. Thus, both these elements are electronegative. Further, since atomic size
increases down a group therefore, N has smaller size than P and hence is more
electronegative than P.
Q.8) How does the electronic configuration of an atom relate to its position in the Modern
periodic table?
Ans) In the Modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic
numbers. There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the periodic table. Each period starts with the
filling of new energy shell and the number of valence electrons increases regularly by one as we
move from left to right across the period. For groups 1-2, the number of valence electrons is equal
to the group number and for groups 13-18, the number of valence electrons is equal to group
number minus 10.
(i) By knowing the position of the element in the periodic table, we can write its electronic
configuration. For example, if an element lies in the third period and group 15, it has 5 electrons
in the valence shell. Since the element belongs to 3rd period, therefore, the valence shell is M.
Thus, the electronic configuration of the atom is
K L M
2 8 5
(ii) Conversely, if the electronic configuration is given, we can find its position in the periodic
table. For example, consider an element with the following electronic configuration
shell K L M N
number of electrons 2 8 18 7
Since the element has 7 valence electrons,
We know that number of valence electron = Group number –10
Therefore Group number = No. of valence electrons + 10 = 7 + 10 =17
This shows that it belongs to group = 17. Since the valence shall is the 4th shell (N-shell),
therefore, the element lies in group 17 of the 4th period,thus the element is bromine (Br).

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Q.9) In the Modern periodic table, calcium element (atomic number 20) is surrounded by
element with atomic number 12, 19, 21 and 38. Which of these has physical and
chemical properties resembling calcium ?

Ans) An element in the periodic table which is surrounded by four other elements can be
regarded as the central element of one horizontal row (period) and one vertical column
(group).
Vertical group
12
Horizontal 19 20 21
Period Ca
38
The three elements of the horizontal row have consecutive atomic numbers and hence lie in the
same period. On the other hand, the three elements of the vertical column do not have consecutive
atomic numbers and lie in the same group. Calcium with atomic number 20 is surrounded by four
elements with atomic number 12, 19, 21 and 38. Thus, the atomic numbers of three elements
which lie in the same group are 12, 20 and 38. As the elements of same group have similar
chemical & physical properties. Therefore, the physical and chemical properties of calcium
resemble with those of the elements having atomic numbers 12 and 38.
Q.10) Compare and contrast the arrangements of elements in Mendeleev‟s periodic table and
modern periodic table.
Ans. Following are some of the main points of difference between Mendeleev‘s periodic table
and Modern periodic table.
Mendeleev‟s Periodic Table Modern Periodic Table
(i)The elements are arranged in increasing (i)The elements are arranged in increasing
order of their atomic masses. order of their atomic numbers or proton
numbers.
(ii) It has eight vertical columns called (ii) It has eighteen vertical columns called
groups. groups.
(iii) Each group is further divided into (iii) There is no further division of the
two groups.
sub-groups. (iv)It accommodates almost 115 elements
(iv) It accommodates only 63 elements (v) It includes noble gases.
(v) It does not contain noble gases (vi) Separate positions for isotopes of an
(vi) Separate position was assigned to element are not required because they
isotopes. have the same atomic number.
(vii) In this table many metals and non- (vii)In this table metals are on the left side
metals were grouped together . and non metals are on the right side.

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Lesson No. 3 Carbon & Its Compounds

Q.1 How does carbon occur in nature?
Ans. Carbon is one of the most widely distributed element, found in earth‘s crust. It occurs
both, in free state as well as in combined state.
In Free State, carbon occurs as diamond, graphite and coal. Diamond and graphite are pure
forms of carbon. Coal is an impure form of carbon in which percentage of carbon varies.
In combined state carbon occurs as:-
(i) Oxides such as carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
(ii). In the form of natural gas, petroleum products, marsh gas.
(iii) Carbonates in the form of metal carbonates such as.
Magnesium carbonate, (MgCO3), Calcium carbonate, (CaCO3), Zinc carbonate,
(Zn CO3).
iv. In the form of bio-molecules like proteins, fats, carbohydrates etc.
Q.2 Describe the position of carbon in periodic table.
Ans. Carbon is a non-metallic element having symbol ‗C‘. It has an atomic number of 6 and
mass number of 12u. It occurs in three isotopic forms such as 126C , 136C and 146C It has
six electronic and electronic configuration is K , L
2 4
st nd
Where K & L are 1 and 2 shells of carbon respectively.
It belongs to group 14 and is the first member of the group. The other members of the
group are Si, Ge, Sn and Pb. Since it occurs at the top of the group 14, this group is also
known as carbon family.
Q.3 State the reason, why carbon always forms covalent bonds?
Ans. Carbon has six electrons and its electronic configuration is: K , L
2 4
Thus, an atom of carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell ( L-Shell). From the
electronic configuration of carbon, it seems that carbon can form compounds in three
different ways:
(i) By losing all four outer most electrons to form C4+ion.
(ii) By gaining four electrons to form C-4. ion.
(iii) By sharing all the four outer most electrons present in L – Shell and forming four
covalent bonds.
Since carbon atom is small in size, so its outer most electrons are strongly bound to the
nucleus and therefore large amount of energy is needed to remove electrons from carbon
atom.
As a result carbon atom shows no tendency to lose its valence electrons. On the other
hand, due to low nuclear charge, carbon is moderately electronegative, so it does not show
any tendency to gain electrons. Therefore, the option left for carbon to form compounds is
only by sharing its four electrons forming four covalent bonds to complete its octet.
H
x H
• •
•C• + 4 xH H x• C• x H or H C H
• •
x H
H
Q.14) Discuss unique nature of carbon.
Ans. The unique nature of carbon can be explained in the following points.:-

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i. Carbon has the self linking property to form chains of varying lengths and shapes
(straight, branched, closed). This property of carbon is known as catenation.

ii. Carbon differs from the next of the elements of its group because of its smaller size and
higher electro-negativity.
iii. Carbon shows unique ability to form multiple bonds such as C=C, CC, C = O, C  N
etc.
iv. Carbon can bind to almost every element in periodic table especially O, H, S etc.
v. Carbon forms complex molecules, therefore a large number of isomers of carbon
compounds are found.
Q.5 What is allotropy? Give the allotropic forms of carbon.
Ans. The phenomenon of existence of an element in two or more different forms having
different physical properties but similar chemical properties is known as allotropy and the
various forms as allotropes or allotropic forms. Carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are some
of the non-metals that show allotropy. Carbon exists in two allotropic forms:
(i) Crystalline (ii) Amorphous
(i) Crystalline forms of carbon:- crystalline forms of carbon are:
a) Graphite b) Diamond c) Fullerenes
(ii) Amorphous forms of carbon:- The various amorphous forms of carbon are coal, coke,
charcoal, bone or animal charcoal, carbon black etc.
Among all the known forms of carbon, diamond, graphite and fullerenes are the purest
forms.
Q.6 Give a detailed account of Diamond. (occurrence, structure, properties and uses)
Ans. Diamond is the purest form of carbon. The word diamond comes from the two Greek
words diaphones means transparent and adamas means extremely hard. Diamond is found in all
shapes and sizes. Diamond is found in ancient valcano pipes where it is generally embedded in a
soft dark coloured rock called blue ground or Kimberlite rocks.
Diamond can also be prepared artificially by subjecting carbon to very high pressure and
temperature. These synthetic diamonds are small but are otherwise indistinguishable from natural
diamonds.
Occurrence: Diamond deposits have been found in South Africa, Ghana, Angola, India, Brazil
and Eastern Siberia.
In India, diamond are found in Panna ( Madhya Pradesh), Wajrakarur ( Andrapradesh) and
Golconda (Karnataka). The famous Kohinoor diamond was found is Wajrakarur.
Structure:- In diamond each carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms directed
towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron through covalent bonds. The arrangement gives rise
to a closely packed, hard, three dimensional structure which makes the diamond hardest natural
substance. All the four valence electrons are engaged in forming carbon- carbon bonds, leaving no
free electron. This makes diamond poor conductor of electricity.
Properties of Diamond:-
i) Diamond is a transparent solid having extra ordinary brilliance.
ii) It is usually colourless, but we can impart colour to diamond by adding small amount of
impurities in the form of metal salts.
iii) It is a non-conductor of electricity, but good conductor of heat.
iv) It has a high density of 3.5g/cm3.
v) It has a high refractive index of 2.5.
vi) It is the hardest natural substance. One can cut a diamond with only diamond.
Use of Diamond:-
i) It is used in Jewellery because the cut and polished diamond sparkles brightly.
ii) It is used to cut glasses.
iii) It is used for cutting and drilling of rocks.

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iv) It is used to make radiation proof windows in space satellites because it has ability to keep
out harmful radiations.
v) Due to its extra-ordinary sensitivity to heat rays diamonds are used for making high
precision thermometers.
Q.7 Give occurrence structure properties and uses of graphite.
Ans. Graphite is a crystalline form of carbon. It finds its name from the Greek word
―grapheine‖ means to write. It is also called black lead because it marks paper black like
lead.
Occurrence:- Graphite occurs free in nature and is widely distributed throughout the world.
Major producers of graphite are USSR, Mexico, India, China, Canada and Srilanka. In
India graphite is found in Orissa, Rajasthan, J&K State , Bihar, Karnataka, Tamilnadu etc.
Graphite can also be prepared artificially by heating coke to a high temperature.
Structure of Graphite:- The structure of Graphite is altogether different from that of
diamond. A graphite crystal actually consists of sheets or layers of Carbon atoms. In a
graphite layer, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same
plane forming hexagonal rings. To satisfy the fourth valency of carbon, each hexagonal
ring has three alternate single and double bonds. The various layers are held together by
weak Vander – walls forces of attraction. The distance between any two successive layers
is 340 pm.
Properties:-
(i) Graphite is an opaque, greyish-black in colour, with hexagonal crystals.
(ii) It is soft and greasy to touch.
(iii) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(iv) Its density is 2.2 g/cm3.
(v) It is stable to heat and possesses a high melting point of around 3700OC.
(vi) It has a metallic lustre.
Uses:- i) It is used as a lubricant in fast moving machinery as graphite is soft and
slippery.
(ii) It is used to make electrodes in batteries and electric furnaces.
(iii) It is used to make the core of lead pencils as it is soft and can mark paper.
(iv) It is used to make black paints and in printer inks.
Q.8 Comparison of properties of Diamond and Graphite.
Ans. The difference between the properties of diamond and graphite is summarized as below:-
Diamond Graphite
(i) Diamond is the hardest substance known. (i) Graphite is soft and soapy to touch
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(ii) Diamond has a density of 3.5 g/cm . (ii) Graphite has a density of 2.3 g/cm3.
(iii) Diamond is transparent and has a high (iii) Graphite is black and is opaque.
refractive index.
(iv) Diamond is a non-conductor of heat and (iv) Graphite is a good conductor of heat
electricity. and electricity.
(v) Diamond occurs as octahedral crystals. (v) Graphite occurs as hexagonal rings.
Q. 9 Write a short note on Fullerenes.
Ans. Fullerenes are a class of carbon allotropes. They are spherical in shape and contain even
no. of carbon atoms ranging from 60 to 350. The C60 fullerene is the most stable and was
first to be identified. It contains 60 carbon atoms which are arranged in the shape of a foot
ball, therefore it is also called as bucky ball.
These allotropes look like geodesic domes designed by the US Architect
Buckminster Fuller, they are called as Buckminster fullerenes. Buckminster fullerene is
dark solid at room temp. The properties of fullerene lie between diamond and graphite.
Compounds of Carbon.
The compounds of carbon can be classified into two categories.
(i) Inorganic compounds (ii) Organic Compounds

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(i) Inorganic Compounds:- These are the compounds of carbon with metals and non-metals
(other than hydrogen). These do not have carbon- carbon bonds in them., these
compounds are generally obtained from mineral sources. e.g. Salt from Sea, metal oxides
from soils etc.
(ii) Organic compounds:- These are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen and their
derivatives. These contain carbon – carbon bonds. Organic compounds are mostly derived from
living organisms e.g. sugar from sugarcane, oils from vegetables, proteins from eggs etc.
Q.10 What are Hydrocarbons? Give the types of hydrocarbons.
Ans. The compounds containing only carbon and Hydrogen are called hydrocarbons i.e.
Carbon + Hydrogen Hydrocarbon
e.g. methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), . The natural source of hydrocarbons is
petroleum and natural gas. Both petroleum and natural gas occurs deep inside the earth.
Hydrocarbons are regarded as parent organic compounds and all other organic compounds
are considered the derivatives of hydrocarbons.
There are two main types of hydrocarbons.
(A) Saturated Hydrocarbons.
(B) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons.
A) Saturated Hydrocarbons:- The hydrocarbons in which all carbon atoms are bonded to
each other by single covalent bonds are called as saturated hydrocarbons. Saturated
hydrocarbons are also called as alkanes or paraffins. The general formula of alkanes is
Cn H2n+ 2 where n= 1,2,3…......
e.g. If n = 1, the alkane is C1H2 (1) + 2 = CH4 (methane)
if n = 2, C2H2x2+2 = C2 H6 ( ethane)
If n = 3 , C3 H2x 3 +2 = C3 H8 ( Propane)
If n = 4, C4 H10 ( Butane)
If n = 5, C5H12 ( Pentane)
Their structural formulae are as follows:-
H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
(Methane) (Ethane) (Propane)

H H H H H H H H H
H C C C C H , H C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
Butane Pentane
Any successive members of alkane differ by CH2 unit. CH2 unit is called methylene group.
(B) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:-
The hydrocarbons which contains double (=) or triple () bonds between carbon atoms are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types.
(i) Alkenes:- Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing double bond between carbon atoms are called
as alkenes. Alkenes are also called as olefins. The general formula of alkenes is Cn H2n, where
n = 2,3, 4……. e.g.
If n = 2 , C 2 H2x2 = C2 H 4 Ethene
If n = 3 , C3 H 2 x 3 = C3 H 6 Propene
If n = 4 , C 4 H 2 x 4 = C 4 H 8 Butene

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Their structural formulae are:
H H H H
C =C (b) H
(a) H C C C
H H H
Ethene H Propene
H H H H
(c) H C C C C H
H H
Butene
H H H H H
(d) H C C C C C H
H H H
Pentene
(ii) Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing triple bonds between carbon atoms are called
as alkynes. The general formula of alkynes is CnH2n – 2 . Where n = 2, 3, 4, 5…….
If n = 2, C2H2x2 – 2 = C2H2 ethyne
If n = 3, C3H2x3 – 2 = C3H4 propyne
If n = 4, C4H2x4 – 2 = C4H6 butyne
If n = 5, C5H2x5 – 2 = C5H8 Pentyne
There structure formulae are as follows :
H
(a) H C C H (b) H C C C H
Ethyne
H
Propyne
H H
(c) H C C C C H
H H
Butyne
H H H
(d) H C C C C C H
H H H
Pentyne
Cyclic Hydrocarbons:-
The hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are arranged in a ring are called as cyclic
hydrocarbons. The cyclic hydrocarbons can be saturated or unsaturated.
a) Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons :- Cyclohexane with molecular formula C6 H12 is a
saturated cyclic hydrocarbon.
Its structural formula is

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H H
H C H
C C
(i) H H
OR
H H
C C
H C H Cyclohexane
H H
Similarly other cyclic hydrocarbons are,
H H H H
H H
(ii) H C H (iii) C C
C C or H or
H H C C
Cyclo Propane
H H H
Cyclo butane
b) Unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons:-Benzene is a well known unsaturated cyclic
hydrocarbon its molecular formula is C6H6. Its structural formula is:-
H
H C C H
Or
C C
H H
C
H cyclo hexene or benzene

Q)11 What is covalent bond? Give different types of covalent bond?
Covalent bond:- The chemical bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms in order to
acquire stable nearest noble gas electronic configuration is called covalent bond. The two combining atoms
may be similar or dissimilar atoms. The difference between the electro negativities of the combining atoms
should be either zero or very small. The compounds which contain covalent bonds are called covalent
compounds. The covalent bond is generally formed between two non-metallic elements. The shared pair of
electrons becomes the property of both the bonded atoms. For example,
H• + •H H •• H. Or H H
Depending upon the number of electron pairs shared between the two bonded atoms, covalent
bond is of three types:-
(i) Single covalent bond
(ii) Double covalent bond
(iii) Triple covalent bond.
(i) Single Covalent Bond:- Single covalent bond is formed by sharing of one electron pair
between the two atoms. Example.
Formation of Hydrogen. (H2) molecule:

Hydrogen atom has one electron in its shell. In order to attain electronic configuration of He, it
shares its electron with another hydrogen atom. Thus there is a single covalent bond between two
hydrogen atoms

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Shared electrons and
Shared pair
•
+ • + • + H • H
Hydrogen molecule
H• + •H H :H Or H H
ii) Double covalent bond:- Double covalent bond is formed by sharing of two electron pairs
between two atoms in which each atom contributes two electrons. It is represented by putting two
short (=) lines between two atoms Example.
Formation of oxygen (O2) molecule:
Oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer most shell. It needs two electrons to complete its octet
and attain configuration of nearest noble gas Neon. Hence, two oxygen atoms combine by
sharing two pairs of electrons between them.
•• •• •• •• •• ••
:+: :: or : =:
•• •• •• •• •• ••
2,6 2,6 2,8 2,8
iii) Triple covalent bond:- Triple covalent bond is formed by sharing of three electron pairs
between two atoms in which each atom contributes three electrons. It is represented by three short
lines between two atoms, e.g.
Formation of nitrogen (N2) molecule:
Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its outer most shell. It needs three electrons to complete its
octet and attain the configuration of nearest noble gas Neon. Hence, two nitrogen atoms combine
by sharing of three pairs of electrons between them and form N2 having triple covalent bond
between two nitrogen atoms.
   N  N N
N  +   
or  N ≡N 
Electron Dot structure of Nitrogen (N2) molecule
Functional Group: an atom or group of Atoms which largely determines the properties of a
compound is known functional group e.g Alcohols contain hydroxyl (OH) group is functional
group.
Q.12 Discuss the nomenclature of various classes of organic compounds.
Ans:- IUPAC system of Nomenclature:- According to IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound
consists of three parts.
(i) Word root (ii) Suffix (iii) Prefix.
(i) Word root denotes the number of carbon atoms present in the principal chain, which is the
longest chain of carbon atoms.
Chain Length C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
Word Root Meth Eth Prop But (a) Pent (a) hex (a) Hept (a)
C8 C9 C10 C11 C12

Oct (a) Non (a) Dec (a) Undec (a) Dodec (a)
Where C1,C2,C3,………………… represents no. of carbon atoms in the chain.

Note:- Extra ‗a‘ given the parenthesis is used only if the primary suffix to be added to the

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word root start with a consonant.
(ii) Suffix (a) Primary Suffix… indicates type of bonds. If carbon atoms are linked with
single bonds, the primary suffix is ‗ane‘.
If by double bond the Primary suffix is ‗ene‘.
If in triple bond the Primary suffix is ‗yne‘
(a) Secondary suffix is used to represent the functional group and is attached to primary
suffix while writing its IUPAC Name e.g in CH3CHOH, functional group is OH and we
represent OH by – ol as secondary suffix.
(Note:- While adding a secondary suffix to the primary suffix the terminal ‗e‘ of the primary
suffix. ane, ene, yne, is replaced by secondary suffix)
(iii) Prefix:- Certain characteristics group are not considered as functional groups, these are
regarded as substituent such as –F, -Cl, -Br, -I etc. Prefix is used to represent these substituent
atoms or groups and is written before the word root. Writing the IUPAC name of an aliphatic
compound.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary prefix + Word root + Primary suffix + Sec. Sufix IUPAC Name
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CH3 – CH2 – CH3 - prop ane - Propane
CH3 – CH – CH2 - prop ene - propene
CH ≡ CH - eth yne - ethyne
Cl – CH2 – CH2 − CH3 chloro prop ane - chloropropane
Cl – CH2 – CH = CH3 chloro prop ene - chloropropene
CH3 − CH2 – CH2 – OH - prop ane ol propanol
Cl CH2 – CH −CH2 – OH chloro prop ane ol chloro propanol
Cl CH – CH − CH2 – OH chloro prop ene ol chloro propenol
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is not necessary that all of them may be present in a particular compound.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q13 Discuss the nomenclature of different classes of organic compounds.
Ans. The nomenclature of different classes of organic compounds is discussed below:-
i) Alkanes:- General formula CnH2n+2 where n = 1,2,3……
word root = Alk, suffix = ane = name: word root + suffix Alk +ane =Alkane
ii) Alkenes:-
General formula : Cn H2n Where n = 2,3,4 ………
Bond : C = C (carbon- carbon double bond))
Suffix : ene (Name word root + suffix =Alk +ene = Alkane.
(Replace the terminal ―ane‖ of the corresponding alkane by suffix ―ene‖.)
The position of double bond is indicated by lowest possible integer. e.g.
Formula No. of Word Suffi Position of double Name position of
C- root x ene bound double bond + rood
atoms word + suffix
CH2 = CH2 2 eth ene no significance Ethene
CH3 – CH2 =CH2 3 prop ene same on both sides Propene
CH3 – CH = CH – CH3 4 but ene at Carbon No 2 2-butene
CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2 4 but ene at Carbon No. 1 1 -butene
CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 4 but ene at Carbon No. 1 1- butene

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iii) Alkynes:-
General formula = Cn H2n – 2 Where n = 2, 3, 4, ……….
Bond nature : - C  C -(carbon – carbon triple bond.)
Suffix : yne. (Name wood root + suffix = Alk + yne = Alkyne.
(Replace the terminal ―ane‖ of the corresponding alkane by suffix ―yne‖)
Indicate the position of triple bond by lowest possible integer.
e.g.
Formula No. of Word Suffi Position of triple Name position of
C- root x yne bond triple bound + rood
atoms word + suffix
CH  CH 2 eth yne no significance Ethyne
CH3 – C  CH 3 prop yne same on both sides Propyne
CH3 – C  C – CH3 4 but yne at Carbon No 2 2-butyne
CH  C – CH2 – CH3 4 but yne at Carbon No. 1 1 -butyne
CH3 – CH2 – C  CH 4 but yne at Carbon No. 1 1- butyne
iv). Halo alkanes or alkyl halides.
General formula = RX, when R=Cn H2n+ 1 with n = 1,2,3….. & X = F, Cl, Br, I )
Bond nature: Carbon – Carbon Single bond
Substitute group : F, Cl, Br, I.
Prefix : Floro, chloro, Bromo, Iodo for F, Cl, Br, I respectively.
Name : - Add the prefix halo ( Fluro, Chloro Bromo, Iodo,) to the parent alkane. Also
indicate the position of substituent group ( F, Cl Br, I) by lowest integer e.g.
Substitute Prefix Formula No of Suffix Position of Name
C- Prefix
atoms
(X=Cl) Chloro CH3 –Cl 1 ane no significance Chloromethane
(X=Cl) Chloro CH3-CH2- Cl 2 ane no significance Chloro ethane
(X=F) Floro CH3 – CH2 – CH2- F 3 ane Carbon No – 1 1- Floro propane
Br
(X=Br) Bromo CH3 - CH - CH3 3 ane Carbon No. 2 2- Bromo propane

(X=I) Iodo I – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 4 ane Carbon No. – 1 1 – Iodio butane
X=F) Floro CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH3 4 ane Carbon No. 2 2 – Fluoro butane
F
v) Alcohols:-
General formula : R – OH (Where R= CnH2n+1 & n = 1,2,3………)
Functional group : OH ( Hydroxyl) Suffix : ol
Name : Replace last ‗e‘ of parent alkane by ‗ol‘
Formula No. Pry. Function Sec. Position of Name
of C- Suffix -al group Suffix functional Position of functional
atoms ane group group + Root word + Pry
Suffix ane + Sec. suffix
ol = Alkanol
CH3 –OH 1 ane -OH ol no significance Methnol
CH3-CH2- OH 2 ane -OH ol no significance ethanol
CH3 – CH2 – CH2- OH 3 ane -OH ol Carbon No. 1 1-propanol
OH
CH3 - CH - CH3 3 ane -OH ol Carbon No. 2 2- Propanol

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 OH 4 ane -OH ol Carbon No. 1 1-butanol

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OH
4 ane -OH ol Carbon No – 2 2- butanol
CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH3
vi) Aldehydes:-
General formula : RCHO
(where R : CnH2n+1and n = 0,1,2,3,4……………)
O
Functional group : – C – H (aldehyde)Suffix : al
Name : Replace last ‗e‘ of ‗parent alkane‘ by ‗al‘
Formula No. Pry. Functi Sec. Alkane Name
Position of functional
of C- Suffix onal Suffix Position of
group + Root word +
atoms group functional Pry Suffix ane + Sec.
group suffix al = Alkanal
O
 0 -CHO al no Methanal
H–C–H (HCHO) ane significance
O 1 ane -CHO al Ethanal

 no
CH3 – C – H (CH3CHO) significance
O

CH3 – CH2 –C–H (CH3CH2CHO) ane -CHO al no Propanal
2 significance
7. Ketones:- O
General formula : R – C – R (Where R = Cn H2n + 1 and

R = Cn H2n +1 and n = 1,2,3, and
n = 1,2,3, also n & n may be same or different.)
O
Functional group : C ( Ketone) Suffix = one

Name = Replace last ‗e‘ of ‗ane‘ by ‗one‘ e.g.
n n Formula Name
O
1 1 CH3 C CH3 2 – Propanone

O
2 1 CH3 CH2 C CH3 2 – Butanone
Or
CH3 – C – CH2 – CH3

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O
2 2 CH3 – CH2 – C – CH2 – CH3 3- Pentanone

O
3 1 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C – CH3 2 – Pentanone

Or
O
CH3 – C – CH2 – CH2 – CH3

8. Carboxylic acids:
General formula : RCOOH where R=Cn H2n + 1, Where n = 0,1,2 …….
O
Functional group : – C – OH (carboxyl)

Suffix : oic acid
Name = Replace last ‗e‘ of alkane by ‗oic acid‘
n Formula Name
O
0 H – C – OH Methanoic acid
O
1 CH3 – C – OH Ethanoic acid

O
2 CH3 – CH2 – C – OH Propanoic acid

O
3 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C – OH Butanic acid

Q.14 Discuss some important chemical properties of carbon compounds.
Ans. Some of the important chemical properties of carbon compounds (Hydrocarbon) are
discussed as follows:-
A) Combustion:- The process of burning of a carbon compound in air to give carbon dioxide,
water, heat and light is known as combustion. Most of the carbon compounds burn in air to
produce a lot of heat. e.g. alkanes burn in air to produce a lot of heat, hence are excellent fuels.
When methane burns in sufficient supply of air then carbon dioxide and water vapours are
formed with the evolution of large amount of heat.
Combustion
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat + Light
Methane Oxygen
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) generally burn in air with blue (non- sooty flame.) This is
because the percentage of carbon in alkanes is comparatively low- which gets completely
oxidized.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) burn in air with a yellow sooty flame.
This is because the percentage of carbon in alkenes and alkynes is comparatively high.
B) Oxidation Reaction:- Addition of oxygen to any substance is called as oxidation and the
substance which is capable of adding oxygen to other substances is called as oxidizing agent.
Thus, the reaction in which oxygen is added to any substance is known as oxidation reaction.
e.g.
When alcohol is treated with acidified potassium dichromate or alkaline potassium
permanganate, it gets oxidized to carboxylic acids.

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O
alkaline
CH3 – CH2 – OH + 2 [O] KMnO4 CH3 C – OH + H2O
acidified
ethanol K2Cr2O7 Ethanoic acid.
C. Addition Reactions:-
Reactions which involve addition of two reactants to form a single product are called addition
reactions.
Due to presence of double and triple bonds , unsaturated hydrocarbons are more reactive and
hence add hydrogen in presence of a catalyst such as nickel, platinum or palladium to form
saturated hydrocarbons. This process is called as catalytic hydrogenation.
e.g. CH2 = CH2 +H2 CH3 – CH3

ethane ethane
R R H H
C C + H2 Nickel, 473K
R R R C C R
R R
Unsaturated hydrocarbon Saturated Hydrocarbon
Where R = CH3, C2H5, C3 H7 etc.
D) Substitution reaction:-
Reactions which involve the direct replacement (displacement) of an atom or a group of
atoms in an organic molecule by another atom or group of atoms without any change in the
rest of the molecule are called as substitution reactions. Substitution reaction is an important
property of saturated hydrocarbons ( alkanes) e.g. saturated Hydrocarbons in presence of heat
and light react with chlorine to form substitution products. e.g.
Sun light
CH4 + Cl2 CH3 Cl + HCl
520 – 670k
Methane Chlorine Chloro methane
CH3 Cl + Cl2 CH2 Cl2 + HCl

Dichloromethane
Q.15 Give a detailed account of ethanol (C2H5OH).
Ans. Ethanol is the second member of the homologous series of alcohols. The chemical formula
of ethanol is C2H5OH. The common name of ethanol is ethyl alcohol and is most common and
most widely used.
Physical properties of alcohol.
Some of the physical properties of ethanol are described below.
i) Ethanol is a colourless liquid at room temp. its freezing point is 156K while its boiling
point is 351K.
ii) It has a distinct smell and a burning taste.
iii) Ethanol is soluble in water.
iv) It is lighter than water.
v) It has no effect on litmus paper.
Chemical properties of ethanol.
i) Reaction with sodium:-
Ethyl alcohol is weakly acidic in nature. It evolves hydrogen with active metals like
sodium.
2C2 H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5 ONa + H2

Ethanol Sodium Sodium ethoxide

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ii) Combustion reaction:-
It burns in air to form CO2 and water vapour.
C2H5 OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + Energy
Ethanol
iii) Oxidation reaction:-

Ethanol when heated with alkaline potassium permanganate solution or acidified
potassium dichromate solution, it gets oxidized to ethanoic acid.
CH3 – CH2 – OH + 2 [O] Alkaline KMnO4 CH3 COOH + H2O
or acidified
K2 cr2 O7
Ethanol nascent
oxygen
iv) Dehydration reaction:-
Ethanol when heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 170oC, it gets dehydrated to form
ethane.
Conc. H2 SO4
CH3 – CH2 – OH CH2 = CH2 + H2O
170 oC
Ethanol (Dehydration) Ethene Water
v) Reaction with ethanoic acid:-

Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid on warming in presence of H2SO4 to form ester.
CH3 COOH + C2H5OH CH3 COOC2H5 + H2O
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ester
The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form an ester is
called as esterfication reaction. In this reaction concentrated H2SO4 acts as dehydrating
agent.
Uses:-
i) Ethanol is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, medicines, perfumes, dyes, soaps
and synthetic rubber.
ii) Ethyl alcohol is used in alcoholic drinks like whisky, beer etc.
iii) It is used as an antiseptic to sterilize the wounds.
iv) Ethyl alcohol is used as a fuel in cars and spirit lamps.
v) It is used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
vi) Ethanol is used as a solvent for many organic compounds.
Q) 16 What are harmful effects of drinking alcohol?
Ans i) Alcohol drinking leads to increased road accidents as it effects the nervous system and the
person loses the judgment.
ii) Alcohol drinking leads to quarrels and fights which increases the violence and crime in
society. This is because alcohol drinking lowers the mental restrain.
iii) Alcohol drinking leads to staggered movement, unclear speech, blurred vision, dizziness
and vomiting.
iv) Alcohol drinking makes a person financially bankrupt.
v) Alcohol drinking for longer periods damages the stomach, liver, heart, brain and
ultimately causes death.
vi) Adulterated alcohol drinking causes severe poisoning leading to blindness and even death.
Q)17 Write a short note on denatured alcohol.
Ans. A lot of alcohol is used in industries for manufacturing various products. This alcohol is
much cheaper than the alcohol available in markets, as it is supplied to the industries tax
free. To avoid its miss use, some poisonous substances such as methyl alcohol etc are

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added to it which make it unfit for drinking purposes. Such alcohol which has been made
unfit for drinking is called denatured alcohol.
Q)18 Give a detailed account of ethanoic acid (or acetic acid)?

Ans) Ethanoic acid is the second member of the homologous series of carboxylic acids. The
chemical formula of ethanic acid is CH3COOH. The common name of ethanoic acid is acetic
acid. A dilute solution of ethanoic acid in water is called vinegar.
Q)19 Preperation of acetic acid

Ans) A 10 – 12% solution of ethyle alcohol is fermented in presence of enzyme acetobacter and
air at 300 to 350.
CH3 – CH2 – OH + O2 acetobacter CH3COOH + H2O
Ethanol acetic acid
Physical properties of acetic acid:
(i) It is colourles, pungent smelling corrosive liquid. It has a sour taste.

(ii) Its boiling point is 1180C.
(iii)It is soluble in water.
(iv) Having low melting point (170C) it often freezes in winter in cold climates to form ice like
solid, this gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
(A) Chemical properties:

(i) Acetic acid being acidic in nature turns blue litmus into red in colour.
(ii) Reaction with alcohols:
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in presence of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst to form an ester.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH conc. H2SO4 CH3 – C – O – CH2 – CH3 + H2O
Ethanoic ethanol || ester
Acid O
(iii) Reaction of ethanoic acid with a base

Ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to give (sodium acetate) salt
and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
Ethanoic acid sodium acetate
(iv) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate to form sodium acetate,
carbon dioxide and water.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
Uses
(i) Dilute ethanoic acid (vinegar) is used as a food preservative in the preparation of pickles
and sauces.
(ii) Ethanoic acid is used for making cellulose acetate which is an important artificial fibre.
(iii)Ethanoic acid is used in the preparation of propanone and esters used in making perfumes
and flavouring agents.
(iv) Ethanoic acids is used in the preparation of dyes, plastics and pharmaceuticals.

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Q) 20. What are soaps? Give their structure and preparation?

Ans) Soap is a cleansing agent. There are several cleansing agents but soaps are very popular
cleansing agents which have been used for more than two thousand years.
Structure
Soaps consist of two parts:
(A) A long hydrocarbon chain, which is hydrophobic (water repelling). It is called non-polar
tail.
(B) An ionic part which is hydrophilic (water attracting). It is called polar head.
O
C15H31 ____C ____O-Na+
Long hydrocarbon ionic part
Chain (water repelling) (water attracting)
sodium palmitate
Preparation
Soaps are made from animal fats or vegetable oils. Fats and oils are esters of higher fatty acids
and glycerol. When fats and oils are heated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution they split to
form sodium salt of higher fatty acid called as soap and glycerol as byproduct.
heat
Fats or oil + sodium hydroxide soaps + glycerol
(an ester) (alkali) sodium salt alcohol
of fatty acids
The process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalies is called
saponification.e.g.
CH2COOC15H31 CH2OH
| |
CHCOOC15H31 + 3NaOH saponification CH2OH + 3 C15H31 COONa
| sodium hydroxide | sodium palmatate
CH2COOC15H31 CH2OH (soap)
Oil and fats Glycerol
(tripalmitin)
Q.21) What are the limitations (disadvantages) of soaps?
Ans) (1) Soaps are not suitable for washing clothes with hard water. Soaps are sodium or
potassium salts of higher fatty acids. Hard water contains bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium. When soap is added to hard water, it forms
insoluble calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids which sticks to the cloth and makes
it dull. Thus a lot of soap- is wasted in precipitating out calcium and magnesium salts from
hard water. This makes cleansing of clothes difficult.
(2) Soap is not suitable in acidic medium solutions. Since in acidic solutions free fatty
acids are obtained which are not effective as cleansing agents. So washing has to be done
in alkaline medium.
Q)22 What are Synthetic detergents?
Ans) A synthetic detergent is the sodium salt of long chain benzene sulphonic acid which has
cleansing properties in water. Synthetic detergents are called as soapless soaps because though
they act like a soap in having the cleansing properties but they do not contain the usual soap
molecule like sodium stearate etc. e.g. sodium n-dodecyle benzene sulphonate. Synthetic
detergents are better cleansing agents than soaps because they do not form insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts with hard water and therefore it can be used for washing even in hard water synthetic
detergent have structures similar to that of soaps. e.g.

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(i) Sodium n – dodecyl benzene sulphonate
C12H25 SO3- Na+
It also consists of two parts.

(i) A long hydrocarbon chain, hydro phobic (water repelling) in nature called as non-polar tail.
(ii) An ionic part hydrophilic (water attracting) in nature called as polar head.
C12H25 SO3-Na+
Non-polar tail polar head

(hydrophobic) (hydrophilic)
Synthetic detergents are made from long chain hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum and these are made
from by-products of oil refining and so are petroleum based.
The washing powders available in the markets contain about 15 – 30% detergents by weight. The
remaining part of washing powders contain other chemicals which are added to impart it other desired
properties, e.g. a mild bleaching agent such as sodium perborate is added to washing powders to produce
whiteness in clothes.
Q.23 Write the advantages of synthetic detergents?

Some of the advantages of synthetic detergents over soaps are:
(i) Synthetic detergents can be used for washing even in hard water.
(ii) Synthetic detergents can be used even in acidic solutions.
(iii) Synthetic detergents have higher solubility than that of soaps.
(iv) They have better cleansing action.
Q) 24 Difference between soaps and detergents?
Ans) The main points of difference between soaps and detergents are given below:
Soaps Detergents
i) Soaps are sodium salt of long chain fatty i) Detergents are sodium salt of long chain
acids alkyl sulphates
ii) They can not be used in acidic solutions. ii) They can be used even in acidic solutions.
iii) Soaps are prepared from animal fat or iii)Detergents are prepared from hydrocarbon
vegetable oil. of petroleum.
iv) Soaps are not suitable for washing iv) Synthetic detergents can be used for
purpose when water is hard. washing even when water is hard.
v) Soaps are biodegradable. v) Some of the detergents are non-
biodegradable.
vi) Soaps have relatively weak cleansing vi) Synthetic detergents have a strong
action. cleansing action.
Textual questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has the
formula CO2?
Ans) The distribution of electrons in carbon and oxygen is represented as:
Carbon Oxygen
K = 2 L = 4 K = 2 L = 6
Valency of carbon is 4 and that of oxygen is 2, therefore carbon atom shares its four valence
electrons with two oxygen atoms. Thus the electron dot structure of CO2 is as:
.. x x ..
c
..
..
.. x x ..

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Q.2) What would be the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulphur, which is
made up of eight atoms of sulphur? (Hint – The eight atoms of sulphur are joined together in
the form of a ring.)
Ans) Sulphur has atomic no. 16. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 6
Since sulphur atom is short of two electrons so as to complete its octet. Therefore, each sulphur
atom shares two valance electrons with two neighboring sulphur atoms and an eight membered
ring is formed.
s
s s
s s
s s s
SECTION - B
Q.1) How many structural isomers can you draw for pentane?
Ans) we can draw three structural isomers for pentane
(i) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 n- pentane
H
(ii) CH3 – CH2 – C – CH3 iso-pentane
CH3
CH3
(iii) CH3 – C – CH3 neo-pentane
CH3
Q.2) What are the two properties of carbon that lead to the huge number of carbon compounds
we see around us?
Ans) The two properties of carbon responsible for existence of huge number of carbon compounds are
(i) Catenation (ii) Small size and tetra valency of carbon.
(i) Catenation: The property of forming bonds with atoms of the same element is called
catenation (self linking property). Carbon shows maximum tendency for catenation in the periodic
table. This is because of formation of strong bonds between two adjacent carbon atoms as
compared to other atoms. It is due to this strong self linking property of carbon that organic
compounds have long chain, branched chains and ring structure of carbon atoms, which is one of
the reasons for existence of large number of organic compounds.
(ii) Tetra valency and Small size :- Due to its tetra valency, carbon atoms can form covalent
bonds with four other carbon atoms or with a large number of other atoms such as hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and others.
Carbon forms multiple (double and triple) bonds with other carbon atoms as well as with oxygen
and Nitrogen. These multiple bond are very strong as compared to single bond and the reason for
formation of these multiple bonds is the small size of carbon atom. Thus tetra valency together
with small size of carbon is the another reason for existence of large number of organic
compounds.
Q.3) What will be the formula and electron dot structure of Cyclopentane?
Ans) In cyclopentane each carbon atom shares its two valence electrons with two neighbouring
carbon atoms and two valence electrons with two hydrogen atoms.

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Formula of Cyclopentane is C5H10

Electron dot structure Cyclopentane is
H H
x
Cx
H x x x x
x x H
xC Cx
H x x H
x x
H xC x x Cx H
x x
H H
Q.4) Draw the structures for the following compounds.

i. Ethanoic acid ii. Bromopentane iii. Butanone iv. Hexanal
Ans)
O
H
H C C O H
i. Ethanoic acid ii. Bromopentane
iii. Butanone iv. Hexanal

Q.5) How would you name the following compounds?
i. ii.
1– Bromo ethane Methanal
Or
Methan-1-al or 1-Methanal
iii.
1 – Hexyne
SECTION - C
Q.1) Why is the conversion of Ethanol to Ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
Ans) The conversion of ethanol into ethanoic acid is an oxidation reaction because oxygen is added to it
during this conversion.
alkaline KMno4
(From KMnO4)
(Oxidation of ethanol takes place in presence of Potassium Permanganate KMnO4 which
acts as oxidizing agent in this reaction).
Q.2) A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of
ethyne and air is not used?

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Ans) When a mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt, it burns completely producing a blue
flame. This blue flame is extremely hot which produces a sufficiently high temperature
required to melt metals for welding. But the mixture of ethyne and air is not used for
welding purposes because burning of ethyne in air produces a sooty flame due to
incomplete combustion, which is not too hot to melt metals for welding.
SECTION - D
Q.1) How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol & a carboxylic acid?
Ans) A carboxylic acid can be distinguished from an alcohol by the following tests.
i. Sodium bicarbonate test:- Take a small amount of each compound in a test tube and
add to it an aqueous solution of NaHCO3 . The compound which produce brisk
effervescence due to evolution of CO2 must be a carboxylic acid.
ii. Alkaline Potassium Permanganate test:- Take a small amount of each compound in
a test-tube and add to it few drops of alkaline potassium permanganate solution and warm
it. The alkaline Potassium permanganate solution is pink in colour. The compound which
discharges the pink colour of alkaline potassium permanganate must be an alcohol.
Q.2) What are oxidizing agents?
Ans) Adding of oxygen is called oxidation and the substances which are capable of
adding oxygen to other substances are called as oxidizing agents, e.g. alcohols are
converted to carboxylic acids in presence of alkaline potassium permagnate or acidified
potassium dichromate. In this reaction potassium permagnate and potassium dichromate
act as oxidizing agents.
CH3 CH2 – OH+ 2[O] alkaline KMnO4 + heat CH3 COOH+ H2O
(from KMnO4)
Losing of electron is called oxidation and the substances that gains electrons in a redox
reaction are called oxidizing agent. Also oxidizing agents are the substances that gain
electrons in a redox reaction and whose oxidation number is reduced.
Oxidation (Loss of electrons)

+1
Zno + H 2SO4 Zn+2SO4 + H02
Reduction (gain of electrons)
Here H2SO4 acts as oxidizing agent
SECTION - E
Q.1) Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?
Ans) Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chains of carboxylic acids. The
charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with calcium and magnesium
ions in hard water. Thus we would not be able to check whether a sample of water is hard by using
a detergent, this is because a detergent forms lather easily even with hard water.
Q.2) People use a variety of methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding the soap, they
„beat‟ the clothes on a stone, or beat them with a paddle, scrub with a brush or the mixture is
agitated in a washing machine. Why is agitation necessary to get clean clothes?
Ans) It is necessary to shake to get clean clothes because the soap micelles, which entrap oily or
greasy particles on the surface of dirty clothes, have to be removed from their surface. When the
clothes which are wet by soap solution are beaten, the micelles containing oil or greasy dirt
particles get removed from the surface of dirty clothes and go into water and the dirty cloth gets
cleaned.
SECTION - F
Q.1) Ethane, with the molecular formula, C2 H6 has
(a) 6 covalent bonds (b) 7 covalent bonds (c ) 8 covalent bonds (d) 9 covalent bonds
Ans) (b) 7 covalent bonds.

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Q.2) Butanone is a four carbon compound with functional group (a) carboxylic acid
(b) aldehyde (c ) Ketone (d) alcohol
Ans) (c ) Ketone
Q.3) While cooking, if the bottom of vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means
that (a) The fuel is not burning completely. (b) The food is not cooked completely
(c ) The fuel is wet (d) The fuel is burning completely.
Ans) (a ) The fuel is not burning completely.
Q.4) Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation of CH 3Cl.
Ans) The atomic numbers and the electronic configuration of C,H and Cl are given below.
Element Symbol At. No. Electronic Configuration
K L M
Carbon C 6 2 4
Hydrogen H 1 1
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
CH3Cl(methyl chloride) is made up of one carbon atom, three hydrogen atoms and one chlorine atom.
Carbon atom has 4 valence electrons, each hydrogen atom has one valence electron, and chlorine atom has
7 valence electrons. Carbon atom shares its four valence electrons with three hydrogen and one chlorine
atoms to form methyl chloride as follows:
Hx
x
3H + x C x + Cl Hx Cx x Cl
x
H
From the above, in the dot structure of methyl chloride (CH3Cl) there are four pairs of shared electrons
between carbon and other atoms. Each pair of shared electrons constitutes one single covalent bond. So,
methyl chloride has four single covalent bonds.
H
H – C – Cl
H
Q.5) Draw the electron dot structures for
i. Ethanoic acid ii. H2S iii. Propanone iv. F2
Ans)
H O
x xx xx
H x C x x C x O xH
x
Hx S x H
xx
H
i Ethanoic acid ii. H2S
H O H 
x F    
xx x

F
 
H. xxCx x x C x xCx x H
H H
iii. Propanone iv. F2
Q.6) Define Homologous series. Explain with an example. Give its characteristics.
Ans. A Homologous series may be defined as a family of organic compounds having similar
functional group and same chemical properties. Homologous series of alkanes is given
below:

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Alkane Molecular formula
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4 H10
Pentane C5 H12
Hexane C6 H14
Characteristics of homologous series.
i) All the members of Homologous series can be represented by a general formula e.g.
alkanes by Cn H2n +2.
ii) Any two adjacent members of a homologous series differ from each other by one
methylene (CH2) group, by a mass number of 14 units.
iii) All the members of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.
iv) All the members of a homologous series have the same functional group.
v) The members of a homologous series show a gradation in physical properties.
Q.7) How can ethanol and Ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and
chemical properties?
Ans) (i) Ethanol has a pleasant smell whereas ethanoic acid has the smell of vinegar.
(ii) Ethanol has a burning taste whereas ethanoic acid has a sour taste.
(iii) Ethanol has no action on litmus paper whereas ethanoic acid turns blue litmus paper red.
(iv) Ethanol has no reaction with sodium hydrogencarbonate but Ethanoic acid gives brisk
effervescence with sodium hydrogencarbonate.
(v) Alkaline potassium permagnate loses its colour in ethanol while as it retains its colour in
ethanoic acid.
Q.8) Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle be
formed in other solvents such as ethanol also?
Ans) The soap consists of two parts (i) the organic tail or non polar part which is soluble in oil and
greese and is insoluble in water. (ii) The polar part which is soluble in water and is insoluble in
oil.When soap is added to water, the ionic part of it dissolves in water while as non-polar part
remains insoluble in water. Because of mutual repulsion of the ionic part of the soap molecules
they achieve a unique orientation by forming a cluster of molecules. This cluster of molecules is
called micelle. In this organic tail remains in the interior of the cluster and ionic ends are on the
surface of the cluster. The organic tail faces the grease/oil while polar or ionic part face water
molecules.
Since soap is soluble in ethanol, therefore micelle formation does not occur.
Q.9) Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
Ans) Carbon and its compounds are used as fuels for most of the applications because they burn in air
releasing a lot of heat energy.
Q.10) Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
Ans) The hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. When water is treated with soap, the
calcium and magnesium ions of water combine with soap molecules to form curdy white
precipitate. This precipitate formed by the action of soap with hard water is called scum.
Q.11) What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?
Ans) Soap is the salt of a strong base (NaOH) and a weak acid (carboxylic acid), so a solution of soap in
water is basic in nature. Being basic, a soap solution turns red litmus paper blue.
Q.12) What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Ans) Hydrogenation is a process in which unsaturated hydrocarbons are converted into saturated
hydrocarbons by the addition of hydrogen in presence of a catalyst.
The process has a great industrial applications as it is used to convert vegetable oils to vanaspati
ghee.
Vegetable oil + H2 catalyst vanaspati ghee
Q.13) Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:
C2H5, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4

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Ans) Alkenes and alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons) undergo addition reactions. From the above
hydrocarbons C2H2 is an alkyne, whereas C3H6 is an alkene. So, C3H6 and C2H2 will undergo
addition reactions.
Q.14) Give a test that can be used to differentiate chemically between butter and cooking oil.
Ans) Butter contains saturated compounds while as cooking oil contains unsaturated compounds.
Since bromine water is decolourized by the addition of unsaturated compounds. Thus bromine
water test can be used to differentiate chemically between butter and cooking oil. Add bromine
water to a little of cooking oil and butter taken in separate test tubes.
(a) Decolourising of bromine water by cooking oil shows it is a unsaturated compound.
(b) Butter does not decolourise bromine water shows it is saturated compounds.
Q.15) Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps.
Ans) We all know that soap is used to remove dirt and grime from substances. Generally dirt and
grime get stuck because they have an oily component, which is difficult to remove by plain
brushing or washing by water. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids. e.g.
sodium palmitate, C15 H31 COO Na+ .
A soap molecule consist of two parts:-
i) Hydrophobic Part, which consist of a non-polar long chain of hydrocarbons (C15H31),
which is soluble in oil or grease and insoluble in water.
ii) Hydrophilic Part (water loving) which is ionic or polar part (-COO Na+), which is
soluble in water.
A soap molecule has a tadpole like structure shown below.
Non polar tail polar head

– +
M
When soap is added to water in which dirty clothes are soaked, the two parts of the soap molecule
dissolve in two different media. The non-polar tail dissolves in the dirt, grime or grease and the
polar head dissolves in water.
The soap molecules actually form a closed structure because of mutual repulsion of the positively
charged heads. This structure is called a micelle. The micelle pulls out the dirt and grime more
efficiently. Thus, soap helps in removing greasy dirt by producing a stable oil in water type
emulsion.
- -
Na+ Na+
- -
Na+ Na+
Soap
molecule - Na+
-
Na+ Water
-
Na+ -
Na+
Dirt -
Particle Na+ Na+ -
- Na+ Na+
-

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Lesson No. 4 Metals and Non Metals

Q.1 What are Metalloids?
Ans. Metalloids:- The elements that show the properties of both metals and nonmetals e.g.
Arsenic, Antimony, Silicon, Germanium, Tellurium etc.
Q.2 State some uses of metals:-
Ans. Metals are used for a large number of purposes. Some of the uses of metals are given
below-
i) Copper and aluminium metals are used to make wires to carry electric current.
ii) Iron, Copper and Aluminium metals are used to make house-hold utensils and factory
equipments.
iii) Iron is used as a catalyst in the preparation of ammonia gas by Haber‘s process.
iv) Zinc is used for galvanizing iron to protect it from rusting.
v) Chromium and nicked metals are used for electroplating and in the manufacture of
stainless steel.
vi) The aluminium foils are used in packaging the medicines, cigarettes and food materials.
vii) silver and gold are used to make jewelery.
viii) The liquid metal, mercury is used in thermometers.
ix) Zirconium metal is used in making bullet proof alloy steels.
Q.3 State some important uses of non-metals.
Ans. The important uses of non-metals are summarized as follows.
i) Hydrogen is used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils to make vegetable ghee (or
venaspati ghee.) Hydrogen is also used in the manufacture of ammonia which in turn is
used for the manufacture of fertilizers.
ii) Carbon is one of the most important non-metal because life is based up on it. For example
carbohydrates, proteins, oils and fats, vitamins, enzymes etc. which are all made up of carbon
compounds are the basic units of life supporting substance. Carbon in form of graphite, is also
used as electrodes in electrolytic cells and dry cells.
iii) Oxygen gas in air imparts its use in different life processes and combustion processes.
iv) Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia, nitric acid and fertilizers. Some of the
compounds of nitrogen, such as trinitrotoluene (TNT), nitroglycerine etc. are used as
explosives.
v) Sulphur is present in many of the substances found in plants and animals. It is present in
proteins, hair, Onion, garlic, wool etc. it is used in as a fungicide and in making gunpowder.
Q.4 What is the cause of chemical combination? “OR” Why do metals and non-metals react?
Ans. Two theories or concepts are used to explain the cause of chemical combination these are:-
i. Electronic theory or octet rule :- Tendency of the atoms to acquire the stable nearest noble
gas electronic configuration. This theory was given by Kossel and Lewis. The noble gases
have eight electrons (octet) in their valence shells except helium which has two electrons
(duplet) and are chemically less reactive. This configuration was regarded as extra stable
electronic configuration. The atoms of all other elements have less than eight electrons in their
valence shells and are reactive in nature. The atoms of these elements combine with each other
with the redistribution of electrons in the valence shells so that they acquire the stable nearest
noble gas configuration (duplet or octet).
ii. Tendency to acquire a state of minimum energy (modern concept):-According to modern
concept, the atoms of various elements combine with each other only if the chemical combination
leads to the decrease in the energy of the system. If on chemical combination the energy of the system
increases, no bond is said to be formed between them.

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Q.5 What are the different modes of chemical combination? OR How do atoms combine?
Ans. To acquire stability, all atoms tend to complete their octets (i.e. outer most shell with eight
electrons) or duplet (i.e. outer most shell with two electrons, if K-shell is the outer most shell)
in order to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration.
To acquire the nearest noble gas configuration. the atoms combine, by any one of the
following methods.
(i) By transfer of electrons:- By transfer of one or more electrons from valance shell of one
atom to the other forming an electrovalent (or ionic) bond.
(ii) By mutual sharing of electron :- By mutual sharing of one, two or three pairs of electrons
between two atoms forming covalent bond.
(iii) By one sideds sharing of electron:- By sharing one electron pair in which the shared
electron pair is contributed by only one of the combining atoms resulting in the formation of a
co-ordinate or dative bond.
Q.6 What is electron dot structure? Give electron dot structure of some elements.
Ans. In the formation of a chemical bond between two atoms, only the electrons of outer most shell
are involved. The electrons present in the outer most shell are called valence electrons.
G.N. Lewis introduced a simple method of representing the valence electrons by dots or small
crosses around the symbol of the atom. These symbols are known as electron dot symbols or
Lewis symbols. A few examples of given below:
Element symbol At. No. Valence electrons Lewis symbol
Hydrogen H 1 1 H or H
Helium He 2 2 He or He
Lithium Li 3 1 Li or Li
Beryllium Be 4 2 Be or Be
Boron B 5 3 B or B
Carbon C 6 4 C or C
Nitrogen N 7 5 N or N
Oxygen O 8 6 O or O
Flourine F 9 7 F or F
Neon Ne 10 8 Ne or Ne
Q.7 What is ionic or electrovalent bond?

Ans. It is the chemical bond formed between the two atoms by the transfer of one or more
electrons from the valence shell of one atom to the other atom. This bond is formed
between metal atoms and non-metal atoms. One of the combining atoms (metal atom)
loses one or more electrons and becomes cation. The other atom (non-metallic atom) gains
one or more electrons and becomes an anion. The cation and anion attract each other and
are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. This electrostatic force of
attraction that binds cations and anions together is known as ionic bond or electrovalent
bond. The compounds formed as a result of ionic bond or electrovalent bond are called
ionic or electrovalent compounds e.g. NaCl, MgCl2 KCl etc. To illustrate the formation of
ionic compounds, a few examples are given below:-
(i) Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl).
Atomic member of sodium, Na = 11 its electronic configuration, = 2, 8, 1
Atomic number of chlorine, Cl = 17 its electronic configuration = 2, 8, 7.

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During the formation of sodium chloride, one electron is transferred from valence shell of
sodium to valence shell of chlorine atom. The transfer of electron from sodium to chlorine
may be represented as follows:-
Na Na+ + e-
Cl2 2Cl
-
Cl + e Cl-
+ -
Na + Cl Na+ Cl- or NaCl
This can be represented by writing complete structure of the atoms involved in the bond
formation as under
Na + Cl Na Cl
Sodium Atom (Na) Chlorine Atom (Cl) Sodium Chloride (NaCl) (Molecule)
(ii) Formation of potassium chloride (KCl)

Atomic number of potassium, K=19 electronic configuration of K= 2, 8, 8, 1. it loses the
valance electron to form K+ ion and attains the nearest noble gas configuration as that of
argon (2, 8, 8).
Atomic number of chlorine =17 electronic configuration of Cl = 2, 8. 7 it gains one
electron in valence shell to form Cl- and attains nearest noble gas configuration of argon
thus, formation of KCl, by transfer of electron from K to Cl may be represented as
follows:-
K + Cl K+ Cl- or KCl
Potassium atom chlorine atom Potassium Chloride
(iii) Formation of magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
Atomic number of magnesium (Mg) =12 its electronic configuration = 2,8,2. it loses two
electrons from the valence shell to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration. of neon
(2,8) and form Mg2+ ion. Atomic no of Chlorine (Cl) = 17. it needs only one electron in
the valence shell to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration of argon (2,8,8) and form
chloride ion (Cl-) therefore, the transference of two electrons from one magnesium to two
chlorine atoms takes place this can be represented as follows:-
Cl [ Cl- ]
Mg + Mg2+ or MgCl2
Cl [ Cl- ] (Magnesium Chloride)

Magnesium Chlorine
Atom Atoms
(iv) Formation of Magnesium oxide (MgO):-

Atomic number of magnesium (Mg) = 12 its electronic configuration = 2, 8, 2.
It loses two electrons to acquire stable configuration of neon (2,8) and form Mg2+ ion.
Atomic No. of oxygen (O) = 8 Its electronic configuration = 2, 6 . it gains two electrons in
the valence shell to acquire the stable configuration of neon (2,8) and form O2- ion. Thus,

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in the formation of magnesium oxide, two electrons are transferred from magnesium atom
to oxygen atom as represented below:-
xx
Mg: + O x
xx x
Mg2+ O2- or MgO
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide.

atom atom
Q.8 Give some important properties of ionic compounds.

Ans. Some of the important properties of ionic compounds are as follows:-
(i) Physical state:- Most of the ionic compounds are crystalline solids. They are relatively
hard because of strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged
ions. They are britle and break into pieces on applying force.
(ii) Solubility:- They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents such as alcohol,
petrol, kerosene oil etc.
(iii) Melting points and boiling points:- They have high melting and boiling points.
(iv) Ionic compounds impart characteristic colours to the flame:- Most of the ionic salts
when brought into the flame, impart characteristic colours to the flame. e.g. sodium
chloride imparts golden yellow colour, potassium salts impart violet colour and barium
salts impart green colour to the flame.
(v) Electrical conductivity:- Upon dissolving in water ionic compounds dissociate into free
ions. As these ions can conduct electricity Therefore ionic compounds conduct electricity
in the aqueous solution.
Q.9 How do metals occur in nature?

Ans. Metals are found to occur in the nature either in free state (also called native state) i.e. free
elements or in the combined state i.e. in the form of their compounds. This is because of
the fact that different metals possess different chemical reactivities.
(i) Free or Native State:- The metals at the bottom of the activity series are least reactive
therefore, these are not attacked by moisture, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air. Thus
they occur in the native state. e.g. Gold and Platinum.
(ii) Combined state:- The metals at the top of the activity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg etc.) are
highly reactive. Therefore, these are easily attacked by moisture, oxygen and carbon
dioxide of the air. They occur in the combined state in the form of their compounds called
minerals.
The metals in the middle of the activity series (Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, etc.) are found in the earth‘s
crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
Q.10 Where from the metals are obtained in nature? Give their relative abundance in
nature?
Ans. The major source of metals (whether in free state or combined state) is the earth‘s crust.
Some metals (Na, K etc) which form soluble salts (like NaCl, MgCl2) are also found to
occur in the sea water in the form of their soluble salts.
The most abundant metal on the earth‘s crust is aluminum (about 7%) followed by iron
(about 4%)calcium (3%) sodium (2.7%) potassium (2.5%) magnesium (2%) and titanium
(about 0.6%). The remaining metals are present on the earth‘s crust in very small amounts.

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Q.11 What is Activity Series?
Ans. The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in order of their decreasing reactivity with
respect to each other is called activity series of metals. In activity series, the most active
metal is placed at the top, where as the least reactive metal is placed at the bottom.
K Most
Decreasing order Na reactive metals
of reactivity Ca
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe Moderate reactive
Pb Metals
[H]
Cu
Hg
Ag Least reactive
Au metals
Pt
Q.12 What are the objectives/ advantages/ merits of alloy making?
Ans. Alloys are prepared to develop certain specific properties which are not possessed by
constituent elements. The main objectives of alloy making are:-
(i) To increase hardness. when carbon is added to iron, its hardness increases. This
hardened iron is called steel.
(ii) To increase tensile strength. Chrome steel prepared by mixing iron and chromium has
high tensile strength.
(iii) To increase resistance to corrosion. Stain less steel which is an alloy of iron, chromium
and nickel resist corrosion.
(iv) To lower melting point Solder an alloy of tin and lead has a lower melting point than
either of its constituents. It is therefore, used for joining electrical wires together.
(v) To modify chemical reactivity. Sodium is highly reactive metal. Its reactivity can be
reduced by making its alloy with mercury i.e. amalgam.
(vi) To reduce electrical conductivity. Conductivity of copper decreases when it is alloyed
with other metals.
(vii) To modify colour. Aluminium is silvery white while copper is brown but aluminium
bronze, an alloy of aluminium and copper has beautiful yellow colour and is used for
making coins, picture frames and cheap jewelry.
Q.13 Difference between metals and non-metals on the basis of their physical properties.
Ans. The main features that distinguish metals from non-metals are given below:
Metals Non –metals

(i) Metals are generally solid in nature at (i) Non- metals exist in all the three states
room temp. (except Hg which is a liquid) i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous state.
(ii) Metals possess bright luster. (ii) Non-metals have dull appearance.
(iii) Metals have high density (except Na (iii) Non –metals have low densities (except
and K which are lighter than H2O) diamond which has a high density.)
(iv) Metals are usually malleable (except (iv) Non-metals are non-malleable.
zinc and Hg)

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(v) Metals are usually ductile (except Zn (v) Non-metals are not ductile.
and Hg)
(vi) Metals are hard and have high tensile (vi) Non-metals are soft in nature (except
strength diamond which is hardest substance known)
(vii) Metals are hard but not brittle (vii) Non-metals are brittle in nature
(viii) Metals are good conductors of heat (viii) Non metals are non-conductors of heat
and electricity and electricity except carbon (graphite).
(ix) Generally metals have high melting and (ix) Non-metals have low melting and
boiling points boiling points (except carbon, boron and
silicon).
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) Give an example of a metal which
a. is a liquid at room temp?
b. can be easily cut with a knife.
c. is the best conductor of heat.
d. is the poorest conductor of heat.
Ans. a. Metal which is liquid at room temp. is mercury .
b. Metals such as Lithium, Sodium, Potassium etc can be cut with a knife.
c. Silver is the best conductor of heat.
d. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat.
Q.2) Explain the meaning of malleable and ductile.
Ans. Malleability: The property which allows the metals to be hammered into thin sheets is
called malleability. Malleability is an important characteristic property of metals. Most of
the metals are malleable. Gold and silver are the most malleable metals
Ductility:- The property which allows the metals to be drawn into thin wires is called
ductility. Ductility is another characteristic property of metals. Most of the metals are
ductile. Gold and silver are the most ductile metals. Gold is so ductile that 1 gram of gold
can be drawn in to a wire of about 2 kilo meter length.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil?
Ans. Sodium is a very reactive metal. It reacts with oxygen of the air to form sodium oxide.
Sodium reacts with moisture present in air to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. The
hydrogen thus produced catches fire & results in explosive type of reaction.
4 Na + O2 2Na2O
2Na + 2H2O 2Na OH + H2
Therefore, to protect the metal and also to prevent accidental fires sodium is kept
immersed in kerosene oil.
Q.2) Write equations for the reactions of:-
a. Iron with steam.
b. Calcium and potassium with water.
Ans. (a) Iron reacts with steam to form Iron oxide and hydrogen gas
3Fe(S) + 4 H2O(g) Fe3O4 (S) + 4H2(g)
(iron) (steam) ( iron oxide)
(b) (i) Potassium reacts violently with cold water producing potassium hydroxide and

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hydrogen gas.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + Heat
(ii) Calcium reacts with cold water producing calcium hydroxide and hydrogen
Ca(s) + 2H 2O(l) Ca (OH)2(aq) + H2(g) + Heat

Calcium hydroxide
How ever the reaction of calcium with cold water is less reactive as compared with that of
potassium.
Q.3) Question in tabulated form available on book :
Ans. (a) A can displace Cu, B can displace Fe, C can displace Ag. As order of reactivity of Cu,
Fe and Ag is Fe > Cu> Ag. Hence B is the most reactive metal.
(b) As B is more reactive than copper, it will displace copper from Cu (II) sulphate
solution. Hence blue colour of Cu SO4 will fade.
(c) B can displace Fe, A can displace Cu, C can displace Ag and D can displace none.
Hence order of decreasing reactivity will be B>A>C>D.
Q.4) Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal?
Write the chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.
Ans. When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to reactive metals like Zn, H2 gas is produced.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(dilute) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produce hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + H2 SO4 (dilute) Fe SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron Sulphuric acid Ferrous sulphate Hydrogen
Q.5) What would you observe when Zinc is added to a solution of Iron (II) sulphate?
Write the chemical equation that takes place.
Ans. From the activity series, it is evident that Zinc is more reactive than iron. Therefore, when
Zinc is added to Fe SO4, iron gets displaced by Zinc as shown.
Zn(s) + FeSO4 (aq) Zn SO4(aq) + Fe (s)
zinc Ferrous sulphate Zinc Sulphate Iron
SECTION - C
Q.1) (a) Write the electron dot structures of sodium, oxygen and magnesium.
Ans. The electronic configuration of Na is:- K L M
2 8 1

Electron dot structure of sodium is Na
The electric configuration of oxygen is. K L
2 6
 Electron dot structure of oxygen is  O

Electronic Configuration of Magnesium is K L M

2 8 2
Electron dot structure of Mg is. Mg
(b) Show the formation of Na2O and MgO by transfer of electrons.
Formation of Na2 O.
Na xx Na+ xx + 2- xx
+ xO
x xxxx
[  O
xxx ] Or [Na+]2 [ xO
x x ] 2- or Na2O
xx x xx x
Na x Na+
x xx xx xx xx xx
2Na 2 Na+ + 2e-
O2 2(O)
O + 2e- O2-
2Na+ + O2- Na2O

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Formation of MgO
xx xx
2+  x 2-
Mg : + xx O Mg [
xxO
 x x]
x xxxx xx xx
x xx xxx
Mg Mg 2+ + 2e-
O2 2(O)
O + 2e- O2-
Mg2+ + O2- Mg O
(c) What are the ions present in these compounds.
Ans. (i) In Na2O, ions present are sodium Cation (Na+) and oxide anion (O2-)
(ii) In MgO, ions present are magnesium cation (Mg2+) and oxide anion (O2-)
Q.2) Why do ionic compounds have high melting point?
Ans. The compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another are known
as ionic compounds. These compounds are composed of cations and anions. These
constituents ( cations and anions) of ionic compounds are held together by very strong
electrostatic forces of attraction. To break down these forces, a large amount of energy is
needed. As a result, the melting points of ionic compounds are quite high.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Write note on :-
i. Mineral:- The elementary state or the compounds in the form of which the metals occur
in nature are called minerals. Minerals are the compounds of metals which occur in nature.
ii. Ore:- The mineral from which the metal can be extracted conveniently and economically
is called ore. All minerals are not ores but all ores are minerals.
iii. Gangue:- When the minerals are mined from the earth‘s crust, they are always
contaminated with earthy, sandy and rocky impurities. These earthy, sandy and rocky
impurities associated with the mineral are called gangue or matrix.
The ores of some common metals are given below:-

Metal Name of ore Name of compound present Formula of the
in the ore ore
Sodium (Na) Rock Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl
Calcium (Ca) Dolomite Calcium Magnesium CaCO3 MgCO3
carbonate
Aluminium(Al) Bauxite Aluminium Oxide Al2O3 2H2O
Copper (Cu) i. Cuprite Copper (i) Oxide Cu2O
ii. Copper glance Copper (i) sulphide Cu2S
iii. Copper Pyrite Copper Iron sulphide Cu Fe S2
Iron (Fe) i. Iron Pyrite Iron sulphide Fe S2
ii. Hamatite Iron (iii) oxide Fe2 O3
Zinc (Zn) i. Zinc Blend Zinc Sulphide ZnS
ii. Calamine Zinc Carbonte ZnCO3
Mercury (Hg) Cinabar Mercury (ii) Sulphide HgS
Silver (Ag) Argentite Silver sulphide Ag2S
Lead (Pb) Galena Lead Sulphide PbS
Q.2) Name two metals which are found in nature in the free state.
Ans. The two metals which are found in nature in the free state are (i) Gold (ii) Platinum.

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Q.3) What chemical process is used for obtaining a metal from its oxide?
Ans. Metal are obtained from its oxides by reduction . The reduction of metal oxide is carried
by ,Smelting or by heating with highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium,
aluminium
(i) Smelting: In this method metal is obtained from its oxide by reduction using carbon
(coke) as reducing agent. This reduction is done by heating metal oxides with carbon
(coke)
Fe2 O3(s) + 3C(s) 2 Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)
(ii) By heating with highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium : In
this method metal is obtained from its oxide by reduction using highly reactive metals
such as sodium, calcium, aluminium as as reducing agent. This reduction is done by
strongly heating metal oxides with highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium,
aluminium. The reduction of metals oxides to metal using aluminium as reducing agent is
called as aluminothermy.
3 MnO2 + 4 Al 2Al2O3 +3 Mn + heat
SECTION - E
Q.1) Metallic oxides of Zinc, Magnesium and copper were heated with the following
metals. (i) Zinc (ii) Magnesium and (iii) Copper
Ans. The position of the above given metals in the activity series is as follows:-
K> Na > Mg > Ca> Al> Zn > Fe > Cu > Ag > Au > Pt.
It is evident from the activity series that magnesium is more reactive than zinc followed by
copper. Therefore, magnesium can displace both zinc and copper from their respective
oxides as follows
Mg(s) + ZnO(s) MgO(s) + Zn(s)
Mg(s) + CuO(s) MgO(s) +Cu(s)
Zinc is more reactive than copper therefore can displace copper from copper oxide but
is less reactive than magnesium therefore can not displace magnesium from magnesium
oxide
Zn(s) + CuO(s) ZnO(s) + Cu(s)
Zn(s) + MgO(s) No reaction
Copper being least reactive among the given series of metals can neither displace
magnesium nor zinc from their respective oxides.
Cu(s) + MgO(s) No reaction
Cu(s) + ZnO(s) No reaction
Q.2) Which metals do not corrode?

Ans. Metals such as Au, Ag and Pt which lie low in the activity series are highly un reactive.
Therefore they are not attacked by atmospheric gases and moisture and hence do not
corrode.
Q.3) What are alloys? How alloys are prepared? Discuss various types of alloys with
suitable examples.
Ans. An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal e.g.
brass, bronze, alnico etc.
An alloy is usually prepared by first melting the main metal and then dissolving the other
elements (metal or non-metal) in it in definite proportions. It is then cooled to room
temperature.
Alloys have been divided in to following three types:-

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(i) Ferrous Alloys:- An alloy in which iron is present as one of the constituents is called as
ferrous alloy. e.g. manganese steel (Fe = 86 %, Mn = 13% C= 1%) and nickel steel (iron =
96 – 98% Ni = 4- 2 % )
(ii) Non- Ferrous alloys:- An alloy which does not contain iron as a one of the constituents is
called non-ferrous alloy. e.g.
Brass (Cu = 80% Zn = 20 % )
Bronze ( Cu = 90% Sn = 10%)
(iii) Amalgam:- An alloy containing mercury as one of the constituent metals is known as
amalgam e.g. sodium amalgam, zinc amalgam etc.
SECTION - F
Q.1) Which of the following pair will give displacement reaction ?

(a) NaCl Solution and copper metal (b) FeSO4 solution and silver metal
(c) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal (d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal.
Ans) (d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal.
Q.2) Which of the following methods is suitable for preventing an iron frying pan from
rusting? (a) applying grease (b) applying paint (c) applying a coating of zinc
(d) all of the above
Ans) (c) applying a coating of zinc.
Q.3) An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound with high melting point. The
compound is also soluble in water. The element is likely to be
(a) Calcium (b) Carbon (c) Silicon (d) Iron
Ans) (a) Calcium. Calcium forms calcium oxide with oxygen, which has very high melting
point as compared to the oxides of Carbon, Silicon and Iron. Calcium oxide is also soluble
in water.
Q.4) Food cans are coated with tin and not zinc because
(a) Zinc is costlier than tin (b) Zinc has a higher melting point than tin
(c) Zinc is more reactive than tin (d) Zinc is less reactive than tin.
An) (c) Zinc is more reactive than tin
Q.5) You are given a hammer, a battery, a bulb, wires and a switch. (a) How would you
use them to distinguish between samples of metals and non-metals.
(b) Assess the usefulness of these tests in distinguishing between metals and non-
metals.
Ans) (a) (i) Using a hammer :- If by hammering the sample breaks, this means that it is brittle
and hence it is non-metal on the other hand, if the sample flattens to form a sheet, this
means that the sample is malleable and hence is a metal.
(ii) Set up the battery, bulb, wire and the switch as shown below. Place the sample in
between clips A and B and put the switch ‗on‘. If the bulb glows, the sample is a good
conductor of electricity and hence, it is a metal. If on the other hand, the bulb does not

th
glow, the sample is a bad conductor of electricity and hence, it is to be a non metal.
Bulb
Wire
Chip
Switch
Battery
B Clip
A
Clip
Testing electrical Conductivity by metals
(b) Because of malleability of iron and many other metals, we can cast them into sheet
which can be used for various purposes. For example, Iron sheets are used for roofing, and
for making trunks, boxes etc for storing articles of daily use.
Metals are good conductors of electricity. It is because of this property that metal wires
made up of copper and alumininum are used for carrying electricity.
Q.6) What are amphoteric oxides? Give examples of two amphoferic oxides.
Ans. Oxides which react with both acids and bases to form salts and water are called
amphoteric oxides. The well known examples of amphoteric oxides are Zinc oxide (ZnO)
and aluminium oxide (Al2 O3). They react with acids and bases as shown below:-
ZnO(s) + 2HCl (aq) Zn Cl2(aq) + H2O(l)
(Acid)
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH Na2 ZnO2 (aq) + H2O(l)

(Base) Sodium zincate
Al2 O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2Al Cl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

(Acid)
Al2 O3(s) + 2NaOH 2Na AlO2 (aq) + H2O(l)
(Basic) Sodium Aluminate
Q.7) Name two metal which will displace hydrogen from dilute acids and two metals
which will not.
Ans) Metals which will displace hydrogen from dilute acids are Mg, Al, Zn
Metals such as Cu, Hg, Ag and Au will not displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
Q.8) In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, What would you take as the anode, Cathode
and electrolyte.
Ans) (i) Rod of impure metal (M) as anode.
(ii)Thin rod of pure metal (M) as cathode
(iii)water soluble salt of Metal (M) as electrolyte.

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Q.9) Pratyush took sulphur powder on a spatula and heated it. He collected the gas
evolved by inverting a test-tube over it
(a) What will be the action of gas on (i) dry litimus paper (ii) moist litimus paper
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place.
Ans) When sulphur is burnt, it produces sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas.
(a) (i) SO2 has no action on dry litimus paper (ii) SO2 turns moist blue litimus paper red.
This is because SO2 disolves in moisture (water) present in moist litimus paper to form
sulphurous acid (H2 SO3) which turns blue litimus red.
SO2(g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)
Sulphur dioxide Water Sulphurous acid
(b) The balanced equation for the reaction taking place when sulphur is heated.
S + O2 SO2
Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur dioxide
Q.10) Suggest two ways to prevent the rusting of iron.
Ans) Two way to prevent the rusting of iron are as under.
(i) Painting :- The mot common method for preventing the rusting of iron objects is to
coat their surface with a paint. By doing so, air and moisture are not allowed to come in
contact with the surface of iron objects and hence rusting does not take place.
(ii) Greasing and oiling:- When a thin film of grease or oil is applied on the surface of an
iron object, the moisture and air can‘t come in contact with it and hence rusting is
prevented.
(iii) Galvanization :- is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron to
prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip galvanization and electro
galvanization. The process aims and produce corrosion resistant, multi-layered coating of
zinc –iron alloy and zinc metal.
Q.11) What type of oxide are formed when non-metals combine with oxygen.
An) Non-metals form acidic oxides when they combine with oxygen e.g CO2, NO2
Q.12) Give reasons (a) platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery.
(b) Sodium, potassium and lithium are stored under oil (c) Aluminium is a highly
reactive metal, still it is used to make utensils for cooking.
(d) carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the process
of extraction.
Ans) (a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to make Jewellery because of properties like
resistance to corrosion, high malleability and their ductility.
(b) Lithium Sodium and Potassium are readily attacked by oxygen present in air to form
their respective oxides. They also react with moisture present in air producing H2 gas
which some time catches fire and cause accident. So in order to protect these metals from
reacting with O2 and moisture and to prevent accidental fires, lithium, sodium and
potassium are stored under oil.
(c) Aluminium is a strong and cheap metal. It is also a good conductor of heat. But it is
highly reactive. When it is exposed to moist air, its surface is covered with a thin
impervious (non-penetrable) layer of aluminium oxide (Al2 O3). This layer does not allow
moist air to come in contact with fresh metal and hence protects the metal underneath
from further damage or corrosion. Thus, after the formation of this protective layer of
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), aluminium becomes resistant to corrosion. It is because of this
reason that although aluminium is a highly reactive metal, it is still used to make utensils
for cooking.
(d) Direct reduction of carbonates and sulphides to obtain metals is not possible. However,
It is much easier to obtain metals by reduction of their oxides. Therefore, prior to
reduction, carbonates and sulphides are converted into their oxides by the process of
calcinations and roasting respectively.

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Q.13) You must have seen the tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or
tamarind juice. Explain why these sour substances are effective in cleaning the
vessels.
An) Copper gets tarnished due to formation of copper oxide layer on its surface. Copper oxide
is formed as result of reaction of copper with atmospheric oxygen.Copper oxide is basic in
nature. The lemon or tamarind juice is acidic in nature. When tarnished copper vessels are
cleaned with lemon or tamarind juice. The basic copper oxide reacts with acid present in
lemon to form salt which gets washed away with water.
Q.14) Differentiate between metals and non-metals on the basis of their chemical
properties.
Ans) Some important points of differences between metals and non-metals on the basis of their
chemical properties are as under:
Metals Non-metals
i) Metals form basic oxide eg i) Non-metals form acidic oxide or neutral
Na2O, MgO oxides.
ii) Metals have a strong tendency ii)Non-Metals have a strong tendency to gain
to lose electrons and hence they electrons and hence they behave as oxidizing
behave as reducing agents Na Na + e agents. Cl + e-
+ -
Cl-
iii) Metals are electro positive elements iii) Non-metals are electronegative elements
and hence lose one or more electrons and hence gain one or more electrons to form
to form positive ions. Negative ions
iv) Metals which lie above hydrogen iv) Non metals do not react with dilute acid
in the activity series displace hydrogen and hence do not displace hydrogen from
from the dilute acids, for example dilute acids.
Zn + dil. H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Q.15) A man went door to door posing to be a goldsmith . He promised to bring back the
glitter of old and dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a et of gold bangles
to him which he dipped in a particular solution. The bangle sparkled like new but
their weight was reduced drastically. The lady was upset but after a futile argument,
the man beat a hasty retreat you play the detective to find out the nature of the
solution he had used?
Ans) The solution used by man who claimed to be goldsmith was aqua regia or royal water.
Aqua regia is a freshly prepared solution of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid
in the ration of 3:1 by volume. Gold dissolves in aqua regia. So when the man dipped the
bangles in aqua regia it dissolves its upper layer and bangles sparked like new but at the
same time as some of the gold was dissolved in solution so its weight was reduced.
Q.16 Give reasons why copper is used to make hot water tanks but steel (alloy of iron), is
not.
An) Copper is much better conductor of heat than steel so in order to save heat losses, hot
water tanks are made up of copper rather than steel.
BOSE Questions
Q.1) What are metals? Give physical and chemical properties of metals.
Metals:- Metals are defined as those elements which form positive ions (cations) by
losing one or more electrons i.e. they are electropositive elements. They have 1,2, or 3
electrons in their valence shell.
Physical Properties of metals:-
i) Metals in the pure state possess lustre i.e. shining surface.
ii) Metals are generally hard. The hardness varies from metal to metal e.g. Iron, Copper,
Aluminium, Lead are hard metals. They can‘t be cut with a knife. However, Lithium,
Sodium and Potassium are soft metals. They can be cut even with a knife.

248 Science 10th /2016-17 Sir Ishfaq
iii) Metals are malleable i.e. they can be beaten into thin sheets .e.g. Iron, Copper, Aluminium
etc.
iv) Metals are ductile in nature i.e. they can be drawn into wires. e.g. 1gram of gold can be
drawn into a wire of about 2km length.
v) Metals are good conductors of heat and possess high melting point. Silver is the best
conductor of heat and copper is the second best followed by aluminium. Whereas, lead is
the poorest conductor of heat.
vi) Metals are good conductors of electricity. Silver is the best conductor of electricity where
as mercury is very poor conductor of electricity.
vii) Metals are sonorous i.e. they produce sound on striking hard surfaces.
viii) Metals generally have high density. Exception is Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium which
have low densities.
ix) Metals have high tensile strength i.e. they possess load bearing capacity.
x) All metals are solids except mercury which is a liquid.
Chemical properties of Metals:-
Some of the chemical properties of metals are summarized as follows:-
(i). Reaction of metals with oxygen:-
Metals react with oxygen to form their respective oxides. However, the vigour of
reactivity varies from metal to metal, e.g.
a. Sodium reacts with oxygen at room temp.
4Na + O2 2Na2O
b. Magnesium reacts with oxygen on heating.
Heat
2Mg + O2 2MgO
c. Zn reacts with oxygen on strong heating.
Strong
2Zn + O2 2ZnO
Heating
(ii) Properties of oxides formed by metals.

a. Basic/Amphoteric nature of oxides:- Most of the Metal oxides are basic in nature. e.g.
Sodium reacts with oxygen at room temperature to form sodium oxide which is basic in
nature.
4 Na + O2 2 Na2 O
Similarly, Magnesium reacts with oxygen on heating to form magnesium oxide which is
also basic in nature.
Heating
2Mg + O2 2MgO
However, some metal oxides e.g. aluminium oxide (Al2 O3) and Zinc oxide (ZnO) show
basic as well as acidic character. Such metal oxides are called amphoteric oxides.
4 Al + 3O2 2 Al2 O3
2 Zn +O2 2 ZnO
b. Solubility in water:- Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water. But some metal
oxides dissolve in water to form alkalies (Bases).
e.g. Na2O + H2O 2Na OH
K2O + H2O 2KOH
(iii) Reaction of Metals with water:-
A number of metals react with water to form a hydroxide or an oxide along with the
evolution of hydrogen gas.
However, the rate of reactivity of different metals is different towards water.
Some metals such as sodium and potassium react with water at room temp.
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2

2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2

Some metals such as magnesium reacts with water on heating

Heat
Mg + 2H2O Mg (OH)2 + H2
Similarly some other metals such as aluminium and iron react with steam.
Steam
2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + 3H2
(Steam)
3Fe + 4H2O Fe3 O4 + 4H2
(iv). Reaction of Metals with dilute acids:-
Metals displace H2 gas from dilute acids. However, less reactive metals like Cu, Ag and
Au do not displace Hydrogen gas when they are treated with dilute acids.
e.g. (a) Sodium reacts violently with dil. HCl.
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2
(b) Magnesium reacts quite rapidly with dil. HCl.
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
(c) Zinc reacts less rapidly than that of Mg with HCl
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
(d) Iron reacts slowly with dil HCl

Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
(e) Copper does not react with dil.HCl or dil. H2 SO4
Cu + HCl NO reaction .
(v). Reaction of metals with chlorine:-
Metals react with chlorine to form metal chlorides. Reactive metals like sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium combine with chlorine even at room temp.
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
Ca + Cl2 Ca Cl2
However, less reactive metals like zinc, iron, aluminium and copper react with chlorine on
heating. e.g.
Heat
Zn + Cl2 Zn Cl2
Heat
2Fe + 3Cl2 2Fe Cl3
Heat
2Al + 3Cl2 2Al Cl3
(vi). Reaction of metals with hydrogen:-

Metals generally do not react with hydrogen. Only highly reactive metals like Na, K Ca
and Mg combine with hydrogen to from compounds called metal hydrides. e.g.
Heat
2Na + H2 2NaH
Heat
Ca + H2 CaH2
(vii) Reaction of metals with solutions of other metal salts:-

All metals are not equally reactive. The more reactive metals can displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in solution. e.g. Iron can displace copper from copper
sulphate solution.
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu.
Similarly, copper can displace silver from silver nitrate solutions
Cu + 2Ag NO3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2Ag.
(viii) Reducing behaviour:-
As metals can lose electrons, therefore, they act as reducing agents. e.g. sodium metal
reduces chlorine to chloride ion as follows:-

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

Oxidation + -
Na Na + e
- Reduction
Cl + e Cl-
Na+ + Cl- NaCl
Q.2) What are non-metals? Give their general physical and chemical properties.
Ans. Non metals are defined as the element which have the tendency to gain (accept) electrons
i.e. they are electronegative in nature. Because of their electronegative nature they form
negative ions (anions). Non metals have 4 to 7 electrons in their outer shells.
(A) Physical properties of non-metals:-
(i) Non-metals do not possess any lustre except iodine which is non-metallic solid but has
lustre.
(ii) They are soft and brittle i.e. they break into pieces when hammered. The only exception is
diamond, an allotropic form of carbon which is the hardest substance known.
(iii) They are neither malleable nor ductile.
(iv) They are generally bad conductors of heat and electricity, except graphite which is an
allotropic form of carbon and is a good conductor of electricity.
(v) They are non-sonorous i.e. they do not produce any sound when hit with any hard object.
(vi) They have generally low melting and boiling point except boron, diamond and graphite
which have high melting point.
(vii) They have low densities i.e. they are light elements.
(viii) They have low tensile strength i.e. they are easily broken.
(ix) They may be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature. e.g. Carbon, Sulphur,
phosphorus are solids and bromine is a liquid, while as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
chlorine are gaseous non-metals.
(B)Chemical properties of non-metals:-
(i) Reaction with oxygen :- Non-metals when heated with oxygen form their respective oxides.
These oxides may be either acidic or neutral. They never form basic oxides. e.g.
C + O2 CO2
(Acidic oxide)
CO2 +H2O H2CO3

(Carbonic acid)
S + O2 SO2
(Acidic oxide)
SO2 + H2O H2SO3

(Sulphurous acid)
2C + O2 2CO
(Neutral oxide)
N2 + O2 2NO
(Neutral oxide)
(ii) Reaction with water:- Non-metals generally do not react with water. This is because non-
metals can‘t reduce the hydrogen (H+) ions of water to H2 gas.
(iii) Reaction with dilute acids:- Non-metals do not react with dilute acids. It is because non-
metals them selves are acceptors of electrons and therefore do not give electrons to reduce the
hydrogen (H+) ions of an acid to hydrogen gas.
(iv) Reaction with chlorine:- Non-metals react with chlorine to form chlorides. These non-metal
chlorides are covalent chlorides and non-electrolytes. e.g.
H2 + Cl2 2HCl(g)
(Covalent Chloride)

P4 + 6Cl2 4PCl3
(Covalent Chloride)
(C) Reaction with hydrogen:-

Non-metals combine with hydrogen to form covalent hydrides. These hydrides are
generally gases or liquids e.g.
Heat
8H2 + S8 8H2S
Heat
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
(D) Reaction with Salts:-
A More reactive non-metal displaces a less reactive non-metal from its salt solution. e.g.
2NaBr + Cl2 2NaCl + Br2
2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2
(E) Oxidizing Behavior:-
Non-metals have a strong tendency to accept electrons to form negative ions. Therefore,
non-metals behave as oxidizing agents. e.g. the non-metal fluorine (F2) is the strongest
oxidizing agent. It oxidizes water (H2O) to oxygen, sulphur to sulphurhexa fluoride etc.
2H2O + 2F2 4HF + O2
S8 + 24F2 8SF6
Q.3) What is metallurgy? Describe in detail the various process involved in metallurgy.
Ans. The various steps involved in the extraction of the metal from its ores followed by refining
of the metal is called metallurgy.
The actual process employed for the extraction of a particular metal from its ore depends
upon a number of factors e.g.
( i) Nature of the ore.
(ii) Nature of the impurities present.
(iii) Nature of the metal to be extracted.
The three main steps involved in the extraction of any metal are:-
(a) Enrichment of the ore or Concentration of the ore
(b) Extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore.
(c) Refining of the impure metal.
(A)concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore:- The process of removal of gangue
from the powdered ore is called concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore or ore
dressing. The method used for the concentration of the ore depends upon the nature of
ore and nature of impurities present in the ore.
Some of the methods generally used for the concentration of the ore are briefly described
as below.
(i).Gravity separation or hydraulic washing:- This method is used for the concentration of
oxide ores of heavy metals such as lead, tin, iron etc. the method is based upon the
difference in the densities of the ore and the gangue. The powdered ore is spread on
special type of table having grooves on the top. A stream of water is thrown from one side
of the table. The gangue particles being lighter are washed away with the stream of water
leaving behind heavy ore particles on the table.
(ii).Froth floatation process:- This method is based upon the principle that the ore particles
are preferentially wetted by oil where as gangue particles are preferentially wetted by
water. This method is used for concentration of sulphide ores of copper, Zinc and lead. In
this method the powdered ore is mixed with water in a large tank. Then some pine oil or
ethyl xanthate is added to it. The mixture is agitated with air. The lighter ore particles are
wetted by the oil and form a froth. The froth being lighter floats on the surface. Then the
froth formed is transferred to another tank. However, the gangue particles being heavier
settle at the bottom of the tank.

(iii) Magnetic separation:- This method is based upon the principle that the magnetic
particles are attracted by a magnet where as non-magnetic particles are not attracted by a
magnet and get separated. In this method Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O)- an ore of aluminum,
contains the impurities of iron (iii) oxide (Fe2O3) and sand ie silica SiO2
the powdered ore is placed on a leather belt which passes over two rollers, one of which is
magnetic and other is non magnetic. When the magnetic particles come over the roller
they are attracted to the magnetic roller and fall apart from the non-magnetic particles.
(iv).Chemical separation or by leaching:- It is based upon the principle that gangue and
ore have different properties and behave differently towards a chemical reagent. In this
case, the powdered ore is treated with a suitable reagent (like acid, base etc.) which
dissolves the ore particles where as gangue is left behind and are removed by filtration.
This process is called leaching. For example, bauxite ore (Al2 O3 2H2O) can be
concentrated by this method. The powdered bauxite ore is heated with concentrated (45%)
sodium hydroxide. As a result of heating, aluminium oxide present in the ore reacts with
NaOH solution to form water soluble sodium aluminate.
Al2 O3 + 2Na OH 2Na AlO2 + H2O
Silica present in the ore also reacts with NaOH to form water soluble sodium silicate.
SiO2 + 2Na OH Na2 SiO3 + H2O
Iron oxide present in the ore does not dissolve in NaOH and thus remains as insoluble. It
is separated out by filtration.The filtrate containing sodium aluminate and sodium silicate
is diluted with water and stirred. Sodium aluminate reacts with water to form a precipitate
of aluminium hydroxide where as sodium silicate does not react and remains in the
solution.
Na AlO2 + 2H2O Al (OH)3 + NaOH
The precipitate is washed, dried and then heated strongly. It decomposes to give
pure alumina.
Strong
2Al (OH)3 Al2O3 + 3 H2O
Heating
(B) Extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore:- The method used for the
extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore depends upon the nature of the metal.
Based on their reactivity, the metals have been grouped into the following three
categories.
(a) Metals of low reactivity (low in the activity series)
(b) Metals of medium reactivity (in the middle of the activity series)
(c) Metals of high reactivity ( At top of the activity series)
(a). Extraction of metals low in the activity series (Cu, Hg, Ag, Au, Pt)
Among these metals gold and platinum are found in their native states. For other metals
like Cu and Hg, the basic principles of their extraction from the concentrated ore are
explained below:-
Roasting:- As most common ores of above mentioned metals are sulphides therefore, the
method required for extraction is roasting. In roasting metal sulphides are converted into
metal oxides, the oxides formed on further heating are reduced to metals. For example:-
Heating
2HgS + 3O2 2HgO(s) + 2SO2(g)
(Cinnabar ore of Hg)
Heat
2HgO 2Hg(s) + O2(g)
Similarly,
2 Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2 Cu2O + Cu2 S 6Cu + SO2
(b) Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series (Fe, Zn, Pb etc.)

These metals are found in nature in the form of their oxides, sulphides and carbonate ores.
Further, as it is easier to reduce oxides than sulphides and carbonates, therefore, the
sulphide and carbonate ores are first converted into the corresponding metal oxides, which
in turn are converted into metals. The different steps involved are as follows:-
(i) Calcination ( For carbonate ores):- It is the process of heating the carbonate ore
strongly in the absence of air, so as to form metal oxide e.g.
Heating
Zn CO3 ZnO + CO2
(Calamine ore of Zinc)
(ii).Roasting (for sulphide ores): It is the process of heating the sulphide ore strongly in
presence of air.
Heating
2 Zn S + 3 O2 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
Presence of air
(iii).Smelting:- The metal oxides obtained above can not be reduced directly into their
corresponding metals. Therefore, a suitable reducing agent such as carbon (Coke) is used.
The reduction of metal oxides by heating with coke is called smelting. e.g.
Fe2O3 + 3 C ∆ 2 Fe + 3 CO
Zn O + C Zn + CO
The active metals such as copper and manganese can‘t be obtained by reduction of their
oxides with coke because these metal oxides are very stable. Therefore, such metal oxides
are reduced by strongly heating the mixture with aluminium e.g.
Cu2 O3 + 2Al 2Cu + Al2 O3
3 MnO2 + 4 Al 3 Mn + 2Al2O3
Aluminothermy the reduction of metals oxides to metal using aluminium as reducing
agent is called as aluminothermy.
( c).Extraction of metals High up in the activity series (K, Ca, Mg, and Al)
(Electrometallurgy):- The process of extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore
using electric current or by electrolysis is called electro metallurgy. The highly electro
positive metals such as Li, Na, K, Ca, Mg etc are extracted by this method. These metals
are extracted by the electrolysis of their molten halide or oxides. The metal is produced at
cathode. e.g. sodium is obtained by the electrolysis of molten Na Cl.
2NaCl 2Na+ + 2Cl-
At Anode:
2Cl- 2Cl + 2e-
2Cl Cl2
At cathode:
2Na+ + 2e- 2Na
Similarly electrolysis of Al2O3 can be represented as follows:
Al2O3 2 Al3+ + 3O2-
At anode
3O2- 3O + 6e-
O + O O2
At Cathode.
2Al3+ + 6e- 2Al
(C) Refining of impure metals:- The process of purifying the impure (crude) metal is called
refining of the metal.
The most commonly employed method for the purification of metals is electrolytic
refining. A large number of metals such as copper, silver, gold, nickel, chromium, zinc,
aluminium, tin, lead etc are purified by this method.

let us take the example of electrolytic refining of copper. In this method a container
called electrolytic tank is taken. In this tank a solution of copper sulphate is taken as an
electrolyte. The impure copper is taken as anode. A thin plate of pure copper acts as
cathode. On passing electric current, pure copper from the anode passes into the solution
as Cu2+ ions. An equivalent amount of Cu2+ ions from the solution are deposited on the
cathode as pure copper. The reactions that take place at cathode and anode are shown as
follows:-
At Anode
Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
Copper atom Copper ions
At Cathode
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
Copper ions Copper atom
Q.4) What is corrosion? Explain by suitable examples.
Ans. The process of slow eating up (decay) of metals is called corrosion. During corrosion
metals are converted into their oxides, carbonates, sulphides, sulphates etc. by the action
of atmospheric gases such as O2, SO2, CO2 ,H2S and moisture .A few examples of
corrosion are given below:
(i) Rusting of Iron: When iron is exposed to moist air for a long time, its surface gets
covered with a coating of a brown, flaky substance called rust. This is due to the reaction
of oxygen and moisture (present in the air) on the surface of iron. Rust is mainly hydrated
ferric oxide.
2Fe + 3/2 O2 + X H2O Fe2 O3 X H2O
Iron (air) moisture (Rust)
Or 4Fe + 3O2 + X H2O 2Fe2 O3 X H2O
(ii) Similarly copper objects when remain exposed to air, their surface reacts with CO2 and
moisture present in the air forming a green coating of basic copper carbonate.
2Cu + CO2 + O2 + H2O CuCO3 .Cu (OH)2
Copper From moist air ( Basic copper carbonate green)
(iii). The surface of silver metal gets tarnished on exposure to air. This is due to the formation
of a coating of black silver sulphide (Ag2S) on its surface by the action H2S gas present in
air.
2Ag + H2S Ag2S + H2(g)
Silver Silver Sulphide
(Black)
Q.5) What is Rusting? State the conditions necessary for rusting.
Ans. Corrosion of iron is called rusting . when iron is exposed to moist air for a long time, its
surface acquires a coating of a red brown flaky substance called rust. Rust is mainly
hydrated iron oxide. (Fe2 O3 X H2O)
During rusting of iron, iron metal combines with oxygen of air in presence of moisture to
form hydrated iron oxide. The number of molecules of water ( water of hydration) varies
in it, and is not fixed.
2Fe + 3/2 O2 + X H2O Fe2 O3 X H2O
Iron (air) moisture (Rust)
Rust can be commonly observed in the form of red brown flaky substance on screws,
nails, pipes and railings. It is not only the iron which rusts, even the steel rusts on being
exposed to damp air or on being kept in water but steel rusts less readily than iron. The
conditions necessary for rusting are:-
(1) Presence of air.
(2) Presence of moisture.

Lesson No. 5 Acids, Bases and Salts

Q.1 What are acids? Give their general characteristics. (Properties)
Ans. According to Arrhenius theory of acids and bases, Acids may be defined as the substances
containing hydrogen which upon dissolving in water give hydrogen ions (H+).
Some Important acids are sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Hydrochloric acid
(HCl), acetic acid, lactic acid, carbonic acid etc.
(A) General characteristics of acids:-
(i) Acids are sour in taste.
(ii) All acids contain ionisable hydrogen.
(iii) Acids turn blue litmus into red, methyl orange into red and decolourize phenolphthalein.
(iv) Most of the acids are corrosive in nature. They produce a burning sensation on skin and
holes on the clothes on which they fall.
(v) Most of the acids are soluble in water.
(vi) Acids in the form of aqueous solutions conduct electricity.
Chemical properties:
(B) Action of Acids with Metals
Acids react with metals such as magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), sodium (Na), or potassium
(K) to form a salt and liberate hydrogen gas.
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
Magnesium Sulphuric acid Magnesium Hydrogen
sulphate
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2
Sodium Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride Hydrogen
However, some metals such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au) or mercury (Hg) do not react
with acids to give hydrogen gas.
(ii) Action of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates:-
Acids react with metal carbonates and bicarbonates such as potassium carbonate, sodium
bicarbonate or calcium carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide gas, with a brisk
effervescence, leaving behind a salt solution.
This property of acids is widely used in soda-acid type fire extinguisher.
Metal carbonate + Acid  salt +Water + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Calcium Hydrochloric Calcium Water Carbon
Carbonate acid chloride dioxide
Similarly metal bicarbonates when treated with acids, they produce salt and water with the
liberation of carbon dioxide gas. For example with sodium bicarbonate when treated with nitric
acid produces sodium nitrate, water and carbon dioxide.
2NaHCO3 + 2HNO3 2 Na2 NO3 + 2H2O + 2CO2
Sodium Nitric Sodium Water Carbon
Bicarbonate acid nitrate dioxide
(iii) Acids react with bases to form salt and water
Acid + Base salt + water
The reaction of acid and a base to form salt and water is called neutralization reaction e.g.
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
(iv) Acid react with metal oxides to form salt and water e.g
CuO + 2HCl CuCl2 + H2O

Q.2 Give the classification of acids.

Ans. Acids can be classified in a number of ways. The major classes of acids are described as
follows:
A. Classification based on Source:-
(i) Organic acids
Acids which are obtained usually from plants and animals are known as organic acids e.g.
oxalic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid etc.
(ii) Inorganic acids:--
These are the acids which are generally obtained from minerals. These are also called as
mineral acids. e.g. Hydrochloric acid, Nitric acid, sulphuric acid etc.
B. Classification based on Strength:-
(i) Strong acids:-
These are the acids which almost completely dissociate and produce a high conc. of H +
ions in aqueous solution e.g. HCl, HNO3, H2 SO4 etc.
(ii) Weak acids:-
These are the acids which dissociate partially and produce a low conc. of H+ ions in
aqueous solution e.g. acetic acid (CH3 COOH), phosphoric acid (H3 PO4), carbonic acid
(H2CO3) etc.
C. Classification based on Concentration:-
(i) Concentrated Acids:-
These are the aqueous solutions of acids having a relatively high percentage of acid.
(ii) Dilute acids:-
These are the aqueous solutions of acids having relatively low percentage of acid.
Q.3 Give some uses of acids.
Ans. Some of the uses of acids are as follows:-
(i) Sulphuric acid has wide use in industries e.g. it is used in the manufacture of fertilizers
like ammonium sulphate, in petroleum refining, in paints, in synthetic fibers and
is used in storage batteries.
(ii) Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium nitrate, dyes, plastics
etc.
(iii) Hydrochloric acid is used in textile, leather and dye industries. It is also used in cleaning
the metal surfaces.
(iv) Boric acid is used as antiseptic (eye wash)
(v) Oxalic acid is used to remove ink stains.
(vi) Carbonic acid is used in soft drinks.
(vii) Phosphoric acid is used in manufacture of fertilizers.
Q.4 What do all acids have in common?
Ans. When an acid is dissolved in water, it always produces hydrogen ions (H+). Thus an acid is
a substance which upon dissolving in water produces (H+) ion.
e.g. HCl is an acid because it dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions.
HCl + H2O H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Similarly,
HNO3 + H2O H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
H2SO4 + H2O 2H+ (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)
From the above examples it is evident that a common property of all the acids is that they
all produce H+ ions in water. Thus HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 etc. are all acids because upon
dissolving in water they produce H+ ions .
Q.5 What are bases? Give their general characteristics.

Ans. According to Arrhenius theory of acids and bases, Bases may be defined as the substances
containing Hydroxyl group which upon dissolving in water give hydroxide ions (OH-).
Some important bases are sodium hydroxide (Na OH), potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH)2] etc. Their dissociation can be represented as follows:
Water
Na OH Na+ + OH
Water
KOH K+ + OH
Ca (OH)2 Water Ca2+ + 2 OH
General characteristics of bases:-
(i) Bases are bitter in taste and soapy in touch.
(ii) Bases contain ionisable hydroxide ion.
(iii) Bases turn red litmus into blue, methyl orange into yellow and phenolphthalein into pink.
(iv) Some bases like caustic sods ( NaOH) are corrosive in nature.
(v) Bases react with metals to produce salts and hydrogen gas. e.g.
∆
2Na OH + 2Al + 2H2O 2Na AlO2 + 3H2
Sodium aluminate
∆
2 Na OH + Zn Na2 Zn O2 + H2
Sodiumzincate
(vi) Bases when heated with ammonium salt, ammonia gas is produced e.g.
∆
NH4 Cl + Na OH Na Cl + H2O + NH3
(vii) Bases When treated with acids, result in the formation of salts and water e.g.
NaOH + HCl Na Cl + H2O
KOH + HNO3 KNO3 + H2O
(viii) Bases react with non-metal oxides to form salt and water. e.g.
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
(ix) They act as electrolytes .i.e. They produce ions in solutions and hence their aqueous
solutions conduct electric current.
Q.6 What are alkalies? Give examples.
Ans. The bases which are soluble in water and give hydroxide ions (OH) in their aqueous
solution are called alkalies. e.g.
NaOH, KOH, NH4 OH etc. They are soapy to touch, bitter in taste and corrosive
in nature. All the bases do not dissolve in water but have basic characteristics. Thus, all
alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
Q.7 What do all bases have in common?
Ans. When a base is dissolved in water, it always produces hydroxide ions ( OH ions). Thus a
base is substance which upon dissolving in water produces hydroxide ions e.g. sodium
hydroxide is a base because it dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions.
NaOH + H2O Na+ (aq)+ OH (aq)
Similarly,
KOH + H2O K+ (aq) + OH (aq)
Mg (OH)2 + H2O Mg2+ (aq-) + 2OH (aq)
From the above examples it is evident that a common property of all the bases is that they
all produce hydroxide(OH) ion when dissolved in water. Thus, Na OH, KOH, Mg(OH)2,
Ca (OH)2, NH4 OH etc are all bases because upon dissolving in water they produce
hydroxide (OH) ions.
Q.8 Write Notes on.

a, Strong Base b, Weak Base

a. Strong Base:- A base which completely ionizes in water and thus produces a large
amount of hydroxide ions (OH) is known as a strong base. e.g. NaOH, KOH, Ba (OH)2 are
strong bases because they completely ionise in aqueous soln.
b. Weak Base:- A base which partially ionizes in water and thus produces a small amount
of hydroxide ions (OH) is known as a weak base. e.g. NH 4OH, Ca (OH)2, Mg (OH)2 are
weak bases because they ionize partially in their aqueous solns.
Q.9 Write a note on pH scale and pH value.
Ans. In 1909, Sorenson devised a scale known as pH scale on which the strength of acid
solutions as well as basic solutions could be represented by making use of hydrogen ion
concentration. Sorenson linked the hydrogen ion concentrations of acid and base solutions
to the simple numbers 0 to 14 on the pH scale. The term pH is derived from the Danish
word Potenz de hydrogen (power of H+ ion).
pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in
moles per litre.
Mathematically; pH = -log [H+] = or H+ = 1/ log[H+]
Thus pH of a solution may be also be defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of
hydrogen ion concentration.
pH of Neutral solution.
In pure water [H+] = 1.0 x 10-7
pH of pure (neutral) water = - log (10-7) = -7 x -log 10 = -7 x -1 = 7
Thus, the pH value of pure water is equal to 7.
pH of Acid Solutions
We know that all acidic solutions have H+ ion concentration greater than 1.0 x 10-7. The
H+ ion concentration in an acidic solution may be 10-5 , 10-6, 10-4, etc.
Consider an acidic solution whose H+ ion concentration = 10-6
Its pH = - log (H+) = - log(10-6) = –6 x –log10 = –6 x – 1 = 6 [ log10=1]
Thus. pH values of all acidic solutions will be less than 7.
pH of Basic Solutions
All basic solutions have H+ ion concentration less than 10-7. Consider a basic solution
whose H+ ion concentration is 10–8
Its PH= - log [H+] = - log [10-8] = -8 x –log 10 = -8 x -1 = 8
Thus, pH valves of all basic solutions will be more than 7.
It may be noted that
(1) Solutions having pH between 0 to 2 are strongly acidic.
(ii) Solutions having pH between 2 to 4 are moderately acidic.
(iii) Solutions having pH between 4 to 7 are weakly acidic.
(iv)Solutions having pH equal to 7 are neutral
(v) Solutions having pH between 7 and 10 are weakly basic;
(vi) Solutions having pH between 10 and 12 are moderately basic.
(vii) Solutions having pH between 12 and 14 are strongly basic.
Q.10 Describe the importance of pH in every day life.
Ans. pH plays a very important role in our every day life as described below:
(i) Biological Importance:- Biochemical reactions take place at definite pH values. Our
body works within a pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. If there occurs any change in this pH, there
occurs disturbance in the normal functioning of our body.
(ii) pH in our digestive system:- Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid which helps in the
digestion of food. But during indigestion, the stomach produces too much acid, which
causes pain and irritation. To relieve this pain, antacids such as magnesium hydroxide
(milk of magnesia) which is a mild base is used to bring the pH in stomach in the normal
range.

(iii) pH Changes as the cause of tooth decay :-

Tooth enamel, made up of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in our body. It does
not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5. Thus tooth
decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Normally the pH of mouth is 7.0.
Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugary food materials
remaining in the mouth after eating. Due to production of acids, pH of the mouth becomes
less than 5.5 and corrosion of tooth enamel takes place. To prevent this, clean mouth after
eating food and use tooth pastes, which are generally basic for neutralizing the excess
acids present in the mouth.
(iv) Importance of pH of the soil in agriculture:- Plants require a specific pH range for their
healthy growth. In order to find out whether a particular soil is fit for a particular crop, we
have to check the pH of that soil and then compare its pH range in which its growth is
healthy. And also to determine whether acidic or basic fertilizers are required for a
particular crop.
(v) Acid rain:- Rain is the purest form of water having pH equal to 7. If oxides of nonmetals
like SO2 and CO2 present in the atmosphere get dissolved in rain water then the pH of
rainwater becomes less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When this acid rain flows into
rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water and therefore the survival of aquatic life in such
rivers become difficult.
Q.11 What are salts? Give different methods of their preparation.
Ans. A salt is an ionic compound formed by the partial or complete displacement of the
ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid by a metal ion or ammonium ion. e.g.
NaCl, Na2SO4, Na2CO3, KCl, NH4 Cl etc.
The most common methods used for the preparation of salts are as follows:-
(i) By neutralization reaction of acids and bases:- In neutralization reaction an acid reacts
with a base to form salt and water e.g.
Sod. Hydroxide Hydrogen Acid Sodium Chloride Water
NH4 OH + HCl NH4Cl + H 2O
Ammonium hydrochloric ammonium
Hydroxide acid chloride
(ii) By the action of metals on acids:- Active metals react with acids to form salts with the
evolution hydrogen gas. e.g.
Zn + H2 SO4 Zn SO4 + H2
(iii) By the action of acids on metal carbonates and bicarbonates:- Metal carbonates and
bicarbonates when treated with acids result in the formation of salt and water with the
evolution of carbon dioxide gas. e.g.
Ca CO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Q.12 Name some families of salts. Give examples of each family.
Ans. Salts are classified into different families either on the basis of the acid or on the basis of
the base from which they have been obtained. The different families are as follows:-
(i) Chlorides:- The salts which are formed by the reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with
any base are called as chlorides e.g. Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Potassium Chloride (KCl),
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl), Barium Chloride (BaCl2) etc.
(ii) Nitrates:- The salts which are formed by the reaction of nitric acid (HNO3) with any
base are called as nitrates. e.g. sodium nitrate (NaNO3), Potassium nitrate (KNO3),
calcium nitrate Ca (NO3)2 .

(iii)Sulphates:- The salts which are formed by the reaction of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) with
any base are called sulphates e.g. Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), Potassium sulphate (K2SO4)
magnesium sulphate (Mg SO4), Copper sulphate (CuSO4) etc.
(iv) Carbonates:- The salts which are formed by the reaction of carbonic acid (H2CO3) with
any base are known as carbonates e.g.
Sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3), Potassium carbonate (K2 CO3), Calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) etc.
Some other families are phosphates, oxalates, acetates etc. These families are derived from
phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, acetic acid respectively.
Q.13 pH Values of Salt Solutions:-
The interaction of salts with water to give acidic, basic or neutral solutions is called as salt
hydrolysis. The pH of the solution obtained after the salt hydrolysis depends upon the type
of salt dissolved. On the basis of nature of the acid or base from which salts are derived,
salts are of following four types:
a. Salts of a strong acid and a strong base:- The solution of salts, derived from strong acid
and strong base have neutral pH i.e. ‗7‘ this is because the acid and base produced,
neutralize each other completely. e.g.
NaCl, Na NO3, Na2 SO4, KCl, KNO3, K2SO4.
NaCl + H2O NaOH + HCl
Sodium Sodium Hydrochloric
Chloride Hydroxide acid
(Strong Base) (Strong acid)
b. Salts of strong acid and weak base:- The solution of salts, derived from strong acid and
weak base have acidic pH i.e. less than 7. this is because the strong acid produced is not
completely neutralized by weak base produced.
e.g. NH4 Cl, Cu SO4, Al Cl3, Zn SO4 etc.
NH4 Cl + H2O NH4 OH + HCl
Ammonium (W.B) (S.A)
Chloride Salt
c. Salts of weak acid and strong base:- The solution of salts, which are obtained from
weak acid and strong base have basic pH i.e. greater than 7. This is because the strong
base produced is not completely neutralized by weak acid. e.g.
Na2 CO3 , Na HCO3, CH3 COONa etc.
Na2 CO3 + 2H2 O H2CO3 + 2Na OH
Sodium Carbonate (W.A) (S.B)
d. Salts of weak acid and weak base:- The soln. of the salts derived from weak acid and
weak base is almost neutral i.e. pH nearly equal to 7,. e.g. CH3 COO NH4
CH3 COONH4 + H2O CH3 COOH + NH4 OH
Ammonium (W.A) (W.B)
Acetate.
Q.14 Give a detailed account of common salt (sodium chloride).
Ans. Chemical Nature of common salt:- Common salt is chemically called as sodium
chloride. Its chemical formula is NaCl. It is used as an essential constituent of food
materials. Hence is also called as table salt.
Occurrence:- Common salt occurs naturally in sea- water and as rock salt.
(i) Common salt from sea water:- Common salt is obtained from sea water by the process
of evaporation. In this process, water is trapped in large shallow pools called as lagoons
for evaporation. The sun‘s heat evaporates the water slowly and common salt is left

behind. How ever, the common salt so obtained is still impure as it contains many other
salts mixed with it.
(ii) Common salt from underground deposits:- Common salt is also found in the form of
solid deposits in several parts of the world under the earth‘s crust. These underground
deposits are called rock salt. Rock salt is usually brown due to presence of impurities in it.
Rock Salt is mined from the underground deposits just like coal.
Use of common salt:-
(i) It is an essential constituent of our food materials.
(ii) it is used as preservative for a number of food materials e.g. in packed meat and fish.
(iii)It is used to prepare freezing mixtures (like ice-creams)
(iv) It is used in the preparation of soaps, pottery glaze etc.
(v) It is used as a raw material for the preparation of other chemicals.
Q.15 What is caustic soda?
How is it manufactured? Give its uses.
Ans. Caustic soda is chemically called as sodium hydroxide. Its chemical formula is NaOH. It
is basic in nature and acts as a strong base. Sodium hydroxide is prepared by chloro alkali
process. The process involves the passage of electric current through an aqueous solution
of sodium chloride called brine. It produces hydrogen gas at cathode and chlorine gas at
anode. The solution obtained in the cathodic compartment contains sodium hydroxide.
This solution is taken out and is concentrated to get solid sodium hydroxide. The reactions
taking place are:-
Water
2NaCl (S) 2Na+ (aq.) + 2 Cl (aq).
2H2O 2H+ + 2OH-

At cathode:-
2H+ (aq) + 2e H2
At anode:- 2Cl (aq) – 2 e Cl +2 e

The over all reaction can be represented as:-
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2 (g)
Sodium
Hydroxide
Use of caustic soda:-
(i) It is used as an effective cleansing agent.
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of soaps and detergents.
(iii) It is used in the refining of petroleum.
(iv) It is used in textile industries for mercerizing.
(v) It is also used in paper industries.
(vi) It is used in making artificial fibers like rayon etc.
Q.16 Give preparation, properties and uses of bleaching powder .
Ans. The chemical formula of bleaching powder is Ca OCl2, called as calcium oxychloride.
Preparation:-
Bleaching powder is prepared by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime Ca (OH)2, at a
temp. of 40—50oC,
2Ca (OH)2+2Cl 2 40-500C 2Ca OCl2 + 2H2
Dry Slaked lime Bleaching
Powder
Bleaching powder is mostly manufactured by a process called as Hasenclever process.
Properties:-
(i) It is a yellowish white powder having smell of chlorine.

(ii) It gradually loses its chlorine when left exposed to the air. This is because CO2
present in the air reacts with bleaching powder liberating chlorine.
CaOCl2 + CO2 Ca CO3 + Cl2
bleaching Calcium
Powder Carbonate
(iii) It is soluble in cold water.
(iv) It reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid liberating
chlorine gas.
Ca OCl2 + 2HCl CaCl 2 + H2O + Cl2
CaOCl2 + H2SO4 Ca SO4 + H2O + Cl2
Uses:-
(i) It is used for bleaching textiles in textile industries.
(ii) It is used for bleaching wood pulp in paper industries.
(iii) It is used for disinfecting water to make it free from germs.
(iv) It is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
Q.17) Give preparation properties and uses of plaster of paris.
Ans . The chemical name of plaster of paris is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. Its chemical
formula is Ca SO4 ½ H2O.
Preparation:- It is prepared from gypsum which is calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O).
Gypsum is heated in a kiln to a temperature of 100OC. At this temperature, it loses three –fourth
of its water of crystallization resulting in the formation of plaster of paris.
100OC
Ca SO4 2H2O Ca SO4 . ½ H2O + 11/2 H2O
Gypsum Plaster of Paris
Properties:-
1. It is a white powder.
2. When mixed with water, it forms a paste which sets into a hard mass. This is called setting
of plaster of paris.
CaSO4 1/2 H2O + 11/2 H2O CaSO4 2H2O
Plaster of Paris (P.O.P) Gypsum
Uses:-
1. It is used for producing moulds for toys, pottery, ceramics etc.
2. It is used for making statues, models and other decorative materials.
3. It is used in medical applications for setting broken and fractured bones in right position
and in dentistry.
4. It is used for making smooth surfaces, decoratives designs on ceilings, walls, pillars etc.
5. It is used as a fire proof material.
6. It is used in laboratories for sealing the air gaps in apparatus to make them air tight
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q. 1) You have been provided with three test tubes. One of them contains distilled
water and the other two contain an acidic solution and a basic solution respectively.
If you are given only red litmus paper, how will you identify the contents of each test
tube?
Ans) Step-I: Dip the given red litmus paper in each of the three test-tubes. The tube in which
red litmus turn blue contains basic solution.

Step-II: Dip this blue litmus paper now in the remaining two test tubes. The tube in
which blue litmus again changes back into red contains acidic solution.
Step-III: The tube in which neither red litmus turns blue nor blue litmus turns red
contains distilled water.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Why should curd and sour substances not be kept in brass and copper vessels?
Ans) Curd and other sour foodstuffs contain acids, which can react with the metal of the vessel
to form poisonous metal compounds which can cause food poisoning and hence damage
our health. Therefore it is advised not to store food stuffs which contain acidic substances
in brass or copper containers.
Q.2) Which gas is usually liberated when an acid reacts with a metal? Illustrate with an
example. How will you test for the presence of this gas ?
Ans) When acids reacts with metals, salts are produced with the libration of hydrogen gas
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen gas.
e.g. Zn + 2HCl Zn Cl2 + H2
When gas is made to pass through soap solution, the soap bubbles are formed with H 2 gas
in them. Taking a burning candle near bubbles, the gas burns with a pop sound proving
that gas inside is H2 which is highly inflammable. .
Q 3) Metal compound A reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce effervescence.

The gas evolved extinguishes a burning candle. Write a balanced chemical equation
for the reaction if one of the compounds formed is calcium chloride.
Ans) The gas that extinguishes a burning candle is carbon dioxide, which is formed by the
action of dilute hydrochloric acid on a metal carbonate and produces effervescence. Since
one of the compounds formed is calcium chloride, it shows that the metal compound is
calcium carbonate. Thus, the metal compound A is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium
carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride, carbon dioxide
and water. This can be written as:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
calcium carbonate hydrochloric acid calcium chloride carbon dioxide water
SECTION - C
Q.1) Why do HCl, HNO3, etc. show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while
solutions of compounds like alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character?
Ans. An acid is a substance, which dissociates on dissolving in water to produce hydrogen ions
[H+(aq) ions]. The substance like HCl, H2SO4, show acidic character because they
dissociate in aqueous solutions to produce hydrogen ions, (H+(aq) ions).
On the other hand, substances like alcohol (C2H5OH) and glucose (C6H12O6) do not ionize
to liberate H+ ions in their aqueous solutions, hence are not acidic in nature.
Q 2) Why does an aqueous solution of acid conduct electricity?

Ans) An acid upon dissolving in water. dissociates into its ions (cations and anions). When
electrodes of different potential are introduced in such an aqueous solution, the ions of
acid get migrated towards appositively charged electrodes, and it is due this migration of
ions of acidic solution which is responsible for conduction of electricity.

Q.3) Why does dry HCl gas not change the colour of the dry litmus paper?
Ans. HCl gas shows its acidic character only in aqueous solution. This is because in aqueous
solution it completely ionizes to liberate H+ ions. Hence changes the colour of litmus
paper.
However, when HCl gas is in dry form, it does not show acidic behaviour because it
does not ionize to liberate H+ ions. Since dry HCl gas does not contain any hydrogen ions in it
and it does not show acidic behaviour. That is why there is no change observed on litmus paper.
Q. 4) While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to
water and not water to the acid?
Ans. Dilution of concentrated acid with water is a highly exothermic process. Thus diluting an
acid should be done by adding concentrated acid to water gradually with stirring.
Because the heat is evolved gradually and is easily absorbed by the large amount of water,
If however, water is added to concentrated acid to dilute it, a large amount of heat is
evolved at once. The heat generated may cause the mixture to splash the acid on our face
or clothes and cause acid burns.
Q.5) How is the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) affected when a solution of an
acid is diluted?
Ans) When the concentrated solution of an acid is diluted by mixing water, the concentration of
H+ ions (or H3O+ ions) in solution increases due to increase in the extent of ionization.
However the concentration of hydronium (H3O+ ions) per unit volume decreases.
Q.6) How is the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH ) affected when excess base is
dissolved in a solution of sodium hydroxide?
Ans) concentration of OH- ions increases per unit volume on dissolving excess base in the
solution of sodium hydroxide.
SECTION - D
Q.1) You have two solutions A and B. The pH of solution A is 6 and pH of solution B
is 8. (i) Which solution has more hydrogen ion concentration?
(ii) Which of this is acidic and which one is basic?
Ans) (i) The pH of a solution is inversely proportional to its hydrogen ion concentration. This
means that the solution having lower pH will have more hydrogen ion concentration. In
this case, solution A(having a lower pH of 6) will have more hydrogen ion concentration
than solution B.
(ii) We know solution with pH < 7 is acidic and the solution with pH > 7 is basic.
Therefore solution A with pH = 6 is acidic and solution B with pH = 8 is basic in nature.
Q. 2) What effect does the concentration of H+(aq) ions have on the nature of the
solution?
Ans. Acids produce hydrogen ions in water. So, when an acid is added to an aqueous solution,
the concentration of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution increases. The solution thus
formed will have more of hydrogen ions and therefore its acidic character increases.
Q.3) Do basic solution also have H+(aq) ions ? If yes, then why are these basic ?
Ans) Basic solutions also have H+ ions in addition to OH- ions. They are basic because in these
solutions, OH- ion concentration is more than H+ ion concentration.
Q.4) Under what soil condition do you think that a farmer would spread or treat the soil
of his fields with quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or
chalk (calcium carbonate).
Ans) For healthy growth of plants, the soil should be neither alkaline nor highly acidic. A quick
lime or slaked lime or chalk are all alkaline substances, these would be added to the soil
by the farmer when the soil is highly acidic, in order to decrease its acidic nature.

SECTION - E
Q.1) What is the common name of the compound CaOCl2?
Ans. The common name of the compound CaOCl2 is bleaching powder.
Q.2) Name the substance that on treatment with chlorine yields bleaching powder.
Ans) Dry slaked lime (Calcium hydroxide) Ca (OH)2 is the substance that on treatment with
chlorine yields bleaching powder.
Ca (OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
Q.3) Name the sodium compound, which is used, for softening hard water.
Ans. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used for softening hard water.
Q.4) What will happen if a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated? Give the
equation of the reaction involved.
Ans. Sodium hydrogen carbonate upon heating decomposes into sodium carbonate, carbon
dioxide and water. The equation for the reaction involved is as follows.
∆
2Na HCO3 Na2 CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Sodium bicarbonate sodium carbonate carbon dioxide water
Q.5) What happens when water is added to plaster of Paris?
Write an equation to show the reaction between Plaster of Paris and water?
Ans. Plaster of Paris has a very remarkable property of setting into a hard mass on wetting with
water. So, when water is added to plaster of Paris, it sets into a hard mass in about half an
hour. The setting of plaster of Paris is due to the hydration of plaster of paris. The
hydrated crystals of plaster of Paris is called gypsum, which sets to form a hard, solid
mass.
CaSO4. ½ H2O + ½ H2O CaSO4 .2H2O
Plaster of Paris Gypsum
SECTION - F
Q.1) A solution turns red litmus blue, it pH is likely to be (a) 1 (b) 4 (c ) 5 (d) 10.
Ans) (d) 10
Q.2) A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime water milky.
The solution contains (a) NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl
Ans) (b) HCl
Q.3) 10 ml of a solution of NaOH is found to be completely neutralized by 8 ml of a given
solution of HCl. If we take 20ml of the same solution of NaOH, the amount of HCl
solution (the same solution as before) required to neutralize it will be
(a) 4 ml (b) 8 ml (c) 12 ml (d) 16 ml.
Ans) (d) 16 ml.
Q.4) Which one of the following types of medicines is used for treating indigestion ?
(a) Antibiotic (b) Analgesic (c ) Antacid (d) Antiseptic.
Ans) (c ) Antacid
Q.5) Write word equations and then balanced equations for the reactions taking place
when (a) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with zinc granule
(b) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium ribbon
(c ) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with aluminium powder.

(d) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with iron fillings.

Ans) (a) The word equation is
Zinc + sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
The balanced equation will be
Zn + H2 SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
(b) The word equation is
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magneium Chloride + Hydrogen.
The balanced will be
(c) The word equation is
Aluminium + Sulphuric acid Aluminium Sulphate + Hydrogen
2Al + 3H2SO4 Al2 (SO4)3 + 3H2
(d) The word equation is
Iron + Hydrochloric acid Iron (11) chloride + Hydrogen
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
Q.6) Compounds such as alcohols and glucose also contain hydrogen but are not
categorized as acids. Why?
Ans) . An acid is a substance, which dissociates on dissolving in water to produce
hydrogen ions [H+(aq) ions]. Alcohols and glucose though contain hydrogen but do not
ionize in the solution to produce H+ions, hence are not acidic in nature. This is proved by
the fact that their solutions do not conduct electricity
Q.7) Why does distilled water not conduct electricity, whereas rainwater does?
Ans. A liquid conducts electric current if it contains ions. Because in such solution the electric
current is carried by the ions. Distilled water does not conduct electricity because it does
not contain any ion or any ionic compound (like acids, bases or salts) dissolved in it . On
the other hand, rain water, while falling to the earth through the atmosphere, dissolves
acidic gas such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc from the air and forms acids. These
acids provide ions to rain water due to there ionisation and it is because of the presence of
these ions that the rain water conducts electricity. For example , rain water, while falling
to the earth through the atmosphere, dissolves carbon dioxide from the air and forms
carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid provides hydrogen ions, H+(aq), and carbonate
ions, CO32- (aq), to rain water as shown : H2CO3 2H+(aq) + CO3-2 (aq) .
So, due to the presence of carbonic acid (which provides ions to rain water), the rain water
conducts electricity.
Q.8) Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water?
Ans. The acidic behaviour of an acid is due to the presence of hydrogen ions. An acid produce
H+ ions on dissociation in presence of water. In absence of water H + ions are not
produced. Hence acids do not show acidic character in absence of water.
Q.9) Five solutions A, B, C, D and E when tested with universal indicator showed pH as 4,
1, 11, 7 and 9 respectively. Which solution is?
(i) Neutral?
(ii) Strongly alkaline?
(iii) Strongly acidic?
(iv) Weakly acidic?
(v) Weakly alkaline?
Ans. The pH of a solution is inversely proportional to its hydrogen ion concentration. This
means that the solution having lower pH will have more hydrogen ion concentration..
The solutions with pH < 7 are acidic, with pH > 7 are basic and with pH = 7 are neutral.

Therefore the solutions with pH = 4,1 are acidic and solutions the with pH = 9,11 are
basic and the solution with pH = 7 is neutral in nature. The pH of a solution is inversely
proportional to its hydrogen ion concentration. This means that with the increase of pH
acidic character decreases and basic character increases ,therefore the solution with pH = 1
will be Strongly acidic and the solution with pH = 4 will be Weakly acidic, while as
solution with pH = 11 will be Strongly basic and the solution with pH = 9 will be Weakly
basic in nature.
. S.No. Solution pH Nature
1. D 7 Neutral
2. C 11 Strongly alkaline
3. B 1 Strongly acidic
4. A 4 Weakly acidic
5. E 9 Weakly alkaline
Q.10) Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added to test-tube A while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is
added to test-tube B. In which test-tube will fizzing occur more vigorously and why?
Ans) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid whereas hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid.
Fizzing occurs in the test tube due to the evolution of hydrogen gas by the action of acid
on magnesium ribbon. Since hydrochloric acid is a strong acid a large amount of hydrogen
gas is liberated in the test tube A. So fizzing occurs more vigorously in test tube A than
test tube B.
Q.11) Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into
curd? Explain.
Ans. When milk turns into curd, lactic acid is formed, which increases the acidic character of
the milk. We know more acidic is a substance, lesser is its pH. Thus when milk
changes into curd, its pH will decrease. Therefore the pH of the milk will change to below
6, when milk turns into curd.
Q.12) A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk.
(a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline?
Ans. Fresh milk is acidic and becomes more acidic easily and turns sour in taste. In presence of
baking soda, milk becomes alkaline and does not turn sour easily because the alkali does
not allow the milk to become more acidic easily.
(b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd?
Ans. When the milk sets to curd, lactic acid is formed and its pH decreases i.e. it becomes
more acidic. The presence of alkali does not allow it to become more acidic easily. Hence
it will take a long time to set as curd.
Q.13) Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Why?
Ans:- Plaster of paris is CaSO4 ½ H2O. It absorbs moisture to become gypsum with formula
CaSO4 2H2O, and sets to a hard mass.
CaSO4 ½ H2O + 1½ H2O CaSO4 2H2O
Plaster of paris gypsum
Thus if Plaster of Paris is not stored in a moisture-proof container, it will absorb
moisture and become gypsum, which sets to a hard mass. This will make the plaster of
paris useless after some time. Hence it should be stored in a moisture proof container.
Q.14) What is a neutralization reaction? Give two examples.
Ans. A neutralization reaction is a reaction in which an acid reacts with a base, to form salt
and water.
Examples:(i) Sodium hydroxide (base) reacts with hydrochloric acid(acid) and forms
Sodium Chloride (Salt) and water.


Sodium hydroxide hydrochloric acid Sodium Chloride water
Examples:(ii) Magnesium hydroxide (base) reacts with carbonic acid(acid) and forms
Magnesium Carbonate (Salt) and water
Mg(OH)2 + H2CO3 MgCO3 + 2H2O
Magnesium hydroxide carbonic acid Magnesium Carbonate water
Q.15) Give preparation properties and uses of:-

a. Baking soda
b. Washing Soda.
a. Baking soda:- Baking soda is chemically known as sodium hydrogen carbonate or
sodium bicarbonate. Its chemical formula is NaHCO3.
Preparation:-
Baking soda is manufactured by solvay‘s process using sodium chloride as one of the raw
materials. In this method ammonia is added to sodium chloride solution (Sodium Chloride
solution is also called as brine) followed by the reaction with carbon dioxide, which
results in the production of sodium bicarbonate. The reaction can be represented as
follows:-
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Ammonium Sodium
Chloride bicarbonate
Properties:-
(i) It is white crystalline solid.
(ii) It is sparingly soluble in water and forms alkaline solution.
(iii) Upon heating decomposes into sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.
∆
2NaHCO3 Na2 CO3 + H2O + CO2
(iv) It reacts with acids to give out carbon dioxide.
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Uses:- (i) It is used as an ingredient of antacids medicines.
(ii) It is used as an additive in food and drinks.
(iii) It is used in soda acid fire extinguisher.
Washing Soda:-
Chemically washing soda is sodium carbonate containing ten molecules of water as water
of crystallization. So it is called sodium carbonate decahydrate having chemical formula
(Na2 CO3 10H2O). However, dehydration of water of crystallization results in the
formation of anhydrous sodium carbonate which is called as soda ash (Na2 CO3).
Preparation :- In the manufacture of sodium carbonate, ammonia is added to sodium
chloride solution followed by the reaction with carbon dioxide, which results in the
production of sodium bicarbonate.
NaCl + NH3 + H2O + CO2 NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
Sodium bicarbonate Ammonium chloride
(The mixture of NaCl + NH3 + H2O is also called ammoniacal brine solution )
The precipitate of sodium bicarbonate is separated by filtration and is heated strongly to
get sodium carbonate.
∆
2NaHCO3 Na2 CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)
Sodium carbonate so obtained is re-crystallized from water to get sodium carbonate
decahydrate having molecular formula Na2 CO3 10H2O
Properties:-
(i) Washing soda is a transparent crystalline solid.
(ii) A molecule of washing soda contains 10 molecules of water of crystallization.

(iii) Washing soda loses nine molecules of water of crystallization when kept open in
air. This process is called efflorescence. Thus washing soda is efflorescent in
nature.
(iv) It is readily soluble in water. It dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution.
(v) On heating washing soda does not decompose, but loses all the molecules of water
and becomes dry.
(vi) It reacts with acids to give out carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3 + 2 HCl 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Uses:-
(i) It is used in laundry.
(ii) It is used for softening hard water.
(iii) It is used in the manufacture of glass, soaps, paper etc.
(iv) It is used as cleansing agent for domestic purposes.
(v) It is used as laboratory reagent.
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Physics
Lesson No. 1 Light
Light: Light is a form of energy which causes sensation of sight.
Ray of light: Straight line drawn in the direction of propagation of light is termed as ray of light.
The types of sources of light: The natural source of light is sun. Other manmade (artificial
sources) of light are electric bulb, oil lamp, fluorescent tube, sodium lamp, mercury lamp etc. The
sources emitting light of their own are called self-luminous. For example the sun, glow worm
(i.e., Jugnu) etc. The sources which do not possess their own light but give light called reflected
light of other luminous sources are called non-luminous sources, e.g. moon, earth, paper etc.
Speed of light:
Light travels in different speeds in different media.
a) Speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 108m/s
b) Speed of light in air is almost same as in vacuum, (3x108m/s)
c) Speed of light in water = 2.25 x 108m/s
d) Speed of light in glass = 1.80 x 108m/s.
Incident ray: It is defined as light traveling in first medium.
Point of incidence: It is a point at which incident ray strikes reflecting surface.
Angle of incidence: The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence is called angle of incidence. It is represented by i.
Angle of reflection: The angle which the reflected ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence is called angle of reflection. It is represented by r.
Medium of propagation: It may be defined as the path or way through which light passes.
Q)1 Definitions related with spherical mirrors?

Ans) A) Pole: The middle point or centre of the spherical mirror is called pole of the
mirror. It is represented by letter ―P‖.
B) Centre of curvature: It is the centre of hallow sphere of which the mirror is a
part. It is represented by ―C‖. The centre of curvature of a convex mirror is behind it and that of
concave mirror is infront of it.
C) Principal axis: The imaginary line passing through centre of curvature and pole of
spherical mirror is called principal axis.
D) Principal focus: The principal focus is a point where a beam of light initially parallel to
principal axis appears to converge (meet) after reflection or appears to diverge after reflection
from the mirror. It is denoted by ―F‖
Principal focus of a concave mirror: The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point where
beam of light initially parallel to the principal axis, actually meet after reflection from the mirror.
Principal focus of a convex mirror: The principal focus of a convex mirror is a point where beam
of light initially parallel to the principal axis, appear to diverge after reflection from the mirror.
E) Focal length: It is the distance between the pole of the spherical mirror and principal
focus. It is represented by ―f‖.

F) Aperture: It is the effective diameter of reflecting area (surface) of the mirror. The
aperture
represents the size of the mirror.
G) Radius of curvature: Radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the sphere
of which mirror is a part. It is represented by the letter ―R‖.
H) Principal section: A section of a spherical mirror cut by a plane passing through the pole
and centre of curvature of the mirror is called principal section of the mirror.
Relation between radius of curvature and focal length:
The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half the radius of curvature of the mirror.
i.e. f = ½ R or R = 2f
where R= radius of curvature and f= focal length.
This formula is valid for both concave and convex mirrors.
Q.2) What are spherical mirrors? Give sign conventions for spherical mirrors.
Ans) Spherical mirror Spherical mirror is a part of hallow sphere with one side highly polished
to reflect almost all the light falling on it. Spherical mirrors are of two types:
(A) Concave spherical mirror (B) Convex spherical mirror
i. Concave spherical mirror: A concave mirror is that spherical mirror whose outer bulged
surface is polished and reflection of light takes place at the concave surface (bent-in
surface). The inner shining surface of a spoon is an example of concave mirror.
ii. Convex spherical mirror: A convex mirror is that spherical mirror whose inner surface is
polished and the reflection of light takes place at convex surface (bulged out surface).
Sign convention used in spherical mirrors:
The new Cartesian sign conventions used for measuring various distances in the ray
diagrams of the spherical mirrors (convex or concave) are summarized as follows:
i. All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical mirror pole is taken as origin.
ii. The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive while those
measured in the direction opposite to the incident light are taken as negative.
iii. Height of object or image measured in upward direction and perpendicular to the principal
axis is taken as positive.
iv. Heights of object/image measured in downward direction and perpendicular to the
principal axis are taken as negative.
v. Distance in real image is negative while in virtual image it is positive.
vi. The principal axis of the mirror is taken along x-axis.
vii. The object is taken on the left hand side of the mirror.
Q.3) Define Principal focus and focal lengths of a concave mirror?

Ans) Principal focus of a concave mirror: The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point
where beam of light initially parallel to the principal axis, actually meet after reflection
from the mirror.
Focal length: It is the distance between the pole of the spherical mirror and principal
focus. It is represented by ―f‖.

Q.4) Define linear magnification?

Ans) The linear magnification produced by a concave mirror is defined as the ratio of height of
the image (h2) to the height of the object (h1). It is represented by ―m‖.
Linear magnification = height of image (h2)
height of object (h1)
or m = h2/h1
linear magnification of a spherical mirror is also defined as the ratio of the distance of the
image to the distance of the object from the pole of the mirror.
m = distance of image (v) = height of image (h2)
distance of object (u) height of object (h1)
m= v = h2
u h1
linear magnification has no units.
1) When size of the image is greater than the size of object i.e. then h2 > h1
as m = h2/h1, then m>1
The linear magnification is greater than 1 (magnification is very high).
2) When the image is of the same size as that of object i.e. h2 = h1

as m = h2/h1 , then m = 1
Thus the magnification is equal to 1
3) When the image is smaller than object i.e. h2<h1
as m = h2/h1 then m<1
i.e, linear magnification is less than 1 (magnification is very small)
When the image is real and inverted i.e. image lies below the principal axis. Therefore,
height (h2) of the image is negative. As height of an object (h1) always positive.
Therefore m = -h2/h1 = -ve
Thus when linear magnification is negative the image formed by a concave mirror must be
real and inverted and vice versa.
When the image is virtual and erect i.e. Image lies above the principal axis, therefore
height (h2) of the image is +ve. As height of the object (h1) is always +ve.
Therefore, m = h2/h1 = +ve
Thus when linear magnification is positive, the image formed by a concave mirror is
virtual and erect and vice versa.
Q.5) Discuss the image formation in case of a concave mirror with the help of ray diagram?
Ans) The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends upon the position of the object
infront of the mirror. The following six cases arise.
a) Case1 When the object is at infinity: When an object is at very large distance from a
concave mirror, it is said to be at infinity. Two rays of light AD and E`E coming parallel
to the principal axis, get reflected along DF1 and EF1. The image is formed at the focus
(F). The image is real, inverted and highly diminished.
From infinity
A D
i
E` r E
C F P

b) Case 2 When the object is placed beyond the centre of curvature: A ray of light AD
coming parallel to the principal axis gets reflected along DF. Another ray of light AE
passing through centre of curvature is reflected along EC. (this ray retraces its path) The
image is formed between centre of curvature (C) and focus (F). The image is real, inverted
and diminished.
c)
Case 3 When the object is placed at centre of curvature: A ray of light AD parallel to
the principal axis is reflected along DA1. Another ray of light AE passing through the
focus is reflected along EA1 parallel to the principal axis. The image is formed at centre of
curvature (C) and is real, inverted and of the same size as that of the object.
d) Case 4 Object between focus and centre of curvature: When the object AB is placed
between (F) and (C). A ray of light AD parallel to principal axis passes through focus (F)
after reflection at D. Another ray of light AE passes through centre of curvature (C) after
reflection at E (it retraces its path ). The two rays actually meet at A1. Thus forming the
image A1B1. It is real, inverted and magnified image and is formed beyond the centre of
curvature.
e) Case 5 Object placed at focus (F): If the object is placed at F focus, all the rays starting
from the object become (||) parallel to the principal axis after reflection from mirror and
therefore meet at infinity. Thus image formed is at infinity. The image formed is real,
inverted and magnified, this image can‘t be obtained on screen.

f) Case 6 Object between pole and focus: A ray of light AD parallel to principal axis passes
through focus (F), after reflection at D. Another ray of light AE passes through centre of
curvature C after reflection at E (this ray retraces its path). The two reflected rays DF and
EAC diverge and cannot meet actually. However, when these two reflected rays are
produced back, they appear to come from a common point A1 behind the mirror. Thus
A1B1 is the image of the object, which is virtual, erect, magnified and lies behind the
mirror. As the image is virtual, it cannot be obtained on screen.
Q)6. Describe the rules for tracing the path of reflected light rays: (convex mirror)?
Ans) Following are the rules for tracing the path of reflected rays
Rule1) A ray of light falling on the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis of a
convex mirror appears to be coming from its focus on reflection from the mirror as shown in
figure.
Incident rays convex mirror
Principal axis
F C
Rule2) A ray of light directed towards centre of curvatureFocus
of a convex mirror is reflected
back along the same path i.e. such a ray of light retraces its path on reflection as shown in
figure.
Incident
Reflected
Principal axis
P C
Rule3) A ray of light directed towards focus of a convex mirror becomes parallel to the
principal axis of mirror after reflection. This rule is just the reverse of Rule1.
Reflected rays M1
Principal axis
P F
M2 Focus
Convex mirror

Rule4) A ray of light incident obliquely towards the pole P of a convex mirror is reflected
obliquely. Such that the incident ray and the reflected ray make equal angles with the
principal axis.
Incident rays convex mirror
i
Principal axis r P F C
F C
Reflected ray Focus
Q)7. Discuss the image formation by a convex mirror with the help of a ray diagram?
Ans) The image formed by a convex mirror is always behind the mirror. The image formed is
virtual, erect and smaller in size, whenever the distance of the object is changed from convex
mirror, then only the position and the size of the image changes. There are two main positions
of object in case of a convex mirror from the point of view of position and size of image:
(i) At infinity
(ii) Anywhere between pole (P) and infinity.
(i) When the object is placed at infinity: A ray of light AP inclined to the principal
axis is reflected at P along PG. Another ray of light AD is reflected at D, along
DE. The two reflected rays PG and DE, when produced back intersects at point A`.
Thus A` B` image is formed at focus (f) behind the mirror, the image formed is
virtual, erect and highly diminished in size.
Fig. A
(ii) When the object is placed between infinity and the pole of the mirror: A ray of light
AD parallel to principal axis is reflected at D, along DE. Another ray of light AG retraces its pass
on reflection at G. the two reflected rays DE and GA when produced back intersect at A. Thus
A1B1 is the image formed, which is virtual, erect, and diminished in size and lies behind the
mirror between P and F.
Fig B

Q.8) What are the uses of spherical mirrors?

Ans) (A) Uses of concave spherical mirrors: (i) They are used as a reflector in torches, search
lights, headlights of motor vehicles etc. to get powerful parallel beams of light.
(ii) Concave mirror is used as a shaving mirror as it can form erect and magnified image
of the face.
(iii) They are used by doctors to concentrate light on body parts like teeth, ears and eyes,
which are to be examined.
(iv) Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
cookers, solar furnaces etc.
(v) Concave mirrors of large diameters are used as objectives in reflecting telescope.
(B) Uses of convex spherical mirrors: (i) A convex mirror is used as a reflector in street
lamps. As a result, light from the lamp diverges over a large area.
(ii) A convex mirror is used by drivers of automobiles like cars, buses and trucks as a rear
view mirror.
Q.9) What is Lens?
Ans. A lens is a piece of transparent material (usually galss) with atleast one curved surface
having some magnifying power.
Q)10. What are the rules used for obtaining image formed by convex lenses?
Ans:-When an object is placed in front of a convex lens, an image is formed, at that point
where at least two refracted rays meet (or appear to meet).
Rule 1:- A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens, passes through
its (second) principal focus after refraction through the lens as shown in fig (a)
Rule 2:- A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a convex lens passes straight after
refraction through the lens as shown in figure (b).
Rule 3 :- A ray of light passing through the (first) principal focus of a convex lens becomes
parallel to its principal axis after refraction through the lens as shown in figure (c).
Q)11. Discuss the image formation by convex lens with the help of ray diagram?
Ans:- The type of image formed by a convex lens depends on the positions of the object in front
of lens. Following six cases arise..
Case 1:- When the object is placed at infinity.
Two parallel rays of light AC and AD are inclined to the principal axis of the lens. The ray AC
passes undeviated through optical centre and ray AD converges on refraction through the convex
lens. The two refracted rays actually meet at A~.
The image is formed at the second principal focus (F2) of the convex lens. The image is real,
inverted & highly diminished as shown in figure.

Case II:- When the object is placed beyond 2F1:

A ray of light starting from A and incident on the lens along AD in a direction parallel to the
principal axis of the lens, on refraction passes through second principal focus F2 of the lens.
Another ray of light starting from A and incident on the lens along AC, goes undeviated through
the optical centre of the lens. The two refracted rays meet actually at A`.
The image formed is between F2 & 2F2. The image is real inverted & diminished as shown in
figure
Case III:- When the object is placed at 2F1 (F1 is first principal focus):
A ray of light starting from A and incident on the lens along AD in a direction parallel to
principal axis of the lens, on refraction, passes through second principal focus F2 of the lens.
Another ray of light starting from A and incident on the lens along AC, passes undeviated
through the optical centre. The two refracted rays meet actually at A`.
The image is formed at 2F2. The image is real, inverted & same in size as shown in figure.
Case IV: When the object is placed between F1 & 2F1:

Another ray of light, starting from A and incident on the lens along AC, passes undeviated
through the optical centre C of the lens. The two refracted rays meet actually at a point A`.
The image is formed beyond 2F2 on the other side of convex lens. The image is real, inverted &
enlarged as shown in figure.
Case V : When the object is placed at F1.:

Another ray of light, starting from A and incident on the lens along AC, passes undeviated

through optical centre C of the lens. The two refracted rays emerge from the lens in a direction
paralleled to each other, as shown in figure. Those rays would meet at very large distance from
the lens, say at infinity.
The image is formed at infinity. The image is real, inverted & highly magnified as shown in
figure.
Case VI :- When the object is placed between F1 & „C‟:

A ray of light starting from A and incident on the lens along AD, in a direction parallel to the
Another ray of light starting from A and incident on the lens along AC, passes undeviated
through optical centre C of the lens. The two refracted rays from the lens are diverging and would
not meet on the right side of the lens. However, when we produce the two refracted rays in the
backward direction, they appear to come from the point A`.
The image formed is beyond f1 on the same side of the lens the image formed is virtual, erect &
enlarged as shown in figure.
Q12. What are the rules used for obtaining image formed by concave lens?
Ans) When an object is placed infront of a concave lens, an image is formed. The image is
formed at that point where at least two refracted rays meet (or appear to meet).
Rule 1) A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a concave lens, appears to be
coming from its focus after refraction through the lens. as shown in fig (a)
Rule 2) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a concave lens goes straight after
passing through the lens. as shown in fig (b)
Rule3) A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens after refraction,
will emerge parallel to the principal axis of the lens. This is shown in figure (C).

The image is formed at a point, where the two refracted rays appear to meet. For all positions of the
object, the image formed by a concave lens is virtual, erect and diminished in size. The exact position
and size of the image would depend upon the position of the object.
Two cases arise:
Case 1) When the object lies between optical centre and infinity:
A ray of light AD starting from the top point A of the object is falling on the concave lens in a
direction parallel to principal axis of the lens. This ray diverges after refraction along DE and
on producing back; it appears to come from second principal focus F2 of the lens. Another ray
of light AC starting from the same point A on the object, passes undeviated through the
optical centre C, along ACG. The two refracted rays intersect at A`. Therefore, A` is virtual
image of the point A on the object.
When an object is held anywhere between optical centre C of concave lens and infinity, the image
formed is:
(i) Between optical centre C and second principal focus F2; on the same side of the lens and the image
is,
(ii) Virtual and erect and
(iii) Smaller in size than the object.
Fig. (a)
Case 2) When the object is at infinity:
When the object is at infinity point, image is formed at the second principal focus on the same side of
the lens. This is shown in figure (b). The image is virtual, erect and highly diminished to almost point
size.
fig (b)
Q.13) Refraction: The phenomenon of change in the direction of propagation of light when it
goes from one medium to another is called refraction. In other words refraction is the
phenomenon in which bending of light takes place when it passes from one medium to
another medium. The refraction takes place at the boundary of two media. The basic cause
of refraction is change in the velocity of light in going from one medium to another
medium.
In given figure the incident ray traveling in air medium along ―AO‖ and when it enters
glass medium at point ―O‖, it bends and goes along ―OB‖.
In the given figure ―AO‖ is incident ray, ―OB‖ is refracted ray, BON is angle of
refraction and OAN is angle of incidence. ON is the normal.

It has been found that when a ray of light goes from an optically denser medium to an
optically rearer medium it bends away from the normal at the point of incidence.
and when it goes from a optically rearer medium to an optically denser medium it bends
towards normal at the point of incidence.
Q.14) Laws of refraction:
Ist Law :-It states that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane. In given figure, the incident ray ―AO‖ the refracted ray
―OB‖ and the normal ―ON‖ all lie in the same plane. i.e. plane of paper
2nd Law :- This law gives the relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of
refraction. The law was given by Snell in 1621, so the 2nd law is also called as Snell’s law
of refraction. It states that the ratio of sin of angle of incidence to the sin of angle of
refraction is constant for a given medium.
i.e. sin i = constant
sin r
This constant is called as refractive index and is denoted by mew (µ).
Thus refractive index µ = sin i
sin r
3rd Law :- It states that whenever light goes from one medium to another, the frequency
of light and phase of light do not change. However, the velocity of light and the wave
length of light changes.
Q.15) Refractive index: The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light
in vacuum to the speed of light in the given medium. It is represented by ―µ‖.
Refractive index of a medium = speed of light in vacuum
speed of light in given medium
As the speed of light in air is almost equal to speed of light in vacuum.
Therefore, µ= speed of light in air (C)
Speed of light in given medium (V)
µ = C/ V
Refractive index has no unit (as it is ratio of two velocities).
e.g, refractive index of glass
µg = speed of light in air = 3x108m/s = 1.5
speed of light in glass 2x108m/s
refractive index of water
8
µw = speed of light in air ≈ 3x10 m/s = 4/3 = 1.33
speed of light in water 2.25x108m/s
Relative Refractive Index: When light passes from medium1 to another medium 2 the
refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is written as 1n2 and is called
relative refractive index.
If n1 is the refractive index of medium 1 and n2 that of medium 2
Then, 1n2 = n2 --------- 1
n1
If v1 is the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 in medium 2
Then n1 = C/V1 and n2 = C/V2 ----------- 2
Substitute n1 by C/V1 and n2 by C/V2 in equation 1; we hav
1
n2 = C/V2 X V1/C = V1/V2 ----------- 3
1
n2 = speed of light in medium 1
speed of light in medium 2
similarly refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is
2
n1 = n1/n2 = C/V1 x V2/C = V2/V1 ---------- 4

Thus refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is reciprocal of refractive

index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2
For example: speed of light in glass = 2 x 108m/s
Speed of light in air = 3 x 108m/s
The refractive index of glass with respect to air i.e, ang = Va/Vg
a
ng = 3 x 108m/s = 3/2
2 x 108m/s
Similarly refractive index of air with respect to glass i.e, gna = 1/3/2 = 2/3
Likewise refractive index of water with respect to air i.e, anw = 4/3
Therefore refractive index of air with respect to water i.e, wna = 1 = 3
4
/3 4
Q.16) Refraction through a Glass Slab:-
Consider a rectangular glass slab KLMN of refractive index µg and thickness (a). A ray
of light traveling in air along AB, falls on the side KL of glass slab at B at an angle of
incidence i . After refraction into the glass the ray of light bends towards normal and
goes along BC at an angle of refraction r1.
According to Snell‘s law.
µg = Sini (1)
µa Sinr
At point C on the boundary NM of glass slab, the ray of light again suffers
refraction and emerges out of glass slab into air along CD. For second refraction at C, BC
serves as incident ray, N2CB = r2 angle of incidence and DCN2`=e is the angle of
emergence, which is the angle of refraction in air.
Applying Snell‘s Law at C, we get
µa = sinr2 (2)
µg sine
or µg = sine (3)
µa sinr2
From equation (1) and (3) we get
sine = sini (4)
sinr2 sinr1
From fig it is clear that r1 =r2 (because Alternate Angles)
Therefore, sin r2 = sin r1 (5)
From equation (4) and (5) we have; sine = sini
or e = i
i :e angle of incidence ( i ) at first boundary of glass slab is equal to angle of
emergence (e) at second boundary. This shows that incident ray AB is parallel to
emergent ray CD.
Thus light emerges from rectangular glass slab in a direction parallel to the light that
entered the glass slab. The perpendicular distance between the extended incident ray and
the emergent ray is called lateral displacement.

Q.17) Define the principal focus & focal length of a convex lens?
Ans) A convex lens has two surfaces & hence it has two focal point or principal foci.
First principal focus of a convex lens is the position of point object on the principal axis
of the lens, for which the image formed by the lens is at infinity. It is represented by F1.
First focal length: The distance of first principal focus of the lens from optical centre ‗C‘
of the lens is called first focal length of convex lens. In above figure, f 1 = CF1 It is
represented by f1.
Second Principal Focus of a convex lens is the position of an image point on the
principal axis of the lens, when the point object is situated at infinity. It is denoted by F2 .
It is a real point.
Second focal length The distance of 2nd principal focus of the lens from the optical centre
―C‖ of the lens is called second focal length of convex lens. It is represented by f2. Thus in
given figure f2 = CF2.
Q.18) Define principal focus & focal length of a concave lens?

Ans) A concave lens has two surfaces & hence it has also two focal points or two principal foci
(1) First principal focus of a concave lens is the virtual position of the point object on the
principal axis of the lens, for which the image formed by concave lens is at infinity. It is
represented by f1.
First principal focal length of concave lens: The distance of first principal focus of the
lens from optical centre ‗C‘ of the lens is called first principal focal length of concave
lens. It is represented by f1. Thus in figure f1 = CF1
(2) The Second principal focus of a concave lens is the position of the image point on the
principal axis of lens, when the point object is situated at infinity. It is represented by F2. It
is virtual point.
Second Principal focal length of concave lens: The distance of second principal focus of
the lens from the optical centre of the lens is called 2nd principal focal length of concave
lens. It is represented by f2. Thus in given figure f2 = CF2
Q.19) What do you understand by linear Magnification produced by lenses?

Ans:- The linear magnification produced by lenses is the ratio of the size of the image to the size
of the object. It is represented by m.
Thus linear magnification = size of image
size of object

if ―h1‖ is the size of the object and ―h2‖ size of the image then, m = h2 (1)
h1
The linear magnification produced by a lens in terms of the image distance and object
distance is equal to the ratio of image distance to the object distance.
Thus magnification = image distance
object distance.
If ―I‖ is the image distance and ―O‖ is the object distance.
Then m = I (2 )
O
From equation (1) and (2) we have
m = I = h2
O h1
A concave lens forms an image which is always smaller than the object . Therefore linear
magnification of a concave lens is always less than one (1).
In case of a convex lens:
(i) When the size of an image is equal to the size of the object i.e. h2=h1. Therefore
m = h2 = 1 = 1. thus the magnification is equal to one (1)
h1 1
(ii) When the size of the image is greater than the size of the object i.e. h2 is greater than
h1 as m = h2 > 1
h1
then m is greater than one (1).Thus linear magnification is greater than one
(iii) when the image is smaller than object i.e. h2 is less than h1,
as m= h2 , then ―m‖ is less than one. Thus linear magnification is less than one
h1
Q.20 Define Power of a lens?
Ans) The power of a lens is defined as the ability of lens to converge the rays of light falling on
it . A convex lens converges the rays of light falling on it, power of convex lens is said to
be positive.
A concave lens diverges the rays of light falling on it . Therefore power of a concave lens
is said to be negative.
The power of a lens depends on its focal length . Mathematically, the power of lens is
given by reciprocal of focal length of the lens i.e.,
Power of lens P = 1 i.e. 1P =
Focal Length of the lens(f) f
Where ‗f‘ is in metres. However if f is in cm then power of a lens is expressed
as P = 100
f
Clearly, smaller the focal length of a lens, greater is its power & Vice-versa.
For a convex lens, ‗f‘ is positive, therefore, ‗P‘ is positive i.e., power of convex lens is
positive.
For concave lens f is negative. So P is negative i.e. power of concave lens is negative.
The S.I unit of power of lens is dioptre, represented by ‗D‖
When f= 1m, P = 1 = 1 =1 dioptre.
f 1
Thus one dioptre is the power of a lens of focal length one metre.
The power of lens in diopters is called the number of lens e.g., a convex lens of focal
length
50cm (f = 0.5m) has power = 1 = 2D
0.5m

Its number is said to be +2.

Similarly for a concave lens of focal length 10cm (f = _0.1m) has power
P = 1 = 10D
0.1
Its number is said to be 10.
Now m = h - v
=
h u
ϰ v
u = -1
 u = -v
 u = -501cm
Negative sign shows that object is to the left side of the convex lens.
1
Also 1 = 1 − 1
f v u
or 1 = 1 − −1
f 50 50
or 1 = 1 + 1 2 1
= =
f 50cm 50cm 50 25
or 1 = 1
f 25 cm
or f = 25 cm
1 p = power of the lens
we know when 1 1
Now P = 100
f
or P = 100 4
25
P = 4
ϰ P = + 4 Dioptre.
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Reflection
Q1. What do you understand by principle focus of a concave and convex mirror?
Ans. Principal focus of a concave mirror. The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point
on principal axis of the mirror, at which rays of light incident on the mirror in a direction
parallel to the principal axis, actually meet (converge) after reflection from the mirror. It
is represented by the letter ―F‖. In given figure parallel rays after falling on concave
mirror get reflected and meet in front of concave mirror at point F. Thus in case of
concave mirror Principal focus is real point lying always in front of the mirror.

Principal focus of a convex mirror:- The principal focus of a convex mirror is a point on the
principal axis of the convex mirror, from which rays of light incident on the mirror in a direction
parallel to the principal axis, appears to diverge, after reflection from the mirror: It is represented
by the letter F. In given figure parallel rays after falling on convex mirror get reflected and
diverge out. When the diverging reflected rays are produced back, they meet at F and appear to
diverge from F. Thus F is the principal focus. Thus in case of convex mirror principal focus is a
virtual point, which is always behind the mirror.
Q.2) The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal length?
Ans) Radius of curvature = r = 20 cm-------- (given)
We know; r = 2f where f is focal length of mirror
or f = r --------------- (1)
2
substituting value of r in equation (1) we get
f = 20 cm = 10 cm
2
Therefore focal length of given mirror is 10 cm
Q. 3) Name mirror that can give an erect and enlarged image of an object?
Ans. A concave mirror gives an erect and enlarged image of an object, when an object is held
between the pole and principal focus of a mirror.
Q.4) Why do you prefer a convex mirror as a rear view mirror in vehicles?
Ans. A convex mirror is preferred as a rear view mirror in vehicles to see the traffic behind the
rear side because;
i. A convex mirror produces an erect image of the objects.
ii. A convex mirror produces the image of an object much smaller than the size of the
object.
iii. Convex mirrors have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards. Therefore,
convex mirrors enables the driver to view much larger area of the traffic behind him
than would be possible in using plane mirror as a rear view mirror in vehicles.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius of curvature is 32 cm.
Ans) Radius of curvature = r = 32 cm
We know; r = 2f where f is focal length of concave mirror
or f = r --------------- (1)
2
substituting value of r in equation (1) we get

f = 32 cm = 16 cm
2
Therefore focal length of given mirror is 16 cm
Q.2) A concave mirror produces three times magnified (enlarged) real image of an object
placed at 10cm imfront of it. Where is the image located?
Ans) We know that
m = h2 = - v m = magnification, h2 = height of image,

h1 u h1 = height of object, u = distance of object from lens
or - v = h2 ---------(1) v = distance of image from lens,
u h1
Let height of object, h1 = h 1
then height of image, h2 = -3h
Negative sign indicates that the image is real, as real images are inverted.
Substituting 1h1 by h and h2 by -3h in equation (1) we get
-v = - 3h
u h
or +v = + 3
u
or V = 3u ---------- (2)
Now u = -10 cm ----(given)
Substituting value of u in equation (2) we get
v = 3 x -10 cm
or v = -30 cm
Therefore distance of the image from the lense is =-30 cm
Negative sign shows that the image is to the left side of the mirror.
SECTION - C
Q.1) A ray of light traveling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light ray bend
towards the normal or away from the normal. why?
Ans. When a ray of light travels from air into water obliquely it bends towards the normal. This
is because water is optically denser than air, therefore on entering the water speed of light
decreases and the ray of light bends towards normal.
Q.2) Light enters from air to glass having refractive index 1.50. What is the speed of light
in the glass? The speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 108 ms-1.
Ans) Given that
Refraction index of glass, aµg = 1.50 speed of light in vacuum(air) = 3 x 108 ms-1.
we know that; 1µ2 = velocity of light in medium 1
velocity of light in medium 2
where µ2 is reflective index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1.
Therefore, refractive index of glass, aµg = velocity of light in air
velocity of light in glass.
or velocity of light in glass = velocity of light in air
refractive index of glass
or velocity of light in glass = 3 x 108 ms-1
1.5
 Velocity of light in glass = 2x 108 ms-1

Q.3) Find out the medium having highest optical density. Also find the medium with lowest
optical density?
Ans) (i) Medium with highest optical density :- As we know that a medium is said to
optically denser, whose refractive index is larger and a medium is said to be optically rarer,
whose refractive index is smaller . From the data available, it is clear that the medium with
highest value of refractive index is diamond (2.42), thus diamond is the medium with highest
optical density.
(ii) Medium with lowest optical density Similarly the medium with lowest value refractive
index is air (1.003) thus air is the medium with lowest optical density.
Q.4) Your are given kerosene, turpentine and water. In which of these does the light travel
fastest? Use the information given in the table?
Transparent media Refractive Index Transparent media Refractive
Index
Air 1.0003 Turpentine 1.47
Ice 1.31 Diamond 2.42
Water 1.33 Rock salt 1.54
Alcohol 1.36 Benzene 1.50
Kerosene Oil 1.44
c
We know µ = /v
or v = c/µ where µ is refractive index of given medium, c velocity of light in vacuum and
v velocity of light in the given medium.
From above equation it is clear that larger the value of refractive index of a medium smaller
the speed of light in that medium and vice versa. thus light travels fastest in a medium whose
refractive index is smallest. Of the above mentioned three liquids, water is having lowest
refractive index, thus light travels fastest in it.
Q.5) Refractive index of diamond is 2.42 what does it mean?
Ans. Refractive index of diamond is (2.42). Therefore optical density of diamond is the largest. As
we know µ = C/V
Therefore v = C/µ where v is the velocity of light in the given medium, µ s the
refractive index of diamond which is the largest, and c is the velocity of light in vacuum
(air) which is constant , therefore v is smallest i.e velocity of light in diamond is minimum.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Define one dioptre of power of a lens.?
Ans. One dioptre is the power of a lens of focal length one metre.
A dioptre is a unit of measurement of the optical power of a lens .
Q.2) A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of a needle at a distance of 50 cm from
it. Where is the needle placed infront of the convex lens so that the size of the image
is equal to the size of the object? Also, find the power of the lens.
Ans) Distance of image from convex lens v = 50 cm

Let the size of the image which is equal to the size of the objec be equal to h
Therefore height/size of object h1 = h
and height/size of image h2 = - h
Negative sign indicates the inverted image.
m = h2 = - v
h1 u

1
or - v = h2 ---------(1)
u h1
where m = magnification, h2 = height of image,
h1 = height of object, u = distance of object from lens
-v = distance of image from lens,
or h2 1h −v
h1 = h = u
or − v =- h
= 1
u h
or v
u = − 1
1
By Cross1multiplication
1
v = 1- u
Substitutely value of v in above equation we get
u = − 50 cm 1
We know 1 = 1 − 1
f v u
Where f is focal length of the lens, u = − 50 cm, v = 50 cm
Or 1 1 − 1
= −
f 50 50
or 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 = 1
f 50cm 50cm 50 cm 25 cm
1 1
or 1 = 1
f 25 cm
 f = 25 cm
1
we know where p = power of the lens
P = 100 where p is the power of the lens
f (cm)
substituting the value of f in above equation we have
P = 100 4
25
or P = 4
P = + 4 Dioptre.
Therefore power of lens is 4 D
Q.3) Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2m.
Ans) Focal length, f = − 2m (sign convention), Power of lens P = ?
We know that
P = 1 (1)
f(m)
Substitutely value of f in equation (1) we get
P =− 1
2(m)
1
or P = - 0.5 Dioptre. Therefore Power of lens is - 0.5D

SECTION - E
Q.1) Which one of the following materials can not be used to make a lens? Water, Glass, Plastic,
Clay?
Ans. Clay can not be used to make a lens, as it is not transparent.
Q.2) The image formed by a concave mirror is observed to be virtual, erect and larger than the
object, where should be the position of an object?
Ans. For virtual, erect and larger image, the object must lie between the pole of the mirror and its
focus.
Q.3) Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to get a real image of the size of
the object?
Ans. Let the size of the image which is equal to the size of the objec be equal to h
Therefore height/size of object h1 = h
and height/size of image h2 = - h
Negative sign indicates the inverted image.
m = h2 = - v
h1 u
or − v = h2 ---------(1)
u h1
where m = magnification,1 h2 = height of image,
h1 = height of object, u = distance of object from lens
-v = distance of image from lens,
or h2 1h −v
h1 = h = u
or − v =- h = 1
u h
or v
u = − 1
1
By Cross1multiplication
1
v = 1- u
We know 1 1 1 1
= −
f v u
Where f is focal length of the lens and v = - u
Replacing v by –u in above equation we have

1
1 1 1 −1
f
=
-u − u = 2u
1
or f = − 2u or u = − f
2
The object is to be placed at twice the focal length of the lens.
1
SECTION - F
Q.4)
1 1
We wish to obtain an erect image of an object, using a concave mirror of focal length 15cm.
what should be the range of distance of the object from the mirror? What is the nature of
the image? Is the image larger or smaller than the object? Draw a ray diagram to show the
image formation in this case. Name the type of mirror used in the following situations:
(a) Head light of a car (b) Side rear view mirror of a vehicle
(c) Solar furnace

Ans.To obtain an erect image of an object in a concave mirror, the object is to be held between pole
and principal focus of the mirror. Therefore, range of distance of the object from the mirror
must be less than 15cm. The image will be erect and virtual . The size of image would be
larger than the size of the object.
a. For Head light of a car we use a concave mirror to get a powerful beam of light.
This is because when a lighted bulb is placed at the focus of a concave mirror, it
produces a powerful beam of parallel light rays. This helps us to see things upto a
considerable distance in the darkness of night.
b. For side rear view of a vehicle, we use a convex lens because its field of view is
larger, and it forms virtual, erect and diminished images of objects behind.
c. For solar furnace concave mirror is used because light rays from sun after
reflection from the mirror is concentrated at the focus of the mirror, producing heat
in the solar furnace which is placed at the focus.
Q.5) One half a convex lens is covered with a black paper, will this lens produce a complete
image of the object? Verify your answer experimentally? Explain your observations?
Ans. Yes, it will produce a complete image of the object, as shown in fig. this can be verified
experimentally by observing the image of a distant object like tree on a screen, when half
of the lens is covered with a black paper. However the intensity or brightness of image
will reduce.
Q.6) An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from a converging lens of focal length 10
cm. Draw the ray diagram and find the position, size and nature of the image
formed.
Ans) Case I :- Here Distance of object from converging lens, u = - 25 cm
Focal length of lens f = + 10 cm
Height of object, v = + 5 cm
According to lens formula,
1 1 = 1
−
v u f
or 1 = 1 + 1
v f u
substituting values of u and f in above equation we have
1 = 1 1
1 −
v 10cm 25 cm
or 1 = 5−2 3
v 50cm = 50cm
1
1
or 1 = 3
v 50cm
Therefore v = 50 cm = 16.66cm Therefore position of image formed = 16.66cm
1
3
The positive value of V shows that the image is formed on the other side of the lens.
Case II :- We know m = v , where m is magnification, v = 16.66cm, u = −25
1
u
substituting the value of v and u in above equation we have
m = 16.66
−25
Therefore m = − 0.66 The negative value of m shows that the image is real.
Case - III :-
We know m = h2 where h2 is height of image = ? and h1 is height of object = 5cm
h1
or h2 = m x h1
Substituting the value of m and h1 in above equation we get,
h2 = 0.66 x 5 cm
 h2 = -3.3 cm
Size of image formed = - 3.3 cm Nature of image formed = real
The negative value of height of the image formed indicates that the image formed is
inverted.
The position, size and nature of image are shown in the ray diagram below;
B
5 cm
A1
A 2F1 F1 o F2 2F2
3.3 cm
25 cm 16.66 cm
Q.7) A concave lens of focal length 15 cm forms an image 10 cm from the lens. How far is
the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
Ans) Here Focal length f = -15 cm
Distance of image V = -10 cm
Distance of the object u = ?
According to lens formula
1 1 1
−
f = v u
or − 1 1
= − 1
u v f
or 1 −1 1
=1 +1
u v f
or 1 −1 1
= +
u −10 − 15
1 1
1 1
D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher

1 block\Class
1 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light
or 1 1 1
u = 10 − 15 (Plz correct here, if any error)
or 1 3−2 1
u = 30 = 30
or −1 = 1
u 30
 − u 1= 30 1
Or u = − 30 cm
The negative value 1of u indicates that
1 the object is placed 30 cm in front of the lens.
This is shown in the following ray diagram;
2F2 F2 A1 o F1 F2
10cm
30 cm
Q.8) An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm.
Find the position and nature of the image.
Ans) Here Focal length f = + 15 cm

Distance of object u = − 10 cm
v is Distance of image = ?
According to mirror formula
-1 = 1 + 1
f v u
or 1 = 1 − 1
v f u
= 1 = 1 1
v 15cm − −10cm
1 1 1
v = 15cm + 10cm
or 1 2 +3
=
v 1 30 1
 1 = 5
v
1
30  1v = 30 =.6
Or v = + 6 cm 5
1
The positive value of v indicates that the image is formed behind the mirror.
1
Q.9) The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. What does this mean.
Ans) It means that the size of the image is equal to the size of the object and the position, sign
indicates that the image is virtual and erect.

Q.10) An object 5.0 cm in length is placed at a distance of 20 cm infront of a convex mirror

of radius of curvature 30 cm. Find the position of the image, its nature and size.
Ans) Case – I :- Object height, h1 = + 5.0 cm

Object distance u = − 20 cm
r = + 30 cm
We know f = r , where f is the focal length
2
Therefore f = r = 30 = 15 cm
2 2
1 = 1 + 1
f v u
or 1 = 1 1
−
v f u
Substituting the value of f & u in above equation we get
1 = 1 1 1 1
v 15cm − − 2 -20cm = 15 + 20
or 1 4+3 7
= 1 =
v 60 60
 v = 8.57 cm
1 the image is formed behind the mirror.
The position value of v indicates that
Case – II :- We know, m = − v 1 1
u
1 1
Where m is magnification, v is the position of the image = 8.57 cm
Substitution the value of v & u in above equation we get
m = − 8.57
− 20
or m = + 0.428
The positive value of magnification indicates that the image formed is virtual. Since,
value of magnification is lesser than 1, therefore, image formed is diminished.
Case - III :- we know m = h2 or h2 = m x h1

h1
where h1 is object height = 5 cm and h2 is image height = ?
Substituting the value of m & h1 is above equation we get
or h2 = + 0.428 x 5
 h2 = 2.14 cm
The positive value of image height indicates that the image is erect.
Q.11) As object of size 7.0 cm is placed at 27 cm infront of a concave mirror of focal length
18 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed so that a sharp
focused image can be obtained ? Find the size and the nature of the image.
Ans) Case – I :- Here object distance u = - 27 cm
Focal length f = - 18 cm
object height h1= + 7.0 cm

1 = 1 + 1
f v u
or 1 = 1 − 1
v f u
or 1 − 1 - 1
v = 18 −
− 27−
or 1 − 1 1
v = 18 + 27
or 1 = 1 1
v = 27 − 18
or 1 1 2 −13 −1
= =1
v 54 54
1 1
 v = − 54 cm
Therefore, the screen should be placed at a distance of 54 cm infront of a mirror.
1 1
Case II: We know m = -v Where m is magnification = ?,
1 u object distance u = –27cm
1
image distance v = – 54cm
Substituting the value of v and u in above equation we get
m = − (− 54)
(− 27)
= − 54
27 = −2
 m = - 2.
The negative value of magnification indicates that the image formed is real.
1
Case III We know , m = h2 Where h1 is image height = ?
h1 h2 is object height = 7.0
or h2 = m x h1
substitution the value of m and h2 in above equation we get.
 h2 = − 2 x 7.0 cm
 h2 = − 14.0 cm
The negative value of image height indicates that the image is inverted.
Q.12) Find the focal length of a lens of power -2.0 D. What type of lens is this ?
Ans)
We know that
P = 1 Where f is the focal length of lense=? P is the Power of lens = – 2.0D
f
or f = 1
P
or f = –1
2.0
 f = − 1
2.0
 f = − 0.5 cm
Since focal length is negative, therefore, the lens is diverging or concave lens.
Q.13) A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power + 1.5 D. Find the focal length of
the lens. Is the prescribed lens diverging or converging?
Ans)
We know that

P = 1 Where f is focal length of lens = ? P is the Power of lens , = + 1.5D

f (cm)
or f = 1
p
Substituting the value of P in above equation we have
or f = 1
1.5
 f = 0.66 cm
As the power of convex lens is positive, therefore, the prescribed lens is convex lens or
diverging lens.

Lesson No. 2.
Human Eye and the Colourful World
Q1 Structure, working and defects of human eye.

Structure of Human Eye:- The human eye is more or less like a photographic camera. The
essential parts of human eye are- Cornea, Iris, Pupil, Eye lens, Ciliary muscles, retina and optic
nerve.
Cornea: The front transparent part of the eye is called cornea which is bulged outwards. The light
coming from the objects enter the eye through cornea, thus it serves as a window of the eye.
Iris: The coloured diaphragm behind the
cornea is called as iris.
Pupil: A small hole in the centre of iris is
called as pupil. It appears black as no
light is reflected from it.
Eye lens: Eye lens is a double convex
lens which is transparent and flexible
material ( like a jelly) made of proteins.
Ciliary muscles: The special type of
muscles which hold the eye lens in a
proper position. The focal length of the
eye lens is varied and regulated with the
help of ciliary muscles.
Retina: A screen behind the eye lens and at the back of the eye ball, on which the image of the
object is formed. It is a delicate membrane consisting of a large number of light sensitive cells in
the form of rods and cones. The rods respond to the intensity of light and the cones respond to the
colour of objects by generating electric in pulses.
Optic nerve: The optic nerve receives the electric in pulses from retina and passes to the brain
where the information is processed and we perceive the objects as they are.
Aqueous humour: The space between the cornea and the eye lens is filled with a viscous liquid
called aqueous humour.
Vitreous humour: The space between the eye lens and the retina is filled with a specific fluid
called as vitreous humour.
Blind spot: It is the least sensitive spot on the retina through which the optic nerve enters the
retina.
Diameter of eye ball: The whole eye ball is a sphere of diameter about 2.3cm.
Working of human eye:- Light rays coming from an object to be seen enter the eye through
Cornea and fall on the eye lens through the pupil of the
eye. The eye-lens, being convex, converges the rays of
light, forming a real and virtual Image of the object on the
retina. The large number of rod and cone shaped cells of
the retina get activated by the light falling on them, they
generate electric signals which are sent to the brain via
optic nerve. The brain processes this message and it gives
rise to the sensation of vision. Although the image formed
on the retina is inverted, our mind interprets the image as that of an erect object.

Persistence of vision:- One of the important characteristics of human eye is that the image formed
on the retina of an object is neither permanent nor it fades away instantly . But actually the image
of any object seen persists on the retina for 1/16th of a second even after the removal of object. This
ability of an eye to continue to see the image of an object for a very short duration, even after the
removal of the object, is called persistence of vision. This property of persistence is used in
cinematography i.e. in projection of motion pictures.
Q.2 How do we see different colours?

The light-sensitive retina of our eyes contains individual receptor cells, called "cone" cells
because of their shape, that are sensitive to three different bands of color. One set is most
sensitive to red light, another set is most sensitive to green, and another is most sensitive to blue.
Different colors of light from the scenes we look at have different frequencies (color is nothing
more than the frequency of light, as light is a form of electromagnetic radiation). Colour with a
frequency equal to red, activate the red-type cell alone, and we see red Colour with a frequency
equal to green activate the green-type cell alone, and we see green, colour with a frequency equal
to blue, activate the blue-type cell alone, and we see blue. Similarly colors with a frequency close
to red, for example, stimulate the red-sensitive cones a lot, and stimulate the green-sensitive cones
a little bit, and hardly affect the blue-sensitive cones at all. When the brain receives a strong "red"
signal, combined with a weak "green" signal and hardly any "blue" signal, it interprets that as a
reddish color. Other colors work in a similar way.
The additive primary colors are red, green, and blue. One can recreate the appearance of any color
by appropriately mixing red, green, and blue light. The color one produces won't actually be the
color one see ,it will still be just a mixture of red, green, and blue, but it will fool one‘s brain into
thinking that it is some other color. For example, one can recreate yellow by mixing green and red
light. The light is actually nothing more than red and green light put together in the same spot, but
one‘s brain will interpret this as yellow. Real yellow light actually has its own frequency, but
human vision cannot tell the difference between a pure spectral yellow (light of one frequency)
and a mix of red and green light. When we see "yellow" light, we cannot be sure that it is really
yellow. It could be yellow for real (yellow photons), or it could just be a mix of red and green. We
have absolutely no way to tell the difference with our eyes. We need special instruments to look
at the spectrum of the light in order to find out if it's really yellow or just a mix of some other
colors.
It is interesting to note that a chicken wakes up in the morning with the rising sun and goes to
sleep by sunset because the retina of chicken‘s eye contains very few rod shaped cells which
respond to the intensity of light. Due to the lack of the rod shaped cells in its retina, a chicken
needs bright light to see. Similarly a bee has some cone shaped cells in its retina which are
sensitive to ultraviolet light while as human eye can not see ultraviolet so humans are said to
be ultraviolet blind.
Q.3 Colour Blindness:- Colour blindness is said to be occurring when a person can not
distinguish between different colours , though his vision may otherwise be normal. This is
because the retina of the eye of such a person does not posses some cone cells. e.g. a person who
is blind to red-green colour may be deficient in cone shaped cells having red and green pigment in
the retina of his eyes. It is genetic disorder which occurs by inheritance. It has not been cured so
far.

Q. 4 Defects of vision:
The inability of an eye to
see the objects cleary is
known as defect of
vision.
There are five defects of
vision or defects of eye
which can be corrected
by using suitable
spectacles. These are:
(i) Myopia or short
sightedness
(ii) Hypermetropia or
long sightedness.
(iii)Presbyopia
(iv) Astigmation.
(v) Cataract
Out of these five defects
the first two are most
common.
(i) Myopia:- It is that defect due to which an eye can see nearby objects clearly but can not see
the distant objects clearly. This defect is caused either (i) Due to the high converging power of
the eye lens or (ii) due to the eyeball being too long. The far point of an eye suffering from
this defect is less than infinity. In some cases, in an eye suffering from myopia, the ciliary
muscles attached to the eye lens do not relax completely to make the eye lens thinner, in order
to reduce its converging power. So due to the greater converging power of the eye lens; the
image of the distant object is formed in front of the retina and hence the eye can not see it
clearly. In some other cases, in an eye suffering from this defect, the eyeball is too long due to
which the retina is at longer distance from the eye lens. This also leads to the formation of
image of distant object in front of retina. This is shown in the following fig. (b). This defect
can be corrected by using spectacles containing concave lenses of suitable focal lengths as
shown in fig . (c).
Parallel rays of light from infinity first diverge on passing through concave lens and
appear to come from F, then the
rays are converged by the eye lens
and the image is formed on the
retina and hence the eye can see it
clearly.
(ii) Hypermetropia or long

sightedness:- It is that defect of eye
due to which an eye can see
the distant objects clearly but can not
see the nearby objects clearly. The near
point of a hypermetropic eye is more
than 25cm away .So a person suffering
from this defect can not read or write
easily. It is caused either. (i) due to the

low converging power of the eye lens or (ii) due to the eye-ball being too short. Thus the
image of a nearby object in a hypermetropic eye is formed behind the retina instead on retina
as shown in the following fig.(b) . This defect can be corrected by using spectacles containing
convex lens. Due to the combined converging action, of this lense and eye lens the image is
formed on the retina and the eye can see the nearby object clearly.
Presbyopia:- It is that defect of eye due to which an old man can not read comfortably and clearly
without spectacles. Presbyopia is a sort of hypermetropia where near point of eye recedes to a
distance more than 25cm from the eye. It is corrected in the same way as hypermetropia by using
spectacles of convex lenses of suitable focal lengths. When a person suffers from both myopia and
hypermetropia his spectacles for correction have bifocal lenses. The upper half is a concave lens
for distant vision and lower half is a convex lens for reading.
(i) Astigmatism:- It is that defect of eye due to which a person can not focus on both
horizontal and virtual lines simultaneously. This defect arises due to the irregularities in
the surface of the cornea. The cornea surface of a normal eye is a part of the surface of a
perfect sphere. A person suffering from this defect has its cornea having different
curvatures in different directions in horizontal and vertical planes. Due to this eye can
focus the object well in one direction while those in the perpendicular direction to it are
not well focused. That is, if the eye can focus well on horizontal lines, it can not focus
well on vertical lines at the same time and vice-versa. This defect can be corrected by
super imposing cylindrical lenses upon the spherical shape of spectacle lenses.
(ii) Cataract:- Another defect of eye that comes usually in old age is cataract. Cataract develops
when the eye lens of a person becomes cloudy (or even opaque) due to the formation of a
membrane over it. It decreases the vision gradually leading some times to total loss of vision.
This problem is solved by cataract surgery i.e. removal of the eye lens and its replacement by
a lens of suitable focal length.
Q 5 Glass Prism:-
A Prism is a transparent glass medium bounded by two triangular and three rectangular faces as shown in
the figure. One of three
rectangular faces is called A
the base and the other two
are called as refracting T
faces. The line joining the N1
two triangular faces is
called the edge of the prism N3
and the angle made by two D
opposite faces is called Q 
i1 e
angle of the prism. The r1 r2
refraction through a prism
is different from that N2
through a glass slab in the P
sense that the emergent ray in case of prism is notSparallel to the incident ray so we called it as
B C
deviated ray. Thus light after passing through a prism is deviated from its original path.
Refraction through a glass prism: Consider ABC as the prism with its base BC, and AB and AC
being its refracting faces. Let a ray of light PQ incident on face AB after refraction at Q it is
refracted through QR and it emerges out as RS. Draw N1O and N2O normal at point Q and R.
Producing PQ forwards and RS backwards, the two lines meet at D giving rise to an angle 
called as the angle of deviation:
It is defined as the deviation occurred to the incident light due to a prism placed in the path
of incident light and the prism formula is given by
I + e = A + 

Dispersion of light:- When a beam of white light is passed through a prism it is splitted into its
constituent colours. The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent seven colours
is called dispersion of light. The seven colours are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and
red. If the patches of these seven colours are obtained on a screen it is called spectrum of white
light. The spectrum of white light shows the white light is made up of seven colours. It can be
remembered by the word ‗VIBGYOR‘( where V stands for violet,I for indigo, B for blue, G for
green, Y for yellow, O for orange and R for red).
Cause of dispersion:- We know that white light has range of wave length from 38000A to
78000A. Thus when white light passes through the prism, different colours are refracted through
different angles, with the result the seven
colours are spread out to form a spectrum.
The red colour having maximum
wavelength gets deviated least and the
violet having minimum wavelength gets
deviated most.
Thus in this case dispersion of white light
occurs due to the refraction of different
colours through different angles through a
glass prism.
Gift of Vision:-
There are millions of blind people in the world. Their eyesight can be restored if they are
given the eyes donated by others after their death. Thus our eyes can live even after our death. These
are some important points to be noted about the donation of eyes.
1. Any person male or female can donate eyes but he or she must not have any communicable
disease. The person having diabetes, hypertension, asthma, can donate their eyes but those having
Aids, Hepatitis, Leukaemia, Tetanus, Cholera, meningitis can not donate eyes.
Textual Questions
SECTION-A
Q.1) What is meant by power of accommodation of the eye?
Ans. A normal eye can see near by objects clearly as well as the distant objects. The ability of
an eye to focus the distant objects as well as the near by objects on the retina by changing
the focal length of its lens is called accommodation or power of accommodation of eye.
Accommodation acts like a reflex, but can also be consciously controlled, vary the
optical power by changing the form of the elastic lens using the ciliary muscles up to
15 dioptres. When the object is at infinity, the ciliary muscles are relaxed and the eye lens
becomes very thin. And the lens acquires maximum focal length and minimum
converging power. The image of the distant object is formed on the retina. Thus in this
case the eye is relaxed and is called to be unaccommodated. For observing nearby objects
the ciliary muscles, which increase the thickness of the eye lens. And the focal length of
lens decreases and its converging power increases. Thus the image of the nearby objects
is formed on the retina. In this case the eye is in a state of tension and is said to be
accommodated. The maximum accommodation is reached when the object is at a distance
of 25cm from the eye.
Far point of eye:- The most distant point at which an object is seen clearly by an eye is
called far point (F) of the eye. It lies at infinity.
Near point of eye:- The closest point, at which an object is seen clearly by an eye is called
Near point (N) of the eye. The distance between the Near point and the eye is called least

distance of distinct vision. It is denoted by ―d‖ For normal eye its value is 25cm. The
distance between the Near point and the Far point of the eye is called range of vision.
Q.2) A person with myopic eye cannot see objects beyond 1.2 m distinctly. What should be
the type of the corrective lens used to restore proper vision ?
Ans) A person with a myopic eye should use a concave lens of focal length 1.2m so as to
restore proper vision.
Q.3) What is the far point and near point of the human eye with normal vision?
Ans) For a normal human eye, the far point is at infinity and near point is at 25cm from the eye.
Q.4) A student has difficulty reading the black board while sitting in the last row. What could
be the defect the child is suffering from? How can it be corrected?
Ans) The child is suffering from myopia or short sightedness. The defect can be corrected by
using spectacles with concave lens of suitable focal length.
SECTION–B
Q.1) The human eye can focus object at different distances by adjusting the focal length of
the eye lens. This is due to,
Ans) Power of accommodation of eye.
Q.2) The human eye forms the image of an object at its;

Ans) Retina.
Q.3) The least distance of distinct vision for a young adult with normal vision is about;
Ans) 25 cm
Q.4) The change in focal length of an eye lens is caused by the action of the
Ans) Ciliary muscles.
Q.5) A person needs a lens of power -5.5 dioptres for correcting his distant vision. For
correcting his near vision be needs a power +1.5 dioptre. What is the focal length of
the lens required for correcting (i) distant vision and (ii) near vision ?
Ans) (i) Power of the lens needed for correcting distant vision of the person P = -5.5
dioptres. Focal length of the lens required for correcting vision is given by; F = 1/p
or F = -1 = 0.18 metres
5.5
or F = 0.18 x 100 cm = 18 cms.
Therefore focal length of the lens will be F = 18 cms.
(ii) Power of the lens required for correcting near vision = + 1.5 D
Focal length of the lens required for correcting vision is given by ; F = 1/p
or F = + 1 = +0.67 metres
1.5
or F = +0.67 x 100 cms = 67 cms
Therefore focal length of the lens will be F = 67 cms.

Q.6) The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm infront of the eye. What is the nature and
power of the lens required to correct the problem?
Ans) To correct myopia, a person concerned should use concave lens (diverging lens) of focal
length f = -80 cm, so that for an object at infinity (u=α), the virtual image is formed at the
far point of myopic person, i,e,
v = -80 cm.
We know from lens formula 1 = 1 - 1

f v u
or 1 = - 1 -1
f 80 α
or 1 = -1
f 80
or f = -80 cm = -0.8 metres.
The power of lens is given by; P = 1
f
or P = -1 = -1.25 Dioptres
0.8
Therefore the power of lens will be P = -1.25 Dioptres
Q.7) Make a diagram to show how hypermetropia is corrected. The near point of a
hypermetropic eye is 1m. What is the power of the lens required to correct this
defect? Assume that the near point of the normal eye is 25 cm.
Ans)
> > I
. >
>
25 cm
Correction of long sighted eye

Given, near point of normal eye = 25 cm
 u = -25 cm
Lens used to form virtual image at near point of hypermetropic eye =1m
 V = - 1m = -100 cm
We know from lens formula
1 = 1 -1
f v u
or 1 = - 1 - -1
f 100 25
or 1 = - 1 + 1
f 100 25
or 1 = - 1+4 = 3
f 100 100
or f = + 100 cm = 100 x 1 m = 1
3 3 100 3

Power of correcting lens, P = 1

f (m)
0r P = 1 = 1 x 3 = +3 Dioptres
1/3 1
Therefore the power of lens will be P = + 3 Dioptres.
Q.8) Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the objects placed closer them 25cm?
Ans) This is because the focal length of eye can not be adjusted below a certain minimum limit,
which in case of human eye is 25 cms.
Q.9) What happens to the image distance in the eye when we increase the distance of an
object from the eye?
Ans) When we increase the distance of an object from the eye, the focal length of eye lens is
changed due to accommodation power of the eye so as to keep image distance constant.
This happens in a normal eye, because the image distance in the eye is fixed and equal to
the distance of retina from the eye lens.
Q.10) Why do stars twinkle?
Ans) Stars twinkle when we see them from the Earth's surface because we are viewing them
through thick layers of varying optical densities of air at various altitudes in the Earth's
atmosphere.When the light coming from a star enters the earth‘s atmosphere it undergoes bending
(refracted) many times and in random directions. Due to the continuously varying optical densities
of air at various altitudes, the light from the stars gets refracted by different amounts from one
moment to the next. Thus when the atmosphere refracts more star light towards us, the star appears
to be bright and when the atmosphere refracts less star-light towards us, the star appears to dim.
Thu it is due to this continuous increase and decrease brightness of star light , that stars appears
to twinkle. (it looks as though the star moves a bit, and our eye interprets this as twinkling). Stars
closer to the horizon appear to twinkle more than stars that are overhead,this is because the light of
stars near the horizon has to travel through more air than the light of stars overhead and so is
subjected to more refraction.
Q11) Explain why the planets do not twinkle?
Ans) The planets do not usually twinkle, because they are so close to us, they appear
big enough that the twinkling is not noticeable. Stars twinkle because they are so far away
from Earth that, even through large telescopes, they appear only as pin points. And it‘s easy for
Earth‘s atmosphere to disturb the pin-point light of a star. Thus the stars twinkle. However
planets don‘t look like pinpoints , even through a telescopes, instead they look like tiny disks.
And while the light from one edge of a planet‘s disk might be forced to show dimming effect by
Earth‘s atmosphere, it is nullified by the brighter effect produced from the opposite edge of the
planet‘disk by Earth‘s atmosphere .Thus, on the whole, the brightness of a planet always remains
the same and hence it does not appear to twinkle
Q.12) Why does the sun appear reddish early in

the morning at the time of sunset?
At the time of sunrise and sunset the sun is near the
horizon, the sunlight has to travel a much larger
distance through the atmosphere to reach the
observer on the earth. Therefore most of the blue
light is scattered away. So the light reaching us
directly consists mainly of longer wavelength red
colour due to which the sun appears reddish at the time of sun rise and sunset.
However when the sun is nearly overhead (at noon), the sun light has to travel relatively shorter
distance through the atmosphere to reach us. During this only a little of the blue light is scattered .

So the sun light contains almost all component colours in the right proportion, therefore the sun in
the sky overhead appears white to us.
Q. 13 .Why danger signals are red?
Ans. Out of all colours of visible light, red has the largest wavelength. When light travels
through atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths are scattered most and the longer wavelengths are
scattered least, that means the light with longer wavelengths can be seen from longer distance.
Thus red colour having the largest wavelength are scattered least and therefore can be seen from
a maximum distance. Hence danger signals are red in colour so as to detect them from a larger
distance.
Q.14 Experiment to study the scattering of light:-
S is a strong source of white light held at the focus
of a convex lens L1. The convex lens renders the
rays of light parallel. The beam of parallel rays is
made to pass through a transparent glass tank
containing clear water. The beam emerging out of
the tank is allowed to pass through a hole made in
a cardboard. The sharp image of this hole is obtained on a screen using another convex lens L2 as
shown in fig.
Switch on the source of light. The beam of light passes through the water in the tank and a white
circular patch is formed on the screen. Now dissolve about 200gm of sodium thiosulphate called
as ―hypo‖ in the water of the tank and add 2ml of conc. Sulphuric acid to the water. it will be seen
that fine microscopic particles of sulphur begin to dissolve in water and a colloidal solution of
sulphur is obtained. Now it will be observed that blue light will be coming from the sides of the
tank due to scattering of short wavelength blue light by the small sulphur particles. This is how
sky looks blue ( the blue part of the sunlight is scattered by small dust particles present in
atmosphere) . If we look at the screen on the front side of the tank containing colloidal solution, a
red patch will be observed on the screen. This is how the sun looks reddish at the time of sunrise
and sunset.
Q.15) Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to an astronaut?
Ans) This is because at such huge heights of the astronaut, there is nothing to scatter the
sunlight. Therefore, the sky appears dark.
Q. 16 Why does sky appear blue?
Ans. When sunlight enters the atmosphere, the atoms or molecules of gases present in the
atmosphere scatter it. The size of scatter is much less than the wavelength of sunlight.
Hence, scattering of light obeys Rayleigh condition. Since the wavelength of red colour is
maximum and that of violet or blue colour is minimum. Hence red colour is scattered least and
violet or blue colour is scattered the most. Since our eyes are less sensitive to violet colour hence,
the next most scattered colour is blue. This scattered blue colour enters our eyes and hence the
sky appears blue.
Q.17 Why does Sun appear to rise earlier than actually when it rises and sets later than
when it actually sets?
Ans. During the sunrise, the sun is below the horizon but due to atmospheric refraction it
appears to rise just above the horizon. The difference in time involved is two minutes i.e the sun
appears to rise two minutes earlier.
Similary at the sunset which has just gone below the horizon, appears to be just above the horizon
on account of atmospheric refraction. The difference in time involved is two minutes i.e the sun
appears to set two minutes later.

Lesson No. 3 Electricity

Q.1) Conductors and insulators: Those substances through which electricity can flow are called
conductors e.g. silver, aluminium, copper etc. All metals, aqueous solutions of salts and ionized gases
are conductors. The conductors contain free electrons in abundance which account for their ability to
conduct electricity through them.
Those substances through which electricity can not flow are called as insulators, e.g. glass,
ebonite, wood etc. In them there are a few electrons or free electrons are totally absent in them.
However they can be charged easily by friction.
Semiconductors: These are the substances with electrical conductivity intermediate between
conductors and insulators. They have got free electrons to conduct electricity e.g Germanium and
Arsenic.
Super Conductors: These are the materials (metals and compounds) whose resistivity becomes zero
below a certain temperature called critical temperature.
Q.2) Ohm‟s Law: George Siemen Ohm derived a relationship between the potential difference
applied across a conductor and the current flowing through it and this relationship is simply called
Ohm‘s law which states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends provided the physical conditions (like temperature,
pressure, mechanical strain) are kept unchanged. Mathematically, if I is an electric current flowing
through a conductor and V be the potential difference applied across its ends then according to Ohm‘s
law;
V  I (at T = constant)
=>V = IR
Where ‗R‘ is the constant of proportionality called as the resistance of the conductor whose value
depends upon length, cross sectional area and the nature of the material of the conductor. The
above equation can also be written as V/I = R
Thus, Ohm‘s law can also be stated as, ―The ratio of the potential difference applied across the
ends of a conductor to the current flowing through it is constant provided the physical conditions
of the conductor do not change.
Experimental verification of Ohm‟s law: Ohm‘s law can be experimentally verified easily.
Connect a conducting wire of resistance ‗R‘ to a battery through a milli ammeter, a key and a
rheostat. A voltmeter is also connected in parallels to the wire as shown in figure when the key is
inserted, a current flows through the circuit. Adjust the rheostat and take a set of readings of V
and I. Now plot a graph between V and I on a graph paper. It will be observed that the graph is a
straight line passing through origin as shows in figure. This verifies Ohm‘s law because the linear
graph indicates that V and I are proportional to each other. The slope (tan) of graph OL gives the
resistance.
A P A R B
I –
 mA
O V B
+ Cell –Key Rh
Q.3) Resistance: Resistance means the obstruction or opposition offered by a conductor to the
flow of electric current. It is symbolically denoted as
Mathematically, the resistance is defined as R = V/I when V is in volts and I in ampere.
Unit of resistance: The S.I unit of resistance is Ohm which is denoted by the symbol ―‖.

If V = 1V, I = 1A then R = 1V/1A = 1

Hence, resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm when a current of 1A flows through it
against a potential difference of 1V. the resistance of a conductor depends upon (i) length (ii) area
of cross section (iii) nature of material and temperature of the conductor. It has been found
experimentally that the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area or thickness of the conductor, i.e.
R  l/A => R = ρl/A where ρ is called resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor
which depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor.
Resistivity: From above equation, we get ρ = RA/l. If l = 1m and A = 1m2 => ρ = R, Thus
resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of material of unit length and unit
area of cross section. It is also defined as the resistance offered by a cube of the material of side
1m when current flows perpendicular to the opposite faces of the cube. S.I unit of resistivity is
Ohm meter ( m). Its value depends upon the nature of the material and the temperature and is
independent of length and thickness of the substance.
Q.4) Combination of resistances: Resistances are used in almost all electrical circuits for
practical purposes. we know that the resistances are available in a wide range, i.e. (10–8 to
1017). Resistances are combined to give a required value which is used in a proper place either
to increase the current or to decrease it. For this purpose resistances are combined in two ways. (i)
Series (ii) Parallel
(i) Resistances in series: Resistances are said to be connected in series if they are connected end
to end and same current flows through all of them when a potential difference is applied across
the combination. Let R1, R2 and R3 are three resistances connected in series to a source which
gives a potential difference V and let I be the current flowing through the combination. Let V1
and V2 and V3 be the potential differences across R1, R2 and R3 respectively as shown in figure so
that total potential difference across three resistances is equal to the applied potential difference
by the battery, i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 __________ (i)
R1 R2 R3
V1 V2 V3
I I
V
+ – K
Applying Ohm‘s law to each resistance separately we have,
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
Putting these values of V1, V2 and V3 in (i) we have,
V= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
=> V = I (R1 + R2 + R3) _______ (ii)
Let RS be the equivalent or combined resistance of the combination such that current ―I‖ flows
through it when potential difference ―V‖ is applied across it, then
V = IRS ___________ (iii)
Comparing (ii) and (iii) we have,
IRS = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
=> RS = R1 + R2 + R3 ________ (iv)
Thus in series combination the equivalent resistance is sum of the individual resistances
and becomes greater than the greatest. For n resistances in series, the equivalent resistance is
given by;
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ________ + Rn

Thus for a series combination of resistances,

(i) Same current flows through all the resistances.
(ii) The potential difference across any one resistance is directly proportional to its
resistance and
(iii) The equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances forming the
combination and becomes greater than the greatest.
(ii) Parallel combination or Resistances in parallel: When two or more resistances are
connected between two common points so that the same potential difference is applied across
each other of them, they are said to be connected in parallels.
Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallels between two points A and B
and let V be the applied potential difference across A and B which remains same across each
resistance. However, the current I on reaching point A gets branched up, and let I1, I2 and I3 be the
currents flowing through R1, R2 and R3 respectively as shown in figure. Thus it is clear that;
R1
I1 R2
A B
I2 R3
I3
I I
V
+ – Key
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ___________________ (i)
Applying Ohm‘s law to each resistance respectively, we have;
V = I1R1 => I1 = V
R1
V = I2R2 => I2 = V __________ (ii)
R2
V = I3R3 => I3 = V
R3
Substituting (ii) and in (i) we have,

V V V I I I
I = + + => I = V + + _____ (iii)
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
Let RP be the equivalent resistance so that current I flows through it against a potential difference
of V. Then according to Ohm‘s law
V = IRP => I = V __________ (iv)
RP
Comparing (iii) and (iv) we have,
V = I + I + I
RP R1 R2 R3
=> 1 = 1 +1 +1 ________ (v)
RP R1 R2 R3
Thus the reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocal of individual
resistances and the equivalent resistance becomes less than the least. In general if n resistances R1,
R2,……….Rn are connected in parallels then the equivalent resistance can be expressed as,
I = I + I + I ……… + 1
RP R1 R2 R3 Rn

Thus, for resistances connected in parallels

(i) The potential difference across each resistance is same and equal to the applied
potential difference.
(ii) The current flowing through any resistance is inversely proportional to the resistance
and
(iii) The reciprocal of the equilent resistance is the sum of reciprocals of individual
resistances and becomes less than the least.
Q.5) Electric power: The rate at which work is done by an electric current is called electric
power. It is also defined as the rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated. The
electric power is mathematically expressed as;
work done W
Power = Time or P = t
We know electric work is done when charge q is moved against a potential difference,
i.e. W = qv but q = It
 W = VIt thus P = VIt = VI [ V = W/Q & I = q/t]
t
Thus electric power is numerically equal to the product of voltage and the current.
From Ohm‘s law; V = IR => Thus , P = IR X I => P= I2R
Also I = V/R => P = V2
R
Units:- The S-I unit of electric power is JS-1 called as watt (W). Power of an electric device is said to
be I watt if a current of 1A flows through it when a potential difference of 1V is applied. Watt is a
small unit of power so we use bigger units of power as K W and M W where 1KW = 10 3w and 1MW
= 106w.
The commercial or trade unit of electric power is horse power (H.P) where 1H.P. = 746w.
Power rating:- Every electrical appliance has a label plate on it. Which tells about the maximum
voltage up to which the device can be operated and the power consumption e.g. an electric bulb rated
100W, 220V means that it will give a power of 100w when operated at 220V.
Prob:- An electric bulb is rated 100w, 220v. Calculate the power consumed by it when operated
on 110v.
Sol.: when P = 100W, V = 220V, Thus R = V2 [ P = V2 ]
P R
or R = (220) = 484 
2
100
Now when V = 110V, P = ?
As P = V2 => P = (110)2 = 25 W
R 484
Q.6) Electric energy:- The total work done by a current in an electric circuit is called electric
energy. From the definition of power,
Power = work done => work done = power x time
Time
i.e. W = Pt but P = VI
=> W = VIt
According to Ohm‘s Law; V = IR => W = I2Rt
Also I = V/R V2
=> W = R .t
Thus; W = VIt = I2Rt = V2 .t
R

When V is measured in volt, I in ampere, t in second then w is in joule. This work done by the current
measures the electric energy which is supplied by a source. From above equation it is clear that
electric energy depends on I, R and t.
The S-I unit of electric energy is also called as watt-hour. One watt-hour is amount of electric
energy consumed when an electric appliance of power 1 watt is used for 1 hour.
The watt-hour (wh) is small unit of energy. So the practical unit of electric energy is taken as killo
watt-hour (Kwh). It is also the trade or commercial unit of electric energy. Where 1KWh = 10 3
6
W x 60 x 60s = 3.6 x 10 J
One killo watt hour is the amount of electric energy when an electric appliance of power 1kw is used
for 1 hour.
1kwh is also called as board of trade unit (BOTU) or simply one unit of electricity.
Heating effect of current: Whenever current flows through a conductor, it becomes hot after some
time. This means that electric energy is converted into heat energy. The heat produced due to the flow
of electric current is called as heating effect of current. It was first observed by Thomas joule so it is
also called joule‘s heating effect. Electric bulb, electric iron, heater, gyser etc are the appliances based
on this effect.
Practical applications of Heating effect of current:- The heating effect of current has many useful
practical applications such as:
(i) An electric iron, electric geyser, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle etc. are some
of the familiar devices based on joule heating or heating effect of current.
(ii) An electric bulb is used to provide light by heating its filament.
(iii) An electric fuse used as a safety device in electric circuits is another important application
of joule heating (heating effect of current).
Cause of heating:- When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, the free electrons begin
to drift from lower potential to higher potential (–Ve terminal to +Ve terminal). During their motion
they experience a resistance on account of their collisions with other electrons as well as with kernels
(Nucleolus and inner electrons of atoms). As a result of this, some work is done to overcome this
resistance. This work done is converted into heat.
Consider a conductor AB of resistance R, let V be the potential difference applied across its
ends such that a current I flows through it for a time t.
.: Total charge flowing from A to B in time t is q = It________ (1)
By definition of potential difference workdone in carrying unit +ve charge from A to B = V, therefore
total work done in carrying charge q from A to B = qv
 W = qv ___________(2)
Substituting (1) in (2) we have,
W = VIt = I2Rt
This work done is called electric work done. If this appears as heat, then amount of heat produced
(H) is given by
A R B
H = W = I2 Rt Joules
= I2 RT V
Cal (3)  
1 0cal = 4.18 Joules
4.18  I I
+ –
This equation (3) is a statement of Joule‘s law of heating. It states the amount of heat produced in
a conductor when a current flows through it is directly proportional to (i) the square of the current
flowing through the conductor (ii) Resistance of the conductor and (iii) time for which the current
is passed through the conductor.

Textual Questions
SECTION-A
Q.1) Name a device that helps to maintain potential difference across conductor.
Ans. A battery consisting of one or more electric cells with rheostat.
Q.2) What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is 1V?
Ans) potential difference between two points is said to be one volt if one joule of work is done in
moving a charge of 1Columb from one point to the another. The potential difference is
measured by a device called the voltmeter. It is always connected in parallels to a conductor.
Q.3) How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V battery?
Ans. q = 1C, v = 6
We know v= w
q
 W = vq
or w = 1c × 6V = 6j
 1 coulomb volt = 1 joule)
SECTION-B
Q.1) On what factor does the resistance of a conductor depend?
Ans) Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors :
i) Nature of material: Resistance of a conductor depends upon the nature of material
of the conductor. That is why, conductors of different materials have different resistances.
ii) Temperature : Resistance of metallic conductors increases with the increase in
temperature and decreases with the decrease in the temperature.
iii) Length of the conductor: Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the
length of the conductor, more is the length greater is the resistance i,e,
Resistance α length
or R α l 1
(iv) Area of cross section: Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area
of cross – section of the conductor.
i, e Resistance α 1/Area of cross section 2
R α 1/A
More is the area of cross-section of a conductor, less is the resistance of the conductor.
Combining (1) and (2), we get
R α l
A
or R =  l/A
Where  is the resistivity
R is the length of the conductor and A is the area of cross section of the conductor.
Q.2) Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same
material connected to the same source. Why?
Ans. The current will flow more easily through a thick wire than through a thin wire. It is
because that the resistance of thick wire is small as its cross sectional area is less than that
of thin wire. As resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross

section, therefore more is the area of cross section, lesser is the resistance and more will
be current flowing through it.
Q.3) Let the resistance of an electrical component remain constant while potential
difference across its ends decreases to half of its former value. What change will
occur in the current through it?
Ans. When potential difference becomes half of its former value, the current will become also
half as resistance remains constant. This is because of obeying ohms law (V=IR).
Q.4) Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy than a pure metal?
Ans) Coils of electric toasters and irons are made of an alloy called Nichrome because;
(i) The resistivity of Nichrome is higher than the metals.
(ii) It has a high melting point and
(iii) It does not oxidize when it is red hot at (8000C).
Q.5) Which among iron and mercury is a better conductor and which material is the best
conductor.
Ans. Iron is a better conductor than mercury because resistively of iron (10.0x10-8 Ω m) is less
than that of mercury (94x10-8 Ω). Silver is the best conductor as its resistivity (1.6x10-8 Ω
m) is least.
SECTION-C
Q.1) Draw a circuit diagram of a circuit containing a battery of three cells of 2V each, a
5Ω resister, an 8Ω resistor and a 12Ω resister and a plug key, all connected in series.
K
Ans. Circuit diagram is shown in fig.
2v 2v 2v
5Ω 8Ω 12 Ω
Q.2) Re-Draw the circuit of above question putting in an ammeter to measure current and
a voltmeter to measure voltage across 12Ω resistance what would be the readings in
the ammeter and voltmeter. 2V 2V 2V K
Ans. Circuit diagram is shown as below A
Since all resistances are in series 5Ω 8Ω
-
12Ω
+
 Total resistance of the circuit,
V
+ -
R= 5+8+12=25Ω
 Current in the circuit, I= Pot. diff. applied
= 6V
= 0.24A (Reading in Ammeter)
Total Resistance 25Ω
Potential difference across 12Ω resister

V = resistance x current = 12 x 0.24 = 2.8 8V. (Reading in voltmeter)
SECTION-D
Q.1) Judge the equilent resistance when the following are connected in parallels
(a) 1Ω and 106Ω b) 1Ω, 106Ω and 108Ω.
Ans. For both (a) and (b) approximately 1Ω (but less than 1Ω) because in parallels the
resistance becomes less than the least.

Q.2) An electric lamp of resistance 100Ω, a toaster of 50 Ω resistance and a water filter of
resistance 500Ω are connected in parallel to 220V source, what is the resistance of an
electric iron connected to the same source that takes as much current as all the three
appliances and what is the current through if?
Ans. Resistance of lamp r1 = 100 Ω, resistance of toaster r2 = 50Ω. Resistance of water filter
r3= 500Ω. Since r1, r2 and r3 are connected in parallel.
 Their equilent resistance Rp is given by
1 1 1 1 1 + 1 +1 = 5+10+1 = 16
= + + =
RP r1 r2 r3 100 50 500 500 500
RP = 500 = 31.25Ω.
16
We know I = V (1) Where I is current, V is potential difference and
R R is resistance
Substituting value of V & R in equation (1) we have
Therefore current through the three appliances is 1 = V = 220 = 7.04A.
R 31.25
Since electric iron is connected to the same source, takes as much current as all the three.
 Resistance of electric iron is equal to RP = 31.25Ω. and current through it = 7.04A
Q.3) What are the advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with the battery
instead of connecting them in series?
Ans) The main advantage of conducting electric device in parallel with a battery is that in this
arrangement each device gets same potential difference as provided by the battery and it
keeps on working even if other devices fail to work – while when connected in series, all
the devices get different potential difference and if any of the device stops working, all the
devices stops working.
Q.4) How can three resistances 2Ω, 3Ω and 6Ω be connected to give a total resistance of
(a) 4Ω and (b) 1Ω.
Ans. To get a resistance of 4Ω from 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω, the resistances 3 Ω and 6Ωshould be
connected in parallel then connected in series with 2 Ω
Step – I : When resistance 3 Ω and 6 Ω connected in parallel
We get = 1/R = 1/3Ω + 1/6R = 6+3 = 9/18 = 18/9 = 2
18
Step – II : The resistance are is connected with 2Ω series.
R = 2Ω + 2Ω = 4Ω
In order to get 1 Ω from 2,3 and 6 Ω connect then in parallels.
 1/RP = 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/6 = 3 + 2 + 1 = 6/6 = 1  RP =1Ω
6
Q.5) What is the (a) highest and the (b) lowest total resistance that can be secured by
combinations of four coils of resistance 4Ω, 8Ω, 12Ω and 24Ω
Ans. The highest resistance is secured when all the four coils are connected in series
 Rs = 4 + 8 + 12 + 24 = 48 Ω
The lowest resistance can be secured when all the four coils are connected in parallel
1
/RP = 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/12 + 1/24 = 6 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 12/24
24
=> RP = 2 Ω.
SECTION-E
Q.1) Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating element does?
Ans. Since the cord of an electric heater is made of thick copper wire and has much lower
resistance than its element. For the same current (I) flowing through cord and the element

heat produced (I2 Rt) in the element is much more than that produced in the cord.
Consequently, the element becomes very hot and glows whereas the cord does not become
hot and as such does not glow.
Q.2) Compute the heat generated while transferring 96000C of charge in one hour
through a potential difference of 50V.
Ans. Here Q = 96000 C, t = 1h = 60 x 60 = 3600S, V= 50 V.
 Heat produced W = QV = 96000 x 50 = 48 x 105 J.
Q.3) An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω takes a current of 5A. Calculate heat developed in
30S.
Ans. Here R = 20 Ω, I = 5A, t = 30S.  Heat developed = I2 Rt = 52 x 20 x 30= 15000J.
SECTION-F
Q.1) What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current ?
The rate of consumption of electric energy in an electric appliance is called electric
power. Hence, the rate at which energy is delivered by a current is the power of the
appliance. Since power = voltage x current, therefore, voltage affects the rate of energy
that is delivered by current.
Also, power = (Current)2 x Resistance, thus, resistance also determines the rate at
which energy is delivered by current.
Q.2) An electric motor takes 5A from 220V line. Determine the power and energy
consumed in 2h.
Ans. Here I = 5A, V = 220V, t = 2h = 2 x 60 x 60 = 7200S.
 P = V I = 220 x 5 = 1100W.
Also P = E/T
N=E=P×t
E = 1100 × 7200
E = 7920000J = 7.92 ×106 Joules
SECTION–G
Q.1) A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five equal parts. These part are then
connected in parallel. If the equivalent resistance of this combination is R /, then the
ratio R/R/ is;
Initial resistance, Ri = R (1).
After dividing wire into 5 equal parts;
Resistance of each part = R/5
 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
Rf R/5 R/5 R/5 R/5 R/5
ϰ 1 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
Rf R R R R R
 1 = 5+5+5+5+5
Rf R
 1 = 25
Rf R
When R is the equivalent
R = Rf = R 2 resistance of the combination
25

Dividing 1 by 2
R Ri = R
R1 = Rf R/25
R = Ri = 25  R
1 = 25
R Rf R
Q.2) Which of the following terms does not represent electrical power in a circuit ?
(a) I2 R (b) IR2 (c ) VI (d) V2/R
Ans) IR2
Q.3) An electric bulb is rated 220v and 100w. When it is operated on 110 v, the power
consumed will be;
We know that
P = V2
R
 R = V2
P
Rated Power, P = 100 w
and Rated voltage, Vr = 220 v
thus R = 220 x 220
100
=> R = 22 x 22 = 484 
Resistance of the material does not change with the change in voltage, thus, the power
consumed on the 110 operating voltage will be;
P = 110 x 110
484
=> P = 12100 = 25 w.
484
Q.4) Two conducting wires of the same material and of equal lengths and equal diameters
are first connected in series and then parallel in a circuit across the same potential
difference. The ratio of heat produced in series and parallel combinations would be :
Let the resistance of each wire = R

Then resistance in series, Rs = R + R = 2R
Resistance in Parallels,
1 = 1 + 1 = 2
Rp R R R
Rp = R
2
Now, we know that
Heat produced, H = I2 Rt
But V = IR 1
or I = V
R
Or I2 = V2
R2
Substitute value of I2 in Equation 1

H = V2 R t
R2

 H =V2t
R
Therefore, Heat produced in series connection will be
Hs = V2 t
Rs
 Hs = V2 t
2R
Hs = 2V2t 2
2R
2
X HP = 2V t
R 32
Heat produced in parallel connections will be ;
Hp = V2t
Rp
Hp = V2t 3
R/2
Dividing 2 by 3
Hs = V2t x R
Hp 2R 2V2t
Hs = 1
Hp 4
or Hs : Hp = 1:4
Q.5) How is voltmeter connected to measure potential difference.

Ans. Voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the pts between which the potential
difference is to be determined.
Q.6) A copper wire has a diameter of 0.5mm and resistivity 1.6 x 10-6. (i) How much of this
wire would be required to make a 10 coil. (ii) How much the resistance changes if the
diameter is doubled?
Ans) (i) Diameter, D = 0.5mm = 0.5 x 10-3m
Resistivity ρ = 1.6 x 10-6m
Required resistance R = 10
We know R = ρl or L = RA = R(D2/4) ( A = r2 = D2/4)
A ρ ρ
-3 2
L = 10 x 22 x (0.5x10 ) when L of the wire
-6
4x7x1.6x10
or L = 220 x 0.25 x 10-6
7 x 6.4 10-6
or L = 1.2276 mtrs
(ii) When diameter is doubled than original D/ = 2D/ R1 = ρl

a D2/4

R2 = sl or R2 = pl
 D/ 2  D2
2 2×2 Because (D/ = 2D)
N = R2 sl
D2
16
 16 sl
D2
4
Thus R2 = 6 sl ×  D2
R1 D2 4sl
 R2 = 4
R1
Q.7) The values of current I flowing in a given resistor for the corresponding values of
potential difference V across the resistor are given below:
I (amperes) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V (volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of that resistor
The plot between voltage and current is called IV characteristic. The voltage is plotted on
x – axis and current is plotted on y-axis. The values of the current for different valves of
the voltage are shown in the table below:
I (amperes) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

V (volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
The IV characteristic of the given resistor is plotted in the following figure:

Scale
X – axis 1 unit = 2V
T – axis 1 unit = 1A
6
B
5
4-2=2 Amperes
4
3
A 13.2 – 6.7 = C
2
I
6.5
1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
V
The slope of the line gives the value of resistance as;
Slop-e = 1/R
We know that
Slope = tan .
 1/R = tan  = BC
AC.

Or R = AC
BC
 R = 6.5
2
 R = 3.25 
Q.8) When a 12v battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of 2.5
mA in the circuit. Find the value of the resistance of the resistor.
Here V = 12
I = 2.5 mA `= 2.5 x 10-3 A
R = ?
Now V = IR
 R = V
I
ϰ R = 12
2.5 x10-3
ϰ R = 4.8 × 103 ohm.
ϰ R = 4.8 kilo ohm.
Q.9) A battery of 9v is connected in series with resistor of 0.2 , 0.3 , 0.4 , 0.5 
and 12  respectively. How much current would flow through the 12  resistor ?
Since the resistances are connected in series, therefore, the sum of the individual
resistances will give the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
 R = (0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 12) 
 R = 13.4 
Also V = 9V
As we know that there is no current division in a series circuit, thus, current flowing through each
component/resistance will be same given by Ohm‘s law
I = V
R
ϰ I = 9 = 0.671 A.
13.4
Thus, the current that would flow through the 12  resistor is 0.671 Ampere.
Q.10) How many 176 resistors (in parallel) are required to carry 5A on a 220V line.
Here V = 220 V
I = 5A.
The equivalent resistance can be calculated using Ohm‘s law
R = V
I
 R = 220
5
 R = 44 
Let the number of 176  resistance connected in parallels be = n
Then
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ------- + 1
R = R1 R2 R3 Rn
But R1 = R2 = R3 = ------- = Rn = 176 
 1 = 1 + 1 + ------- + 1
R 176 176 176
 1 = n
R 176

 or n = 176
R
But R = 44 
 n = 176 = 4
44
Thus, the number of 176  resistors (in parallels) required to carry 5A on a 220 V line is 4
Q.11) Show how you would connect three resistors, each of resistance 6 , so that the
combination has a resistance of (i) 9  (ii) 4 
An.s If we connect all the three resistors in series, then the equivalent resistance will be the sum of
individual resistances, i,e ( 6 + 6 + 6 )  = 18 , which is not desired. If we connect them in parallels,
then the equivalent resistance will be 6/3 = 2  which is also not desired. Hence, we should either
connect two resistors in series or parallels and their equivalent in parallels or series with the third resistor
respectively.
(i) Two resistors in series and their equivalent in parallels with the third resistor.
6 6
6
+ -
Two 6  resistors are in series. Their equivalent resistance will be 6+6 = 12 

The third 6  resistors is in parallel with 12 
Hence the equivalent resistance will be;
1 = 1 + 1
R 12 6
 1 = 2 + 1
R 12
1
 1 = 3
R 12
4
 R = 4
(ii) Two resistance in parallels and their equivalent in series with the third resistor.
6
6
6
+ -
Two 6  resistors are in parallels. Their equivalent resistance will be:
1 = 1 + 1
Rp 6 6
 1 = 21 =1/3 => Rp = 3
Rp 6
The third 6  resistor is in series with 3  .
Therefore, the total equivalent resistance will be,

R = 3 + 6
 R = 9
Q.12) Several electric bulbs are rated 10W, 220V. How many of them be connected in parallel
with each other across two wires of 220V line if maximum allowable current is 5A?
Ans) Resistance of each bulb, R = V2 = 220 x 220 = 4840
P 10
Total resistance in the circuit R = 220V = 44 [ֶR = V ]
5A I
let n bulbs be connected in parallels to obtain a resistance R
 1 = 1 + 1 + --------1 = n => n = r = 4840 = 110
R r r r r R 44
 110 bulbs can be connected
Q.13) A hot plate of electric oven connected to a 220 v line has two resistance coils A and B, each of
24 resistance, which may be used separately, in series, or in parallel. What are the currents
in the three cases ?
Supply voltage, V = 220 V
Resistance of each coil = 24
Case I : Coils are used separately:
According to Ohm‘s law
V = IR
 I = V = 220
R 24
 I = 9.166 A
Therefore, 9.16 A current will flow through the coil when used separately.
Case II: Coils are connected in series,
Total resistance, R = (24 + 243)  = 48
Now I = V
R
 I = 220 = 4.58 A
48
Therefore, 4.58 A current will flow through the circuit when the coils are connected in
series.
Case III: Coils connected in parallels;
Total resistance, 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
R 24 24 24
 R = 24 = 12
2
Now I = V
R
 I = 220 = 18.33 A
12
Therefore, 18.33 A current will flow through the circuit when the coils are connected in
parallels.

Q.14) Compare the power used in the 2 resistor in each of the following circuits :
(i) a 6V battery in series with 1 and 2 resistors.
V = 6v
Since 1 and 2 resistors are in series, therefore, equivalent resistance of the circuits is
R = ( 1 + 2 )  = 3
Now I = V/R
 I = 6/3 = 2A
This current will flow through each component of the circuit because there is no division
of current in series circuits. Hence, current flowing through the 2 resistor is 2A.
Thus, power consumed by 2 resistor will be given by;
P = I2 R
 P = 22 x 2
 P = 4x2 = 8W
(ii) a 4V battery in parallel with 12 and 2 resistors.
The voltage across each component of a parallel circuit remains the same. Hence, the
voltage across 2 resistor will be 4V
Thus, power consumed by 2 resistor will be given by:
P = V2
R
ϰ P = 42
2
 P = 16 = 8W
2
Q.15) Two lamps one rated 100 w at 220 V and the other 60 W at 220 V are connected in
parallel to electric mains supply. What current is drawn from the line if the supply
voltage is 220 V ?
Since the two bulbs are connected in parallel, therefore, potential difference across
each of the two bulbs will be 220 V as no division of voltage occurs in a parallel circuit.
Now, current drawn by the bulb of rating 100 W will be given by:
Power = voltage x current
 I = P
V
 I = 100 A
220
Similarly, current drawn by the bulb of rating 60 W will given by;
I/ = 60 A
220
Therefore, total current drawn from line will be
IT = 100 + 60
220 220
ϰ IT = 160 = 0.727 A
220

Q.16) Which uses more energy, a 250 W TV set in 1 hr or a 1200 W toaster in 10

minutes?
We know that
P = E
T
or E = pxt
Thus, energy consumed by a 250 W TV set in 1 hour
= 250 x 60 x 60
= 900000 Joules
= 9 x 105 Joules
Energy consumed by 1200 W toaster in 10 minutes
= 1200 x 10 x 60
= 720000 Joules
= 7.2 x 105 Joules
Therefore, the energy consumed by a 250 W TV set in 1 hour is more than the energy
consumed by a toaster of power 1200 W in 10 minutes.
Q.17) An electric heater of resistance 8 draws 15A from the service mains 2 hours.
Calculate the rate at which heat is developed in the heater.
Rat of production of heat = Heat produced

Total time
= I2 R t = I2 R
t
 Rate of production of heat = (5)2 x 7
= 225 x 8
= 1800 Joule/sec
Therefore, heat is produced by the heater at the rate of 1800 J/sec.
Q.18) Explain the following :

(a) Why is the tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps ?
The melting point and resistivity of tungsten are very high. It does not burn readily at a
high temperature. The electric lamps glow at very high temperature. Hence, tungsten is
mainly used as heating element of electric lamps.
(b) Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread toasters and
electric irons, made of an alloy rather than a pure metal?
Alloys have higher resistivity than their constituent metals. Alloys do not oxidize or burn
at higher temperatures.
Thus, they are used to make coils of electric toasters and electric irons rather than metals.
(c )Why series arrangement is not used for domestic circuits? Series arrangement is not used
for domestic circuits because of following reasons:
(i) The total potential difference available (i.e, 220v) is divided between various appliances in
the circuit according to their resistances since the current flowing through all the
appliances is same. Thus each appliance will not get the required potential difference for it
to operate properly.

(ii) If one of the appliance is switched off or gets fused, all the appliances in the circuit will
stop working as the circuit is broken.
(iii) All the appliances will work simultaneously whether we want them to work or not, thus
involving a lot of power wastage.
(d) How does the resistance of a wire vary with its area of cross-section?
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross – section of
the conductor.
i, e Resistance α 1/A
More is the area of cross-section of a conductor, less is the resistance of the conductor.
(e)Why are copper and aluminum wires usually employed for electricity
transmission?
Copper and aluminum wires have low resistivity. They are good conductors of electricity.
Hence, they are usually employed for electricity transmission.

Lesson No. 4
Magnetic Effects of Current
Textual questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near a bar magnet?
Ans) The needle gets deflected due to the force acting on its poles due to the magnetic field of the
bar magnet.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Draw magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
Q.2) List the properties of magnetic lines of force?

Ans) Properties of magnetic field lines (V. V. Important)
(i) Magnetic field lines are closed continuous curves directed from north pole to south pole
outside the magnet and from south pole to the north poles inside the body of the magnet.
(ii) The tangent to the magnetic field line at any point gives the direction of the magnetic field at
that point.
(iii) The magnetic field lines are crowded near the poles where the magnetic field is strong, far
apart near the middle of the magnet where the magnetic field is weak.
(iv) In case the field lines are parallel and equidistant, these represent a uniform magnetic field.
The earth‘s magnetic field is uniform in limited space.
(v) Two magnetic field lines do not intersect each other.
Q.3) Why don‟t two magnetic lines of force intersect each other ?
Ans) No two magnetic field lines can cross (or intersect) each other because if they do so, there
would be two directions of the magnetic field at that point, which is not possible.
SECTION - C
Q.1) Consider a circular loop of wire lying in the plane of paper/table. Let the current pass
through the loop clockwise. Apply the right-hand rule to find out the direction of the
magnetic field inside and outside the loop.
Ans) At every point of a current carrying loop, the concentric circles representing the magnetic
field around it would become larger and larger as we move away from the wire. By the
time we reach at the centre of the circular loop, the arc of these big circles would appear as
straight lines.
Q.2) The magnetic field in a given region is uniform. Draw a diagram to represent it.
Ans) Magnetic field is said to be uniform if its magnitude is equal and direction is same at every
point.

Uniform magnetic field is represented by equidistant parallel straight lines as shown

below.
Q.3) The magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid-carrying current

Ans) is same at all points
SECTION - D
Q.1) The properties of proton that can change while it moves freely in a magnetic field are:
Ans) Velocity and momentum.
Q.2) In Activity how do we think the displacement of rod AB will be affected if
(i) current in rod AB is increased (ii) a stronger horse-shoe magnet is used and
(iii) length of the rod AB is increased?
Ans) A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. The
magnitude of force increases with the amount of current, strength of magnetic field, and
the length of the conductor. Hence, the magnetic force exerted on rod AB and its
deflection will increase if.
(i) Current in rod AB is increased.
(ii) a strong horse-shoe magnet is used.
(iii) length of rod AB is increased.
Q.3) A positively charged particle (alpha-particle) projected towards west is deflected towards
north by a magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field is.
Ans) Towards upward.
SECTION - E
Q.1) State Fleming‟s left hand rule ?
Ans) Fleming‟s left hand rule: Fleming‘s left hand rule is used to determine the
direction of force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field.
According to this rule, stretch the thumb, the forefinger and central/middle finger of the left
hand mutually perpendicular to one another. Now adjust the hand in such a way that the
forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, the central finger in the direction of
current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.
Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule

Q.2) What is the principle of electric motor?
Ans) The working principle of an electric motor is based on the magnetic effect of current. A
current carrying loop experiences a force and rotates when placed in a magnetic field. The
direction of rotation of the loop is given by the Flemings left hand rule.

Q.3) What is the role of the split ring in an electric motor?

Ans) The split ring in the electric motor acts as a commutator. The commutator reverses the
direction of current flowing through the coil after each half rotation of the coil. Due to this
reversal of the current, the coil continues to rotate in the same direction.
SECTION - F
Q.1) Explain different ways to induce current in a coil ?
Ans) Three different ways can be adopted to induce current in the coil as;
i) Electromagnetic induction is produced when a flat coil is forced to rotate between the
opposite poles of a fixed magnet.
ii) Electromagnetic induction is produced when a bar magnet is forced to rotate between a
fixed flat coil.
iii) electromagnetic induction can be produced in absence of relative motion by using two
stationary coils. Take two coils of insulated copper on a single soft iron core. If current is
continuously changed in one coil by means of a battery, the current is induced in the
second coil kept near it.
SECTION - G
Q.1) State the principal of an electric generator ?
Electric generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a flat coil is
rotated between magnetic fields, current is induced in response to the change in magnetic
flux in the coil.
Q.2) Name some sources of direct current ?

Ans) Electrochemical cell, DC generator, photovoltaic cell, etc.
Q.3) Which sources produce alternating current.
Ans) AC generator, power plants.
Q.4) A rectangular coil of copper wires is rotated in a magnetic field. The direction of the
induced current changes once in each.
Ans) half revolution.
SECTION - H
Q.1) Name two safety measures commonly used in electric circuits?
(i) Fuse and (ii) Earth wire.
Fuse is used for protecting circuits due to short circuiting and overloading.
Earth wire is used to ensure that leakage of current to the metallic body of an electric
appliance does not give a severe shock to the user.
Q.2) An electric oven of 2kw power rating is operated in a domestic circuit (220V) that has a
current rating of 5A. What result do you expect?
Ans:- Here P = 2kw = 2000W. V = 220V, I=5A (current rating)
We know P=VI
100
Therefore I = P = 2000 W = 9A
V 220 V
11

Since the current rating of the circuit is 5A and the current flowing through it is 9A. As the
current flowing through the circuit is more than the current rating of the circuit , the fuse in
the circuit melts, consequently the circuit is broken and the oven is saved from damaging.
Q.3) What precaution should be taken to avoid the overloading of domestic electric circuits.
Ans) Fuse is the most important safety device to avoid the overloading of domestic electric
circuits. Besides this, too many appliances should not be connected to a single socket.
SECTION - I
Q.1) Which of the following correctly describe the magnetic field near a long straight wire?
(a) The field consists of straight lines perpendicular to the wire
(b) The field consist of straight lines parallel to the wire.
(c) The field consists of radial lines originating from the wire.
(d) The field consist of concentric circles centered on the wire.
Ans) (d) The field consist of concentric circles centered on the wire.
Q.2) The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is

Ans) Producing induced current in a coil due to relative motion between a magnet and the coil.
Q.3) The device used for producing electric current is called

An) Generator
Q.4) The essential difference between on AC Generator and a DC generator is that:

Ans) AC Generator has slip rings while the DC generator has a commentator.
Q.5) At the time of short circuit, the current in the circuit.

Ans) Increases heavily.
Q.6) State whether the following statements are true or false:

Ans) (a) An electric motor converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
False
(b) An electric generator work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
True
(c) The field at the centre of a long circular coil carrying current will be parallel straight
lines. True
(d) A wire with a green insulation is usually the live wire of an electric supply.
Flase
Q.7) List sources of magnetic fields?
Ans:- (i) Natural and artificial magnets. (ii) Electromagnets. (iii) A conductor, a coil or a solenoid
carrying current and (iv) Earth.
Q.8) How does a solenoid behave like a magnet. Can you determine the north and
south poles of a current carrying solenoid with the help of a bar magnet? Explain.
Ans) A solenoid begins behaving like a magnet when electric current flows through it. We
know that any current carrying conductor creates a magnetic field around it and that is
what happens in case of solenoid.
For determining the different poles of a solenoid, we can use a bar magnet and look for
interaction between different poles of two magnets. If the north pole of the bar magnet
gets repelled by a particular pole of the solenoid, then it gets confirmed that the bar

magnet was brought near the north pole of the electromagnet (solenoid) and the other pole
is the south pole of the electromagnet (solenoid) .
Q.9) When the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
is maximum.
Ans:- The force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is
maximum when the direction of current is at right angles to the direction of magnetic
field.
Q.10) Imagine that you are sitting in a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron
beam moving horizontally from back wall towards the front wall is deflected by a
strong magnetic field to your right side. What is the direction of magnetic field.
Ans) Here, the electron beam is moving towards the viewer, i.e, out of the plane of the wall.
This means that the direction of current is towards the wall.
Q.11) Draw a labeled diagram of an electric motor. Explain its principle and working. What is the
function of an split ring in an electric motor ?
Ans) Electric motor: It is a device used to convert electric energy into mechanical energy. These
are of two types. (i) AC motor and (ii) DC motor. We will describe DC motor only.
Principle: It works on the principle that whenever a coil carrying current is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a torque. As a result of torque , the coil begins to rotate.
Construction: An electric motor consists of following parts.
(i) Armature: An armature is a rectangular coil ABCD, in which a large number of turns of
insulated copper wire
are wound on a soft
iron core.
(ii) Field magnet: The
coil is placed in a
strong magnetic field
supplied by two pole
pieces of a
permanent magnet
NS.
(iii) Split ring or
commutator: The
two ends of the armature coil are connected to two halves (R1 and R2) of a same metallic ring
which rotate along with the coil.
(iv) Carbon brushes: Two flexible carbon rods B1 and B2 which are fixed in such a way that they
constantly touch the split rings.
(v) Battery: A battery consisting of few cells is connected across the brushes. The brushes pass
the current to the rings from where it is carried to the armature.
Working: The working of a DC motor is in two parts.
(i) When the battery sends the current to the armature in the direction ABCD, arms CB & DA
experience force. Applying Fleming‘s left hand rule, the arm AB experiences a force which is acting
outwards and perpendicular to it and the arm CD experiences a force which is acting inwards and
perpendicular to it. These two forces being parallel and their lines of action being different constitute
a couple. The movement of the couple or torque makes the armature to rotate in the anti clockwise
direction as shown in figure.
(ii) After half rotation, the direction of the current in the arms AB and CD are reversed. Now
arm CD experiences outward force and AB experiences an inward force. With the result the torque
rotates the armature in the same direction, i.e. anti clockwise direction as shown in figure.

The split ring in the electric motor acts as a commutator. The commutator reverses the
direction of current flowing through the coil after each half rotation of the coil. Due to this reversal of
the current, the coil continues to rotate in the same direction.
Uses of DC motor:
(i) These are used in electric fans for cooling and ventilation.
(ii) These are used for pumping water.
(iii) Small DC motors are used in various toys.
Q.12) Name some devices in which electric motors are used.

Ans) Electric motors are used in electric cars, rolling mill, electric cranes, electric lift, drilling
machines, electric fans, blowers, centrifugal machines and air compressor.
Q.13) A coil of insulated copper wire is connected to galvanometer. What will happen if bar
magnet is (i) pushed into the coil, (ii) withdrawn from inside the coil,
(iii) held stationary inside the coil.
Ans) Electromagnetic induction occurs with the relative motion between a magnet and
solenoid. If a bar magnet is pushed into the coil, withdrawn from inside the coil or held
stationary inside the coil, electromagnetic induction is affected accordingly:
(1) When bar magnet is pushed inside the solenoid, there occurs a change in magnetic flux
and consequently current is induced in the coil.
(2) When bar magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid, current is again induced but in
opposite direction.
(3) when bar magnet is held stationary in the solenoid, there occurs no change in the
magnetic flux and with the result no current is induced in the coil.
Q.14) Two circular coils are placed close to each other. If the current in first coil is changed,
will some current be induced in other coil?
Ans:- Yes by changing current in one coil, current will be induced in the other coil placed close
to the first coil. This is because of mutual induction.
Q, 15) State the rule to determine the direction of (a) magnetic field produced around a
straight conductor – carrying current (b) Force experienced by a current – carrying
Straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which is perpendicular to it. (c)
Current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field.
An) (a) Maxwell‘s right hand thumb rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic field
produced by a straight current carrying conductor. Imagine that the conductor is held in
the right hand with thumb pointing in the direction of current. Then according to
Maxwell‘s right hand thumb rule the fingertips encircling the conductor will point in the
direction of magnetic field associated with it.
>
Magnetic Field
Current > d
H an
g ht
Ri
Right Hand Thumb Rule

(b) Fleming‘s left hand rule is used to determine the direction of force experienced by a
current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field. According to this rule, stretch the
thumb, and the forefinger and central/middle finger of the left hand mutually perpendicular to
one another. Now adjust the hand in such a way that the forefinger point in the direction of
magnetic field, and central finger in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the
direction of the force experienced by the conductor.
Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule

(c) Fleming‘s right hand rule is used to determine the direction of current induced in a conductor
moving in magnetic field. According to this rule stretch the thumb, forefinger and central finger
of right hand mutually perpendicular to each other. Now adjust the right hand in such a way that
the thumb is in the direction of motion and forefinger in the direction of magnetic field, then the
central finger will indicate the direction of current induced in the coil
Fleming‘s Right Hand Rule
Q.16) Explain the underlying principle and working of an electric generator by drawing a labeled
diagram. What is the function of brushes ?
Ans) AC generator: (V. V. Important ) An AC generator is a device which converts mechanical

energy into electric energy.
Principle: It is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, i.e. whenever magnetic flux
linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f is induced in the coil.
Construction: It consists of following parts:

(i) Armature: A coil ABCD consisting of a large number of turns of insulated copper wire
wound over a soft iron core is called armature. It revolves round an axle between two poles of a
strong magnet.

(ii) Field magnet: N and S are two pole pieces of a strong electromagnet in which the armature
coil is rotated.
(iii) Slip rings: R1 and R2 are two hallow metallic rings held at different heights to which the two
ends of the coil are connected. These rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.
(iv) Brushes: B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. They are fixed and are kept
in tight contact with R1 and R2 respectively. These brushes pass the electric current from the
armature coil to the external resistance R.
Working: Its working is clear from figure (a) and figure (b)
(a) Let the armature ABCD is rotating clockwise so that the arm AD moves inwards and BC
moves outwards. According to Fleming‘s right hand rule, the induced current will be in the direction
CBDA as shown in figure (a) due to which current flows from B1 and B2 in the outer circuit.
(b) After half rotation of the coil, it occupies the position as shown in figure (b) with the armature
rotating in the same direction; BC moves inwards and AD outwards. Now the current will be induced
in the opposite direction due to which current flows from B 2 to B1 in the outer circuit. Thus the current
will change its direction after every half rotation and hence AC is obtained. The magnitude of induced
emf and hence current can be increased by (i) increasing the number of turns of its armature (ii)
increasing the area of the armature (iii) increasing the speed of rotation of the armature and (iv)
increasing the strength of the magnetic
field. N S N S
DC generator: The principle,
construction and working of a DC
generator is same as that of AC
generator except that in place of slip rings
there are split rings or a commutator.
Q.17 Domestic electric circuits:

The main features of domestic electric circuits are as shown in figure.
1) Electric cable or overhead wires: The electric power to a house is supplied either through
overhead wires or underground cables. The cable has three separate insulated wires (i) Live wire(l) (ii)
neutral wire (N) (iii) earth wire (E). The live wire has generally red insulation, neutral wire has black
and earth wire has green insulation. The live wire is at a high potential of 220V and neutral wire at
zero potential. Thus the potential difference between the live and the neutral wire is 220V.
2) Pole fuse: Before the electric lines enter a house,the agency supplying electricity places a fuse
called pole fuse or company fuse in the live wire. The current rating of this fuse depends upon the
load sanctioned by the agency to that house.
3)Energy meter: After the pole fuse, the cable is connected to the energy meter which records the
energy consumption of the house in kwh. The earth wire from the meter is locally earthed in the
compound of the house.
4) Main fuse: The live wire coming out of the meter has another fuse in it called as the main fuse.
5) Main switch: beyond the main fuse, the live and the neutral wire are connected to the main switch.
It is a double pole switch which can cut off the live and the neutral wires from the main supply hold
circuit by operating a single lever.

6) Distribution board: The live, neutral and earth wires then enter the distribution board wherever
different wires come out and go to the different parts of the house through fuses in the board.
7) House wiring: Now the three wires enter in a room where we have to use an electric bulb, a fan,
three pin sockets etc. All these appliances are connected in parallels across the live wire and the
neutral wire. The main advantage of parallel connection is that if one of the appliances is switched off
, there is no effect on the other appliances and they keep on operating. Another main advantage is that
same voltage of the mains line is available for all the electric appliances.
Electric fuse: . An electric fuse is a safety device ( wire) made of a material having very low melting
point. Electric fuse is used in series to limit the current in an electric circuit so that when excessive
current passes through it, it easily melts due to overheating.
The electric wires used in domestic wiring are made of copper because of being good conductor and
economically cheap. The thickness of these wires is chosen in such a way so as to allow a certain
maximum current to pass through them. If the current exceeds this limit, the copper wires get
overheated and may even cause ‗fire‘. This happens due to two reasons; (a) short circuiting (ii)
overloading To avoid these hazards due to overloading, an electric fuse is the most important device.
Some important points regarding the fuse are:
1) Fuse is always connected in live wire and not in the neutral wire under all circumstances.
2) A fuse is always connected in series and in the beginning of the circuit.
3)Thicker the fuse wire, greater is its current capacity.
4)A fuse must be of a current capacity or current rating, less than the maximum current which a
circuit or an appliance can withstand
Q.18) Why does an electric short circuit occurs ?

Ans) If the live and neutral wire come in direct contact with each other, short circuiting occurs.
This happens due to (i) damage to insulation of the power line and (b) a fault in an electric
appliance due to which current does not pass through it. On account of it resistance of the
circuit decreases to very small value and a large current flows through it which results in the
heating of the wire to a dangerously high value and a fire may start.
Q.19) What is the function of an earth wire? Why it is necessary to earth metallic appliances?
Ans:. Many electric appliances have a metallic body. If the insulation of any of these appliances
melts and makes contact with the metallic casing, the person touching it is likely to receive a
severe electric shock. Obviously the electric current will flow through the body of the person
touching the appliance. To avoid such hazards, the metal casing of the
appliance is earthed. Since earth does not offer any resistance, so the current flows to the
earth through the earth wire and not through the body of the person touching it.
Thus it is necessary to earth metallic appliances in order to save the user from getting sever
shock.
Q.20 Write a short note on overloading?
Ans) The current flowing through domestic wires depends upon the power ratings of the appliances
being used at a particular time. If too many appliances of high power ratings are switched on
simultaneously, they draw an extremely large current from the circuit. This is called
overloading. Due to overloading copper wires may get overheated and may cause a fire.
To avoid these hazards due to overloading, an electric fuse is the most important device. An
electric fuse is a safety device (wire) made of a material having very low melting point and
high resistivity. Electric fuse is used in series to limit the current in an electric circuit so that
when excessive current passes through it, it easily melts due to overheating.

Lesson No 5
Source of Energy
Conceputal Questions
Q.1) Biomass and Bio Energy.
Biomass : Biomass is a plant materials and animal waste used especially as a source of
fuel It includes (i) Woody source of biomass' including Forest residues, such as dead
trees, branches and tree stumps, yard clippings, wood chips, Landscaping residues, wood
plantations, , Industrial wood residue, Waste wood residues (ii) Non Woody biomass (Oil,
sugar, starch) such as:, Straw and other harvesting residues from agriculture, residues from
food industry and animal droppings etc (iii) Animal and human waste, farm slurry
/excrements, Slaughter waste, Organic waste from households and industry(sewage,
garbage etc)
Bio energy : Bioenergy is the energy derived from the conversion of biomass where
biomass may be used directly as fuel, or processed into liquid and gases fuels (biofuels).
Biomass is a renewable source of energy, because it is obtained from plants or animals
which can be produced again and again.
Bioenergy is the single largest renewable energy source today, providing 10% of world
primary energy supply
It plays a crucial role in many developing countries, where use of wood, charcoal,
agricultural resides and animal dung are used for cooking and heating in the residential
sector thus acts as a basic energy source for them.
Some of the technologies for generating bioenergy heat and power are:
1) Solid wood heating installations for buildings
2)Biogas digesters for power generation,
3) Large-scale biomass gasification plants for heat and power.
4)Co-firing biomass with coal in existing coal-fired power plants
Bio-energy can also be used to generate electricity. Therefore Bioenergy will also play an
important role in contributing to heat and electricity demand in the longer term.
Q.2) Wind energy.

Moving air is called wind. It has energy due to its motion. So the wind possesses kinetic
energy. It is this kinetic energy which is utilized for doing work. Wind blows due to
uneven heating of earth by the sun in different regions. The wind energy is harnessed by
using a wind mill.
A wind mill consists of a big sized table fan like blades which are fixed over the top of a
tall pole in such a way that they are free to rotate. When the fast moving wind strikes the
blades, it makes the blades to rotate continuously. The rotatory motion of the wind mill is
then used to do mechanical work through a shaft connected to the rotating blades. A wind
mill is used to:
(i) Pump water
(ii) Generate electricity; Electricity is generated from wind by using a specially design
arrangement called wind turbine generator. In this arrangement the rotational motion of
the wind mill is used to rotate the armature of the generator, which in turn generates
electricity
Q.3) Advantages of solar energy
a) It is available in abundance and that too without cost.
b) It is pollution free
c) It is not exhaustible

Limitations of solar energy

(a) It is unevenly distributed on the earth and becomes unavailable when sky is overcast
with clouds.
(b) A lot of costly equipment and infrastructure is needed to put solar energy to practical
use.
(c) Solar power stations do not match the energy out put of similar sized conventional
power stations.
(d) Solar energy can be harnessed only when it is day time.
(e) Large areas of land are required to capture the solar energy.
(f) Solar energy is used to charge batteries. However, these batteries are heavy and need
large storage space.
(g) These batteries also need replacement from time to time.
(h) Most of the photovoltaic panels are made up silicon, mercury and other toxic metals.
Pollution in environment , degrade the quality of these cells.
Q.4) Solar cell

A solar cell is a device which converts
solar energy directly into electricity. It is also
called as solar photo voltaic cell (SPV).
The first solar cell was made of wafer
thin sheet of selenium. However, it could
convert only 0.7% of solar energy into electric
energy. Nowadays silicon is the material used
to manufacture solar cells. Their efficiency is
about 25%.
A simple solar cell consists of a sandwich of a P-type silicon and an n-type silicon
layer. A small piece of wire is soldered into the top of the upper layer and another piece of
wire is soldered at the bottom of the lower layer to take the current to the outer circuit.
The cell is covered with a thin glass or transparent plastic cover for protection.
When sunlight falls on the surface of the solar cell; it makes the loosely bound electrons to
move due to which an electric current begins to flow. The strength of the current depends
upon the brightness of the light and the efficiency of the cell. At present the best designed
solar cells can generate 240w/m2 in bright sunlight with a maximum efficiency of about
25%.
Solar cell panel
The electric power generated by a single solar cell is quite small. Thus to put solar
cells to effective practical use, a large number of such cells are used together in the form
of a solar panel. Through a solar cell panel, solar energy is converted into electricity. This
electricity is either used for lighting houses and streets at night or it can be used for water
pumping and powering remote sensing telecommunication stations.
Merits of solar cell panels
a) These are easy to install and maintain.
b) They do not cause any type of pollution.
c) They have a long life.
Demerits of solar cell panels
a) The initial cost of installing a solar cell panel is high.
b) The electricity produced by these panels is DC so it can be used to operate DC devices
only. However, to operate an AC device, this DC is to be converted first into AC by
using inverters which becomes more expensive.

c) The efficiency of energy conversion is low as compared to other methods of

generating electricity.
Q.5) Nuclear fission
The phenomenon of splitting of a heavy nucleus into smaller nuclei with the libration of
enormous amount of energy when it is bombarded with a low energy neutron is called
nuclear fission. This phenomenon was discovered by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strass man in
the year 1939. They bombarded U-235 with low energy neutrons called thermal neutrons.
The U-235 splitted into two medium sized nuclei , Barium -139 and Krypton-94 with the
emission of three neutrons. A tremendous amount of energy is also produced. This
reaction can be represented as:
n1 + U235 fission
Ba139 + Kr94 + 3n1 + Q
0 92 56 36 0
Where Q is the enormous amount of energy.

The materials which can be fissioned even with low energy neutrons are called fissible
materials. These materials are used as fuels for nuclear power plants and also for the
production of atom bomb.
Nuclear fission produces an enormous amount of energy. It is estimated that on fission of
1kg of U235, an energy equivalent to burning of 2500 tons of coal is produced.
Q.6) Disadvantages of nuclear energy

(a) The waste products of nuclear reactor are radioactive which keep on emitting harmful
nuclear radiations for thousands of years.
(b) Improper nuclear waste storage or disposal can pollute the environment.
(c) There is risk of accidents in nuclear reactor, such accidents lead to the leakage of
radioactive materials which are a threat to plant and animal life.
(d) The high cost of installation of nuclear power plant and limited availability of uranium
makes the generation of electricity limited.
Q.7 OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion)
Ans. The process of harnessing the thermal energy of the sea is called OTEC and the devices
used for the purpose are called OTEC power plants.
Merits: (i) The electric power from OTEC is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
(ii) OTEC system transfers nutrients from the unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface
thereby enriching the fishing grounds.
(iii) It does not have seasonal variations like solar furnaces.
Demerits: (i) It requires a lot of capital investment.
(ii) Due to small temperature difference between the surface and deep water, the conversion
efficiency is low.
Textbook questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) What is a good source of energy?
Ans) A good source of energy is one which:
(a) Performs a large amount of work per unit volume or mass.
(b) Is easily accessible.
(c) Is easy to store and transport and
(d) Is economical

Q.2) What is a good fuel?

Ans) Characteristic of an ideal (good) fuel: While choosing a fuel for our domestic or
industrial use, the following characteristics are essential to make it a good fuel.
(a) It should have a high calorific value.
(b) It should burn without giving out any smoke or harmful gas.
(c) It should have a proper ignition temperature, i.e. the ignition temperature of a fuel
should neither be too low nor too high.
(d) It should be cheap and easily available.
(e) It should be easy to handle, safe to transport and convenient to store.
(f) It should not leave much ash behind after burning.
(g) It should burn smoothly.
Q.3) If you could see any source of energy for heating your food, which one would you use?
Ans) We would use that source which provides uniform heating and heats cleanly without loss
in the nutritional value of food.
SECTION - B
Q.1) What are disadvantages of fossil fuels?
Ans) The main disadvantages of fossil fuels are:
(a) These are non-renewable sources of energy.
(b) They cause air pollution as they produce smoke on burning.
(c) They produce Carbon dioxide gas on burning which contribute to green house effect
and consequently global warming.
(d) They produce gases like CO2 ,SO2 etc on burning which mixes with rain water and
leads to acid rain, which affects our water and soil resources.
Q.2) Why we are looking at alternate sources of energy?

Ans) Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy which are exhausting day by day. If we
continue to use them at the present fast rate, we will be soon deprived of these sources.
Due to this reason we look at the alternate sources of energy so as to save fossil fuels for
our future and also provide an alternate sources of energy for future generations.
Q.3) How has traditional use of wind and water energy been modified for our convenience?
Ans) Traditionally wind and water energy has been used directly by converting kinetic energy
of water and wind into mechanical energy. Now wind and water energy has been modified
by converting their kinetic energy into electric energy by constructing hydroelectric power
plants and by using wind mills.
SECTION - C
Q.1) What kind of mirror be best suited for use in a solar cooker?
Ans) A concave mirror is best suited for use in a solar cooker because it reflects and
concentrates solar energy from a large area into small area.
Q.2) What are the limitations of ocean energy?
Ans) The forms of energy that can be obtained from the ocean are tidal energy, wave energy
and ocean thermal energy. There are several limitations in order to harness these energies.
(i) Tidal energy depends on the relative positioning of the earth, moon and the sun.
(ii) High dams are required to be built to convert tidal energy into electricity.
(iii) Very strong waves are required to obtain electricity from wave energy.
(iv) To harness ocean thermal energy efficiently, the difference in the temperature of
surface water (hot) and the water at depth (cold) must be 20oC or more.

Q.3) What is Geothermal energy ?

Ans) Geothermal energy is the heat energy from hot rocks present a few miles beneath the earth
surface (inside the earth). Geothermal energy is one of those few sources of energy that do
not come directly or indirectly from the sun‘s energy it is clean and sustainable .At some
places in the world, the rocks at some depth below the surface of earth are very hot. This
heat comes from the fission of radioactive materials which are naturally present in these
rocks and continual heat loss from earth formation. The temperature at the core-month
boundary may reach over 40000C. The places where very hot rocks occur at some depths
below the surface of the earth are called hot spots and are sources of geothermal energy.
This energy can be harnessed as follows:
The extremely hot rocks present below the surface of the earth, heat the underground
water and turn it into steam. As more and more steam is formed between the rocks, it gets
compressed to a very high pressure. A hole is drilled into the earth upto the hot rocks and
a pipe is put into it. The steam around the hot rocks comes up through the pipe at high
pressure. This high pressure steam turns the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
Sometimes two holes are drilled and two pipes are put into them in the region of hot
rocks. Cold water is pumped in through one of the pipes. This cold water is turned into
steam by the hot rocks and comes out through the other pipe and then used to generate
electricity.
Merits of geothermal energy
a) It is most versatile and least polluting renewable source of energy.
b) It can be harnessed for 24 hours throughout the year.
c) It is relatively inexpensive.
d) As compared to solar energy and wind energy, the power generation level of
geothermal energy is higher.
Limitations of geothermal energy
a) Though as a whole geothermal energy is inexhaustible, a single hole has a limited life
span of about 10 years.
b) Noise pollution is caused by drilling operations at geothermal sites.
Q.4) What are the advantages of nuclear energy ?
Ans) Advantages of nuclear energy:
(a) It produces a large amount of energy from a very small amount of nuclear fuel.
(b) It continuously produces electricity for years together when nuclear fuel is loaded in
the nuclear reactor once.
(c) It does not produce gas like CO2 which contributes to green house effect or SO2 which
causes acid rain.
Disadvantages of nuclear energy
(a) The waste products of nuclear reactions are radioactive which keep on emitting
harmful nuclear radiations for thousands of years.
(b) Improper nuclear waste storage or disposal can pollute the environment.
(c) There is risk of accidents in nuclear reactors, such accidents lead to the leakage of
radioactive materials which are a threat to plant and animal life.
(d) The high cost of installation of nuclear power plant and limited availability of uranium
makes the generation of electricity from nuclear reactors limited.

SECTION -D
Q.1) Can a source of energy be pollution free? Explain?
Ans) No source of energy is totally pollution free. Only the degree and manner of pollution
varies. A source of energy like a solar cell is pollution free but its assembly causes damage
to environment.
Q.2) Is hydrogen a cleaner fuel than CNG. Explain?
Ans) Hydrogen is cleaner fuel than CNG because it produces water on burning while as CNG
produces CO2 on burning.
SECTION -E
Q.1) Name two energy sources that you would consider to be renewable. Give reasons for
your choice.
Ans) The two renewable sources of energy are as follows:
i) Sun : The energy derived from sun is known as solar energy, solar energy is produced
by the fusion of hydrogen into helium, fusion of helium into other heavy elements and so
on. A large amount of hydrogen and helium is present in the sun.
Therefore, solar energy can replenish on its own. The sun has 5 billion years more to burn.
Hence, solar energy is a renewable source of energy and has capacity to provide energy
for ever.
ii) Wind: Wind energy is derived from air blowing with high speed. Wind energy is
harnessed by windmills in order to generate electricity. As air blows because of uneven
heating of the earth and since heating of the earth will continue forever, therefore wind
energy will be available forever.
Q.2) Give names of two energy sources that you would consider to be exhaustible. Give
reasons for your choice.
Ans) Two exhaustible energy sources are as follows:
(i) Coal: It is produced from dead remains of plants and animals that remain buried under
the earth‘s crust for millions of years. Industrialization has increased the demand of coal.
However, coal can not replenish within a short period of time. Hence, it is a non-
renewable or exhaustible source of energy.
(ii) Wood: It is obtained from forests. Deforestation at a faster rate has caused a reduction
in the number of forests on the earth. It takes hundreds of years to grow a forest. If
deforestation is continued at this rate, all the existing forests will be consumed and there
would be no wood left on the earth. Hence, wood is an exhaustible source of energy.
SECTION -F
Q.1) A solar water heater cannot be used to get hot water on.
Ans) Cloudy day.
Q.2) Which of the following is not an example of a bio-mass energy source.
Ans) Nuclear energy.
Q.3) Mot of the sources of energy we use represent stored solar energy. Which of the
following is not ultimately derived from the solar energy.
Ans) Nuclear energy.
Q.4) Compare and contrast fossil fuels and the sun as direct sources of energy.
Fossil fuels Solar energy.
(i) Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are energy (i) Solar energy is received from sun.
sources which are obtained from underneath the Earth‘s
crust.
(ii) They are directly available to human beings for use. (ii) Renewable and direct source of
Hence, fossil fuels are the direct source of energy. energy.

(iii) These are limited in amount and are non-renewable (iii) The sun has been shining for
sources of energy as they cannot be replenished in thousands of years and will do so for
nature. the next five billion years.
(iv) Fossil fuels take millions of years for their (iv) Solar energy is available free of
formation. cost to all in unlimited amounts and it
(v) If the present fossil fuels of the earth get exhausted, replenishes in the sun itself.
their formation will take several million years. (v) Solar energy will not get
exhaysted.
Q.5) Compare and contrast bio-mass and hydroelectricity as sources of energy.

Bio-mass Hydroelectricity
(i) Bio-mass is derived from Dead plants and animals (i) Hydroelectricity, on the other
wastes. hand, is obtained from the kinetic
(ii) Hence, it is naturally replenished. energy of flowing water.
(iii) It is the result of natural processes. (ii) Energy from it can be produced
(iv) Wood, gobar gas, etc. are some of the examples of again and again.
biomass. (iii) It is harnessed from water and
obtained using mechanical processes.
(Plz correct here,if found any error)
Q.6) What are the limitations of extracting energy from –
a) The wind (b) Waves (c ) Tides.
Ans) (a) Limitations of wind energy
(i) Wind energy farms can not be established every where.
(ii) The wind energy required for generating electricity should be strong and steady to
maintain the desired level of generation. The minimum speed of wind required for
satisfactory working generator is about 15km/h.
(iii)The wind energy farms require a large area of land.
(iv) The setting up of a wind energy farm is very expensive.
(b)Demerits of wave energy

(i)) The power output is of variable nature.
(ii) Wave power is expensive with the presently available technologies.
(iii) Marine mammal and sea bird population could be affected due to the presence of
wave energy structure.
(c) Demerits of tidal energy
(i) There are a few sites around the world which are suitable for building tidal barrages.
(ii) The rise and fall of sea water during high and low tides is not enough to generate
electricity on a large scale.
Q.7) On what basis would you classify energy sources as

(i) renewable and non-renewable ? (ii) Exhaustible and in exhaustible?
Ans) Classification of sources of energy: (i) On the basis of continual utility (ii) On the basis
of availability. (iii) According to origin (a) biotic (b) Abiotic
Q.8) What are the qualities of an ideal source of energy?

Ans) Refer Q. no. 2 from Section A
Q.9) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker ? Are there places
where solar cookers would have limited utility ?

Ans) Merits of solar cooker

a) Solar cookers require neither fuel nor attention while cooking.
b) There is no pollution, no chance of overflowing of food.
c) The nutritional value of foods does not get destroyed by cooking in solar cookers.
Limitations of solar cookers
a) Foods can not be cooked during night or cloudy days.
b) Cooking takes comparatively longer time.
c) The direction of reflector has to be changed from time to time to keep it facing the sun.
Q.10) What are the environmental consequences of the increasing demand for energy? What
steps would you suggest to reduce energy consumption ?
Ans) Environment is disturbed whenever a source of energy is used to derive energy from it.
Some of the environmental consequences of the increasing demand for energy are as:
(a) The combustion of fossils produce gases like CO2 ,SO2 etc which mixes with rain
water and leads to acid rain, which affects our aquatic life ,plants and soil resources.
(b) They produce Carbon dioxide gas on burning which contribute to green house effect
and consequently global warming.
(c) Construction of dams destroy large ecosystem and creates problem of rehabilitation of
displaced population.
(d) Nuclear power plants are increasing radioactivity in the environment.
(e) Using wood as a fuel results in deforestation and destroying wild life.
How long will energy sources last us?
Most of the energy that we use today comes mainly from three non-renewable sources of
energy, i.e. coal, petroleum and natural gas. These resources are being used at a very rapid
rate. It has been estimated that world‘s known coal reserves are expected to last for
another 200 years compared to around 40 years for the known reserves of petroleum and
around 60 years for the known reserves of natural gas. So it is high time that we start using
alternative sources of energy to conserve the depleting reserves of coal, petroleum and
natural gas so that they may last longer. We should also reduce energy consumption
wherever possible. In this regard the following steps may be helpful in reducing energy
consumption.
(a) Good quality stoves should be used to burn fuels like kerosene and LPG so as to
obtain maximum heat.
(b) Pressure cookers should be used for cooking food to save fuel.
(c) Solar cookers and solar water heaters should be used.
(d) The use of biogas as a fuel should be encouraged in rural areas.
(e) Bicycles should be used for short distances to save precious fuel like petrol (which is
used in cars etc).
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Bio Science
L. No. 1 Life Processes
Nutrition
Nutrition:- The word ―nutrition‖ has been derived from the Greek word ―Nutrito‖ which means
to nourish. The sum total of all the processes starting from taking the food and its utilization by an
organism in various metabolic activities is called nutrition. In the other words nutrition is the
process of acquiring energy and materials for growth development, repairment, reproduction and
maintenance.
Modes of Nutrition
Organisms differ from each other in their modes of nutrition. The methods of obtaining food by
the organisms are called modes of nutrition. Based on the modes of obtaining nutrients by an
organism, nutrition is broadly classified into two types.
1) Autotrophic mode of nutrition.
2) Heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
1) Autotrophic nutrition: - The term has been derived from two Greek words ―Auto‖ means
―Self‖ and ―trophe‖ means ―Nutrition‖. Thus autotrophic means self nutrition. Autotrophic
nutrition is a kind of nutrition in which the organisms prepare their own organic food from
inorganic substances such as carbon-dioxide and water. This mode of nutrition is found in green
plants, some bacteria (Green sulphur bacterium - chlorobium) and some protozoans (euglena).
Autotrophic organisms or autotrophs are self-nourishing and are also called producers.
Depending upon the source of energy autotrophs are further categorized into two types.
a. Photo- autotrophs
b. Chemo-autotrophs
(a)Photo-autotrophs:- All green plants and some bacteria which synthesise their food from
inorganic materials in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll by the process of photosynthesis are
called photoautotrophs
6Co2+6H2o Sunlight C6H12o6+6o2.↑
Chlorophyll
b)Chemo-autotrophs:- Some autotrophs like hydrogen bacteria, Iron bacteria, nitrifying bacteria
etc. synthesise their food by utilizing energy released by oxidation of certain inorganic
substances. This process is called chemosynthesis and the organisms which shows this type of
nutrition are called Chemoautotrophs.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition: - The word heterotrophic is derived from Greek Words ―Hetero‖
means ―different‖ and ―Trophe‖ means ―nutrition‖. Heterotrophic nutrition is a kind of nutrition
in which an organism is directly or indirectly dependent on autotrophs for their food. Thus non-
green plants, all animals including human beings, some bacteria, fungi etc. are heterotophs as they
are not able to prepare their own food. Heterotrophs are also known as consumers as they are
dependent on the producers directly or indirectly.
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is of three types:-
I) Holotrophic
II) Saprotrophic
III) Parasitic.
I) Holotrophic: -The word holotrophic is derived from two Greek words ―Holo‖ means ―whole‖
and ―trophe‖ means ―nutrition‖. Holotropic nutrition is a kind of nutrition in which an organism
generally takes complex food by the process of ingestion. The complex food under goes proper
digestion before it is assimilated into the cells and utilized. Since it is characteristic of animals it
is also called Holozoic nutrition (―Holo‖ means ―whole‖ & ―zoic‖ means ―animal‖).

Depending upon the food habits the holozoic may be:-

a) Herbivorous:- which eat plants only e.g. Cow, rabbit etc.
b) Carnivorous:- Which eat flesh of other animals e.g. Lion, Tiger etc.
c) Omnivorous:- Which eat both plants and animals e.g. man, Sparrow etc.
II) Saprotrophic nutrition: - The word saprotrophic is derived from two Greek words ―sapro‖
means ―Rotten‖ and ―trophe‖ means ―nutrition‖. In this type of nutrition the organisms grow and
live upon dead and decaying organic mater such as rotten leaves, dead animals, house hold
wastes. They secrete digestive enzymes which break down insoluble decayed food into simple
soluble form which is then absorbed through their body surface.. e.g., some bacteria, mushrooms
and some non-green flowering plants show saprotrophic or saprophytic mode of nutrition.
III) Parasitic nutrition:- It is that type of nutrition in which an organism live on or inside the
body of other organisms and derive their readymade nutrients from them. The organism which
derives its nutrients from other organisms is called parasite and the organism from which parasite
derive their food is called host. In this type of nutrition the parasite is benefited and the host is
adversely affected. Parasites are of two types: (i) Ectoparasites (ii) Endo parasites.
(i) Ectoparasites:- Ectoparasites are those parasites which live on the outer surface of host e.g.
Body louse, bed bug etc.
(ii) Endo parasites:- Endo-parasites are those parasites which live inside the body of host e.g.,
tapeworm & round worm are endo-parasite in the human body.
Q.1 Describe the process of digestion or Mechanism of digestion in human beings?
ANS: Digestion is a process in which the complex non-diffusible molecules such as proteins, fats,
starch and nucleic acids are converted into simple diffusible molecules like amino-acids, fatty
acids, glycerol and glucose with the help of enzymes.
The process of digestion can be studied under the fallowing headings:-
I) Digestion of food in buccal cavity:- First the food is taken into the buccal cavity, through
mouth. In the buccal cavity, food is masticated with the help of teeth (physical digestion) which
breaks it into smaller pieces in order to provide more surface area for the action of enzymes. The
tongue mixes the saliva, secreted by salivary glands with food. The saliva contains mucus which
serves to moist the food and make it slippery for easy swallowing. The saliva contains two
enzymes namely ptylin or salivary amylase and maltase. The enzyme Ptylin converts the starch
present in the food into maltase and the another enzyme namely maltase converts maltose into
glucose. Therefore, only the digestion of carbohydrates takes place in the mouth. This partially
digested food which is called bolus passes into stomach through oesophagus or food pipe. There
is no digestion of food in the pharynx and esophagus.
II)Digestion of food in stomach:- The gastric juice secreted by gastric glands present in the wall
of stomach contains mucous, Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes like pepsin, rennin and
gastric lipase.
a) The HCl neutralizes the saliva mixed food and makes the medium acidic for the action of
gastric enzymes.
b) The mucous present in the gastric juice protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action
of acid (HCl).
a) The pepsin present in the gastric juice changes the proteins present in the food into peptones.
a) The gastric juice also contains the small amount of lipase which changes fats into fatty acids
and glycerol.
b) Renin helps to change milk into curd.
The stomach churns the food into a slippery semi-solid mixture called chyme, which passes into
small intestines, by the peristaltic movements of stomach.
III) Digestion of food in small intestine:- The duodenum is the first part of small intestines. In
the duodenum food mixes with two important juices, the bile juice secreted by liver and
pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas.

Bile which is alkaline in nature contains only one enzyme called alkaline phosphatase, which has
no digestive function. Bile neutralizes the action of HCl and helps in digestion of fats by
emulsifying them. Bile also helps in the digestion of fat soluble vitamins.
The pancreatic juice contains the following enzymes:-
ii. Pancreatic amylase:-Pancreatic amylase converts starch into sugar and sugar into
glucose.
iii. Pancreatic lipase:- Pancreatic lipase changes fats (lipids) in to fatty acids and
glycerol.
iv. Trypsin:- Trypsin converts proteins into peptones and peptones into amino acids.
The inner lining of small intestine is glandular in nature and it secretes intestinal juice. The
intestinal juice contains following enzymes:-
i) Erepsin:- (Mixture of di-peptidase and amino peptidase enzymes) which changes peptones
(lower peptides) into amino acids.
ii) Sucrase changes sucrose into glucose + fructose
ii) Maltase changes maltose into glucose + glucose
iv) Lactase changes lactose into glucose + galactose
v) Nucleolitic enzymes(Nucleases) which change nucleic acids into nucleotides.
vi) Lipase which converts lipids into fatty acids & glycerol.
In the small intestine the semi-liquid food changes into liquid food due as ―chyle‖, which is
diffusible and is absorbed by intestinal wall. Thus the digestion started in mouth and is completed
in the small intestine.
(Q.2 Define Photosynthesis? Write down the mechanism of photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis: - The process by which green plants prepare their food from raw material like
carbon dioxide and water in presence of chlorophyll and light energy which is converted into
chemical energy. The photosynthesis is the most important anabolic process for providing food
supply to the biological world and purifying the atmospheric air by consuming Co2 and evolving
oxygen.
Photosynthesis is fundamentally an oxidation-reduction process in which water is oxidized to O2
and CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates (glucose). The simple over all reaction of photosynthesis is
as follows.
light
6C02+6H2O Chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 ↑
Mechanism of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in two steps. The first step is called light reaction and the 2 nd step is called
dark reaction.
(I)Light Reaction:- It occurs in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts. Light reaction involves
following steps.
Light energy is absorbed by PS I & PS II (pigment system I and Pigment system II)
The absorbed light splits the water into molecular oxygen, electron and proton. This process is
called as photolysis of water.
2H2O → 2H+ + 2OH
2oH → H2O + ½ O2 + 2e
In light reaction the excited electrons lost by the pigment system II pass through various
intermediate carriers and finally reduce NADP+ into NADP. During their travel through these
intermediate carriers they release energy, which is used to produce ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate (P). The pigment system II in turn receives the electrons released by
photolysis of water. The formation of ATP and inorganic phosphate (P) is called

photophosphorylation. The further two electrons and two protons reduce NADP into NADPH2
Both ATP and NADPH2 are called assimilatory powers which are used in dark reaction.
ii) Dark reaction : - The reactions of dark phase are pure thermo-chemical reactions and does
not require light energy but it does not mean that it occurs during night.
The dark reaction takes place in the stroma part of chloroplast.
In dark phase, the high energy NADPH2 and ATP molecules are utilized to reduce CO2 to
carbohydrate. This fixation involves a biochemical pathway called calvin & benson Cycle. The
overall reaction can be represented as.
6CO2 + 12NADPH2 + 18ATP C6H12O6 + 12NADP + 18 ATP +6H2O.
(Q 3. What are essential components required for photosynthesis?

Ans) Essential components required for photosynthesis:-
Plants need four Essential components for photosynthesis these are .
(a) CO2.
(b) Water (H2O)
(c) Chlorophyll.
(d) Light
(a) Carbon-dioxide:- Green plants make use of CO2 in their food manufacturing process. The
main source of CO2 for land plants is the atmosphere which contains 0.03-0.04 % of this gas.
However, aquatic plants (Hydrophytes) make use of CO2 dissolved in water. CO2 enters the
leaves by diffusion through stomata. The CO2 evolved as a result of respiration is also used during
photosynthesis by the plants.
(b) Water:- Water forms an important reagent for photosynthesis. Plants absorb water from the
soil by their root hairs. This water is then transported up to the stem and leaves through Xylem
vessels. Which contributes to the process of photosynthesis. However, only less than 1% of the
water absorbed by plants is used for the photosynthesis and rest is lost by transpiration. Oxygen
evolved during photosynthesis comes from H2O.
(c) Sun light:- The sun light is the natural and prime source of energy for the photosynthesis.
Out of total solar energy reaching to earth, only about 2% is used in photosynthesis. In
photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical energy.
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by the quality, intensity and duration of light. Blue and red
components of visible light are the best for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis does not occur in
green light because leaves being green reflect it back.
(d) Chlorophyll:- These are green coloured photosynthetic pigments found in thylakoids of the
chloroplasts. There are five types of chlorophyll pigments. These are:
i) Chlorophyll a.
ii) Chlorophyll b.
iii) Chlorophyll c.
iv) Chlorophyll d.
v) Chlorophyll e.
Out of these Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are green in colour and are predominately found in
higher plants. The function of chlorophyll molecules is to trap solar energy from sun light and
converts it in to chemical energy during photosynthesis.
Digestion
(Q. 4. Describe digestive system in human beings?
All the organs in the body of man that help in nutrition collectively constitute the digestive
system. It can be divided into two parts.
a) Alimentary Canal.

b) Digestive glands.
a) Alimentary canal:- Alimentary canal in man is a long tube about 22 feet in length and is
highly coiled, muscular structure starts from mouth and terminates as anus. It is differentiated into
8 parts:
(I) Pre-oral cavity (II) Buccal cavity (III) Pharynx
(IV) Oesophagus (V) Stomach (VI) Small intestine
(VII) Large intestine. (VIII) Anus
I. Pre-oral cavity:- The slit between two lips is called mouth. The lips prevent the loss of food
from the buccal cavity during mastication of food.
II. Buccal Cavity or Oral Cavity:- It is the large cavity bounded above by palate, lower side by
tongue & the laterial sides by cheeks & the front part by
teeth. The teeth are 32 in number in an adult human
being.
Tongue:- (lingua)
Tongue is a single, pinkish, oval, elongated highly

muscular and protrusible sense organ present on the
floor of buccopharyngeal cavity. It is attached at the
posterior end with throat with the help of Lingual
frenulum and anterior part is free. A furrow termed the
sulcus terminalis divides the oral part and pharyngeal
part of the tongue. The limbs of the sulcus terminalis run laterally and forward from a median pit,
named the foramen caecum. Tongue contains papillae and taste buds. The tongue is essential for
mastication, taste, speech and secretion of mucous.
The tongue:
(a) Acts as universal toothbrush, as it helps in tooth cleaning.
(b) Helps in speaking.
(c) Helps in degglutition.
(d) Helps in mixing saliva with food.
(e) Acts as a curry comb in many animals, hence help in body cleaning.
(f) Helps in taste detection
(g) In dog helps in regulation of body temperature. The phenomenon is called as ―Panting‖.
(h) In frog and other animals, it helps in prey capturing
Taste papillae are of following types –

(a) Circumvallate (b) Fungiform (c) Foliate (d) Filliform
In man the anterior end of tongue feels sweet taste, posterior part feel bitter taste, sides feel
sour taste and a small part behind the anterior end feel salty taste.
Teeth: Teeth is a living structure.

We have Heterodont, Thecodont, & diphyodont teeth
Heterodont, (When the teeth are different in structure and functions. They are distinguished into
four types incisors, canines, premolars and molars),Thecodont (Teeth have well developed roots
implanted in deep individual pits or socketes called alveoli or theca, in the jaw bone),

III. Pharynx : - The pharynx is about 12cm-14cm long funnel shaped vertical canal. It serves as
passage for food from the cavity to osophagus. (It is commonly called the throat).
IV. Oesophagus: - The oesphagus is also called food pipe. It is about 25cm long muscular narrow
track which lies behind the trachea and heart. The oesophagus opens into the stomach. The
junction of oesophagus & stomach is called cardiac orifice or gastrooesophaged junction. It is
guarded by cardiac sphincter. The oesophagus passes food from pharynx to stomach.
V Stomach: - The stomach is `J` shaped muscular sac

present on the left side of the abdomen. The stomach has
three regions namely Fundus, Body and Pylorus. The
posterior end of stomach opens into small intestines by
pyloric orifice & is guarded by pyloric sphincter
VI. Small intestine:- Small intestine is the longest and

narrow tubular part of alimentary canal that lies coiled in
abdomen. Small intestine has circular fords and villi.
Small intestine is differentiated in to three parts:
a) Duodenum
b) Jejunum
c) Illeum.
a) Duodenum:- It is a 20 – 25 cm long wider tube that forms a C-shaped arch with stomach.
Duodenum has an ampoule where common bile duct and pancreatic duct open jointly.
b) Jejunum: It is the middle part of small intestines; it is about 2.4 m long & 4cm wide.
Jejunum is rich in digestive glands.
c) Illeum:- It is 3.6 m long and about 3.5cm wide,terminal narrow part of small intestine
which is characterized by club-shaped villi and peyer‘s patches. Major digestion and
absorption occurs in small intestine. It also produces a
number of hormones.
(VII) Large intestines
The illeum enters into wide tube called large intestine that measures
about 1.5 metres it is differentiated. into 3 parts.
a. Caecum b. Colon c. Rectum.
a. Caecum:- Small almost rounded blind sac measures about 10-15
cm. from caecum arises a blind worm like structure called
vermiform appendix. Which measures about 3-8cm.
b. Colon:- Is largest part of large intestines and is divided into four regions they are: Ascending
Colon, Transverse Colon. Descending colon & sigmoid colon.
c. Rectum:- It is ―S‖ shaped tube measuring about 12cm that opens to outside as anus.

(VIII) Anus:- Opening of alimentary canal at lower end is

called anus. It is bounded by anal sphincter. Anus is meant for
passing out faeces.
Q.5. Digestive Glands:-The glands which are associated
with alimentary canal and secretes some enzymes that helps in
the process of digestion are called digestive glands.
Human digestive glands include salivary glands, Gastric
glands, liver, pancreas, intestinal glands.
(A)Salivary Glands:- Salivary glands are present in mouth. There are three types of salivary
glands in man.
(i) Parotid Glands:- ) Parotid Glands are
the largest salivary glands, which are
present below and in front of each
pinna (ear) . A stenson‘s duct arises
from each gland, opening between the
teeth of upper jaw.
(ii) Sub-maxillary:- it is located on the
inner side at the angle of Jaw, one on
either side. A wharton‘s duct arises
from each gland and opens on lower
jaw.
(iii) Sublingual Glands:- These are present below the tongue. Ducts of rivinus or Bartholin's
duct arises from these glands and opens below tongue on the floor of buccopharyngeal
cavity.
Salivary glands secreats fluid called saliva through salivary duct into the oral cavity. Saliva is
slightly alkaline (PH=6.8) and its daily secretion is about 1 to 1.5 liters.
Saliva contains two enzymes.
(a) Salivary amylase or Ptylin:- It converts starch into maltose.
(b) Maltase:- It converts maltose into glucose.
Mucus of saliva helps to lubricate the food for swallowing.
(B)Gastric Glands:- Gastric Glands are tubular multicellular glands present in the internal
surface of stomach. There are about 35 million gastric glands in stomach. Gastric glands secretes
gastric juice which is highly acidic and has PH 0.1-1.5. Gastric juice contains HCl and two
inactive enzymes and an active enzyme called gastric lipase.
a) HCl:- It provides an acidic medium and activates inactive enzymes pepsinogen into pepsin
and prorenin into rennin.
b) Renin:- It coverts soluble casein into paracasein. This process is called curdling of milk.
c) Pepsin:- It converts proteins into peptones.
d) Gastric lipase:- It splits fats into faty acids and gylcerol.
(C)Liver:- Liver is the largest gland of our body. It is bilobed reddish, brown gland which lies on
the right side of the abdominal cavity. Liver is formed of hepatic cells. Numerous capillaries are
present in between these cells called bile capillaries. The hepatic cells join together to form
hepatic duct. The two hepatic ducts join together to form common bile duct. The liver secrets bile
which is stored in the gall bladder until needed in the duodenunm. The bile is clear yellow alkline
fluid and has bitter taste. About 500ml to 1 litre of bile is secreted by liver in a day. Bile contains
bile pigments and bile salts.
Bile salts emulsify the fat and facilitate absorption of vitamins. The only enzyme present in bile is
alkaline- phosphatase but it has no digestive function.
(D)Pancreas: - It is the second largest gland in our body. Pancreas is a heterocrine , pinkish, leaf
like triangular gland present in `C` shaped loop of duoedenum. The pancreas secreats the

panereatic juice which is poured into the doedonum through a hepatopancreatic duct. The
exocrine region of Pancreeas secreates sodium bi-carbonate and many digestive enzymes. The
bicarbonate ions make the medium alkaline favourable for the action of Pancreatic enzymes.
The some important enzymes present in Panereatic Juice are:-
Trypsin:- It converts proteins into proteoses, peptones and peptides.
i. Chymotrypsin :- It acts on proteins and converts them into polypeptides and free amino acids.
ii.Amylase: - It converts starch into maltose and small amounts of glucose.
iii.Steapsin or lipase:- It converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
iv. Sucrase:- It converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
v. Maltase :- It converts maltose into glucose.
vi. Nucleases ;- These acts on polynucleotide chains of RNA and DNA and convert them into
nucleotides.
(E)Intestinal Glands:- There are two types of numerous, microscopic glands present in the
mucosa of small intestines. They are
a) Crypts of lieberkuhun. (Present through out small intestine)
b) Brunner`s glands. (Present only in duodenum)
These glands secrets intestinal juice. Intestinal juice is alkaline in nature (PH=8.3). Man secrets
about 2-3 lit. of intestinal juice. Intestinal juice contains following enzymes:
(i) Erepsin:- It converts peptones into amino acids.
(ii) Carbohydrases:- They convert carbohydrates into glucose.
(iii)Nucleases:- Which changes nucleic acids into nucleotides.
(iv) Lipase: - which converts lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Q. 5 Discuss nutrition in Human Beings?

Human beings are heterotrophic, omnivores organisms. They obtain their food by holozoic mode
of nutrition.The utilization of food involves following steps:
(I) Ingestion (2) Digestion (3) Absorption (4) Assimilation (5) Egestion
(1)Ingestion:-Ingestion means intake of food by an organism. In human beings, food is ingested
through the mouth into the buccal cavity. In the buccal cavity, the food is masticated with the help
of teeth, which breaks it into smaller pieces.
2) Digestion:- Digestion involves physical and chemical break down of complex, non diffusible
food materials into simple soluble food materials. Digestion of food starts in oral cavity continues
in stomach and is completed in small intestines.
In the buccal cavity food mixes with saliva secreated by salivary glands which contains enzymes
namely ptylin or salivary amylase and maltase, these enzymes convert starch into sugar. The
partially digested food called bolus enters into the stomach.
In the stomach, food is treated mechanically by peristaltic movements and chemically by gastric
juice. Gastric juice contains HCl and enzymes like pepsin, rennin etc. the HCl provide acidic
medium for the action of enzymes. The enzyme pepsin converts proteins into peptones and
proteoses, while as enzyme renin converts milk into curd. The churned food called chyme passes
from stomach into small intestines. In small intestines the chyme is treated with secreation of
pancrease, liver and intestinal glands .These glands release enzymes like trypsin, carbohydrates,
lipase etc.
Trypsin converts proteins into peptones and then peptones into aminoacids .While as
carbohydrates convert starch into glucose. Lipases converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol. In
the small intestines the food changes into diffusible form called chyle.
So during digestion, carbohydrates are converted into glucose, proteins into aminoacids and fats
into fatty acids and glycerol.

(3)Absorption:- Diffusion of digested food through the walls of alimentary canal into the blood
is called absorption. Simple substances like water, glucoses which do not require digestion is
absorbed in stomach.
The digested food is absorbed mainly in small intestines. The inner surface of small intestine is
provided with millions of finger like projection called villi. The villi increases the surface area of
small intestines which helps in rapid absorption of digested food .
Each villus has lymph vessel in the centre called Lacteal, which is surrounded by a network of
capillaries, which in turn is surrounded by a layer of epithelial cells. Digested lipids are absorbed
into lacteal while as sugar and amino acids are absorbed by blood capillaries.
(4) Assimilation: - Convertion of digested food in to living protoplasm is called assimilation
The blood carries digested food to all parts of the body where it becomes assimilated in to the
cells.
In the cells, most of the glucose is oxidized to release energy required for various metabolic
activities. The remaining glucose is converted in to glycogen which is stored in liver and muscle
cells. The glycogen can be used as source of energy by the body when required.
The amino acids are converted into proteins while as fatty acids and glycerol is converted into
fats.
The excess Amino acids gets converted into urea by liver which later on gets excreted by kidney.
(5) Egestion :- The elimination of faces from alimentary canal through anus is called egestion or
defaecation.
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the O2 requirements of multicellular organisms
like human ?
An) Diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of large multicellular organisms
like humans because;
(i) In case of multi cellular organisms, only the cells present in the surface layer are in
direct contact with the surrounding environment.
(ii) Also the volume of multicellular organism‘s body is so big that oxygen can not diffuse
into all the cells of the body of an organism quickly, because diffusion being a very slow
process will take a lot of time to make oxygen available to all body cells.
Thus, the multi cellular organisms require specialized organs for breathing and exchange
of gases, to meet the oxygen requirements.
Q.2) What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive ?
Ans) Following are some prominent characteristics by which we can decide whether something
is alive;
(i) In living things growth and development takes place with the passage of time.
(ii) Living thing respond to stimuli in their environment.
(iii) Living things interact i.e exchange matter and energy with their environment.
(iv) Living things reproduce to continue their existence.
(v) Living thing obtain food from their environment.
(vi) Living things perform metabolic activities.
(vii)Living things have definite life span.
Q.3) What are the outside raw materials required by an organism ?
Ans) The raw materials required by an organisms depend upon the mode of nutrition. As in
autotrophs, which make their own food, require water, carbon-dioxide from the

environment. While in heterotrophs, the raw material required are the products formed by
autotrophs i,e carbohydrates and oxygen.
Q.4) What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life ?
Ans) The important life processes essential for maintaining life are :-
(i) Nutrition :- It is a process by which living organisms obtain and utilize the nutrients.
(ii) Respiration :- It involves oxidation of respiratory substances and release of energy.
(iii) Transport :- It involves the transport of substances from one part to other parts of
body.
(iv) Excretion :- It involves removal of excess or toxic wastes from the body.
(v) Reproduction :- To produce young ones of their own kind for the continuity and
multiplication of their race.
(vi) Control and co-ordination:- It includes nervous system and endocrine system. Both
these systems control and co-ordinate all the activities of multi cellular organisms.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Distinguish Between Autotrophic & Heterotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
1. In this type of nutrition an organism 1. In this type of nutrition an organism
prepares its own food. can not prepare its own food so depends
upon other organisms for its food.
2. In this nutrition the raw materials 2. In this nutrition the raw materials are
are inorganic in nature (CO2&H2O) organic in nature (carbohydrates) as well
3. In this type of nutrition radiant as inorganic e.g. salt condiments etc.
Energy is converted into chemical 3. In this type of nutrition no such process
energy. takes place.
4. Autotrophic organisms are 4. Heterotrophic organisms are
producers. consumers.
Q.2) Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis ?
Ans) The various raw materials needed for photosynthesis are
(i) CO2 (ii) H2O
(iii) Sunlight (iv) Chlorophyll.
CO2 is taken from the atmosphere. H2O is absorbed through roots from the soil
Photonic energy i.e hv is obtained from the direct sun light.
And chlorophyll is present in chloroplast of the cell which are main photosynthetic
pigment involved in it.
Q.3) What is the role of acid in stomach?
An) The Acid present in stomach is HCl, which has following role:-
(i) In Activation : HCl acid stops activity of salivary amylase by changing pH of food
from neutral to
acidic one.
(ii) Conversion:- HCl changes pro-enzymes i.e pepsinogen and prorennin into active
enzymes pepsin and rennin.
(iii) Creation of Acidic medium :- HCl makes the food acidic, which is essential for the
activity of pepsin and rennin.
(iv) Denaturation of proteins :- HCl destroys the three dimensional configuration of
food
proteins.
(v) Softening of food :- By its action on middle lamella and cell cements, HCl softens the
food.

(vi) Disinfection :- It destroys the microbes and disinfects the food.

HCl controls the function of Celle‘s intrinsic factor.
Q.4) Functions of digestive enzymes.
Ans) Digestive enzymes, secreted by digestive glands located in different parts of alimentary
canal help in the digestion of food. i.e carbohydrates, proteins and fats etc.
(a) The enzymes and their function that are involved in carbohydrate digestion are :-
i) Amylase:- It converts starch into maltose.
ii) Maltase :- It converts maltose into glucose.
iii) Lactase:- It converts lactose into glucose and galactose.
iv) Sucrose:- It converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
(b) The enzymes and their function that are involved in protein digestion are :-
i) Pepsin:- It converts protein into proteases, peptones and polypeptides.
ii) Trypsin:- It convert proteins and peptones into polypeptides and di peptides.
iii) Chymotrypsin:- It converts proteins Into polypeptides and free amino acids.
iv) Carboxypeptidase:- It acts on proteoses peptones and polypeptides and converts
them into di peptides and amino acids.
v) Amino peptidase:- It acts on proteins, peptones and polypeptides converting them
into dipeptides and Amino acids
vi) Di peptidase:- It act on di peptides and converts them into amino acids.
P Proteins
T C
E R H
Peptones A
P Y Y M
S M I
P N
I O
S T O
D
N Polypeptides I P
P E I
N P P
S
T E
Dipeptides & I I P
(Some amino acids) N D T
A I
S
D
E
E
A/A
S
(c) The enzymes and their function that are involved in fat digestion are :-
i) Gastric lipase (ii) Phospholipase (iii) Phospho di esterase.
The general function of above three enzymes is that they convert fats into fatly acids and
glycerol.
Q.5) How are the small intestines designed to absorb food ?
Ans) The mucus membrane of intestines is raised into numerous finger like projection called
villi. There are about 50 lac villi present in human intestines. The number of villi is about
20-40 per sq. mm. These villi increase the surface area of the small intestines for
absorption of digested food. These villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take
the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body, where it is used for obtaining energy,
building up new tissues and repairing of old tissues.

Respiration
Q.1 Discuss respiration and its types?
Respiration:-Respiration is a metabolic process in which breaking down of glucose takes place
inside the living cells by the process of oxidation resulting in the release of CO2 + H2O and
energy.
The compound which is oxidized during respiration is called respiratory substrate
e.g. Glucose. Depending weather oxygen is used or not. The respiration is of two types:
A) Aerobic Respiration:- In this type of respiration complete oxidation of substrate
(Glucose) takes place in presence of atmospheric oxygen to release H2O & CO2 with the release
of energy. It occurs in most of the plants and animals.
enzymes
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATPs
Glucose Carbon Water Energy
dioxide
B) Anaerobic respiration :- In this type of respiration, incomplete break down of Glucose takes
place in absence of oxygen into CO2 and lactic acid or ethanol with the release of small amount of
energy. It occurs in muscles and in certain micro-organisms such as bacteria and yeast.
Mechanism
The process of respiration (Aerobic & Anaerobic) is a long and complex process which is
completed in two main steps.
(a) Glycolysis:- It is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration . It takes place in
cytoplasm without the use of atmospheric oxygen. During this process glucose a six
carbon molecule undergoes a series of changes to form a three carbon molecule pyruvate
or pyruvic acid.
(b) Breaking Down of Pyruvate :- When oxygen not available (Anaerobic condition) the
pyruvate undergoes incomplete oxidation and is converted into different molecules in
different organisms. e.g.
i) In yeast glucose is converted into pyruvates and pyruvates are further converted
into ethyl alcohol.
C6 H12 O6 Glycolysis CH3COCOOH C2H5OH
Glucose Pyruvic acid Ethyl alcohol
In the cells of higher plants under anaerobic condition glucose is converted into ethyl alcohol or
organic acids like malic acid, oxalic acids etc.
ii) In muscle cells, during active metabolism, glucose is oxidized anaerobically and is
converted into pyruvates. The pyruvates are further converted into 3 compound
molecule called Lactic acid.
Glucose pyruic acid lactic acid + Energy
iii) In some bacteria glucose is partially converted into lactic acid or butyric acid.
Bacteria
Glucose Lactic acid + Energy
streptococcus lactis
Bacteria
Glucose Lactic acid + Butyric acid
Clostridium butyricum

Textual Questions
SECTION - C
Q.2: Describe respiratory system in human being?

The respiratory system in human beings consists of two major components.
(1) Respiratory tract (2) Respiratory organ.
(1) Respiratory tract:-The path through which O2 reaches up to the lungs and CO2 is removed
from the lungs is called respiratory tract. In man it consists of following parts.
(I) Nose (II) Pharynx (III) Larynx (IV) Trachea (V) Primary Bronchi
(I) Nose:- The respiratory tract begins with a pair of external nostrils situated at lower end of
nose. Each nostril leads into a vertical tube like structure called nasal chamber. The two nasal
chambers are separated by a cartilaginous nasal septum. Each nasal chamber on the other side
opens into the pharynx by a aperture called internal naris. In the beginning of the nasal chamber
the inner surface is lined with ciliated epithelial lining with mucous membrane to filter the inspired air
(warmed, moistened and becomes dust free).
(II)Pharynx :-The nose opens into the pharynx by a pair of apertures called internal nares. The
pharynx is differentiated into upper nasopharynx (where open into the internal nares ) and
lower oropharynx. The oropharynx leads into two tubes i.e. larynx and oesophagus, through
glottis and gullet respectively. The glottis is guarded by a flap called epiglottis (that does not
allow anything other than air to enter into the larynx).
(III)Larynx (voice box):- It is the upper slightly swollen part of trachea or wind pipe. It is more
prominent in men as compared to women and is called ―Adam‘s apple‖. In the larynx there is
present a pair of vocal cards which help in the production of sound, hence, it is also called
voice box. During swallowing of food or liquid, the larynx moves upwards, so that its opening
glottis is close by epiglottis and food does not enter into larynx.
(IV)Trachea :- The trachea or wind pipe is a long, narrow, whitish tube that extends through the
neck, enters the thorax where it divides into a pair of branches called primary bronchi. The
walls of trachea are supported by ―C‖ shaped cartilaginous rings.
These rings prevent collapsing of trachea. The trachea at its lower end divide or splits into
two branches called primary bronchi.
(V)Primary bronchi:- These are pair of tubular structures formed as a result of bifurcation of the
trachea. Theses are right and left primary bronchi that enters into corresponding lungs. These
are also supported by cartilaginous rings

(2) Respiratory organs: The respiratory organs in man are a pair of lungs.
Lungs :- Lungs are a pair of highly elastic, thin walled, spongy, pinkish and hollow bag like
structures situated in the thoracic cavity on the sides of the heart and are well protected by bony
thoracic cage
Each lung is conical triangular structure. The upper pointed

side is called apex and the lower broad side is called base. The left lung is slightly smaller and
lighter than right lung. The right lung is divided into three lobs, while the left lung is divided into
two lobs. Each lung is enclosed in doubled walled pleural sac. The inner membrane is called
visceral layer and the outer as parietal layer of pleural sac. A narrow space exists between the two
plural membranes. It is called pleural cavity and contain a fluid called pleural fluid.
It acts as a lubricant to reduce friction between the lungs and
thoracic wall during breathing.
Secondary Bronchi:- Each primary bronchus after entering the
corresponding lung divides to form secondary bronchi that gives
rise to tertiary bronchi. The tertiary bronchi divides into branches
which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind sac called
alveoli.
Alveoli : Alveoli or air sacs are functional units of lungs and forms
the gas exchange surface. There are over 700 million alveoli
present in the human lungs, representing a total surface area of 70-
90 m2. Efficient gas exchange, which takes place in human lungs,
is due to the increased surface area of lungs.
The wall of each alveoli is only 0.0001/mm thick (0.1µm). On its outside is a dense
network of capillaries special cells are also present in the alveolus wall, which secrets a detergent
like chemical called surfactant.
Surfactant has many functions like it reduces the amount
of effort needed to breathe.
Q.3:- Discuss the process of breathing?

Breathing:-The movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratory tract
and the movement of foul air in opposite direction is called breathing
Mechanism of Breathing:- Breathing involves two steps.
1. Inhalation or Inspiration
2. Exhalation or Expiration
These two steps are together referred to as respiratory movements.
1. Inspiration:-Movements of fresh air in to the lungs is called inspiration .This process
involves contraction of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. This process of

contraction results in the expansion of the thoracic cavity which in turn results in the
expansion of lungs due to increase in the volume of lungs pressure of the air inside the
lungs decreases as compared to the atmospheric pressure There fore fresh atmospheric air
rushes into the lungs through respiratory tract .
2. Exhalation or expiration :- The movement of foul air from the lungs to out side is called
expiration or exhalation . Expiration is a passive process and involves relaxation of the
external intercostal & diaphragm muscles .The ribs return to their position and the
diaphragm becomes dome shaped .Both these movements reduce the thoracic cavity
volume and lungs return to their original size. The air rushes out of the lungs due to the
increase in pressure in side the lungs above that of the atmosphere.
Q.4:- What is Bohr`s Effect & Haldane effect:-

Bohr`s Effect:- this explains the affinity of oxygen with hemoglobin it depends upon the pH A
rise in PCO2 or fall in pH decreases oxygen affinity of hemoglobin,. Conversely the fall in pco2
and rise in ph increases oxygen affinity of hemoglobin. this is called Bohr effect.
a) Haldane effect: It is related to CO2 transport in the blood .It is based on the fact that
Oxyhemoglobin behaves as strong acid and releases an excess of H+ ions which bind with
bicarbonate HCO3- ions to form H2 CO3 which dissociates into H2O and CO2 . secondly,
due to increased acidity, CO2 loses the power to combine with hemoglobin and form
Carbino- hemoglobin. Effect of oxyhemoglobin formation or dissociation on CO2
transport is called Haldane effect
Q.5 :- Comparison between photosynthesis and respiration:
Photosynthesis Respiration
1. It is an anabolic process during which 1. It is a catabolic process during which
food material is synthesized and energy food material is broken down and
is stored. energy is released.
2. It occurs in the presence of light. 2. It occurs both in the presence and
absence of light.
3. It occurs in chloroplasts. 3. It occurs partly in cytoplasm and party
in mitochondria.
4. It is confined to the green parts of the 4. It occurs in the cells of all parts .
plant.
5. The raw materials required are CO2 and 5. The raw materials required are C6H12O6
H2O. (glucose)
6. The end products are C6H12O6.and O2. 6. The end products are CO2 + H2O
7. It is endergonic process as it 7. It is an exergonic process as it
stores chemical energy in the releases chemical energy of the
bonds of organic compound bonds in organic compounds.
formed .
Q.6:-Comparison between breathing and Respiration:
Breathing Respiration
1) It is a physical process. It involves 1) It is a biological process where glucose is
inspiration of fresh air and expiration of oxidized.
foul air.
2) It does not release any energy. 2) It releases energy in the form of ATP
3) It is an extracellular process. 3) It is an intracellular process
4) Enzymes are not involved. 4) Enzymes are involved.

5) Breathing mechanism varies in different 5) Respiratory mechanism is similar in all

animals. animals.
6) It is confined to certain organs only. 6) It occurs in all cells of the body.
Q.7:- Comparison of Respiration in plants and Animals.

Similarities
Respiration in Plants Respiration in Animals
1. In aerobic respiration free O2 is needed. 1. In aerobic respiration free O2 is needed
2. CO2 & water are produced in aerobic 2. CO2 & H2O are produced in aerobic
respiration.
3. Energy released is stored ATP 3. Energy released is stored as ATP
molecules. molecules.
4. Aerobic respiration takes place in 4. Aerobic respiration takes place in
mitochondria. mitochondria.
5. Respiratory substrate is glucose. 5. Respiratory substance in glucose.
Q8:- Comparison of Respiration and Combustion
Respiration Combustion
1. It is a metabolic process that takes place in 1. It is a non-metabolic process that occurs in non-
living organisms. living objects.
2. Enzymes are required. 2. No enzymes are required.
3. Energy is released step by step. 3. Energy is released at once.
4. It occurs at body temperature. 4. It occurs at ignition temperature

.
5. Heat energy is evolved and it is not 5. Heat energy is evolved and it is accompanied by
accompanied by the evolution of light. evolution of light.
Testual Questions
Q.1) What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with
regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration.
Ans) Terrestrial organisms have advantages over aquatic organisms with regard to obtaining
oxygen for respiration because.
i) Aquatic animals such as fish, prawn, mussels and tadpoles etc breath water, i.e they
draw oxygen dissolved in water for respiration. On the other hand, the terrestrial
organisms take oxygen directly from air.
ii) The amount of oxygen in water is fairly low as compared to the amount of oxygen in
the air. Due to low concentration of o2 in water, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms
is much faster than terrestrial organisms.
Q.2) What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various
organisms?
Ans) Different organisms obtain energy by oxidizing glucose through different pathways:-
a) Under aerobic conditions:- Breaking down of glucose takes place in presence of
oxygen, and occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria. In multi-cellular organisms like
human beings and most plant, the glucose is converted into pyruvates in cytoplasm called
glycolysis, Then Pyrurate enter into the mitochondria, undergoes Kreb‘s cycle where it is
converted into carbon dioxide and water with the release of energy.

C6H12O6+6O2 6CO2+6H2O+38ATP Glucose (C6H12O6)

Glycolysis
Pyruvate Cytoplasm
A
E
R
O
B
I Pyruvate+O2
C
CO2 +H2O+ATP
Krebs cycle
Aerobic
Mitochondria
b) Under anaerobic Condition i,e ; Breaking down of glucose in absence of oxygen takes
place in cytoplasm and in different ways in different animals e.g; In yeat glucose is
converted in converted into pyruvates and pyruvates are further converted into ethyl
alcohol.
Glycolysis
C6 H12o6 CH3 CO COOH C2 H5OH
Glucose Pyruvic acid Ethyl-Alcohol
In the cells of higher plants under anaerobic condition glucose is converted into ethyl
alcohol or organic aids like malic acid, oxalic acids etc.
In muscle cells, during active metabolism, glucose is oxidized an-aerobically and is
converted into pyruvates. The pyruvates are further converted into compound molecule
called Lactic acid
Glucose - - - - - - - - - - - - - pyruvic acid - - - - - - - - - - - - lactic aid + energy
In some bacteria glucose is partially converted into lactic acid or butyric acid
Bacteria
Glucose Lactic acid + energy.
Streptococcus lactic
Bacteria
Glucose Lactic acid + Butyric acid.
Clostridium butyricum
Glucose A
N
C6H12O6 A
E
R
Glycolysis O
B
I
Acid
Pyruvate C
Fermentation
Alcohol
X Cytoplasm
Mitochondria

Q.3) How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings.

Ans) The transport of O2 from the lungs to the cells and the transport of CO2 from the cells to
the lungs is called transport of gases.
A) Oxygen transport:- The transport of oxygen from the lungs to the cells is called o2
transport. The concentration of oxygen in lung alveoli is higher than that in the
deoxygenated blood in capillaries. This difference causes oxygen to diffuse from the
alveoli into the lung capillaries. In the blood capillaries the 02 is transported by
hemoglobin present in the RBC‘s of blood. Here Hb combines with o2 to form oxy
hemoglobin(HbO2). Each Hb molecule combines with four molecules of oxygen. The
oxygen rich blood leaving the lungs enters into the heart and is then pumped to various
organs of the body by simple diffusion. As blood coming from the lungs via heart has high
concentration of o2 than the body cells. So oxygen diffuse from the blood capillaries into
the cell of the body. The cells present in tissues of various organs consume o 2
continuously for various metabolic activities and releases CO2.
B) CO2 Transport:- The transport of CO2 from the tissue to the lungs through the blood
is called CO2 transport.
In tissues oxygen is used up in various metabolic activities and CO2 produced
continuously. Hence in tissues the concentration of oxygen is decreased where as CO2
concentration increases. Therefore, CO2 is diffused from body-cells to capillaries. In the
capillaries, the CO2 is transported both by plasma and RBC of the blood. About 67% of
CO2 is carried by plasma and the remaining 33% is carried by RBC‘s.
CO2 is carried in three forms namely (a) carbonic acid (5%) (b) carbon amino compounds
(10%) (c) Bi-carbonates (85%).
Q.4) How the lungs are designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of
gases?
Ans) Lungs are the pair of highly elastic, hollow, bag like structure respiratory organs in human
being. Within the lungs, the major bronchi divides into the secondary bronchi which sub
divides into the smaller tertiary bronchi and finally into still smaller bronchioles. Each
bronchiole divides into alveolar ducts which enter the alveolar sacs (alveoli). The alveoli
are the tiny air sacs where gas exchange takes place.
In one set of human lungs there are about 300 million alveoli. These alveoli increase the
surface area of the lungs for exchange gases. It has been estimated that if we flatly spread
out all the alveoli in both the lungs, they would cover an area of about 70-75m2, which is
almost equal to single tennis court. The outer surface of each alveolus is densely covered
by a network of blood capillaries.
******************************

Transportation (Animals and Plants)

Transportation:- The distribution of food and oxygen to all parts of the body as well as the
removal of body wastes from the body is called as transportation.
Q.1:-Write down structure of heart?
Heart: Heart is a hollow, muscular organ, roughly of the size of one‘s fist (12cm x 9cm x 6cm)
and about 280-340gms in weight in males and about 230-280gms in females. Heart is reddish-
brown in colour and somewhat conical in form.
Location: Heart is located between two lungs in the thoracic cavity.
Protection: Heart is covered by layered sac known as pericardium. The inner layer is called
visceral layer of pericardium and outer layer is called parietal layer of pericardium. In between the
two layers of pericardium there is present a narrow space called pericardial space which is full of
self secreted fluid called pericardial fluid. Pericardial fluid protects the heart from any kind of
mechanical injury and shock, and also keeps the heart moist for proper functioning.
External structure of heart:
Human heart is four chambered organ divided by septa into two halves, the right half and left half.
Each half consists of two chambers. The upper chamber is small in size and is called auricle and
lower chamber is large in size and is called ventricle.
The auricles are demarcated externally from the ventricles by an irregular grove called
cornary sulcus. While as two ventricles are demarcated externally from each other by an oblique
grove called ventricular sulcus.
Internal structure of heart:
Internally the heart has following components:
(a)Two auricles (b)Two ventricles (c) Great blood vessels (d) Apertures and valves
(a) Auricles: The auricles have thin walls and are separated from each other by an inter-
auricular septum. The septum has an oval thin area called fossa ovalis.
(b) Ventricles: These are thick walled chambers and are separated from each other by a thick,
curved partition called inter-ventricular septum. The left ventricle has thicker walls as
compared to right ventricle because it has to pump blood to all parts of the body.
(c)Great blood vessels: The blood vessels that enter or leave the heart are called great
blood vessels. Blood from all the parts of the body except lungs goes to right auricle
via three vessels, they are: (i) Superior vena cava (ii) Inferior vena cava (iii) Coronary
sinus
(i) Superior vena cava: It brings deoxygenated blood from upper part of the body.
(ii) Inferior vena cava: It brings deoxygenated blood from lower parts of the body.
(iii) Coronary sinus: brings deoxygenated blood from the heart walls.
Blood vessels leave from the heart are (i) pulmonary aorta (ii) systemic aorta.
(i) Pulmonary aorta arise from right ventricle and carries deoxygenated blood to the
lungs for purification.
(ii) Systemic aorta arises from left ventricle and supplies oxygenated blood to all parts of
body except lungs.
d) Aperture and valves: There are four valves in the heart which control the flow of
blood within the heart. They are;
i. Bicuspid valve or Mitral valve: It consists of two cusps, it guards the opening of the left
auricle into left ventricle.
ii. Tricuspid valve: It consists of three cusps, it guards the right auriclo-ventricular aperture.

iii. Semilunar and pulmonary valves: It has three cusps and are present at the base of aortic
and pulmonary arches.
iv. Aortic semilunar valve: It is present at the point of origin of aorta from the left ventricle.
Q.2:- Write a short note on Blood vessels?

Ans.:-The study of blood vessels is called angiology. There are three types of blood vessels
through which the blood flows.
(a) The artries: are the blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artries)
away from the heart to various parts of body. Artries are thick walled, highly elastic blood vessels
having narrow lumen and no valves.
Each artrial wall is made up of three concentric layers i.e. the inner most tunica interna or intima,
the middle layer is called tunica media and outermost layer tunica externa.
(b) The veins: Veins are the blood vessels that collects deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary
veins) from all parts of the body to the heart.
Veins are thin walled, less elastic blood vessels having wide lumen and semilunar valves. Each
vein is composed of three layers i.e. inner layer called tunica interna, middle layer called tunica
media and outer layer called tunica externa.
(c) Capillaries: Capillaries were discovered by Malpighi in 1661. The capillaries are formed of
single layer of endothelial cells. The capillaries are microscopic, narrow vessels present at the
junction of artries (arterioles) and veins (venules), where exchange of food materials, gases, waste
materials etc takes place. Capillaries are found abundantly in those tissues where metabolism is
very fast.
Q.3:- Write a short note on haemoglobin?

Ans) (1)Haemoglobin is red coloured respiratory pigment present in the blood.
(2) Haemoglobin occurs in all vertebrates, several crustaceans, annelids, flat worms etc.
(3) It occurs in blood corpuscles of vertebrates.

(4) Haemoglobin is composed of two components namely a protein component called globin and
non-protein component called haem.
(5) Haemoglobin transports O2 from lungs to cells by combining with oxygen and forms
oxyhaemoglobin.
Hb + O2 HbO2 (oxyhaemoglobin)
(6) Haemoglobin also transports CO2 from cells to lungs.
(7) The red colour of blood in vertebrates is due to the presence of haemoglobin.
Q.4:-Discuss Blood pressure in human beings?

Ans:- Blood pressure: The lateral pressure or force that the blood exerts on the walls of a vessel
is called blood pressure.
The blood pressure varies according to the contraction and relaxation of the heart. The
pressure of the blood inside the artery during ventricular systole is called as systolic pressure
while as the pressure of the blood inside the artery during joint diastole is called diastolic
pressure. The instrument used to measure blood pressure is called sphygmomanometer and is
expressed in terms of millimeters of mercury. The normal blood pressure values are:
Systolic pressure = 120mm Hg
Diastolic pressure = 80mm Hg
This is usually written as 120/80 mmHg
(1)Hypertension: A persistent rise in blood pressure is called hypertension or high blood

pressure. Hypertension is caused by constriction of arterioles, which results in increased
resistance to blood flow. It can lead into rupture of an artery and internal bleeding:
Causes of Hypertension.
(a) In older age arteries become less elastic so that heart has to pump blood with great force.
Thus more force is exerted on the walls of arteries and caused high blood pressure.
(b) Intake of excessive saturated fats, smoking and adulterated food causes hypertension.
(2)Hypotension: Fall in the arterial blood pressure is called hypotension or low blood pressure. It
may result expansion of arteries, loss of blood in hemorrhage or failure of the pumping action of
heart.
Q.5:-What is clotting of blood ? Write down mechanism and flow chart of blood clotting?
Blood coagulation: The conversion of liquid blood into semi-solid blood at the bleeding site is
called coagulation. It is also called as blood clotting and the semi-solid blood is called clot.
Coagulation is of great biological value for the survival of animals e.g. if someone
receives a cut in the skin, the blood flows for a shorter while and then clots, which prevents
further flow of blood. Thus clot acts as plug, thereby sealing the ruptured blood vessels.
MECHANISM OF BLOOD CLOTTING

Platelets (thromboplasts) play an important role in blood clotting, when blood is shed, the
platelets disintegrate and liberate thromboplastin. Some amount of thromboplastin is also derived
from the damaged tissue. Thromboplast helps in the formation of an enzyme called
prothrombinase. This enzyme inactivates heparin, an anti-coaglant substance of blood.
Thromboplastin also converts inactive prothrombin (plasma protein) into active thrombin
with the help of Ca++. Then thrombin interacts with soluble fibrinogen results in the formation of

insoluble fibrin which forms the mesh. The red Blood corpuscles get entangled in the mesh and
form a blood clot.
Damaged tissue
+ _______ Release Thromboplatin
ON EXPOSURE TO AIR
Blood Platelets
Prothrombin (in plasma) + Ca ++ Thromboplastin Thrombin
Fibrinogen (in plasma) Thrombin Fibrin
Fibrin + RBC Blood Clot

The above scheme was given by Morawitz (1903). However, there are different opinions
regarding the mechanism of coagulation.
Q.6:-Differentiate between artries and veins

Artries Veins
1) Artries carry blood away from the heart 1) Veins bring deoxygenated blood from the
for distribution to the body. body back to the heart.
2) They carry oxygenated blood except 2) They carry deoxygenated blood except
pulmonary artery. pulmonary veins.
3) The flow of blood is fast and jerky due to 3) The flow of blood is slow and steady.
the beat.
4) In Artries blood has high pressure. 4) In veins blood has low pressure.
5) Artries are deep seated. 5) Veins are superficial.
6) They have thick elastic walls and narrow 6) Veins are thin-walled less elastic blood
lumen. vessels with wide-lumen.
7) They are not collapsible. 7) They are collapsible.
8) They do not posses any valve. 8) Valves are present at regular intervals.
9) They do not contain any blood after the 9) They contain blood even after the death of
death of an animal. an animal.

Q.7:-Differentiate between blood and lymph

Blood Lymph
1) Blood is red in colour. 1) Lymph is colourless.
2) Erythrocytes are present. 2) Erythrocytes are absent.
3) Hemoglobin is present. 3) Hemoglobin is absent.
4) It contains many plasma proteins. 4) Plasma proteins are absent or in very low
concentration.
5) Calcium and phosphorus concentration is 5) Low concentration of calcium and
very high. phosphorus.
6) It flows in blood vessels. 6) It flows in lymph vessels and also bathes
various body tissues.
7) It helps in transportation of various 7) It acts as a middle man for the exchange of
materials. materials between blood and body tissues.
8) Its flow is fairly rapid. 8) Its flow is very slow.
9) It flows from the heart and flowing 9) It starts from the tissue spaces and flowing
through the artries, capillaries and veins and through the lymphatic capillaries and vessels
returns to the heart. enters the subclavian vein.
Q87:- What is Transportation?

Ans) The water and minerals absorbed by the roots are transported through the xylem tissue,
while food prepared by the leaves is transported through phloem. This transport of water and food
occurs by the processes of ascent of sap and translocation, respectively and is collectively called
as transportation.
Q.9:- What are the components of transport system in highly organised plants?
Ans:- The components of transport system in higher plants(Gymnosperms & Angiosperms) are :-
1) Xylem:- Xylem (Greek word Xylos=wood).It is a complex tissue which forms the bulk of the
roots and stem of vascular plants. It is primarily concerned with the conduction of water and
minerals and also provides mechanical support. It consists of four different types of cells. These
are tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma.
2)Phloem:- It is also called bast or leptome. Phloem is complex tissue and forms vascular system
of plants. Phloem is mainly concerned with the conduction of the organic food. Phloem is also
composed of four types of cells. These are Sieve elements, companion cells, and phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres.

Textual Questions
SECTION - D
Q.1) What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the
functions of these components?
Ans) There are two components of transport system in human beings. These are Blood and
lymph.
(A) Blood and its composition?
Blood:- Blood is red-coloured, viscous & complex connective tissue fluid. It is salty in
taste. It is slightly alkaline in nature with a PH range of 7.3-7.5. It is also known as ―river
of life‖ An average human being has about 5.5 liters of blood in his body. About 55% of
blood is fluid called plasma and the remaining 45% is made of solid particles called
corpuscles. Blood always moves from the heart through the arteries & back to the heart
through veins.
Composition of blood:- Blood is made up of two main components plasma (liquid part)
& blood corpuscles (solid part)
i) Plasma:- Plasma is a straw–coloured aqueous solution. It contains water (about 90-

92%) inorganic salts (about 1-2%) & organic compounds (about 7-10%). The inorganic
salts present in plasma are chlorides, carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, iron etc. There are many types of organic compounds in plasma
which are:
a. Plasma Proteins:- The main plasma proteins present are albumin, globulin & fibrinogen.
b. Nutrients:- The main nutrients present in plasma are glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
vitamins,
c. Regulatory Substances:- The main regulatory substances present are hormones, enzymes
etc.
ii) Blood corpuscles:- These include RBC‘s , WBC‘s and blood platelets.
a) Red blood Corpuscles (RBC‟s) or Erythrocytes:- Red blood corpuscles are biconcave
& anucleated disc-like structures, flat in the centre and thick & rounded at the periphery.
They are about 7-8 µ m in diameter and 2µ m thick RBC‘s are produced in the bone
marrow of bones such as ribs, vertebrae column & skull bones. Their number ranges from
5-5.5 millions in an average human male & 4.5 -5 million in an average human female.
RBC‘s have a coloured spongy body which contains haemoglobin. The haemoglobin is the
respiratory pigment which is formed of an iron containing part known as haem and a
protein part known as globin
b)White blood corpuscles: (WBC‟s) or leucocytes: White blood corpuscles are rounded to
irregular shaped cells and are capable of amoeboid movement. WBC‘s are produced in
lymphnodes, spleen, thymus and red bone marrow. Their number varies from 5000 to
10000 per cubic millimeter or micro litre. WBC‘s are nucleated and are colourless.
WBC‘s are of two types; Granulocytes (contain granules in their cytoplasm) and
Agranulocytes (Lack granules in their cytoplasm)
(c) Blood platelets: The platelets are the smallest formed elements of the blood. They are
rounded or oval, disc like bodies. They are non-nucleated. Their number varies from
20,0000–30,0000 per mm3 of blood and its size is about 3 – 4 µm in diameter. They are
produced from red bone marrow. Their life span is about 3 – 5 days and is mainly

destroyed in spleen. They are colourless and play a major role in blood clotting. They
release a chemical called thromboplastin which initiates the process of blood clotting.
(B) Functions of blood?
Ans) Blood is important component of transport system in human beings and performs
following functions:
(i) Transport of nutrients:- The digested food substances are absorbed by blood at the site
of absorption (intestine) and transported to different organs of the body.
(ii) Transport of respiratory gases:-Blood transports oxygen (respiratory gas) from the
lungs (respiratory organ) to the tissues and carbon dioxide (respiratory gas) from the
tissues to the respiratory surface.
(iii) Transport of respiratory waste products:-The metabolic waste substances produced
in the body are transported by blood to the organs meant for their removal from the body.
(iv) Transport of body secretions:- Blood transports chemical secretions like hormones,
from the site of their secretion to the target organ.
(v) Regulation of body temperature:-Blood helps to control the body temperature by
evenly distributing the blood to different parts of the body.
(vi) Defense against infection:-Blood contains white blood corpuscles that are phagocytic
in nature. WBC‘s also produce antibodies which combat the bacteria, after neutralizing
their toxins and thus, play a protective role.
(vii) Maintenance of PH:- The plasma proteins are amphoteric in nature i.e. they act as
buffer and thus prevent any shift in PH of blood.
(viii) Water balance:-Blood maintains water balance to a constant level by bringing about
constant exchange of water between the circulating blood and the tissue fluid.
(C) Lymphatic system in human beings?
Lymph and its associated parts constitute lymphatic system. It consists of :
(a) Lymph: Lymph is a colourless fluid connective tissue. Lymph is formed from blood by the
passage of substances through the wall of the capillaries in the intercellular tissue spaces.
Composition: Lymph is resembling with plasma and contains large number of
lymphocytes, water and solid components like sugar, urea, nitrogen substances,
phosphorus, calcium, enzymes and antibodies etc.
(b) Lymph capillaries: These are blind at one end and are interwoven with blood capillaries but
are not connected with them. They have very thin walls.
(c) Lymph vessels: Lymph capillaries join to form lymph vessels. Lymph vessels resemble
veins in structure but have thinner walls and more valves. The smaller lymph vessels join
together to form large vessels, which in then join to form two main larger lymphatic vessels
or trunks (1) Thoracic duct (2) Right lymphatic duct.
(d) Lymph nodes:- The bead like swelling which occurs at intervals in the course of lymphatic
vessels are called lymphatic nodes. Lymph nodes are masses of reticular connective tissue
and contains lymphocytes plasma cells and fixed macrophages. Lymph is filtered through
lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are abundant in the regions of neck, arm-pits and groins.
Functions of lymph:
(i) It helps in the exchange of various materials between blood and body tissues.
(ii) It carries lymphocytes and antibodies from lymph nodes to the blood.
(iii) It transports fatty acids and glycerol from intestines to blood.
(iv) It destroys micro-organisms.
(v) It carries plasma proteins synthesized in liver and hormones from endocrine glands.
(vi) Spleen is a lymphatic organ, acts as blood bank and graveyard of RBC‘s.
Q.2) Why it is necessary to separate oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood in
mammals and birds.
Ans) It is necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in and birds because.

i) Birds and mammals need comparatively more energy (with respect to other animals
like amphibians) for maintaining their body temperature, this can be maintained by
separating oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
ii) Such separation allow highly efficient supply of oxygen to body, especially to those
organs that need oxygen the most, (heart and brain) can definitely get the right amount
of oxygen.
Q.3) What are the components of transport system in highly organised plants?
Ans:- The components of transport system in higher plants(Gymnosperms & Angiosperms) are:-
i) Xylem:- Xylem (Greek word Xylos=wood).It is a complex tissue which forms the bulk
of the roots and stem of vascular plants. It is primarily concerned with the conduction of
water and minerals and also provides mechanical support. It consists of four different
types of cells. These are tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma.
ii)Phloem:- It is also called bast or leptome. Phloem is complex tissue and forms vascular
system of plants. Phloem is mainly concerned with the conduction of the organic food.
Phloem is also composed of four types of cells. These are Sieve elements, companion
cells, and phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
Q.4) Describe transport of water and minerals. OR What is Ascent of Sap?

Ans) Plants require water for making food and
mineral salts for various purposes such as
making proteins etc. Plants absorb water
and mineral salts from the soil by their
root system. From the roots the water and
dissolved minerals called ‗sap‘ is
transported to the various parts of the
plant like stem, leaves through xylem.
The upward movement of water along with dissolved
minerals (sap) from roots to stem branches and their leaves
is called ascent of sap. The elongated, lignified tracheids
and xylem vessels placed end to end without any cross
walls forms the pipe line for conducting water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Path of ascent of sap
(i) Water along with dissolved substances is absorbed
by the root hairs from the soil.
(ii) Water enters the root hairs first by imbibation and then
by the process of osmosis.
(iii)Water with dissolved minerals called sap, absorbed by
the root hairs is passed through the cortex, passage cells and pericycle of the roots to
enter the tracheary elements of xylem.
The movement of sap takes place by virtue of one or more forces such as:
(A) Root pressure:- Develops in the root due to the turgidity of cells.
(B) Transpiration pull: - As a result of transpiration the mesophyll cells lose water vapours
through the stomata and thus lowers the water potential of the surrounding mesophyll
cells which in turn with draw the water from the deeper cells of the leaf. Thus during
transpiration a stress is developed, which with drawn continuously from the roots (in
contact with soil water) along the xylem of the stem. This stress or tension in the water
column is called transpiration pull. As a result of transpiration pull whole of the water is
lifted like a rope or cord.

(C) Cohesion and Adhesion of water:- The walls of xylem vessels made of lingo-cellulose
has strong affinity for water molecules. Water in vessels forms continuous unbroken
column due to the forces of cohesion (among water molecules) and adhesion (between
water molecules and xylem vessels).
Thus according to above theory, water ascends in the plants because of transpiration pull
and the coloumn of water remains continuous because of cohesive force of water
molecules.
Q.5) What is translocation? Or how is food transported in plants?

Ans) Green cells in the plants prepare organic food by the process of photosynthesis. The
organic food (carbohydrates) is transported from the green cells mainly of leaves to all the
non-green cells of the plant for utilization. The transport of organic solutes from one place
to another in higher plants through phloem is called as translocation of organic solutes.
Mechanism of translocation
Munch in 1930 explained ‗theory of mass flow‘ to demonstrate the translocation of food.
Munch‘s hypothesis postulates that the mass flow of organic solutes takes place from the site of
higher concentration (source) to the site of lower
concentration (sink).
The Principal of mass flow hypothesis can be
illustrated in figure. Two chambers ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ with semi
permeable membranes are connected with a tube ‗T‘. These
chambers are immersed in two interconnected reservoir
containing water. Sugar solution in chamber ‗A‘ is
concentrated whereas chamber ‗B‘ contains dilute sugar
solution. Water from the reservoir enters in chamber A due to
endosmosis and its turgor pressure increases. This causes
mass flow of sugar
solution from
chamber ‗A‘ to
chamber ‗B‘ through
tube ‗T‘ under the
influence of turgor
pressure gradient.
The movement will
continue. Till the solutions in both the chambers attain similar concentration.
In young seedlings, the cotyledons (containing reserve food) act as source and the
roots act as sink. Therefore, the translocation of organic solutes occurs from, the cotyledons to the
roots.
In grown up plants, carbohydrates are synthesized in the mesophyll cells of the leaves (source)
consequently it causes increases in the osmotic pressure of these cells. The increase in osmotic
pressure causes these cells to absorb water from the surrounding cells. The turger pressure (the
pressure due to increased turgidity) of the mesophyll cells causes some of the solutes to pass in to
the sieve tubes of the phloem where from it is transported to sink (The non synthesizing regions)
stem and roots.
******************************

Excretion
Q.No.1. What is excretion?
Ans) The elimination of metabolic wastes, excess of salts and excess of H2O from the body is
called excretion
Various metabolic waste products are formed due to the complex chemical reactions
taking place within the body. These waste products if accumulated in the body will tend to alter
normal internal environment of the body, and cell functioning will deteriorate, causing eventual
death of the cells which may result in the death of the individual. Therefore, the metabolic wastes
must be removed from the body.
Q.No.2. Define Excretory system? Discuss excretory system in man.

Ans.:-All the body organs which help animals in excretion, collectively constitute excretory
system. The excretory system of man consists of:
(i) A pair of kidneys.
(ii) A pair of ureters.
(iii) A urinary bladder and
(iv) Urethra.
(1) Kidney
The kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped slightly
flattened organs about 10cm long, 5cm wide and 4cm
thick. Each weighing about 150 grams in an adult male
and 135 grams in an adult female.
The kidneys are placed against the back wall of
abdominal cavity just below the diaphragm, one on the
either side of vertebral column. They are protected by
the last two pairs of ribs. The kidneys are asymmetrical
in position i.e. present in different levels.
The right kidney is about 1 – 1.5cms lower than left
kidney. The outer surface of the kidney is convex and
inner surface is concave and has deep notch called
hilus, through which the ureters, renal artery, renal
vein and nerves enter into the kidneys.
In a section of kidney the peripheral portion
appears dark reddish brown called cortex and central portion called medulla. The medulla is
subdivided into 15 or 16 conical masses called renal pyramids. Each pyramid has thousands of
tubules called uriniferous tubules or nephrons and blood vessels.
(2) Ureters
From the hilum or hilus of each kidney emerges a cylinder tube called the ureter. Each ureter is
about 10 – 12 inches in length and about 3mm in diameter. The upper end of each ureter enters
the kidney of its side and expands forming a funnel shaped structure, the renal pelvis. The lower
end of the ureter opens into the sac like structure called urinary bladder.
(3) Urinary bladder
Urinary bladder is a medium pear shaped sac situated in the lower of pelvic region. The lower part
or neck of the bladder leads into the uretrhra is guarded by a sphincter muscle, which remains
closed until the time of micturition (urination). The size of urinary bladder depends upon the urine
present in it. It can hold 0.5 – 1 litre of urine.

(4) Urethra
The urethra is small tube leading from the floor of the urinary bladder and leads to the exterior. In
a female it is quite short about 3 – 5cm long and carries only urine. It opens by urinary aperture in
the valve infront of vaginal aperture. In a male urethra is much longer about 20cms and carries
urine as well as spermatic fluid. It opens out at the tip of the penis by urinogenital aperture.
Q.No.2:- Write a short note on artificial kidney (haemodialysis)?
Ans) Artificial kidney is used to filter the blood of a patient whose kidneys are damaged. The
patient is said to be put on dialysis and the process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney is
called haemodialysis.
Process of haemodialysis:
 Blood of the patient is taken out from main artery and cooled to 00C and an anticoagulant
(heparin) is mixed with it.
 The blood is then pumped into the apparatus (artificial kidney), wherein, the blood flows
in cellophane tubes, which are kept in a salt solution that is isotonic with the blood
plasma.
 As the blood flows through these tubes, molecules of compounds like urea, uric acid,
creatinine, etc. diffuse out in the dialysis fluid.
 Blood coming out from the apparatus is pure blood; it is warmed to the body temperature
and mixed with anti heparin to restore its normal coagulatibility.
 This purified blood is then pumped into the body through a vein.
Textual Questions
SECTION - E
Q.1) Describe the structure and functioning of Nephron?
Ans) Nephron or uriniferous tubule is the structural and functional unit of kidney. Each kidney
of man is formed of about 1 million nephrons. Each nephron is a coiled tubule having a
length of 3cms..
Each nephron of the kidney is differentiated into

two parts
(A)Malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
(B)Renal tubule.
(A) Malpighian body or renal corpuscle: It lies

in the cortex of the kidney and is further
differentiated into (i) Bowman‘s capsule (ii)
Glomerulus
(i) Bowman’s capsule: The proximal end
of the nephron located towards the
outer surface of the kidney is produced
into double walled cup called Bowman‘s capsule. The space lying between the two
walls of Bowman‘s capsule is called capsular space. The cavity of the cup contains a
network of capillaries called glomerulus.
(ii) Glomerulus: It is formed by the capillaries of incoming blood vessels (afferent
arteriole) and that of out going blood vessel (efferent arteriole). The glomerulus and
Bowman‘s capsule are together called malpighian corpuscle.

(B) Renal tubule

The Bowman‘s capsule leads into tubular portion called renal tubule. The proximal
portion of renal tubule arising from the Bowman‘s capsule is thrown into many coils
called proximal convoluted tubule which is about 12 – 24cms in length.
The proximal convoluted tubule leads into a U shaped portion located into renal meddula
called Henle‘s loop. Loop of henle has three regions namely:
(a) proximal descending limb (b) a middle thin segment (c) a distal ascending limb.
The ascending limb leads into another coiled portion called distal convoluted tubule. It
opens into a common tubule called collecting duct.
The open ends of so many nephrons open into the wider tube called collecting tubules that
extends from cortex to medulla. The collecting tubules converge to form groups called
pyramids. The narrow apex called renal papilla or ducts of Bellini. These ducts drain the
urine collected from the nephron into the pelvis which leads to ureter.
Functioning of nephron:-
(i) Nephrons help in removal of excess water, salts and urea in the form of urine from
blood. (ii) Nephrons too are excretory in function as they remove urine (a waste) from
the body out.
Q.2) Explain Urine formation?

Ans) Urine formation involves three processes.
(i) Glomerular filtration (ii) Tubular re-absorption and (iii) tubular secretion.
(i) Glomerular filtration :- Walls of glomerular capillaries and Bowman‘s capsule are
very thin and are semi-permeable due to the presence of pores. They allow water and
small molecule (glucose and ions) in the blood to pass through them. Fluid containing
these materials is forced out of the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman‘s capsule due
to high pressure of the blood in the glomerular capillaries. This process is termed as
glomerular filtration/ ultra filtration. And filtered out fluid is known as glomerular filtrate
or capsular filtrate or ultra filtrate. The ultra filtrate contains sodium, potassium and
chloride ions, glucose, amino acids along with urea, uric acid, creatinine, ketone bodies
and a large amount of water.
(ii) Tubular Re-absorption:- From Bowman‘s capsule the glomerular filtrate passes
into the tubule and flows through it to the collecting duct. and while passage of filtrate,
some selected materials reabsorbed from the ultra-filtrate into the blood throughout the
urinary tubule. Which results in reduction in volume of ultra filtrate. The Reabsorbed
materials include glucose, amino-acids, ions (Na+, KT, cl-, Hco-3), water, some urea.
(iii) Tubular secretion:- It refers to the addition of selected materials from blood to the
ultra filtrate, which leads to increase the volume of ultra filtrate. It takes place in the
proximal and distal convoluted tubules. Secreted materials include creatinine, hipuric
acid, K+, NH3 and foreign.
Q.3) What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Ans:- The methods used by plants to get rid of their various wastes in the plants takes place in
the following ways:
(i) The major waste substances, produced are CO2, oxygen and water. Carbon dioxide and
water are used by plants for photosynthesis while as oxygen escapes from plants into the
environment by diffusion.
(ii) Excess salts are removed through hydathodes by the process of guttation.

(iii) Most of the toxic waste products are stored within dead permanent tissues such as heart
wood, leaves or bark.
(iv) Some excess organic acids combine with excess cations and precipitate out as insoluble
crystals such as calcium oxalates which can be safely stored in plant cells.
(v) Some waste products are eliminated through petals, fruits and seeds.
(vi) Aquatic plants lose their waste products by diffusion directly into the water.
(vii) Some excretory products such as latex, gums, essential oils etc are stored in special
type of tissues and glands e.g. resin ducts store resin, oil glands store essential oil etc.
(viii) Many waste products are recycled in the synthesis of new metabolic products.
Q.4) How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

Ans) The amount of urine (water and solute content of body fluids) is regulated by the kidney.
This function of regulation of osmotic pressure of blood by the kidney is called
osmoregulation.
In human beings, the kidney is extremely flexible in its working generally in summer
when most of the water lost from the body by perspiration; the urine passed out is
hypertonic. However, in winter as there is no perspiration, the urine passed out is
hypotonic. This flexibility in the working of human kidney and renal tubules is brought
about by the movements of water and Na+ in and out of nephron under the influence of
certain hormones namely
(A)Antidiureatic hormone released from the posterior lobe of pituitary gland ,increases
the permeability of the renel tubule to water when the blood plasma is concentrated, more
ADH is secreted and more water is absorbed in the urinary tubules. Hence, urine passed
out from the body is concentrated. When the blood plasma is diluted, less ADH is secreted
and less water is reabsorbed in the urinary tubule, and hence, dilute urine is passed out of
the body.
(B) Aldosterone, a hormone released from adrenal cortex regulates the amount of sodium
(Na) and potassium (K) that is to be retained in the blood and is to be excreted.
SECTION - F
Q.1) The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for.
Ans) (c) Excretion
Q.2) The xylem in plants are responsible for.

Ans) (a) transport of water
Q.3) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires.

Ans) (d) All of the above
Q.4) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in.
Ans) (b) Mitochondria.
Q.5) How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans) Fats are digested inside the intestine where partly digested and acidic food comes from
stomach. This part receive bile juice from the liver and the enzyme lipase from pancreatic
juice. Bile contains certain salts which bring about the emulsification of fat molecules into
small globules. The pancreatic juice contains an enzyme-lipase which brings about the
digestion of fat.

Q.6) What is the role of Saliva in the digestion of food?

Ans) Saliva contains water, salts, mucin and an enzyme ptyalin. The enzyme ptyalin is salivary
amylase which splits starch and glycogen into maltose.
Q.7) What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its
byproducts?
Ans) The conditions necessary for autotrophic nutrition are availability of light, chlorophyll,
carbon dioxide water and appropriate temperature. The by products of autotrophic
nutrition are molecular oxygen.
Q.8) Difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
(i) It takes place in presence of (i) It takes place in absence of O2.
oxygen.
(ii) It takes place in cytoplasm and (ii) The whole process of respiration takes place
mitochondria. in cytoplasm only.
(iii) Complete oxidation of substrate (iii) Incomplete degradation of substrates takes
takes place. place.
(iv) It yields water. (iv) It does not produce water.
(v) It involves glycolysis, Kreb‘s cycle (v) It involves only glycolysis followed by
and terminal oxidation. incomplete break down of pyruic acid.
(vi) More energy is released. (vi) Less energy is released
(vii) Examples are: most green plants (vii) Examples are: yeast seeds, fruits, some
and animals. bacteria etc.
The anaerobic respiration occurs in certain micro-organisms such as yeasts.
Q.9) How are the alveoli designed to maximize the exchange of gases?
Ans) Refer Q. No. 4 from Section C
Q.10) What would be the consequence of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
Ans) Deficiency of hemoglobin causes anaemia in our bodies. We will not be able to get
sufficient oxygen for respiration so that we get easily tired and lose weight.
Q.11) Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Ans: Heart contracts and expands alternatively to send or receive the blood. It is called
circulation. The contraction of heart is called systole while as the expansion of heart is
called Diastole.
The circulation of blood in human heart is called double circulation and was first
discovered by William Harvey in 1628. Double circulation means that the blood passes
through the heart twice for each circuit of body.
Double circulation consists of:
(a) Pulmonary circulation (b) Systemic circulation.

superior & inferior
RIGHT venae cavae BODY aortic LEFT
AURICLE coronary sinus PARTS arch VENTRICLE
Systemic circulation
Deoxygenated
……………………………………………………………….
Oxygenated
blood
blood
Pulmonary circulation

RIGHT pulmonary LUNGS pulmonary LEFT

VENTRICLE arch veins AURICLE
Deoxygenated
Oxygenated
blood
blood
R.A L. A
R. V L. V
Deoxygenated
Oxygenated
blood
blood
Body Parts
(a) .Pulmonary circulation: Circulation of deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the left
auricle through lungs is called pulmonary circulation. Pulmonary arch arise from the right
ventricle, divides into the right and left pulmonary artries. These pulmonary artries supply
deoxygenated blood to respective lungs for purification. Oxygenated blood from the lungs is
returned to the left auricle through four pulmonary veins.
(b) Systemic circulation: Circulation of blood from the left ventricle to the right auricle through
various body parts or systems is called systemic circulation. Aortic arch arises from the left
ventricle gives off many branches and supplies oxygenated blood to all the body parts or organs
of the body except lungs. From these artries, oxygen is diffused into the tissues. Deoxygenated
blood from visceral organs is collected by various veins that unite to form two very large veins
called Superior and inferior vana cava. These veins pour deoxygenated blood into the right
auricle.
In man the oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood remains fully separated from each
other. Such a separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body as they have
high energy demands.
Q.12) What are the differences between Transport of materials in xylem and Phloem?
Xylem Phloem
Xylem is responsible for transportation
1. Phloem is responsible for transportation of organic
of water and minerals. food and hormones.
Xylem helps in upward movement of2. Phloem is responsible for downward movement of
lateral water and mineral salts. organic food.
Xylem is composed of Tracheids,P Phloem is composed of sieve tubes, companion
vessels, Xylem fibers and xylem cells, Phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
parenchyma.

Q.13) Compare the functioning alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect
to their structure and functioning?
Ans)
Alveoli Nephrons
1. ALVEOLI are the structural and NEPHRONS are the structural and functional
functional units of lungs. units of kidneys.
2. ALVEOLI help in removal of CO2 NEPHRONS help in removal of excess water,
from blood. Salts and Urea in the form of Urine from blood
3. ALVEOLI have thin walls with rich NEPHRONS too have thin walls and rich blood
blood supply supply
4. ALVEOLI are excretory in function NEPHRONS too are excretory in function as
as they remove CO2 (a waste of the they remove urine (a waste) from the body out
body) out
************************

Lesson No.2
Control and Coordination
Terminology
1) Coordination:- The working of various organs of the body of an organism in a proper
manner to produce proper reaction to a stimulu7s is called coordination.
2) Stimulus :- The changes in the environment to which the organisms responds and react
are called stimuli ( Sing-stimulus)
3) Receptor :- It is a nerve cell or group of nerve cells which is sensitive to a specific
stimulus or to specific change in the environment.
4) Effecter :- An effector is some muscle or gland in specific part of the body which
produces suitable response.
5) Dormancy :- It refers to a resting, in active condition of the seed when it fails to
germinate even though the environmental conditions usually considered favorable for
active growth are present.
6) Partheno carpy :- Development of seedless fruits with the act of fertilization e.g in
Grapes
7) Homeostasis :- The mechanism of maintaining constancy of internal environment
in the living organisms.
8) Apical dominance :- The terminal bud at the apex of a shoot, suppresses the growth of
lateral buds into branches. This phenomenon is called apical dominance.
9) Synapse :- The loose connection between the axon endings of one nerve cell and Cyton
of next nerve cell is called synapse.
10) Synaptic cleft :- The space between adjacent neurons is called the synaptic left.
11) Synaptic bulb:- The synaptic cleft is about 20mm in width. The axon terminal of a
presynaptic neuron has a bulb-like appearance known as synaptic bulb.
Conceptual Frame
Q.No.1:-What do you mean by control and coordination?
Ans. The working together of various organs (parts) of the body of an organism in a proper
manner to produce response to a stimulus is called coordination. For proper control and
coordination, higher organisms have evolved two systems – nervous system and endocrine
system. The nervous system is composed of nerves which control and coordinate the body by
sending electrical signals called nerve impulses. The endocrine system, composed of endocrine
glands, control and coordinate the body by sending chemical messengers called hormones. Higher
multicellular animals have both nervous and chemical control and coordination, whereas plants
posses only chemical coordination and lack nervous coordination. It is to be noted that nervous
control is speedy and spontaneous but its effect is localized, where as chemical control (hormonal
control) is usually slow acting but its effect is specific.
Q.No.2:- Discuss nervous system of man?
Ans) The nervous system of man is divisible into three main parts.
(1) Central nervous system (2) Peripheral nervous system (3) Autonomic nervous system.
(1) Central nervous system: All the parts of the nervous system which are present along the main
longitudinal axis of the body constitute the central nervous system. It consists of brain and spinal
cord.
(A)Brain (Encephalon)

The human brain is soft, whitish highly developed organ situated in the cranium or cranial cavity
of the skull. It weighs about 1200 – 1400 gms.
Covering and protection: The brain is surrounded by three membranes called meninges. These
are Piamater membrane (inner layer), Arachnoid membrane (middle layer) and duramater (outer
layer). The space between these meninges is filled with a fluid called Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF)
which protects the brain from mechanical shocks.
Structure of brain: The adult human brain has three sub-divisions.
a) Fore – brain or prosencephalon
b) Mid-brain or mesencephalon
c) Hind brain or rhombencephalon
(a)Fore brain: It is the anterior region and the largest part of the brain. It has three parts.
(i) Olfactory lobes (ii) Cerebrum (iii) Diencephalon
(i) Olfactory lobes: The olfactory lobes of brain of human beings
are a pair of poorly developed, club shaped, widely separated bodies, which are visible from the
ventral surface only. The olfactory lobes are concerned with sense of smell.
(ii) Cerebrum: Cerebrum makes bulk of human brain. It constitutes 4/5th weight of the brain. It
consists of two lobes called cerebral hemispheres. The two cerebral hemispheres are separated
from each other by a very deep groove known as cerebral fissure. The two hemispheres are held
together by a transverse band of nerve fibres called corpus callosum. The outer layer of cerebrum
is the cerebral cortex which is made up of grey matter. The surface of cerebrum shows many folds
and grooves called gyri and sulci, which increases the surface area (2000 sq.cm) of
cerebrum to accommodate more nerve cells. There are three sulci present in on the surface
of each cerebral hemisphere which are very prominent as a result of which it is divided into four
lobes.
1) frontal lobe (2) parietal lobe (3) occipital lobe (4) temporal lobe.
1) Frontal lobe: It controls facial muscular activities as well as higher mental activities.
2) Parietal lobe: It has areas for touch, taste, smell, temperature and conscious association.
3) Occipital lobe: It is the region for sight.
4) Temporal lobe: It is the region for auditory reception (hearing).
Besides above the cerebrum governs reasoning, learning, memorizing and intelligence. It also
controls feelings of love, admiration and hatred. It also perceives the sensory impulse such as
pain, touch, taste, smell, hearing etc.
(iii) Diencephalon: It is a small rhomboidal lobe completely covered superiorly by large
cerebrum but visible from inferior surface. The roof of diencephalon is called epithalmus, floor
hypothalamus and lateral walls called thalmi.
Diencephalon contains reflex centres for muscular and glandular activities. It has also
centres of emotion, hunger and thirst. It also helps in maintaining body temperature and water salt
balance of the body.

(b) Mid brain (Mesencephalon: It is the thick walled structure and small part of the brain. The
mid brain or mesencephalon connects the anterior region of the brain to the posterior region of the
brain. The mid brain is differentiated into corpora quardrigemina on the upper side and the crura
cerebri on the lower side. Corpora quardrigemina consists of four lobes, i.e. upper lobes called
superior colliculi and the lower lobes called interior colliculi.
Functions:
(1) Crura cerebri connects the hind brain with the forebrain.
(2) Superior colliculli controls the sight.
(3) Inferior colluculli controls the auditory impulse.
(c) Hind brain (rhombonceplon): It is the posterior, small part of the brain. It is differentiated
into three parts. (i) Pons varolli (ii) Cerebellum (iii) Medulla oblongata
(i) Pons varolli: It is a thick, white rounded ridge that carries impulse from medulla
oblongata to forebrain.
(ii) Cerebellum: It is the largest part of the hind brain. It consists of two large lateral lobes
called cerebellar hemispheres in between which extends a narrow median strip called
vermis. Cerebellum controls and co-ordinates the movements of various groups of
muscles. Cerebellum also maintains the balance or equilibrium during movements.
(iii) Medulla oblongata: It is about 2.5cm thick and extends from pons varolli to spinal
cord. Medulla oblongata controls most of the involuntary activities of the body. It also
contains vital reflex centres. These centres are cardiac centre, respiratory centre, reflex
centre etc.
(B)Spinal cord
The spinal cord is unsegmental cylindrical structure and is about 45cm long in man and 43cm
in woman. It arises from medulla oblongata and runs through neural canal of vertebral column
or back bone. It is covered by three coverings called meninges. These are piamater (inner
layer), arachnoid (middle layer)and duramater (outer layer). The spaces between these
meninges are filled with cerbro spinal fluid (CSF), which protects the spinal cord.
Functions: The spinal cord conducts sensory and motor impulse to and from the brain. Its acts
as a centre for reflex actions.
(2) Peripheral nervous system: It consists of the whitish thread like nerves which connect the
various body parts with the CNS.
On the basis of their functions, nerves are of three types.
(a)Sensory or afferent nerves: These receive sensory impulses from sense organs to central
nervous system (CNS).
(b)Motor or efferent nerves: These carry sensory motor impulses from (central nervous
system (CNS) to effectors i.e. muscles and glands.
c) Mixed nerves: These carry sensory as well as motor impulses to and from the central
nervous system (CNS).
On the basis of their origin nerves are of three types, they are:-
(i) Cranial or cerebral nerves: Those nerves which arise from the brain are called cranial nerves.
They are 12 pairs in number. Cranial nerves I, II and VIII are sensory nerves; Cranial nerves III,
IV, VI, XI, XII are motor nerves and cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X are mixed nerves.
(ii) Spinal nerves: Those nerves which arise from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. There
are thirty one pairs of spinal nerves. They are all mixed nerves.
(iii) Viseral nerves: These are special set of nerves which arise mainly from spinal cord but few
arises from brain also. These nerves control many activities of the internal organs such as heart,
lungs, kidneys, blood vessels, glands etc.
(3) Autonomic nervous system: It is the involuntary part of nervous system that controls the
involuntary activities of various body parts. It includes all those responses against the stimuli

which are not under the control of individual. E.g. breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure etc.
Autonomic nervous system is subdivided into two parts:-
(a) Sympathetic nervous system (b) Parasympathetic nervous system
(a) Sympathetic Nerves system:- It prepares the body for violent actions during emergency e.g. It
increases heart beat, increases breathing, dilates pupils of eyes etc.
(b) Parasympathetic nervous system:- It helps in re-establishing normal conditions after violent
act is over. E.g. it decreases heart beat , decreases breathing, constrict pupils of eyes etc.
Q.No.3:- Write down the types of Neurons?
The neurons are of three types:
(i) Sensory neurons (ii) Motor neurons, (iii) Inter neurons.
(i) Sensory neurons: The neurons which conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues to the
central nervous system are called sensory neurons. These are also called afferent neurons as they
carry impulses towards the CNS. Sensory neurons perceive sensations from receptors through
their dendrites and dendrons attached with receptors and conduct and transmit sensations in the
form of nerve impulses through successive sensory neurons towards CNS. As the nerve impulses
always travel from cell body to Axons, thus sensory neurons have cell body directed towards the
receptors and axons and synaptic knobs towards CNS (Brain and spinal card).
(ii) Motor neurons: The neurons which conduct impulses from the central Nerous system to
the peripheral tissues (effectors) are called motor neurons. These are also called efferent neurons
as they carry impulses away from the CNS. Motor neurons have their cell bodies and dendrites
directed towards the CNS and, axons and synaptic knobs directed towards the effectors i.e,
muscles and glands. The motor neurons at the terminal part of the motor nerve at effectors
possess motor end plate which is formed by the branching of the terminal part of axon.
(iii) Inter neurons: The neurons which conduct nerve impulses between sensory neurons and
motor neurons, are called inter-neurons. Thus inter-neurons connect sensory neurons with motor
neurons and are also called connectors or intermediate neurons or relay neurons. These neurons
are mostly present in the spinal cord and brain where they transmit impulses between sensory
neuron and
motor neurons. Inter Neurons play very important role in reflex actions. Inter neurons posses
some what different structure. They have cell body almost at middle between length of dendron
and axon.
Q.No.3:- What are synapses?
Ans. Synapses are the junctions between the two neurons, across which the nerve impulses
transmit from one neuron to another one. A synapse consists of synaptic knob of one neuron and
the dendrite of another neurons with a very minute gap between their two membranes called
synaptic cleft which is usually filled with synaptic fluid. The membrane of the synaptic knob
facing towards synaptic cleft is thickened and is called pre-synaptic membrane, and similarly the
membrane of dendrite facing the synaptic cleft is thickened and is called post synaptic membrane.

The function of synapses are to transmit the nerve impulses from synaptic knobs to
dendrites. When the nerve impulse reach the synaptic knob, the synaptic vesicles get stimulated to
release the neuron transmitter in the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across
the synaptic cleft to the post synaptic membrane of the dendrite and activates the other neuron.
Thus the nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through synapse and the time
taken by the neurotransmitter molecules to diffuse from pre-synaptic membrane to post-synaptic
membrane is about 0.5ms called as synaptic delay. The nerve impulses always travel from
synaptic knobs to dendrites in reverse direction.
The neurons releasing acetylcholine as neurotransmitter are termed as cholinergic
neurons. The neurons releasing noradrenaline as neurotransmitter at synaptic knobs are termed as
adrenergic neurons.
Q.No.4:- Describe the functioning of nervous system?

Ans) The nervous system receives a stimulus through a receptor organ, which coordinates it and
responses through the effector organ. Thus a coordinated behaviour has five main components;
stimulus, receptor, coordinator, effector and response. The stimulus of sound, sight, touch, etc. is
perceived by receptor organs like ears, eyes, skin, etc. The brain and spinal cord are the
coordinators
which receive information in the form of message called nerve impulses, from receptor organs via
neurons. The information flows to the effector organs, i.e. muscles, and the response occurs.
Communication through the nerve.
Nerve impulses pass along a neuron in one direction only. At one end, the neuron is connected to
a sensory receptor that receives the message of stimulus and converts it into electro-chemical
waves which are carried by the neuron.
In a given neuron, the dendrites are the receptors, the cell body is the integrator and the ends of
the axons are the transmitters. This means that the stimulus from the receptor organ is received by
the dendrites, conducted to the cell body of the neuron and passed on through the axon to another
neuron and finally to the effector organ. The axon endings of one nerve cell are loosely placed on
the cell body or cyton of another nerve cell called Synapse. Signals travel from one neuron to
another neuron across this junction (Synapse)
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.No.5:- Discuss reflex action with suitable examples?

Ans) There are certain body responses which are immediate and spontaneous do not require any
processing by the brain. These responses or actions are controlled by spinal cord and are called
reflex actions. Thus Reflex action may also be defined as a spontaneous, automatic and
mechanical response to a stimulus without the will of the individual. Some examples of reflex
actions are:
(a) Immediate withdrawal of hand if a person touches hot object unknowingly.

(b) Blinking of eyes.

(c) Sneezing, laughing, yawning etc.
(d) Watering of mouth on seeing food.
(e) Withdrawal of the leg by a man walking barefoot if he steps on nail.
What happens in reflex action ( Mechanism of reflex action) ?

In reflex action, whenever there is any stimulus perceived by any receptor, it sets up sensory
impulse that is carried to the central nervous system mainly spinal cord through sensory or
afferent nerve. In the spinal cord, the sensory impulse is converted into a motor impulse and is
then carried to effectors (muscles or glands) via motor nerves. The effector organ responds
according to the message received. The path taken by nerve impulse in reflex action is called
reflex arc. So the components involved in reflex arc are:
(a) Receptor or sensory organ. (b) Sensory or Afferent nerve (c) Intermediate or internuncial
neuron (d) Motor or Efferent nerve. (e) Effector organs.
SENSORY NEURON RECEPTOR ORGAN
Intermediate neuron
Motor neuron Effector organ
“Components of reflex arc”

e.g. When our hand accidentally touches a hot object the heat is sensed by the thermoreceptors
present in the skin and, the receptor triggers nerve impulse in sensory neuron. It transmits
message to spinal cord. In the spinal cord impulse is passed to connector neuron, which in turn,
passes it to the motor neuron. The motor neuron transmits the instruction to a muscle of our arm.
The arm muscle contracts and pulls our hand away from hot object.
According to origin reflex actions are of two types.
(i) Unconditioned reflexes (ii) Conditioned reflexes

(i) Unconditioned reflexes: The inborn reflexes are unconditioned reflexes. It is present from
the birth and is hereditary; e.g. respiratory reflexes, micturition reflexes, sexual reflexes, anckle
jerk, bicep jerk etc are some of the examples of unconditioned reflexes.
(ii) Conditioned reflexes: These are learned automatic reflex actions carried out by the body.
These are acquired by an organism during his life time through experience and learning.
(a) Crying and jerking hands by a child on seeing a burning candle.
(b) Salivation of mouth on hearing the bell for lunch break are conditioned reflexes.
On the basis of involvement of brain, the reflex actions are of two types (a) Cerebral actions (b)
Spinal actions.

(a) Cerebral actions: The reflex actions in which brain is involved are called cerebral actions
e.g. contraction of pupil of human eye in presence of bright light.
(b) Spinal actions: The reflex actions in which only spinal cord is involved e.g. withdrawal of
hand on touching a hot object.
Q.No.6:- What are plant movements? Discuss different types of movements in plants?
Ans) Movements in plants are in the form of bending, twisting or elongation of certain parts. It is
characteristic of plants that do not show locomotion. However, movements of individual plant
organs are possible and are modified by the sensitivity of the plant to stimuli. Plants show two
main types of movements: (i) Autonomic or spontaneous movements. (ii) Paratonic or
induced movements.
(i) Autonomic or spontaneous movements: They are independent of any external stimulus;
i.e. they are self controlled and are not induced by external stimulus.
(ii) Paratonic or induced movement: They are caused by the result of application of
external stimulus.
Classification of induced or paratonic plant movements.

Induced plant movements can be broadly classified into two types;
(a) Nastic movements (b) Tropic movements

(a) Nastic movements: These are non-directional induced variation movements that occur due to
the turgor changes induced by external stimulus such as light, temperature, touch etc. In nastic
movements the part of the plant do not respond towards or away from the stimulus. These reveal
quick responses to stimulus but does not involve growth. Nastic movements include:-
(i) Nyctinastic movements (ii) Seismonastic Movements
(i) Nyctinastic movements: Variations in the position of flowers and leaves of many plants in
day and night are called nyctinastic movements or sleep movements. Nyctinastic movements
include;
(A) Photonastic movements and (B) Thermonastic movements.
(A) Photonastic movements: These are variations in non-directional position of plant parts
(like petals of flowers) caused by the light stimulus, e.g. photonastic movements in the leaf of
oxalis.
(B) Thermonastic movements: These are the variations in the position of plant parts caused
by the change in temperature of surroundings.
(ii)Seismonastic movements or Thigmonastic movements: These are the non-directional

movements which occurs in response to touch or shock. These movements are very quick and are
best seen in mimosapudica (touch me not) also called chhui-mui or sensitive plant or Lajwanti.
When we touch the leaves of the chui-mui plant with our finger, all the leaves of the chui-
mui plant fold up and droop. After some time, the leaves regain their original status. In this type
of movement no growth is involved. Instead, plant cells change shape by changing the amount of
water which in turn results in the folding up and drooping of leaves.
Mechanism of folding up and droping of leaves:- The sensitive plant has pad like
swellings called pulvini at the base of each leaf. These pulvini contain lot of water in their cells.

Due to the internal water pressure in them, all the pulvini are very firm and hold the leaves above
them upright. The pulvini also contains large intercellular spaces between their cells. The folding
up of leaves of chui-mui plant on touching is due to the sudden loss of water from pulvini present
at the base of all the leaves of the sensitive plant which make the pulvini lose their firmness
causing the leaves drop to fall. This happens as follows.
When the leaves of sensitive plant are touched with a finger, then an electrical impulse is
generated which travels through ordinary cells. This electrical impulse acts on a plant hormone.
The plant hormone makes the water migrate from the cells of one half of a pulvinus to the
intercellular spaces in the other half of pulvinus. This loss of water from half of pulvinus causes
the pulvinus to lose its firmness and become limp due to which all the leaves above them collapse
and fold up.
(b) Tropic movements or Tropism: The movement of a plant in the direction of stimulus is
known as tropism. The stimulus may be light, force, gravity, chemicals, water etc. Tropic
movements are induced growth movements of curvature that occur due to differential growth.
Tropic movements are very slow and the movement of plant part can be either towards the
stimulus or away from the stimulus. Depending upon the stimulus, it is categorized as:
(i) Phototropism: It is the directional movement or orientation of the plant part in response to
light stimulus. If the plant part moves towards light; it is called positive phototropism and if the
plant part moves away from the light it is called negative phototropism, e.g. the stem or shoot of
plant moves towards light and thus shows positive phototropism.
(ii) Geotropism: It is the directional movement or orientation of the plant part in response to
gravity. If the plant part moves in the direction of gravity, it is called positive geotropism.
Alternatively, if the plant moves against the direction of gravity, it is termed as negative
geotropism eg. roots are positively geotropic.
(iii) Chemotropism: It is the directional movement or orientation of the plant part in response
to chemical stimulus. If the plant part moves towards the chemical stimulus, it is called positive
chemotropism and if the plant moves away from the chemical stimulus it is called negative
chemotropism, e.g. during fertilization, growth of pollen tube towards the ovule in the ovary is an
example of positive chemotropism.
(iv) Hydrotropism: If the plant part moves towards the water stimulus, it is called positive
hydrotropism and if the plant part moves away from water stimulus it is called negative
hydrotropism, e.g. the roots of the plants always grow towards the water are thus positively
hydrotropic.
(v) Thermotropism: It is directional movement or orientation of the plant part in response to

stimulus of temperature. e.g. shoot is positively thermotropic.
(vi) Thigmotropism: It is directional movement or orientation of the plant part in response to

the stimulus of contact or friction. This is common in tendril climbers, e.g. the climbing parts of
the plants such as tendrils grow towards any support which they happen to touch and wind around
that support. So tendrils of plants are positively thigmotropic.

Animal Hormones
Important terms in Endocrinology
Endocrinology: (Greek: endon = within, krienien = to separate) the study of endocrine glands and role
of their secretions is called endocrinology.
Gland: A cell, tissue or an organ which secretes useful chemical compound required for particular
function.
Endocrine gland: The glands which lack ducts and pass their secretion into the surrounding blood to
transport to the site of action are called endocrine glands. They are also called ductless glands and their
secretions are known as hormones.
Endocrine system: It is the system of endocrine glands which secretes hormones.
Hormone: (Greek: hormoein = excite). The term hormone for the first time was coined by Starling in
1905. Hormones are informational molecules secreted by the endocrine cells in one part of the body and
carried by blood to another part to stimulate or inhibit specific physiological process for the proper
functioning of the body as a whole.
Characteristics of hormone:
(i) Hormones are secreted by endocrine cells which act as chemical messengers.
(ii) They are carried by blood stream to target organs.
(iii) They are produced in trace amounts.
(iv) They act away from the site of production.
(v) They are soluble in water.
(vi) They are destroyed or inactivated as soon as their functions are over.
(vii) They are not species specific because hormones extracted from animals are found to be effective in
man.
(viii) The hormones are generally slow in action.
Q.No.7:- Names different endocrine glands?
Ans) i) Pituitary gland (ii)Thyroid gland (iii) Para thyroid gland (iv) Adrenal
gland
(v) Islets of langerhans (pancreas) (vi) Testes/ovary (glands) (vii) Thymus (viii) Pineal
(ix) Hypothalamus
Q.No.8:- Discuss the thyroid gland? What are hormones released by thyroid gland and write their
functions?
Ans: Location:- The thyroid gland surrounds the front part of the larynx and upper part of the
trachea in the neck.
Structure:- Thyroid gland consists of two lobes connected by narrow band called isthmus. Each
lobe is composed of numerous spherical masses called follicles. Each follicle is covered by basement
membrane. In the centre of each follicle contains a cavity filled with collidal material. Thyroid
gland is composed of two types of cells i.e. Follicular cells and Para follicular cells or C cells.
Functions of thyroid Hormones:- The thyroid gland releases three hormones
(a) Thyroxine (T4) (b) Tri-iodo thyronine (T3) (c) Calcitonin
(a) Functions of T4 & T3 :-
(i) Both T3 & T4 control general metabolism by regulating the rate of oxidation & production of
energy.
(ii) They maintain Basal metabolic rate of body.
(iii) They stimulate protein synthesis and hence improve growth.
(iv) Thyroxine also controls the working of kidneys.
(b) Functions of Calcitonin :- It is secreted by ―C‖ cells. It regulates the concentration of calcium and
phosphorus in the blood. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium ion concentration.
Improper Secretion of T3 & T4 Causes following disorder:

(I) Under secretion of Thyroid Hormone (Iodine deficiencies Goiter):- It is caused by the
deficiency of iodine in the diet. The disease is common in hilly areas. It causes enlargement of thyroid
gland. Swollen neck is one of its symptoms of the disorder. It may lead to Cretenism or myxodema (Gulls
disease)
(i) Cretinism :-It is caused by hyposecretion of thyroid hormones in infants. Affected child is called cretin.
The symptoms appear after 6 months of birth which are as follows:
(a) Cretins are short and fingers are club shaped.
(b) Bones and teeth are deformed.
(c) Tongue are protruding and saliva is dribbling.
(d) Cretins are idiots.
(e) Appetite is reduced.
(f) BMR and body temperature is also low.
(ii) Myxodema or Gulls diseases:- It is the disorder produced in adults as a result of hyposecretion
of thyroid. Some of the symptoms are:
(a) Face is swollen.
(b) Sex degenerates and appetite is reduced.
(c) BMR is lowered
(d) Respiratory rates are reduced.
(e) Heart rate and cardaic out put is also low.
(II) Oversecretion of Thyroid Hormone leads to Grave‟s disease or Exothalmic Goiter.
Grave‟s disease or Exothalmic Goiter:- It is caused by hyper secretion of the thyroid hormones due
to enlargement of thyroid gland. Some of the symptoms of Grave‘s diseases are:
(a) Eye balls are protruded with a staring look.
(b) Body temperature is raised.
(c) Patients are emotional and restless.
(d) The skin becomes soft, moist, flushed.
(e) Blood sugar level and iodine level are raised.
The disorder can be rectified by the removal of part of the gland.
Q.No.9:- Describe Pancreas?
Ans:- Location:- Pancreas lies below the stomach.The pancreas is an elongated, yellowish
gland. It consists of large lobules (acni, alveoli). In between the acni, there are some cells which
constitute the endocrine part of the gland. The endocrine part of the pancreas is called islets of
langerhans.
The islets of langerhans is composed of 3 types of cells.
(1) A Cells (b) B Cells (c) C Cells
Hormones: Islets of langerhan‘s secrets two hormones.
(1) Insulin (2) Glucogon
(1)Insulin:- Insulin is secreted by ‗B‘ cells of islets of langerhans.
Role of insulin :- The main role of insulin is to lower the blood sugar level. It acts in
following ways to bring down sugar level of blood.
(a) It makes cells more permeable to glucose.
(b) It enhances glucose oxidation in the cells.
(c) It increases rate of conversion of blood glucose into liver glycogen.
(d) It promotes the conversion of glucose into fat deposits.
Deficiencies of insulin:- Deficiency of insulin causes a disease called diabetes mellitus. The
symptoms of diabetes mellitus are as follow:
(a) Hyperglycaemia:- Pronounced increase in blood sugar level.
(b) Glycosuria:- Appearance of sugar in urine.
(c) Polyueria:- large volume of urine about 10 lit/day.
(d) Frequent urination
(e) Delayed healing of wounds

(f) The diabetic has blured vision and is weak, tired, irritable and under weight.
(2)Glucogon:- It is secreted by A Cells of islets of langerhans.
Role of glucogon: Its main role is to raise blood sugar level. It has opposite effect of insulin. It
promotes process of glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis.
Both insulin and glucogon act antagonistically and by virtue of it maintains proper blood
glucose concentration.
Textual Questions
Section A
Q.1 What is the difference between reflex action and walking?
Ans.
Reflex Action Walking
1. It is spontaneous action. 1. It is non spontaneous action.
2. It is an automatic action. 2. It is not an automatic action.
3. It occurs without a person‘s will and 3. It occurs with the person‘s will and is voluntary
is involuntary action. action.
4. Here brain is not involved immediately. i.e, it 4. Here cerebellum (part of brain) is controlled.
takes place without consultation of brain.
Q.2 What happens in synapse between two neurons?
Ans: The closeness between nerve end-plate of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron is
called synapse. The nerve end-plate has bulb like structure called synaptic bulb, in which
secretary vesicles secrete a chemical substance called acetylcholine (neuro transmitter)
When a nerve impulse arises at the axon terminal, it causes synaptic bulbs to release neuro
transmitter. Neuro transmitter diffuses easily and carries impulse across the synapse and
passes it to the dendron of the neuron. Thus a nerve impulse passes from axon of one
neuron to dendron of other neuron through a synapse.
Q.3 Which part of brain controls equilibrium of body?

Ans. Cerebellum (part of hind brain) maintains posture and equilibrium of the body.
Q.4) How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick)?

Ans. We have olfactory receptors in our nose. These receptors detect the smell of agarbati and
transmits this information in the form of nerve impulse to the olfactory lobes of the fore-
brain via nerve. The message of smell is analyzed and interpreted there (in the brain).
Q.5) What is the role of the brain in reflex action?

Ans. Reflex actions generally involve spinal cord for quick response to specific stimulus.
However, the information input also goes on, to reach the brain where thinking process
occurs in case of cranial reflections e.g. Reduction of pupil size of eye due to bright light
focused on it.
SECTION - B
Q.No.1) What are plant hormones or phytohormones or plant growth regulators. Discuss their
functions?

Ans) Phytohormones are defined as chemical substances which are produced naturally in plants
and are capable of translocation and bring about control and coordination of various
activities in plants. They are present in low concentration. There are five main types of
naturally occurring phytohormones or plant growth regulators: (a) Auxins (b) Gibberllins
(c) Cyto kinins (d) Ethylene (e) Abscisic acid (ABA)
(a) Auxins: Auxins (Greek-auxin means to increase) are a group of growth regulators
discovered by F.W Went in 1928. Auxins are synthesized in the shoot apex and young
leaves of the plant. These chemicals move from cell to cell by the process of diffusion.
Functions:
(i) The root of the plant is positively geotrophic i.e. grows downwards and the shoot is
negatively geotropic; i.e. grows upwards. Auxins help to control the geotropic behaviour
of the shoot and root of plant.
(ii) Auxins stimulate tissues at the tips of the root and shoot to undergo rapid cell division.
(iii) Auxins cause considerable cell enlargement and cell elongation during the growth of
plants.
(iv) Auxins have been found to increase the rate of formation of root initials.
(v) Auxins play an important role in the development of seedless fruits without pollination
and fertilization. This phenomenon is known as parthinocarpy.
(vi) Auxins promote apical dominance in plants.
(vii) Auxins play an important role in the prevention of fall of leaves and pre-harvest fruit
drop in plants.
(viii) Auxins promote various processes associated with reproduction like flowering,
pollen grain germination, fertilization and fruit development.
(b) Gibberellins: Gibberellins are phytohormones which are synthesized in the

chloroplasts of young apical leaves, buds, seeds and root tips. They move to all parts of
the plant through xylem and phloem vessels. Till now more than 100 gibberellins have
been identified e.g. GA3 etc.
Functions:
(i) They promote cell enlargement and cell differentiation in plants in presence of auxins.
(ii) Gibberellins induce parthenocarphy in many plants.
(iii) Gibberellins enhance the phenomenon of apical dominance induced by auxins.
(iv) Gibberellins increase the size of fruits, flowers, stem and roots.
(v) Gibberellins induce flowering in long day plants but inhibit flowering in short day
plants.
(c) Cytokinins: Cytokinins are the phytohormones which are synthesized in the
endosperm of the seeds and roots of the plants.
Functions:
(i) They promote cell division in plants.
(ii) They induce and control cell enlargement and cell differentiation.
(iii) They help in breaking the dormancy in buds and seeds.
(iv) They delay the ageing in leaves.
(v) They promote the opening of stomata and also promote fruit growth.
(d) Ethene or ethylene: Ethylene is a growth regulatory gaseous hormone and is

produced by cell parts of all seed plants.

Functions:
(i) It has inhibitory effect on growth by inhibiting root growth and development of root
buds.
(ii) Ethylene accelerates the abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits.
(iii) It induces ripening of fruits.
(iv) It is involved in breaking of dormancy of several plant organs.
(v) Ethylene also accelerates in plant organs process of ageing in plant organs.
(e) Abscisic acid (ABA) or dokigin or stress hormones: Addicot and his colleagues
(1965) isolated a substance called abscisin from young cotton plant which accelerates the
process of abscission. This chemical was named as abscisic acid and has wide varieties of
physiological effects.
Functions:(i) It is major inhibitor of growth in plants and is antagonistic in action to
auxins and cytokinins. (ii) It causes ageing of leaves. (iii) It promotes dormancy of seeds
and buds. (iv) It causes abscission of leaves and fruits. (v) ABA (Absicic Acid) is also
called as stress hormone as it helps by helping the plants to cope with adverse
environmental conditions.
Q.2) How is the movement of leaves of sensitive plant different from the movement of shoot
towards light.
Movement of leaves in S. Plant Movement of shoot towards light
1. It is the seimonastic movement. 1. It is tropic movement
2. Here sensitive plant responds to 2. Here shoot of the plant moves toward light and
touch by folding and drooping. show positive phototropism.
3. It happens very quickly. 3. It happens very slowly.
4. Here growth is not involved instead 4. Here growth is involved i.e., Plant grows by cell
plant cells change shape by changing division, cell enlargement and cell elongation
the amount water in them. etc.
Q.3) Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth.

Ans. Auxin is the plant hormone that promotes growth in plants.
Q.4) How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a save support?
Ans. Axins are the hormones, synthesized at the shoot tip and helps the cell to grow
faster, thus acts as a growth promoter in plants. When tendril of a plant comes in contact
with a support, auxins diffuse towards the side which is not in contact with the support.
This stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the tendril which is away from the
support. Thus auxins promotes the growth of the tendril around the support.
Q.5) Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.

Ans. Experiment :-To study the response of plant to water (hydrotropism).
Requirements:- Two glass trough, clay port etc.
Method:-
(i) Take two glass troughs A and B and fill them with soil upto 2/3 rd level. Plant a tiny
seedling in each trough.
(ii) Now, place a small clay pot in the soil in trough B.
(iii) Water the soil daily in trough A uniformly,However in trough B, put water daily in clay
pot only.
(iv) After few days dig up the seeding in both the glass troughs with out damaging the roots.
we notice that in trough A , the root of seeding, bent towards the direction of clay pot

containing water. Observation and conclusion:- In trough A, soil is watered uniformly

daily, therefore, the root of seedling gets water equally from all sides. Hence it grows
straight downwards, on the other hand, in trough B, the root of seedling only gets water
that oozes out of the clay pot
buried soil. Therefore in trough B, the root of seedling grows by bending towards the clay
pot. This experiment reveals the response of seedling (plant part) towards water (positive
hytotropism)
SECTION - C
Q.1) How does chemical coordination take place in animals?

Ans. The chemical coordination in animals takes place by the chemical secretions called
hormones, which are released by endocrine glands, when stimulated. The hormones are
directly poured into the blood will circulated through out the body These hormones act on
specific organs called target. The blood contains all the hormones but the cells of a target
organ pick up the required hormone only and ignore all others. The target cell recognizes
its appropriate hormone due to presence of specific protein molecule called receptor. Non
target cells, on the other hand, lack these receptors. Therefore, they do not respond to the
circulating hormones. A hormone now binds to specific receptor and delivers its message
to the target cell by changing the shape of the receptor.
Q.2) Why is the use of iodized salt advisable?

Ans. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3) hormones
in the thyroid gland. These hormones perform various functions of the body like
regulation of protein, carbohydrate and protein metabolism in the body for growth.
Deficiency of iodine results in hyposecretion of thyroid hormones which in turn results
iodine deficiency goiter, in which the patient shows following symptoms.
(i) There is enlargement of thyroid gland.
(ii) The patient lacks alertness, intelligence, and also has slow heart beat, lower blood pressure,
decreased body temp. etc.
Thus, use of iodized salt is advisable to prevent iodine deficiency in the body.
Q.3) How does our body respond when Adrenaline is secreted into the blood .
Ans. Adrenaline also called Epinephrine, an emergency hormone secreted by Adrenal medulla
of Adrenal gland. Adrenaline is widely spread throughout the body to prepare the animal
to face special conditions created by physical stress such as fall in blood pressure, pain,
cold, injury, anger, fear passion, shock or grief etc. All these conditions need more energy
which is provided by (done by adrenaline ) increasing heart beat, blood pressure,
respiratory rate, blood supply to heart and skeletal muscles and brain.
This hormone also stimulates the break down of liver and muscle glycogen to provide
energy for respiration.
Q.4) Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
Ans. Insulin has function to control glucose level in blood by lowering it. The disorder of
insulin deficiency or insufficient supply of insulin leads to high glucose level in blood
called as diabetes mellitus which causes other disorders in body. The patient excretes

sugar in urine and feels excessive thirst. In order to overcome this disorder, the patient is
administrated with injections of insulin so a to lower its sugar level in blood.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Which of the following is plant hormone?

Ans. Cytokinin
Q.2) The gap between two neuron is called a

Ans Synapse
Q.3) The brain is responsible for

Ans. All the above (thinking, regulating the heart beat, balancing the body etc.)
Q.4) What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situation where receptors do not
work properly what problems are likely to arise?
Ans. The receptors in our body collect information about changes in the environment around us
in the form of stimuli. These receptors then convert and pass the information in the form
of nerve impulse to central nervous system where message is interpreted and appropriate
instruction is sent to effectors which reveals response. When receptors do not function
normally the environmental stimuli are not able to create nerve impulse and body does not
respond.
Q.No.5:- Draw the structure of neuron and explain its functions?

The neuron is the structural and functional unit of nervous system which receive, conduct and
transmit impulses. Neurons are the largest cells present in the human body, sometimes reaching
to 90 – 100cm in length.
Structurally neuron consist of three prominent parts
(i) Cell body (ii) Dendrons & Dendrites and (iii) Axon
(i) Cell body: It is also called cyton and soma, which is broad, rounded or stellate part of the
neuron. It is filled with the dense cytoplasm called neuroplasm and the prominent nucleus. The
neuroplasm possess prominent small granules called Nissl‘s granules which are infact groups of
ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum and are associated with protein systhesis.
Neurotramsmitters are synthesied in the cell body by Nissl‘s granules. In addition, neuroplasm
possess most of the cell‘s organelles like mitochondria, Golgi-Apparatus, neurofibrils,
nerotubules but lack centrioles. Cell body is concerned with metabolic maintenance, growth and
to receive impulses from dendrites and transmit them to axon.
(ii) Dendrons & Dendrites: The wide nerve fibres extending from the cell body which conduct
impulses towards the cell-body are called dendrons. Dendrons break up into fine terminal
branches called dendrites. The function of dendrons and dendrites is to acquire information and
conduct it towards the cell body in the form of nerve impulses. Dendrons and dendrites also
contain Nissl‘s granules and neurofibrils.
(iii) Axon: It is a single, long, cylindrical protoplasmic nerve fibre of uniform diameter arising
from the cell body. The cytoplasm of the axon is called Axoplasm. The Axon terminates into
highly branched filaments called terminal arborization.
The axon is covered by three layers.

1) Axolemma (inner most layer)

2) Myelin sheath (medullary sheath)
3) Neurolemma (outermost layer)
The axolemma and neurolemma are continuous sheath, where as the myelin sheath is not
continuous one. It is constricted at intervals. These constrictions are known as nodes of ranvier. In
addition to all the usual cell organelle neuroplasm also contains neurofibrils and Nissl‘s granule.
In a given neuron, the dendrites are the receptors, the cell body is the integrator and the ends of
the axons are the transmitters. This means that the stimulus from the receptor organ is received by
the dendrites, conducted to the cell body of the neuron and passed on through the axon to another
neuron and finally to the affecter organ. The axon endings of one nerve cell are loosely placed on
the cell body or cyton of another nerve cell called Synapse.
Q:6) How does phototropism occurs in the plants?

Ans:- We know that the stem and leaves of the plants grow towards light which is called positive
phototropism. This mechanism of positive phototropism can be explained on the basis of
hormonal effect i.e. auxin. The auxins are produced in the tip of the plant by meristematic
tissue (shoot apical meristem). When sun light falls on the plant, the auxins are distributed
uniformly to all sides of the plant causes uniform growth of the plant in all sides, as a
result the plant grows in an upward direction towards sunlight.
Q.7) Which signals will get disrupted in case of spinal cord injury?
Ans: Spinal cord performs two important functions:

1. Spinal cord serves as two way conduction path between peripheral nerves and the brain.
2. Nuclei in the spinal card function as reflex centers which control spinal reflexes.
So in case of spinal injury, reflex actions and involuntary actions will get disrupted mainly
but voluntary actions will also get disrupted because many nerves of the body are
connected to brain via spinal cord.
Q.8) How does chemical coordination occur in plants?

Ans. In plants, chemical co-ordination occurs with the help of plant hormones called
phytohormones. Specific hormones are secreted in one part of plant and these diffuse to
reach specific sites to produce the effect. the response of plants to sunlight by bending of
the shoot towards it. It occurs due to slow growth movements and the phenomenon is
called positive phototropism.
Q.9) What is the need for a system of control and co-ordination in organisms?
Ans In multicellular animals, body is very complex therefore, it is necessary that various
organs (parts) of the body of an organism work together in a proper manner to produce
proper reaction to a stimulus. For proper control and coordination, higher animals have
evolved nervous system and endocrine system.
Q.10) How are involuntary action and reflex different from each other?
Ans. Reflex actions are spontaneous automatic, mechanical responses to specific stimuli
without the will of animal. In reflex actions, spinal cord is generally involved. Involuntary
actions also occur without the will of the animal and animal has no choice in them
however, these are regulated by either mid-brain or hind brain.
Q.11) Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanism.
Nervous information Hormonal information

1. It is sent as an electrical impulse along 1. It is sent as a chemical messenger
axons, and as a chemical across synapse. (hormones) via blood stream.
2. Information travels rapidly in 2. Information travels slowly
milliseconds
3. It gets response immediately 3. It gets response usually slowly
4. Effects of nerve impulse are short lived. 4. It has prolonged effect.
5. Information is direct to specific part 5. Information is spread throughout the body
(receptor) i.e. one or few nerve fibres, by blood stream from which the target calls or
gland cells or other nervous. organs pick it up.
6. It has no effect on growth 6. It effects growth
7. It does not influence chemical changes 7. It brings about specific chemical changes
and cannot regulate metabolism and regulates metabolism.
Q.12) What is the difference between the manner in which movement in the sensitive plant
and movement
in our legs takes place?

Movement in Sensitive plant Movement in Legs

1. It is paratonic movement where 1. It is voluntary action.
sensitive plants respond to stimulus of
contact and friction.
2. Here plant cells change shape by 2. Here cells involved in the movements of legs
changing the amount of water in them. change the shape and arrangement of proteins
3. It is controlled by cerebellum, the part of hind
3. Here plant harmones called phyto brain.
hormones are involved for movements. 4. It involves nervous control
4. It involves hormonal control.
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Lesson No: 3
How Do Organisms Reproduce
Q.1)What is reproduction and what are its types?
Ans) Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce young ones of their own
kind to continue their existence. Reproduction is one of the characteristic feature of living
organisms. Living organisms reproduce by many methods which have been broadly classified into
two types:
i. Sexual reproduction ii. Asexual reproduction.

i. Sexual reproduction:- It is that type of reproduction in which individuals (young ones) are
produced by the fusion of male and female gametes contributed by two parents.
ii. Asexual reproduction:- It is that type of reproduction in which new individuals (young ones)
are formed with out the fusion of male and female gametes. In asexual reproduction only one
parent is involved in the formation of new individuals.
Q.2) What are the different types of asexual reproduction.
Ans) Asexual reproduction takes place in the following ways.
i. Fission.
ii. Budding
iii. Spore formation.
iv. Regeneration of Fragmentation.
v. Vegetative propagation.
i. Fission:- It is the process in which the parent body (cell) divides to form daughter cells which
grow as new individuals. The process of fission is most common in unicellular organisms such
as bacteria and protozoa. The process of fission is of two main types:
a. Binary fission b. Multiple fission.
a. Binary fission:- It is a type of asexual reproduction in which the body of a unicellular
organism divides into two daughter cells which grow as new individuals. This type of
reproductions is found in Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena, etc.
In some organisms like amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take
place in any plane. However, in some organisms like leishmama (which have a whip like structure
at one end of the cell) binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these structures.

b. Multiple fission:- It is a type of asexual reproduction in which the body of a unicellular

organism divides into many daughter cells. This type of reproduction is found in plasmodium (a
malarial parasite) and in case of Amoeba under unfavorable conditions.
ii. Budding:- In budding a small bulb like outgrowth develops on the body of an organism called
bud. The bud develops into a tiny individual and when fully mature detaches from the parent body
and becomes a new independent individual. This type of reproduction takes place in coelenterates
(hydra), sponges (scypha) and yeasts.
iii. Spore formation :- Spores are the specialized cells capable of growing into a new individual.
The spores are formed in a sac like structure called sporangium. The spores are liberated from the
sporangium which when fall on a suitable substratum grow into new individuals. Spore formation
is most common in algae, bacteria and fungi.
iv. Fragmentation:- In fragmentation the body of an organism divides into two or more fragments
and each fragment grows into a new individual. In case of plants, it is found in algae and planaria
and in case animals it is found in tapeworm.
v. Vegetative Propagation:- This is the most common type of asexual reproduction in plants. In
vegetative propagation new individual plants are formed from the vegetative parts such as stem,
branches, roots and leaves of the parent plant.
Q.3) Write two advantages of Vegetative Propagation.
Ans) 1. It helps in the propagation of those plants that have lost the capacity to produce seeds
such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine.
2. The plants produced by vegetative reproduction are genetically similar enough to the parent
plant to have all its characteristics.
Q.4) What are the different types of vegetative reproduction?

Ans) The various types of vegetative reproduction are:-
i. Grafting:- It involves joining together the parts of two different plants in such as way that
they can live as one plant. In this process, the cutting of a superior plant is put on the stem of an
inferior quality plant having root system. The plant that contributes its root system is called stock
and the plant which contributes its shoot system is called scion. This method is used to produce
superior quality of plants which can not be achieved by sexual reproduction. It is common method
in mangoes, apples, peaches, etc.
ii. Cutting:- Small (6-10 cm long) pieces of stem are cut and their free ends are cut to form
cuttings. These cuttings are placed slightly vertical in the soil. In this way each cutting develops
into a complete plant. Examples are jasmine, rose, lavender, etc.
iii. Layering:- In this process one or more shoots of a plant are bent close to the ground and
covered with moist soil but the free end of the branch is kept uncovered. After few days roots start
to arise from the part of the branch which is covered with soil. This part of the branch with its
newly arisen roots is manually detached from the main branch of the parent plant and is planted to
grow as a new complete plant. It is common method of vegetative reproduction in ornamental
plants like jasmine, rose plants, etc.
iv. Adventitious buds:- The leaves of the plants like Bryophyllum also help in vegetative
reproduction. Their leaves bear buds at the notches of their margins. When this leaf falls on the
moist ground, each bud develops into a new plant. Thus adventitious buds formed on the margin
of leaf develop into a new plant.
v. Tissue culture:- In this method a small piece of tissue from the vegetative part of the plant
is separated and placed in an artificial medium where it divides rapidly into a small group of un-
organized cells called callus. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for
growth and differentiation to form plantlets. The plantlets are then placed in the soil to develop
into mature plants. This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants e.g. asparagus,
chrysanthemum, etc.

Q.5 Explain the process of sexual reproduction in plants?

Ans. The sexual reproduction in plants involves three main phases: namely formation of
microspores and ovule pollination and fertilization.
(i). Formation of microspores:- The microspores are formed in the microsporangia from
microspore mother cells, which are present in Anther. The microspores are formed by the process
of meiosis. The partly germinated microspore is called pollen grain.
(ii). Pollination:- The transfer of pollen grains
from anther to stigma of the same or another
flower is called pollination. The pollen grains are
transferred by wind water or insects from anther to
stigma. The pollen grain absorbs water on the
stigma and divides in to two cells namely a
vegetative cell and a generative cell. The nucleus
of the generative cell divides into two nuclei. The
vegetative cell develops into a tube which
protrudes through style into ovary containing
ovule. The two nuclei or male gametes pass
through pollen tube into ovule where one of them
fuses with the egg nucleus forming zygote and
another one fuses with secondary nucleus which is diploid. The fusion of one male gamete and
egg cell gives rise to formation of embryo while as fusion of another male gamete and secondary
nucleus give rise to formation of endosperm which provides nutrition to developing embryo.
Formation of fruit:- The fertilized ovules secrete auxins which cause the ovary to grow into a
fruit. The ovary can be made to grow into a fruit with out fertilization by the artificial spray of
auxins this process is called parthenocarpy.
Q.6 With the help of diagram describe the structure of male reproductive system in humans.
Ans . The male reproductive system consists of a scrotum, a pair of testes, vasa efferentia, a pair
of epididymes, a pair of vasa deferentia, a pair of efacuratary ducts, urethra and penis.
i) Scrotum:- It is a pouch of pigmented skin arising from the lower abdominal wall and
hanging between the legs. The testes originate in the abdominal cavity but latter during the
seventh month of development descend into the respective scrotal sacs.The scrotum acts as a
thermoregulater, maintaing the testes at a temperature 20 lower than that of the body.
ii) Testis:- The testes are soft, smooth, pinkish oval organs about 4-5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide
and 3cm thick. Testes are formed of
semniferous tubules which consists of
spermatogenic cells and sertoli cells. The former
becomes sperms while the latter provides
nutrient to the sperms. The semniferous tubules
also contain the interstitial or Leybig‘s cells
which secrete the male sex hormone called
testosterone.
iii) Epididymis:- The epididymis is a long
tube attached to the hind surface of the testis.
Maturation of sperms and their fertilization
capacity occurs in head of the epididymis and
are stored in the tail part of Epidydimis. The
sperms not ejaculated are reabsorbed in the vas deferens.
iv) Vasa Efferentia:- The vasa efferentia bear cilia to aid in sperm transport.

v) Vasa deferentia:- It is about 40 cm long narrow and tubular structure which starts from
epididymis and joins the seminal vesicles to form ejaculatory duct. Vas deferentia conducts the
sperms by peristalsis.
vi) Ejaculatory ducts:- These are about 2cm long thin walled tubes which open in to the
urethra.
vii) Urethra:-It is the urinary duct leading from the bladder. It carries urine as well as sperms.
It is about 20 cm long.
viii) Penis:- Penis is a male couplatory organ through which urethra pass. It is used for
depositing semen into the vagina of the female.
Accessory sex glands:- In man there are three types of sex glands namely:
(a). Seminal vesicles:- These are a pair of glands present between rectum and urinary bladder.
(b). Prostate glands:-It is a single large sized lobulated gland present just blow the urinary
bladder.
3. Cow pars glands:-These are a pair of white pea sized glands present at the base of penis.
Q.7 With the help of diagram describe the structure of female reproductive system.
Ans. The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes
(oviducts) uterus and vagina.
i) Ovaries:- The ovaries are the primary sex organs of the female. They are about the
size and shape of an almond. Each ovary is connected by ovarian ligament to the uterus. The
ovaries remain attached to the body wall by ligament. The ovaries produce female gamete ova
and female sex hormones Estrogen and progesterone. The ovaries are externally lined by
germinal epithelium. Ovaries are two in number and each ovary produces eggs alternately.
ii) Fallopian tubes:- These are a pair of elongated, ciliated muscular and tubular structures
extending from just close to ovaries to uterus. The outer part of each fallopian tube laying close
to ovary has a wide aperture called ostium and a number of finger like processes called fimbriae
to receive the ovum released from ovary.
Functions of Fallopian Tube:-Fallopian tube is
the site of fertilization also called fertilization
canal. It conducts the Zygote towards uterus by
its cilliary action.
iii) Uterus:- It is a muscular pear shaped
structure present between urinary bladder and
rectum. Its internal linings is highly glandular
and vascular and is called endometrium. Its
lower and narrow part is called cervix which
opens into vagina.
Function:- It is the site of foetal development.
iv) Vagina:- It is about 7.5cm long and is
adopted for receiving penis, allowing
menstrual flow and serves as the birth
canal.
Q.8 Write short note on: (a) Gametogenesis (b) Spermatogenesis (c) Spermiogenesis
Ans:-
(a) Gametogenesis:- It is the formation of haploid gametes from diploid cells of germinal
epithelium ( the outer most covering of gonads) i.e. testes and ovaries. The gametes in males are
called sperms and in females are called eggs. The formation of sperms is called spermatogenesis
and the formation of eggs or (ova) is called Oogenesis.
(b) Spermatogenesis:- It is the formation of sperms from the germinal epithelium present in
the testes.

( c) Spermiogenesis:- The formation of motile sperms from non-motile spermatids is called

spermiogenesis. In spermiogenesis the weight of the spermatids is reduced to form active
sperms.
Q.9 What is fertilization? What are its various types?
Ans:- Fertilization:- It is the fusion of male and female gametes of all sexually reproducing
organisms. Its main idea was enunciated by Leevwon Hock in 1683. In this process the
penetration of a spermatozoon into ovum activates the egg to start the development, while the
fusion of their pronuclei (amphimixis) results in restoring the diploid (2n) chromosome number.
Type of Fertilisation”-
a. External Fertilization. b. Internal Fertilization.
a. External fertilization:- The type of fertilization where gametes fuse outside the body of a
parent is known as external fertilization e.g. in fishes and amphibians.
b. Internal Fertilization:- The type of fertilization where gametes fuse inside the body of a
parent is known as internal fertilization e.g. in mammals, birds and reptiles.
Q.10 What means puberty? What changer occur due to puberty in boys and girls?
Ans:- Puberty:- The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be produced and
the boy and girl become sexually mature is called puberty. Boys attain puberty at the age
of 13 to 14 years while girls reach puberty at a comparatively lower age of 10 to 12 years.
Changes due to puberty in Boys:-
(i) Growth of thick hair on the face.
(ii) Cracking of the voice.
(iii) Muscle development.
(iv) Sperm formation and development of sexual desire.
Changes due to puberty in Girls:-

(a) Growth and development of reproductive organs (Ovaries, Fallopian tube, Uterus,
etc.)
(b) Development of breasts.
(c) Starting of menstrual cycle.
(d) The broadening of hips and development of sexual desire.
Q.11 What is pollination? Name its two types. How do they differ from each other?
Ans. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a carpel is called pollination.
Pollination is of two types namely self pollination and cross pollination
Self Pollination Cross Pollination
1. Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma 1. Transfer of pollen grains from anther to
of same flower or another flower on the the stigma of a flower of another similar or
same plant. different plant is called cross pollination.
2. External pollinating agency is not 2. Wind, Water birds and insects are
required. required as pollinating agency.
3. Slight variation occurs in young ones 3. Much more variations occurs in
individuals
Q.12 What are the hermaphrodite organisms?

Ans. Those organisms which contain both male and female reproductive organs are called
hermaphrodite or bisexual organisms. e.g. earthworm, tapeworm, fasciola etc.
Q.13 What are oviparous organisms?
Ans. Those organisms which lay eggs are called oviparous organisms. e.g. all birds, reptiles and
the order monotremata in mammals.

Q. 14 Distinguish between external fertilization and internal fertilization.

Ans.
External fertilization Internal fertilization
1. Fertilization of egg with the sperm 2. Fertilization occurs inside the female
occurs outside the body. reproductive system.
2. Water is a medium for fusion of 2. Secretions from sex organs helps in the
gametes. fusion of gametes.
3. Large number of eggs are fertilized 3. Few eggs are fertilized.
with the semen of male
Q.15 What are viviparous organisms?
Ans. Those organisms which reproduce by giving birth to their young ones are called
viviparous organisms e.g Mammals except order monotremata.
Q.16 What are the salient features of sexual reproduction?
Ans. The salient features of sexual reproduction are:
(i) It involves two parents mostly but some times uniparental ( bisexual organisms fasciola,
earthworm etc.
(ii) Haploid gametes are produced by both male and female by the process of meiosis.
(iii) The fusion of male and female gametes (sperm and egg) is called fertilization. The male
gamete is usually smaller and is known as sperm. The female gamete is a bit larger and is
known as egg. The fertilization results in the formation of a zygote which is diploid.
(iv) The zygote divides repeatedly to form a multicellular organism.
Q.17 What are the Salient Features of Asexual reproduction?

Ans. i. There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
ii. Only one parent is involved in the formation of new individuals.
iii. Multiplication of cells is rapid and enormous
Q.18 Writ two advantages of sexual reproduction.
i. Sexual reproduction promotes diversity among the offspring because variations
from two parents are coming together.
i. Progeny of sexual reproduction have more chance of survival because of the
variations. New combinations of characters thus plays important role in the
evolution of species.
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) How is DNA copied in cells? (DNA Copying)

Ans. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is copied in the cells by the process known as DNA
replication. During this process the two strands of DNA get separated from each other and
the new strands get attached to each parent strand formed from its building blocks called
nucleotides.
(Process of DNA replication)
(Daughter Cells)

Importance of DNA Copying :
DNA replication helps in maintaining the same number of chromosomes in the daughter
cells as that in mother cells.
(i) Some times DNA replication helps in the formation of useful mutations.
(ii) The variations caused due to DNA replication causes microevolution. i.e. formation of sub
species or varieties.
Q.2) Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Ans. Variation is beneficial to the species as it enables a species for its survival. A favourable
variation makes an organism to live better in a changed environment. e.g. A population of
heat resistant bacteria in temperature of the water survives, but if the temperature of water
increases by global warming most other bacteria would die. So, it is not necessarily true
that a variation is beneficial to the individual always.
SECTION - B
Q.1) How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
Binary fission Multiple fission
1. The nucleus of the parent cell 1. The nucleus of the parent cell undergoes
divides into two daughter nuclei. repeated divisions to produce many daughter
nuclei
2. It may be irregular (amoeba), 2. Whole body divides into pieces.
Longitudinal (Euglena) or transverse
(paramecia)
3. Cytoplasmic division is followed by 3. Nuclear division is followed by cytoplasmic
nuclear division division.
4. It occurs in unicellular organisms 4. It takes place unicellular organisms under
under favourable conditions unfavourable conditions.
Q.2) How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?

Ans. Spores have thick walls that protect them from unfavourable conditions like lack of food,
lack of water and extreme temperature, such spores are produced in large numbers. They
germinate when favourable conditions return. Thus, an organism gets benefited if it
reproduces through spores.
Q.3) Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms can not give rise to new
individuals through regeneration?
Ans. Complex organisms have highly differentiated tissues and organs. In this case
regeneration of complex individual organism is difficult from a small piece of living cells.
Q.4) Why is vegetative propagation practiced for growing some type of plant ?
An) Vegetative propagation is practiced for growing some types of plants because of following
advantages.
(i) It is used to grow a plant in which viable seeds are not formed or very few seeds are
produced e.g; orange, Banana, pine apple.
(ii) It helps to introduce plants in new areas where the seed germination fails to produce
nature plant due to change in environmental factors and the soil
(iii) It is more easier, rapid and cheaper method.
(iv) By this method a good quality of a role or variety can be preserved.

Q.5) Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?

Ans. DNA copying is essential in the process of reproduction because it transmits the characters
(traits) from parent to offspring and carries information to create proteins which lead to
body design of the organism. If a similar individual has to be produced, the DNA should
replicate to make an exact copy of itself.
SECTION - C
Q.1) How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?
Pollination Fertilization
1. It takes place by various pollinating 1. It takes place by the direct involvement
agencies like insects, birds, wind etc. of male and female organisms or by
artificial means.
2. It is the transfer of pollen grains 2. It is the fusion of male and female
into ovary gamete.
3. It occurs in plant kingdom only. 3. It occurs in plant and animal kingdoms.
Q.2) What is the role of seminal vesicle and prostate gland ?

Ans) The secretions from seminal vesicles and prostate glands lubricate the sperms and provide
a fluid medium for easy transport of sperms. Their secretion also provides nutrient in the
form of fructose, calcium and some enzymes.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Asexual reproduction takes place through budding In.
Ans) (a) Amoeba
Q.2) Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in human beings?
Ans) (c) Vas deferens.
Q.3) The anther contains.
Ans) (d) Pollen grains.
Q.4) What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Ans) (i) Sexual reproduction leads to new combination of genes as it involve two parents and
meiosis. This produces variation in off spring. Variations are the basis for evolution.
(ii) Progeny of Sexual reproduction have more chance of survival because of the variation.
(iii) New combinations of characters thus plays important in the evolution of species.
Q.5) What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?
Ans) Testis are the sites where male gamates i.e sperms are made. The testis also produce the
male sex harmone - testosterone
Q.6) Describe the human female menstrual cycle. OR Why does menstruation occur?
Ans. The menstrual cycle in humans lasts 28 days. The days are numbered from first day of
blood flow in the menstrual period. The menstrual cycle consists of 3 phases which are as
described below:
a. Follicular (Proliferating) phase:- This phase lasts for about 14 days. It comprises the
changes caused by following hormones.
i. F.S.H. The anterior pituitary lobe secretes follicle stimulating hormone (F.S.H) which
stimulates the growth of the selected primary ovarian follicle and maturation of the
primary Oocyte in this follicle. F.S.H also stimulates follicle cells to secrete estradiol

ii. Estradiol inhibits the secretion of F.S.H and stimulates the secretion of leuteinising
hormone.
iii L.H. From the anterior pituitary cause ovulation and it occurs after about 14 days.
iv.Estradial prepares uterus for implantation and thus formation of endometrium occurs
in uterus. Fallopian tube gets thickened and its ciliary movement increases. These changes
prepare the fallopian tube for convening the ovum into the uterus.
b. Luteal or secretary phase:- This phase lasts for 10 days. Progesterone and estradial
secretion takes place by the stimulation of L.H and prolaction to empty graffian follicle.
Progesterone maintains pregnancy. i.e. implantation of the foetus and stimulates
endometrial glands to secrete a nutrient fluid for the foetus,
c. Menstrual or Bleeding phase:- This phase lasts for about 4 days. If fertilization does not
occur, the secondary Oocyte undergoes autolysis and progesterone inhibits the release of
LH from pituitary and a consequent fall in the progesterone level in the blood. The uterine
lining dries due to progesterone deficiency and is sloughed off, blood vessels rupture and
this causes bleeding.
Q.7) Draw a labeled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower?
Filament
section
of a
flower
Longitudinal section of a flower

Q.8) What are the different methods of contraception ?
Ans) The contraceptive methods can be broadly directed into the following types :-
(i) Natural method:- It involves avoiding of the chance of meeting of sperms and ovum.
In this method, the sexual act is avoided from day 10th to 17th of the menstrual cycle
because during this period, ovulation is expected and therefore, the chances of fertilization
are very high.
(ii) Barrier method:- In this method, the fertilization of ovum and sperm is prevented
with the help of barriers. Barriers are available for both males and females. Condoms are
barriers made of thin rubber that are used to cover penis in males and vagina in females.
(iii) Oral contraceptives:- In this method, tablets or drug are taken orally. Thee contain
small doses of harmones that prevent the release of eggs and thus fertilization cannot
occur.
(iv) Implants and surgical methods contraceptive devices such as loop or copper-T are
placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy. Some surgical methods can also be used top block
the gamete transfer. It includes the blocking of vas deferens to prevent the transfer of
sperms known as vasectomy. Similarly, fallopian tubes of the female can be blocked so
that the egg will not reach the uterus known as tubectomy.
Q.9) How are the methods for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular
organisms?
Ans) In unicellular organisms reproduction occurs by the division of the entire cell. The modes
of reproduction in unicellular organisms can be fission, budding etc. Where in
multicellular organisms, specialized reproductive organs are present. Therefore they can

reproduce by complex reproductive methods such as vegetative propagation, spore

formation etc. In more complex multicellular organisms such as human beings and plants,
the mode of reproduction is sexual reproduction.
Q.10) How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?

Ans) Living organisms reproduce for the continuation of a particular specie. It helps in
providing stability to the population of species by producing a new individual that
resembles the parents. That is the reason why cats give birth to only cats or dogs give birth
to only dogs. Therefore, reproduction provides stability to populations of dogs or cats or
any other species.
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Lesson No 4.
Genetics, Heredity and Evolution
Terminology
Genetics:- It is that branch of biology which deals with the study of mechanism of inheritance
(heredity) by which characters are transferred from generation to generation. Genetics also deals
with the study of variations.
Heredity: - It is defined as the transmission of characters in living beings from generation to
generation.
Chromosomes:- Filamentous bodies present in the nucleus, composed of chromatin materials
(DNA-RNA protein complex).
Gene:- A unit of inheritance forming part of chromosomes. Genes are passed from parent to the
off spring via chromosomes in the nuclei of the parent‘s gametes.
Gametes: Male & female sex cells.
Dominant gene: The gene which expresses itself in a heterozygous organism is called dominant
gene.
Recessive Gene.:- The gene which cannot express itself in the presence of the dominant gene.
Genotype:- The genetic constitution of an organism.
Phenotype:- It refers to externally visible characters of an organism.
Homozygous:- An individual having two identical alleles of gene or factors of characters on its
homologous chromosomes. e.g., TT or tt.(T represents tall and dwarf character of the parent)
Heterozygous:- An individual having two different alleles of a gene on its homologous
chromosomes. It is not pure and is called hybrid for that character e.g. Tt.
Alleles:- Alleles are alternate form of the same gene for example, a pea plants has one gene that
determines height, but that appears in more than one form- the gene that produces a short plant is
an allele of the gene that produces a tall plant.
Gene Locus:- A particular portion or region of the chromosomes representing a single gene is
called gene locus.
F1 Generation:- F1 or first filial (Filus-son, Filia-daughter) generation is the generation of hybrids
produced from a cross between the genetically different individuals called parents. For example,
Tt individiuals are produced in F1 generation from a cross between TT and tt generation.
T T t t
T T t
Gametes Cross t
   
Tt Tt

F2 Generation: F2 or 2nd Filial generation is the generation of individuals which arises as a result
of interbreeding among individuals of F1 generation or we can say when progeny of F1
generation cross among themselves to produce second progeny, then this progeny is called F2
generation. An example will make it more clear. Mother and father is parental generation. Their
children‘s are F1 generation and the grand children‘s are F2 generation.
Parent dominant TT X t t Parent recessive
T T (Male/Female)
t t
(Male/Female) Gametes
   
Tt Tt Tt Tt F1 Generation.
Tt Tt
F1- Parents X
Gametes T t
T t
  

Tt tt
TT Tt
F2- Generation:
Dominant Recessive
Tall Dwarf
Ratio 3 = 1
Genetic drift:- Means elimination of genes of certain traits of a species, when a section of
population migrates or dies of natural calamity.
Mutation:- Which means rare, random, discontinuous, inheritable variations in the amount or the
structure of genetic material. Mutation is the major source of variations.
Natural selection:- is the process of evolution of a species whereby characteristics which help
individual organisms to survive & reproduce are passed on to their offspring & those
characteristics which do not help are not passed on.
Q 1-Discuss variations:
Ans:-Variations means the differences among the individual of the same species. These
differences are morphological, physiological, cytological and behavioral. Therefore, no
individuals are similar. Variations do appear even in clones.
Variations are of two types; acquired and mutational. Acquired variations are usually due
to the affect of environment. They are not inherited. Differences appearing in monozygotic twins
are acquired variations.
Mutational variations are inheritable variations which are produced due to change in the
Genetic constitution. The rate of abnormal variations is very moderate in sexually reproducing
organisms. While as asexually reproducing organisms have lesser variations.

Accumulation of variations:-
The reproduction of organisms produces variations. The variations produced in organisms during
successive generations get accumulated in the organism. The significance of a variation shows up
only if it continues to be inherited by the offspring for several generations e.g., a bacterium
produces two bacteria by asexual reproduction. Suppose that one of the offspring bacterium has a
variation due to which it can tolerate a little higher temperature than other one. Now this variation
of little more heat resistance will go on accumulating in the offspring of successive generation of
this bacterium.
The great advantage of a variation to a species is that it increases the chance of its survival in a
changing environment.
Inherited Traits:-Parent organisms pass traits to their offspring so there are often similar characteristics
seen in both parent and offspring.
Inherited human traits include:

Dimples or freckles,
Naturally curly or straight hair,
Attached or unattached earlobes, etc.
Rules for inheritance of Traits:- The rule of inheritance of traits are connected to both, the
mother‘s and the father‘s contribution of the genetic material to the child. The DNA of the parent
may influence the traits of the child. There will be two version for every trait of the child, i.e., that
of the mother and that of the father.
Mendel‟s Contributions:- Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) is called the ―Father of genetics‖.
His contributions to study of inheritance paved the way for our basic understanding of how traits
are inherited from one generation to the next. Mendel did much of his work with easily obtained
local organisms, especially garden peas. He also did genetic work with other plants and
honeybees.
Q.2 Why did Mendel selected pea plant for hybridization.
Ans:- Mendel Selected Hybridization experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum) in 1856.
Mendel‘s experimental use of pea plant was not accidental but the result of his careful thoughts.
He selected pea plants because of certain specific characteristics which are as under:
(i) Pea plants show a number of contrasting traits like purple flowers & white flowers, tall
plants and dwarf plants, round seeds & wrinked seeds etc. he noted 7 pairs of such
contrasting traits in pea plant.
(ii) Pea plants produce perfect bisexual flowers. Normally pea plant is self pollinating but
cross pollination could be achieved easily by removing the stamens of flowers before the
pollen grains mature.
(iii)Pea plants had a short life cycle so the results could be achieved within a year.
(iv) Pea plants produce many seeds in one generation. This helped in drawing correct
conclusions
(v) It could be raised, maintained & handled conveniently.
(vi) Pea plants pure for each of the seven characters he selected were readily available.
(vii)
Q.3 Discuss Mendal‟s Monohybrid cross?
Ans. A breeding experiment dealing with the single character is called monohybrid cross. In
order to trace the inheritance of a single pair of contrasting characteristics among the pea plants
(like tall stem and short stem), Mendel crossed (Cross-breed) the pea plants differing in these
traits and noted their occurrence in the progeny of succeeding generations.

(i) Mendel first crossed pure tall pea plant with pure dwarf pea plant and found that only tall
plants were produced in the first generations or F1 generation. No dwarf pea plant (or
short pea plants) was obtained in the first generation of progeny. From this Mendel
concluded that the first generation (or F1 cross) showed the traits of only one of the parent
plant: tallness. The trait of other parent plant, dwarfness did not show up in the progeny of
first generation.
(ii) Mendel then crossed the tall plant of first generation (F1 generation) and found that tall
plants and dwarf plants were obtained in the second generation (or f2 generation) in the
ratio of 3:1. In other words in the f2 generation three- fourth plants were tall and one-
fourth were dwarf.
Parental cross (Monohybrid cross)
Parent‘s Phenotype (appearance) Tall Plant X Dwarf Plant
Factor‘s of inheritance T T t t
Gametes (Factor‘s from separation) T T t t
   
Crossing
F1 generation genotype Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 generation phenotype Tall Tall Tall Tall
F1 cross
F1 generation Phenotype Tall Plant X Tall plant
Factors of inheritance Tt Tt
Gametes T T t
t
Cross of gametes    
F2 generation genotype TT Tt Tt tt
F2 generation phenotype Tall Tall Tall dwarf
Phenotypic ratio 3:1 3….. tall ; 1 dwarf.
In F2 generation, the plants produced have genotype or inheritance factors, TT, Tt, Tt and tt. Now, the
plant having genotype TT, Tt and Tt all contain the factor ‗T‘ for dominant trait ‗tallness‘. So all the three

plant (TT, Tt and Tt) are tall. The plant having the genotype tt have both the factors t for the recessive trait
and are all dwarf.
In F2 generation we get 1 plant having genotype TT, 2 plants having genotype Tt and 1 having
genotype tt so the Genotypic ratio of Monohybrid cross is TT:Tt:tt=1:2:1
Again in F2 generation, we get 3 tall plants and 1 dwarf plant, so the phenotypic ration in
Monohybrid cross will be:
Tall plants: Dwarf plants= 3:1.
From the result of monohybrid cross Mendel formed following laws or principles of inheritance
(i) Law of paired factors
This law states that for ―Every character there is present a pair of factors (genes) i.e.,
Every character is controlled by a pair of factor and an individual receives one factor for
the trait from each parent. Mendel did not know the genes or chromosomes but his law of
paired factors remains a basic principle in the field of genetics.
(ii) Law of dominance:- This principle states that one factor in a pair may express itself and
prevent expression of another. The factor which expressed itself was described as dominant
factor and other factor which was unable to express was described as recessive factor by
Mendel e.g., in a cross between true breeding tall plant with a dwarf plant, F1 generation
produced tall plants only. However, in F2 generation the tallness & dwarfness traits appear in
the phenotype ratio of 3:1 ( 3 tall :1 dwarf). This explains that in F1 generation , the factor for
tallness in dominant does not allow factor for dwarfness to express itself.
Q.4 Discuss Mendel‟s di-hybrid cross??
Ans. Mendel‘s Di-hybrid Cross:- A breeding experiment dealing with the two characters at the same
time is called di-hybrid cross.
The principle of law of independent assortment can be studied by means of dihybrid cross, e.g,
between pure breeding pea plant having yellow round seeds (YYRR) and pure breeding pea plants
having green wrinkled seeds (y y r r ). The plants of the first filial of F 1 generation have all yellow
and round seeds (Y y R r) because yellow and round traits are respectively dominate over green
and wrinkled traits. On self-breeding the resultant second filial or f2 generation shows four types
of plants. The data obtained by Mendel as follows:
Yellow and Round = 315/556 = 9/16
Yellow and Wrinkled = 108/556 = 3/ 16.
Green and round = 108/556 = 3/16
Green wrinkled = 32/556 = 1/16
Thus, the phenotype ratio of a dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1
The occurrence of four types of plants in the F2 generation of dihybrid cross shows that the factors
of each of the two characters assort independent of the others as if other pair of factor are not present.
Parental Cross
Parents Phenotype Plants Having yellow- Round seeds X plants having wrinkled-green seeds.
Factors R R YY r r y y
Gametes RY ry
RY RY ry ry
Crossing
F1 generation RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy

F1 generation phenotype Round Yellow Round Yellow Round yellow Round Yellow

F1 Generation
Self Plants having Yellow round Seeds X Plants having Yellow round
seeds
Factors R r Y y R r Y y
Gametes RY rY ry Ry RY rY ry Ry
(Hybrid-I) (Hybrid-II)
♀ ♂ (RY) (Ry) (rY) (ry)

RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
Round Yellow Round Yellow Round Yellow Round Yellow
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
Round Yellow Round green Round Yellow Round green
rY RrYy RrYy rrYY rrYy
Round Yellow Round Yellow Wrinkled Yellow Wrinkled Yellow
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
Round Yellow Round Green Wrinkled Yellow Wrinkled green
F2 ratio = Round – yellow = 9

Round- Green = 3
Wrinkled- yellow = 3
Wrinkled- Green = 1
F2 ratio = 9:3:3:1
From the results of dihybrid cross, Mendel framed the following laws:
Law of Independent Assortment:- This law states that the genes of different characters located in
different pairs of homologous chromosomes are independent of one another in their segregation
during gamete formation (Meiosis).
Law of Segregation:-
The two factors of a character present in an individual do not change but remain distinct &
segregrate from each other at the time of gamete formation(segregation during gametogensis).
so that each gamete receives only one factor for each character. In other words, the gametes carry
one factor either dominant or reccessive. This is called Law of Segregation and is also called as
Law of Purity of gametes because gamets are always pure for the trait. e.g., when a cross is made
between two breeding tall plant with dwarf plant, each gamete from the parent will receive one
unit factor ( either for tallness or dwarfness). During fertilization F1 plants will receive one unit
factor for tallness & one unit factor for dwarfness. Since tallness factor is dominated over dwarf
factor, so F1 plants show only one trait i.e., tallness. When F1 plants form gametes, they randomly
receive either the tallness factor or dwarfness factor. Thus above mentioned example confirms
Law of Segregation or Purity of Gametes.
Mendel‟s First law of inheritance:- The characteristic of an organism are determined by internal
factors which occur in pairs Only one factor of such pair can be present in a single gamete.
Mendel‟s 2nd law of in heritance:- In the inheritance of more than one pair of traits in a cross
simultaneously, the factors responsible for each pair of traits are distributed independently to the
gametes.
Q.5 What is Speciation?
Ans. Speciation:-Speciation is the evolution of new species. It occurs when a population of
interbreed individuals is split up into separate populations. These separate populations then
continue to evolve independent of each other. Over time, they may become separate species and

be unable to breed with the population from which they were initially separated. For animals that
reproduce without sex, species are defined by arbitrary decisions based on how genetically
distinct groups have become.
Speciation can occur if a geographic barrier prevents gene flow between two populations
of the same species.
Q.6 How Do Genes control the characteristics or Traits.
Ans. A gene is a section of DNA on a chromosome which codes for the formation of a protein
controlling a specific characteristic (Or trait) of the organism. Suppose a plant progeny has gene
for the characteristic (Or trait) called ―Tallness‖. Now the gene for ―Tallness‖ will give
instructions to the plant cell to make a lot of growth hormones and due to these hormones the
plants will grow too much and hence become tall.
Q.7 What are Acquired and inherited traits?
Ans. Acquired trits:- Those traits which do not pass or transmit from parent to offspring and
are caused due to the affect of environment. For example, low weight of beetles because of
starvation is not a trait that can be inherited by the progeny of a starving beetle.
Inherited traits:- Those traits which pass or transmit from parent to offspring and are caused due
to the transmission of genetic material from parent organisms to their offspring. For example, in
human beings; Dimples or freckles, Naturally curly or straight hair and attached or unattached
earlobes are common example of inherited traits.
Q.8 Explain Evolution and its types.
Ans. Evolution:- The term evolution was first used by Herbert Spencer. The term
―Evolution‖ has been derived from the Latin word ―evolvere‖ which means to unroll or unfold. It
refers to gradual change from one form to another. Such a change in elements with the time is
called inorganic evolution or chemical evolution, however, gradual change in living organisms
with time since the beginning of life is termed as organic or biological evolution.
Chemical Evolution:-
It explains the formation of the complex organic compounds from simple chemical elements or
compounds. This concept was put forward by Alexder.I. Oparin(1923) & J.B.S Haldance (1928)
independently.
J.B.S Haldane suggested that life must have arisen on the primitive earth from a collection of
chemical through a progressive series of chemical reactions in which atoms combined into
inorganic molecules and inorganic molecules into simple orgainc compounds, simple organic
compounds into complex organic compounds, complex organic compounds into polymers and
polymers into coaservates (Aggregates of large complex organic molecules), coaservates were
converted into eobionts and finally eobionts were converted into first primitive cell
Organic evolution:-
Organic evolution is concerned with the evolution of populations of living organisms. It is
continuous & irreversible process of change inheritable characters.
There are number of theories which explain the mode of evolution. Some of them are
discussed below:
1. Darwinism or Darwin‟s theory of Natural Selection:- The theory of natural selection
was announced by English naturalist Charles Robert Darwin and an English biologist, Alferd
Russel wallase. Darwin explained his theory in his book ―The origin of species by means of
Natural selection.‖
According to this theory every living organism produces more organisms that can be
supported in a particular environment & can survive. But food and space are limited. Hence
because of more number of individuals that can be supported by the food and space, a severe
competition starts between the members of one species as well as the members of different
species. This competition is for food and space and mate and there starts a struggle for
existence. So as to overcome other organisms in this struggle for existence, variations appear

in each living organism. Nature selects organisms with better suited variations, by natural
selection. Those variations which are selected by nature pass on to next generation. It was
called inheritance of useful variations. In this way in each generation new favourable
variations appear, and supplemented the favourable variations inherited from the parents .
After a number of generations, the variations became so prominent that the possessor turn into
new species.
Though Darwinism got wide acceptance but it was too criticized that it could not explain
how variations appear.
2. Devries theory of mutation:-
Devries explains the formation of new species by sudden appearance of new characters. These
sudden changes were named as mutations or saltations. He explained that evolution does not
occur by gradual changes but occurs by abrupt changes (mutations). i.e., evolution is Jerky
process.
3. Modern or synthetic theory of evolution:-
The present concept of evolution is a modification and elobration of the Darwin‘s theory
and often termed as neo- Darwinism. According to this theory Genetic variations appearing
among the individuals bring about evolution under the influence of natural selection &
isolation.
Q.9 Discuss various evidences of evolution
Ans. Evidences For Evolution:-
Chemical evolution produced life on primitive earth through interaction of molecules. This was
followed by organic evolution, which gave rise to numerous kinds of living organisms over the
ages. The following evidences not only prove the occurrence of organic evolution but also trace
the evolutionary relationship amongst living organic evolution.
(A) Morphological and anatomical evidences:- These evidences are based on the
comparative forms and structures of various parts or organs of the body. These include the
following:-
a) Homologous organs:- The organs which perform different functions in different species
but have similar basic structure and similar embryonic origin are called homologous
organs e.g., Forelimbs of vertebrates are adapted for different modes of locomotions. In
frog they are meant to bear the shock of leap, in reptiles for creeping, in horse for running,
in birds modified into wings for flight. But in all these vertebrates the forelimbs have same
internal structure because they have inherited from common ancestor
b) Analogous organs:- The organs which have different origin and internal structure but
perform same functions e.g., wings of birds & wings of insects are meant for flight but
have totally different structure & origin.
c) Vertebrate organs:- Some vertebrate organs exhibit gradual complexity in various
vertebrates e.g., Heart in fishes is two chambered, three chambered in amphibians,
incompletely four chambered in birds and completely four chambered in birds and
mammals. It is in conformity with gradual change in evolution.
d) Vestigial Organs:- Non-functional and rudimentary organs present in animals are called
vestigial organs. e.g., Tail vertebrae or coccyx bone, vermiform appendix, etc., in human
beings are vestigial organs. These organs were in the ancestors of human beings. But they
are disappearing gradually due to change in mode of life.
(B) Embryological Evidences:- The early embryos of all the vertebrates resemble in shape
and structure. The resemblance of early embryos of fish, salamander, tortoise, chick,
rabbit and man is so close that it is very difficult to distinguish them from each other,
which shows that all the vertebrates have evolved from a common ancestor. Based on this
fact Ernest Hackel proposed the law known as biogenetic law. This law states ―Ontogeny

repeats phylogency‖) which means, that an animal in its individual embryonic

development from egg to adult, repeats in condensed form the stages through which its
ancestors have passed in the course of their evolution.
(C) Paleontological Evidence :- Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains
or impressions of past organisms preserved in Sedimentary rocks or other media Fossils
provide most reliable evidences for evolution.
i. A regular gradation from simple to complex is noted in fossils of animals. This geological
succession completely agrees with concept of evolution.
ii. Extinct animals and there living allies differ greatly. This means life has been changing &
this is what evolution postulates.
iii. Missing link are fossils of organisms having characteristics of two different groups.
Archaeopteryx is such a link between reptiles & birds which shows some characters of
reptiles like presence of teeth in jaws and some characters of birds like presence of
feathers on the body. These characters have shown that birds have evolved from
reptilian ancestors.
(D) Biochemical evidence :- Organisms show similar bio-chemical reactions, similar
chemical nature & similar functions of enzymes & hormones of different vertebrates.
Similar composition of blood & lymph and similarities between blood proteins. These
similarities clearly support common ancestory.
Q.10 What are fossils? How they are formed and also discuss the types of fossils?
Ans:- The remains or impressions of dead animals or plants that lived in remote past are known as
fossils.
Fossilization. Fossilization of a dead organism usually begin when the dead organism is buried
before extensive decay sets in. The organism sinks into bog or marsh or to the bottom of a lake,
sea, or river. In some cases it is buried in sand. Even after the burial, decay occurs and the soft
parts of the body are generally destroyed. The hard parts, however, survive as fossils. Water, mud
or sand hardens to rock and the organic remains are safely preserved. Fossilization is a random
process, only those organisms which happen to die in a spot where they can be buried before
other organisms destroy them are fossilized.
Fossils are exposed by natural erosion or excavation. Fossil bearing rocks become exposed
by the actions of wind, rain or rivers, or through excavations by scientists. Once exposed, they are
studied in detail in terms of their antiquity and characteristics. Such study of fossils is called
paleontology.
Types of fossils
There are various kinds of fossils some of the important fossils are:-
(i) Ammonite:- These were the invertebrate animals (Molluscus) with a flat, coiled, spiral
shell, which lived in the sea. The ammonite fossils are about 180 million years old.
(ii) Trilobite:- These were marine arthropods which were common between 400 to 600
million years ago.
(iii)Dinosaurs:- These are extinct carnivorous or herbivorous reptiles. They were first
appeared on earth about 250 million years ago and become extinct about 65 Million years
ago.
Q.11 What are the two methods to determine the age of fossils?
Ans. Determination of age of fossil?
Ans:- There are two methods to known the age of fossils.
(i) By the relative method.
(ii) By carbon dating method.

Relative method:-
When we dig the earth, we find fossils at different depths. The fossils which we find closer to the
surface of the earth are more recent and the fossil found in deep layers of earth are oldest one.
By carbon-dating method:- Dating of rocks or fossils is done by working on concentration of
carbon-14 atoms in fossils. This can be explained as:
All the living objects contain some carbon-14 atoms which are radioactive. When a living
object dies and forms a fossil. Its carbon-14 content goes on decreasing gradually. In the carbon-
14 dating method, the age of fossils is found by comparing the carbon-14 radio-activity left in
fossil with carbon-14 radioactivity found in living object.
Q.12 Give the list of seven pairs of contrasting traits selected by Mendel for his experimental
work?
Ans:- Mendal selected 7 pairs of contrasting traits in pea plant. These pairs of contrasting traits
are under.
S.No Character Dominant Recessive
1 Plant Height Tall (T) Dwarf (t)
2 Flower position Axial (A) Terminal (a)
3 Pod colour Green (G) Yellow (g)
4 Pod shape Inflated (I) Constricted (i)
5 Seed coat/Flower Colored (C) White (c)
6 Seed Shape Round (R) Wrinkled (r)
7 Seed colour Yellow (Y) Green (y)
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing species and a trait B exists
in 60% of the same population, which trait is likely to have arisen earlier?
Ans. Trait B
Q.2) How does the creation of variations in a species promote survival?
Ans:- Variations in a species arise either due to errors in DNA copying or during sexual
reproduction. It is the force of natural selection which selects individuals with useful
variations in the prevailing environment. So as to ensure survival, the individuals with
useful variations then increase in number through differential reproduction in the
population.
SECTION - B
Q.1) How do Mendel‟s Experiments show that traits may be dominated or recessive?
Ans:- Mendel Cross-Pollinated a pure tall pea plant and a pure dwarf pea plant and called
them parental generation. He collected the seeds produced by this cross and grew plants
from them. These plants were named as F1 or first filial generation. In F1 generation all the
plants were found to be tall and none was dwarf or intermediated in size.
The F1 Plants were pollinated among themselves or were allowed to undergo self-
pollination and the seeds produced by F1 plants were again collected and plants were
grown from them. These plants were named as F2 or second filial generation. The F2
plants were found to contain both tall and dwarf individuals in the ratio of 3 tall to 1
dwarf.

TT X tt ……. Parent Generation
T T t t……… Gametes
Tt Tt …………. F1 Generation
T t T t …………Gametes
3 tall : 1 dwarf TT Tt Tt tt--------F2 generation

From the above experiment Mendel drew following conclusions:
(i) Gametes bring from the parents ―something‖ which makes a character in next generation. This
something was called by him a factor.
(ii) There is pair of unit factor for each character, one inherited from each parent.
(iii) Certain factors do not express their characters in the individual but such factors do not
change and may express in later generation.
This conclusion led by Mendel to formulate his law of heredity, the law of dominance.
This law states, that one factor in a pair may express itself & prevent the expression of
another.
The factor that is expressed was described by Mendel as dominant & the unexpressed one
as recessive.
Q.2) How do Mendel‟s experiment show that traits are inherited independently? OR
Mendel‟s law of Independent Assortment OR Mendel‟s Dihybrid cross.
Ans) A breeding experiment dealing with two characters at the same time is called a dihybrid
cross.
In one such cross, Mendel considered shape as well as colour of the seeds simultaneously. He selected
pure breeding pea plant having yellow round seeds (YYRR) and then cross pollinated it with the pure
breeding pea plant having green wrinkled seeds (yyrr). The plants of the first filial of F1 generation
have all yellow and round seeds (YyRr) because yellow and round traits are respectively dominate
over green and wrinkled traits. On self-breeding the resultant second filial or F2 generation shows
four types of plants with phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1. The data obtained by Mendel as follows.
Yellow and Round = 9
Yellow and wrinkled = 3
Green and round = 3
Green wrinkled = 1
Basically in F2 generation, Mendel observed the appearance of four types of combinations. These
include two parental types (round shaped and yellow coloured seeds and wrinkled shaped and green

coloured seeds) and two new combinations (round shape and green coloured seeds and wrinkled and
yellow coloured seeds) The latter were produced in approximately same proportion.
The occurrence of few types of plant in the F2 generation of dihybrid cross shows that the factors of
such of the two characters assort independent of the others. Thus round /wrinkled yellow /green seed
traits are independently inherited.
Parental Cross
Parents Plants having X Plants having
Phenotype Yellow-Round seeds Wrinkled-green seeds
Factors RR YY rr yy
Gametes R Y RY r y ry
Rr Yy Rr Yy
F1 Generation All Pea plants
With round and
Yellow coloured
seeds
Plants with Plants with round

Round and and yellow
Yellow coloured coloured seeds
Seeds
Rr Yy (Self X Pollination) Rr Yy
Gametes RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry

RY Ry rY ry
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

RY Round Yellow Round Yellow Round Yellow Round Yellow
Ry RRYy RRYY RrYy Rryy

Round Yellow Round green Round Yellow Round green
rY RrYy RrYy rrYY rrYy

Round Yellow Round yellow Wrinkled Yellow Wrinkled green
RrYy Rryy rr Yy rryy

ry Round Yellow Round green Wrinkled Yellow Wrinkled green
F2 Generation
Yellow round = 9
Round Green = 3
Wrinkled yellow = 3
Wrinkled Green = 1
F2 ratio = 9:3:3:1
From the result of dihybrid cross, Mandel framed the following law.
Law of Independent Assorment:- This law state that the genes of different characters
located in different pairs of homologous chromosomes are independent of one another in
their segregation during gamete formation (Meiosis)
Q.3) A man with blood group A marries with a woman with blood group O & their daughter
has blood group O. Is this important enough to tell you which of the traits blood groups
A or O is dominant why or Why not?
Ans) If a man with ‗A‘ blood group marries with a woman with ‗O‘ blood group then as per
following flow chart.
Parents AO X OO
Man Woman
Gametes A O O O
Progeny AO AO OO OO
We can‘t say that A is dominant over O because the daughter has blood group O as per
question which means the daughter receives one gene from father i.e., ‗O‘ and other gene
from mother ‗O‘ so we can‘t say A is dominated over O.
Q.4) How is the sex of the child determined in human beings?
Ans) Sex Determination:- The process by which the sex of a person is determined is called as
sex-determination. Different species use different strategies for sex determination. In some
animals, such as crocodiles, turtles & sand lizard, the temperature at which fertilized eggs
are kept determines whether the animals developing in the eggs will be male or female. In
other animals, such as snails, individuals can change Sex, indicating that sex is not
genetically determined. However, in human beings, the sex of the individual is largely
genetically determined by chromosomes. The chromosomes which determine the sex of a

person are called sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are of 2 types, one is called X-
chromosomes and another is called Y- chromosomes.
A male has one X- chromosome and one Y Chromosome. This means that in male, half of
the chromosomes come from Sperm and half from egg. In comparison to males, females
have both chromosomes from Egg and thus have only X- chromosomes. The child
depends on what happens at fertilization:
a) If the sperm carrying X- chromosomes fertilizes an egg, which carries X-chromosomes
then, child will be a girl (XX).
b) If the sperm carrying Y- chromosomes fertilizes an egg, which carries X- chromosomes
then the child will be a boy (XY).
Thus, it is the sperm which determines the sex of an organism.
Mother‘s Ova (or Egg) All- X Father‘s sperm (Half-X; Half Y)

X X X Y
XX XY
Zygote (Female baby) Zygote (Male baby)
Determination of sex in Human
SECTION - C
Q.1) What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in
a population?
Ans) The different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a
population are:- i. Natural selection ii. Genetic drift.
In Natural selection, nature selects traits favourable to the species in its environment and
in genetic drift, the genes of certain traits from the small population gets eliminated when
a section of the species population dies of natural calamity or migrates to other region. It
alters the gene frequency of the remaining population.
Q.2) Why are traits acquired during the life time of an individual not inherited?
Ans) Acquired traits are those traits which are acquired by the individual during its life time e-g
Experiences of individual during its life time is an acquired character.
The acquired characters are not inherited from parents to off springs because acquired
characters involves changes in the non-reproductive tissues only and change in non
reproductive tissue can‘t be passed on the DNA of germ cells. Any alteration in the DNA
of germ cells, infact is the only way by which the traits of an individual are inherited from
parents to off springs.
Q.3) Why are small numbers of survival tigers a cause of worry from the point of view of
genetics?
Ans) Tigers are surviving in limited numbers i.e., their total gene Content or gene pool is small.
If some natural calamity kills these small populations, they will be suddenly extinct or in
terms of genetics their gene pool will remain no more as per the phenomenon of genetic
drift.

SECTION - D
Q.1) What factors could lead to the rise of new species?
Ans) The factors responsible for rise of new species or speciation are:
(i) Genetic drift
(ii) Natural Selection
(iii)Reproductive isolation.
Q.2) Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self pollinating
plant species? Why or why not?
Ans) Geographical isolation will not be a major factor for the speciation of a self pollinating
plant species because the pollination is carrying on the same plant and a natural barrier can
occur between different organisms.
Q.3) Will geographic isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that
reproduces asexually?
Ans:- Geographical isolation refers to the separation of groups of organism by Physical barriers,
such as sea, mountain, desert or a river.
Geographical isolation will not be a major factor for the speciation of an organism that
reproduces asexually because, asexual reproduction involves, single parents and natural
barrier can occur between different organisms.
SECTION - E
Q.1) Give an example of characteristics being used to determine how close two species are in
evolutionary terms?
Ans:- A flipper of seal used for swimming and an arm of man are homologous organs. Both
these organs perform different functions but have same structure and origin. Both of these
structure are modified forelimbs. During the course of evolution, these two species
evolved from common ancestor having fundamental structure design that developed
subsequently into flipper in seal for swimming and arm for grasping in man.
Q.2) Can the wings of butterfly and the wings of a bat be considered homologous organ?
Why or why not?
Ans:- The wings of butter fly & wings of bat are not homologous organs, because they are very
different in structure and embryonic origin. However they perform similar functions i.e,
they are used for flying. The organs which have same functions but are quit different in
fundamental structure and embryonic origin are called analogous organs. So the wings of
butterfly & wings of bat are not homologous organs but analogous organs.
Q.3) What are fossils? What they tell us about the process of evolution?
Ans:- Fossils are the remains, or traces of the organisms that existed in past ages died as a race.
They are direct evidences in support of organic evolution and help in determining
evolutionary relationships between organisms. The study of fossils show complete
evolutionary history of certain animals, such as horse, camel, elephant etc. Fossils also
shows relation-ships between different organisms e.g., Archaeopteryx, lived in Jurassic
period is a fossil bird. It had feathers, fused bones, beak etc, which are bird‘s characters.
But it has also number of features which are found in reptiles e.g., teeth in Jaws, Claws on

free fingers etc. Thus archaeopteryx represents a stage midway between reptiles and birds
and this example also gives clue that birds have evolved from reptiles.
SECTION - F
Q.1) Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size, colour
and looks said to belong to same species?
Ans) Human beings look different from each other in terms of size & colour but belong to same
species because on the basis of time dating, study of fossils and molecular phylogeny all
the human beings are evolved from the same ancestors which have been traced in Africa.
The variation in colour, size and other features among the individuals of human beings is
because of migration and settlement in different geographical regions. Some of our
ancestors left Africa & spread slowly across the planet while others stayed on. Over a
period of time, due to variability in environmental conditions of different regions, our
ancestors adopted and developed genetic variations and became different in colour and
size.
Q.2) In Evolutionary terms can we say which among bacteria, spiders, fish and chimpanzee
have a better body design?
Ans:- Bacteria have a better body design because bacteria inhabit the most inhospitable habitats
like hot springs, deep sea thermal vents and the ice in Antarctica.
SECTION - G
Q.1) A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding tall pea plants bearing violet flowers
with short pea plants bearing white flowers. The progeny all bore violet flowers, but
almost half of them were short. This suggest that the genetic make-up of the tall parent
can be depicted as.
Ans) (c) TtWW
Q.2) An Example of homologous organs is.
Ans) (d) all of the above
Q.3) In evolutionary terms, we have more in common with.
Ans) (a) a Chinese school-body
Q.4) A child study found that children with light-coloured eyes are likely to have parents
with light coloured eyes. On this basis, can we say anything about whether the light
eye colour trait is dominant or recessive? Why or why not.
Ans) No from the given statement we cannot say with certainty whether light eye colour is
dominant or recessive. However, since both children and their parents have light eye
colour, the possibility is that light eye colour is a recessive trait. Had the light eye colour
been a dominant trait and the recessive dark eye colour might have appeared in some of
the children.
Q.5) How are the areas of study- evolution and classification- interlinked?
Ans. The cell is the fundamental unit of life in all organisms. The characteristics in the next
level of classification would be shared by most, but not all organisms. A basic
characteristic of a cell design that differs among different organisms is whether the cell
has a nucleus or not. Bacterial cells do not have the nucleus while the cells of most other
organisms have. Among organisms with nucleated cells, which ones are unicellular and
which ones are multi-cellular? That property marks a very basic difference in body design,

because of specialization of cell types and tissues. Among multi-cellular organisms,

whether they can
undertake photosynthesis or not will provide the next level of classification. Among the
multi-cellular organisms that cannot do photosynthesis, whether the skeleton is inside the
body or around the body will mark another fundamental design difference. We can see
that, even in these few questions that we have asked, a hierarchy is developing that allows
us to make classification groups.
Q.6) Explain the terms homologous and Analogous organs with examples?
Ans) (1) Homologous organs:- The organs which perform different functions in different
species but have similar basic structure and similar embryonic origin are called
homologous organs e.g, the fore limps of a frog, a lizard, a bird and a human being show
similarity in basic structure, but these organs perform entirely different functions: the
forelimbs of a frog help the animal to bear the shock of leap; the forelimbs of a lizard are
modified for creeping movements; the forelimbs of a bird are modified for flying
purpose; forelimbs of human being are used for grasping forelimbs of a frog, a lizard, a
bird and human being, are, therefore homologous organs.
(2) Analogous organs:- The organs which are quite different in fundamental structure
and embryonic but perform same function and may super facially look alike in entirely
different species are called analogous organ.
The wing of an insect and a bird are analogous organs. It is so because both these organs
in entirely different animals perform similar functions i.e they are used for flying in the air
However they are very different in structure. In insect, wing is a fold of membrane that is
the extension of the integument which is supported with few muscles. On the other hand,
wings of a bird are formed of limb bones covered with flesh, skin and feathers. The
superficial similarity of these organs is due to adaptation to flying rather than to
inheritance from a common ancestor. The insect and birds, in fact, have evolved from
separate ancestral populations, but perform similar functions i.e flying as a means of more
efficient mode of locomotion.
Q.7) Explain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationships.
Ans: The things which explain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationships
are
(i) A broad historical sequential evolution can be built up.
(ii) Habits and behaviours of extinct species can be inferred.
(iii) Fossils provide direct evidence of past life.
(iv) These provide convincing proof of organic evolution.
Q.8): What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter?
Ans) There is no natural discontinuity between life and the rest of creation. Scientific
conclusions that include discontinuity in the operation of the universe are representative of
theoretical
error. This is true for gaps existing within mechanical theory, and it is true for the gap
between mechanical theory and life. The universe includes mechanics, life and
intelligence, all of which had the same origin. The universe gave birth to life. We are
formed from its substance and are a part of its nature. Our particles of matter existed for
years as part of the inanimate universe before they joined together and became us. Our
insignificant amount of common matter did not change its nature when it became us. It is
still a part of the nature of the full universe. It will return again to the inanimate universe
and be indistinguishable.
Q.9) Explain how sexual reproduction gives rise to more viable variations than asexual
reproduction. How does this affect the evolution of those organisms that reproduce
sexually?

Ans:- In asexual reproduction, organisms raised are the exact copies of their parents and are
known as clones. Due to their identical set of chromosomes, they exhibit no or very little
variations. These variations may be either due to some environmental factors like, light,
scarcity of food, abundance of food, temperature etc. or mutations that are sudden changes
in genes. Out of these two factors, only mutations are heritable.
In sexual reproduction, two parents are involved and there is formation and fusion of
gametes. Due to crossing over and exchange of gene segments, offspring show variations
from their parents. They are not the carbon copies of their parents. Due to recombination
of parental genes, variations occur which are heritable.
Q.10) How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the
progeny?
Ans:- During gametogenesis meiotic division results in haploid set of chromosomes in the
gametes. These gametes (egg and sperm) when fuse or fertilization process occurs, half of
the chromosome of the zygote consists of paternal genes and half maternal genes.
Q.11) Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a
population. Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
Ans) No. It is so because certain variations may not give any advantage to an individual
organism in particular environmental conditions. These still persist and may confer an
advantage to the individual in changed environmental conditions. These still persist and
may confer an advantage to the individual in changed environmental conditions.
**************************************
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Lesson No: 5
Our Environment
Q.1 Environment:-
The biotic and abiotic factors which surrounds any living organism is considered as its
environment. The abiotic factors are the physical or climatic factors such as temperature, light,
wind, humidity, water, soil texture, substratum, rocks and minerals etc. The biotic factors include
all the living organisms with which an organism interacts.
Q.2 Impact of population, consumption and technology to the environment:-
The organisms and its environment together constitute an ecosystem. Both the
components of ecosystem maintain a balance. Smaller or to some extent larger changes in the
environment get adjusted by reciprocal changes in one or the other component. However very
large changes destroy the balance of environmental. The control of one component of
environment over the other gets test. Environmental resistance to these changes fails to work and
thus a state of disturbance is produced.
Disturbances in the environment are mostly the results of excessive use, misuse
and mismanagement of biosphere resources. The human activates such as rapid population
growth, industrialization modern technology aimed at development are responsible for
disturbances and thus are major causes of environmental degradation (deterioration)
Solid wastes:- The solid waste materials which get accumulated in the environment for a
shorter or longer period of time are known as solid wastes. The solid wastes are the main sources
of pollution and are often termed as environmental pollutants.
Classification of solid wastes:- The solid wastes are broadly classified into two main
types: (i) Biodegradable waste (ii) Non- Biodegradable wastes.
Biodegradable wastes: Those substances which can be decomposed or decayed or
degraded by decomposers like bacteria and fungi are known as biodegradable substances.
Domestic sewage; paper, wood, clothes etc. are common examples of biodegradable substances.
Non – Biodegradable wastes:- Those substances which can not be decomposed or
decayed or degraded by decomposers are known as non-biodegradable substances. Aluminium
cans, plastic, components of mercury, DDT, glass, etc, are non-biodegradable waste materials.
These are neither decomposed by micro-organisms nor do these materials breakdown by physical
and chemical agents present in the environment. There is no treatment in nature for their
recycling. Therefore, these continue to accumulate and occupy large useful space on the earth.
Q.3 Ecosystem and its components?

Ecosystem:- The term ecosystem is defined as interactions between physical environment and
biotic community. The term ecosystem was first defined by A.G. Tansley in 1935, as the living
world and its habitat. The importance of ecosystem lies in the flow of energy and cycling of
matter between living and non-living components of system. The living and non-living
components of ecosystem are known as biotic and abiotic components respectively.
Components of Ecosystem: The main components of ecosystem are: (i) Biotic components
(ii) Abiotic components
(I) Biotic Components:- The biotic components of an ecosystem include all the living
organisms such as plants, animals including human beings and microorganisms. The biotic
components are broadly classified in to three main types (i) Producers (ii) Consumers (iii)
Decomposes or reducers.
(a) Producers:- Produces are those green plants which prepare food or organic substances with
the help of light energy, CO2 and water. These also include the prokaryotes like blue-green algae.
The food or organic substances prepared by these producers fulfill the nutritional requirements of

other biotic components (the heterotrophs). Thus producers are also known as the photosynthetic
organisms and serve as the hosts for all other living beings.
(b) Consumers: Consumers are the heterotrophic components of the ecosystem consumers can
not manufacture their own food material and therefore depend up on producers (green plants)
(c) Decomposers or Reducers:- These are mainly bacteria and fungi that convert dead matter
into gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen and other simple substances to be released back
into the air, soil or water. Bacteria and fungi which break down dead organic matter are known as
Saprotrophs. Without decomposers, the earth would be covered with trash. Decomposers,
therefore, are essential components of ecosystem.
(II) Abiotic components:- These are non-living components and include physio-
chemical factors of the environment such as temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals.
The abiotic components are classified into three main categories:
(a) Inorganic substances.
(b) Organic compounds
(c) Climatic factors.
a. Inorganic substances:- These include elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
calcium, phosphorus etc. and their compounds (water, CO2, etc.) These inorganic substances are
present either in the form of compounds dissolved in water, in the soil or in free state in air.
b. Organic Substances:
The major organic substances which occur in the ecosystem include carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids. Inorganic substances are taken in by the plants and are converted into organic substances
during metabolism. These are added to environment on the death of the organisms. The organic
materials are now broken down or decomposed to inorganic substances and are made available to
the plants. The organic substances thus link biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem.
c Climatic factors:- The entire ecosystem functions under the influence of many environmental
factors. These included light, rainfall, humidity, temperature etc.
Q.4 Concept of Food Chain?
Ans. Food chain is the representation of a single energy pathway where food is passed from the
producers to the successive orders of consumers and at each stage, it is released as heat (energy)
e.g., Food chain in a forest is schematically represented as:
Grass  Dear  Lion.
Producer consumer I consumer II
The number of steps in a food chain is usually limited to four or five. In an aquatic ecosystem, the
food chain operating in ponds are represented as:
(i) Algae  small animals  small fish  Big fish
(ii) Phytoplankton  zooplankton  small fish  large fish
Each step in the food chain represents a trophic level. At each step (trophic level) in the transfer
of energy from one organism to another (from herbivours to carnovores) a large portion of energy
is used for its own maintenance and lost as heat. As a result, organism in each tropic level passon
less and less energy than they receive.
Components of a food chain:- The various components of a food chain include:
1. Plants. (producers). 2. Herbivores (primary consumers.) 3. Primary carnivores (secondary
consumers), 4. Secondary carnivores (tertiary consumers) and 5. Tertiary carnivores (quaternary
consumers). Each of these is placed in different trophic levels. In ecosystems, different food
chains may have two, three, four or maximum five trophic levels.
Characteristics of food chain:-
1. It involves a nutritive interaction between the living organisms.
2. It is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight-line.
3. There is unidirectional flow of energy in food chains i.e. from sun to producers and from
producers to different types of consumers.

4. There are 3 to 4 trophic levels in a food chain. However, in few chains, the number of
trophic levels extends up to 5
5. According to 2nd law of thermodynamics, 80-
90% of energy is lost during the transfer of food
energy from one trophic level to another.
Q.5 Trophic levels:- The various biotic levels of
consumption in a food chain are called trophic
levels. Fore example, in any food chain plants form
the first trophic level, herbivores form the second
trophic level and carnivores form the third trophic
level. The amount of available energy in a food
chain successively gets decreased at each trophic level as a result of waste of energy.
This phenomenon restricts the size of food chain in an ecosystem to maximum of 4 or 5
steps.
Q.6 Food web:- It is a network of food chains in
which each organism is generally eaten by two or
more kinds of organisms which, in turn, are eaten by
several other organisms. So the relation becomes
quite complex and instead of straight line food chain,
the relationship between organisms forms a sort of
interlocking pattern This interlocking pattern of
relationship of organisms is called the food wed.
Fig. Foot web

Characteristics of food web:-
1. In food webs, several food chains overlap and interconnect with each other at various
trophic levels.
2. Unlike food chains, food webs are never straight.
3. It provides alternative pathways of food availability e.g., if a particular species of producer
vanishes, the herbivores of that area can feed on other species.
4. It increases the stability of the
ecosystem as it provides more alternatives
available in a food web.
5. It helps to check the
overpopulations of highly aggressive
pieces of plants and animals.
Q.7. Flow of energy in an ecosystem:-
In an ecosystem, the ultimate
source of energy used by living organisms
is the sun. plants (producers) capture only
1% of the total sun‘s radiations fall on the earth and convert it into food energy by photosynthesis.
In a food chain, energy is transferred from producers to primary consumers (herbivores) but in
this process about 90% energy is lost as heat to the environment. In accordance with the law of
entropy or second law of thermodynamics. Only 10% of the food energy is turned into the body
of herbivores and like wise, 10% of total energy available to the herbivores is made available to
the next trophic level of consumers. This flow of 10% of energy in each trophic level is also
known as ten percent law or law of entropy. Since, the amount of energy goes on decreasing at
each trophic level and very little amount of energy is available for next level consumers. This
limits the steps of trophic levels to maximum of 4 or 5 in food chains.

Q. 8. Ozone layer and how it is getting depleted:-

Ozone is a form of oxygen. Each ozone molecule is made of three oxygen atoms, so its chemical
formula is O3. But unlike oxygen, ozone is a poisonous gas, and an increase in its concentration at
ground level is not something that we want. But in the stratosphere, where ozone exists naturally,
it blocks out the Sun‘s ultraviolet rays and acts as a lifesaver.
At the higher levels of atmosphere (stratosphere), ozone is a product of UV radiation acting on
oxygen (O2) molecule. The higher energy UV radiation split apart some molecular oxygen (O 2)
into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form ozone.
UV
O2 O+O.
O+O2 O3
(Ozone)
Ozone layer depletion:- Ozone is being depleted by the pollutants of air such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS), methane (CH4) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
Chlorofluorocarbons are mainly responsible for ozone depletion because when they are
released in the air, they produce ‗active chlorine‘ (Cl and ClO radicals) in the presence of UV
radiations. These radicals, through chain reactions, then destroy the ozone by converting it into
oxygen. Due to this, the ozone layer in the stratosphere becomes thinner and cause ozone
depletion.
Effects of ozone depletion:- The ozone depletion or thinning of ozone layer allows more UV
radiations falling on the earth. These UV radiations are very harmful and cause skin cancer,
damage to eyes and damage to immune system in human beings and animals.
Ozone Hole:- It is a decline in thickness of ozone layer over a restricted area. It was first
discovered over Antarctica in 1985.
Dobson spectrometer:- It is a device, used to measure the amount of atmospheric ozone.
The amount of atmospheric ozone is expressed in Dobson units (DU).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS):- These are harmful, synthetic chemicals widely used in
refrigerators and air conditioners as coolants, in fire extinguishers, in aerosol sprayers and as
propellants.
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) Why are some substances biodegradable and some non-bio degradable?
Ans) The wastes we generate in our daily life are bio degradable and non-biodegradable. It is
so, because in our environment are present micro organisms (bacteria, fungi etc) which
secrete enzymes and these enzymes degrade organic compounds in the dead remains of
plants, animals and their waste products into simpler substances. Such wastes are termed
bio degradable. On the other hand, these enzymes cannot degrade certain category of
wastes such as plastics, glass objects etc. These waste, therefore, persist as such in the
environment and are termed as non-biodegradable wastes.
Q.2) Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the environment?
Ans) Harmful effects of biodegradable wastes:- Following are the harmful effects of
biodegradable wastes:
(i) Biodegradable wastes attract flies and other disease carrying insects. They become the
ideal breeding grounds for the housefly, different bacteria and many other kinds of germs.
(ii) Biodegradable may also block the drains, creating pools of water which become the
breeding sites of mosquitoes and help to spread diseases like malaria and dengue.
(iii) Decomposition of biodegradable substances releases a very unpleasant or foul smell
which spreads to surrounding areas and creates difficulty in breathing.

Q.3) Give any two ways in which non-bio-degradable substances would affect the
environment?
Ans) Harmful effects of non-biodegradable wastes:-
(i) The various non-biodegradable substances like pesticides (DDT), industrial chemicals,
heavy metals, and radioactive substances are very harmful. The biomagnification or
accumulation of harmful non-biodegradable substances in the bodies of organisms through
the food chains and biogeochemical cycle cause various serious diseases like cancer,
tumor, kidney trouble, etc.
(ii) The over exploitation of non –biodegradable substances such as fertilizers, pesticides
and dumping of industrial wastes decreases the soil fertility and reduces the crop yield.
(iii) These greatly affect the environment and become the main source of air, water and
soil pollution.
SECTION - B
Q.1) What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the different
trophic levels in it ?
Ans) The distinct sequential steps in the food chain where transfer of energy occurs are called
trophic levels. Let us consider the following food chain.
Plant Goat Tiger.
In this food chain, plants are producers which convert solar energy into chemical energy
of organic compounds by photosynthesis. Thus, producers belong to first trophic level
(producer level). Goat is a herbivore and eats plant parts. Here, transfer of energy occurs
from producers to herbivores. Thus goat belongs to second trophic level (primary
consumer level). Goat, in turn, is eaten by tiger (carnivore) involving transfer of energy
from goat to tiger. Thus, tiger belongs to third trophic level (secondary consumer level).
Q.2) What is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem ?

Ans) Decomposers are essential components of ecosystem. They decompose dead remains of
plants and animals and their waste products into simpler, inorganic substances. The latter
are released into the environment for their reuse as raw materials by the producers. These,
therefore, provide spane for new life to settle in the biosphere
SECTION - C
Q.1) What is ozone and how does it affect any ecosystem ?
Ans) Ozone is a form of oxygen. A molecule of ozone contains three oxygen atoms (o3). In the
stratosphere, ozone layer comprises high concentration of ozone some 18-50 km above.
Here, it is being photo dissociated and generated by the absorption of harmful, short
wavelength UV radiations, this layer protects all forms of life on earth.
Certain harmful chemicals such as chlorofloro carbon(CFCs), methane (CH4), oxide of
nitrogen (NOx) etc produced by human activities, do thinning the ozone blanket. As a
result more UV radiations penetrate ozone blanket to strike the earth and producing skin
cancer, damage to eyes including increased incidence of contract, and damage to immune
system of human beings and other animals. These also result in decreased photosynthesis
in plants and contribute towards global warming.
Q.2) How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any to methods?
Ans) Managing the Garbage we produce:- Healthy living requires a clean surrounding hence
it is very essential to dispose our garbage in a proper way. Proper managing of our

garbage can keep us free from many communicable diseases. The garbage we produce can
be managed by various scientific methods of waste disposal. The method of waste
disposal depends on the nature of the waste.
Methods of waste Disposal:- The various methods of waste disposal are:-
i. Land fills
ii. Recycling of wastes.
iii. Burning or Incineration.
iv. Compost preparation.
v. Production of biogas and manure.
i. Land fills:- In this method, the solid wastes are buried in low lying areas to level the
uneven surface of land. This method is commonly used in urban areas.
ii. Recycling of wastes:- The solid wastes like paper, plastics, metals, etc. can be recycled
by sending them to respective recycling units. For example, many waste metals and plastics are
sent to specific metal and plastic industries for recycling, where these are melted, remoulded and
then framed into desired shapes or equipments.
iii. Burning or Incineration:- In this process, substances are burned at very high temperature
(usually more than 1000oC) and are converted into ashes. This process is carried out in a
particular device called as incinerator. It is generally used to dispose the wastes of industries
(chemical wastes), hospital wastes and house hold wastes.
iv. Compost preparation:- The waste generated at home such as peeling of fruits and
vegetables, left-over food, etc. can be stored in a compost pit where it decays and converts into
compost. This compost is later used as manure in agricultural fields.
v. Production of biogas and manure:- The biodegradable wastes are also used in biogas
plants to generate biogas and manure. These biogas plants are very lowcost and can be made at
village level in rural areas.
SECTION - D
Q.1) The Term Ecosystem was introduced by.
Ans) (c) Tensely
Q.2) In a food chain, there is.
Ans) (d) Unidirectional flow of energy.
Q.3) Nature‟s cleaners are.
Ans) (c) Decomposers
Q.4) Which of the following groups contain only biodegradable items?

Ans) (d) Cake, wood and grass
Q.5) Which of the following constitute a food-chain?

Ans) (b) Grass, goat and human
Q.6) Which of the following are environment-friendly practices?

Ans) (d) All of the above.
Q.7) What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
Ans. Energy flows from one trophic level to another. If all the organisms in one trophic level
are killed then the flow of energy will be arrested. The organisms in one trophic level predates on
the organisms, which is on the lower trophic level and becomes the prey for the organisms in the
higher trophic level. If we kill all the organisms in one trophic level then their prey will increase
in population and their predators will be deprived of food.

Q.8) Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for
different trophic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without causing
any damage to the ecosystem?
Ans. The impact of removing of all the organisms in a trophic level will be different for
different trophic levels. Removal of any organism in any trophic level will affect the ecosystem.
For example, if all producers are killed. There will be no food available for herbivores present in
the ecosystem. They will start to die or migrate and in the absence of herbivores, various
categories of carnivores will be affected.
Q.9) What is biological magnification? Will the levels of this magnification be different at
different levels of the ecosystem?
Ans. The phenomenon that involves progressive increase in concentration of harmful non-
biodegradable chemicals at different trophic levels in a food chain is called biological
magnification. Yes, the concentration of harmful chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers will
be different at different trophic levels.
Q.10) What are problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we

generate?
Ans. The non-degradable wastes cause major problem in the ecosystem as it gets accumulated
in the soil. It prevents the water to seep through the soil. It forms a thick covering over the soil
and does not allow the organisms present in the soil to thrive. It inhibits the leeching property of
the soil and destroys the fertility of the soil.
Q.11) If all the waste we generate is biodegradable, will this have no impact on the
environment?
Ans. Biodegradable substances provide energy in the form of organic substances and also
nutrients like carbonate, phosphate etc. The productivity of ecosystem continues to increase till
the amount of such substances is moderate. When the amount reaches a critical limit, the activities
in the ecosystem show severe fluctuations. If these substances are added to the ecosystem even
beyond the critical limit, the balance is completely lost and it becomes disturbed.
Q.12 Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern? What steps are being taken to
limit this damage?
Ans. Ozone layer forms a protection cover over the earth by preventing the ultra violet rays
entering the earth. If the UV rays strike the earth it will cause a great damage to all the living
organisms posing serious effects like skin cancer.
The CFC liberated from refrigerators, fire extinguisher, air conditioners, etc; is now destroying
the ozone layer.
Steps to limit the damage of ozone layer are:
1. Reduce the use CFC. 2. Usage of alternate form for CFC.
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Lesson No. 6
Management of Natural Resources
Q.No.1:- Define Resources and what are its types : Resources can be defined as a source of
supply held in reserve, which is useful to man or can be transformed into more valuable and
useful items for mankind.
Resources are of two types: Natural resources and Man-made resources
i) Natural resources: Natural resources can be defined as those living or non-living
substances available in the normal environment which are being exploited for supporting life and
meeting human requirements. e.g water, soil, minerals.
ii) `Man-made resources: Those resources which are manufactured or synthesized by man,
e.g. plastic, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
Q.No.2:- Classification of Natural resources:

Due to large variety and variable characteristics, natural resources can be classified into two
broad categories: (a) Biotic resources (b) Abiotic resources
a) Biotic resources: Living beings and the substances derived from them constitute the biotic
resources. Animals, forests, fish and the substances derived from them such as timber and coal are
examples of biotic resources.
b) Abiotic resources: Natural non-living things and their derivatives constitute the Abiotic
resources. Air, water and sunlight are its good examples.
On the basis of abundance and availability, natural resources are classified into two types:
(i) Exhaustible resources (ii) Inexhaustible resources
(i) Exhaustible resources: Those resources which are not created regularly in the natural systems
and are available in limited quantity. They are not likely to be available after being used once.
Such resources are called exhaustible resources. These include minerals, fossil fuels etc.
(ii) Inexhaustible resources: Those resources which are created or regenerated in the natural
systems continuously and they are likely to be available for all times to come. Such resources are
called inexhaustible resources. These include air, clay, sand, tidal energy, solar energy, rain water
etc.
Q.No.3:- Why do we need to manage our resources?

Ans) Natural resources are limited and with the continuous increase in human population, the
demands for natural resources have been increased at a tremendous rate. Modern scientific
technology has helped the man to extract these resources on much larger scale. Thus natural
resources require a long term management so that these will last for generation to come and will
not be merely exploited for short term gains.
The excessive use of natural resources and disturbance in the natural balance has caused
ecological crises. This crisis has resulted in the environmental pollution which has threatened the
life of man on earth. For example, mining causes pollution because of the large amount of slag
which is discarded during extraction of metals. Thus there should be proper plan for the safe
disposal of the wastes of natural resources in order to save the environment from the pollution.
Q.No.4:- What is conservation?Explain its types?
Ans) Conservation may be defined as the judicious and controlled use of natural resources for the
benefit of life on earth. It is an important precautionary measure that provides valuable
contribution to the economic development of the society..
Types of conservation
There are two main types of conservation:
(i) ‗In situ‘ conservation and (ii) ‗Ex situ‘ conservation

(i) „In situ‟ conservation: When conservation of natural resources is done in their natural
habitats, it is called ‗in situ‘ conservation e.g. national parks, wild life, sanctuaries, biosphere etc.
(ii) „Ex situ‟ conservation: When conservation of natural resources is done outside their habitats,
it is called ‗ex situ‘ conservation e.g. botanical gardens, zoos, pollen storage, tissue culture etc.
Q.No.5:- What are the three R‟s to save natural resources?

Ans:- The above description can be concluded with three R‘s necessary to save environment. The
three R‘s are: Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.
Reduce: Natural resources can be saved by their lesser use. It means, we must use every thing in
less quantity to conserve the resources. We should avoid unnecessary use of electricity, wasting
of food and water, cutting of trees, too much use of automobiles, etc.
Recycle: There are certain resources which can be recycled to be used again. The materials like
plastic, clothes, paper and metal pieces which are not of any use at our home are recycled to make
required things instead of synthesizing or extraction of fresh plastic, paper, glass or metal. It helps
to reduce the production of fresh items. Thus, recycling saves resources, decreases use of toxic
chemicals, cuts the use of energy and helps the environment in many ways.
Reuse: It is better than recycling because in this process we use the already used article again and
again and no energy is required as compared to recycling. For example, a plastic container in
which we buy various food-items like tea leaves, sweets or pickle can be reused for storing some
other thing in the kitchen. For example, newspapers and magazines can be used to make
envelopes.
Q.No.6:- Write a short note on forests?

Ans) The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that have formed a buffer for
the earth to protect life forms. The trees which make up the main area of the forest create a special
environment, which in turn affect the kinds of animals and plants that can exist in the forest.
The FAO ( Food and Agriculture Organization) has defined forest as land with tree crown cover
of more than 10% and area of more than 0.5 hectare. The trees should be able to reach a minimum
height of 5 m at maturity. In the tropical and subtropical region, forests are further subdivided into
plantations and natural forests. Natural forests are forests composed of indigenous trees, not
deliberately planted. Plantations are defined as forests established by planting/seeding in the
process of afforestation or reforestation
Forests can develop wherever there is an average temperature greater than about 10° C in
the warmest month and an annual rainfall in excess of about 200 mm annually. In any area having
conditions above this range there exists an infinite variety of tree species grouped into a number
of stable forest types that are determined by the specific conditions of the environment there.
Forests can be broadly classified into many types, some of which are the Taiga type (consisting of
pines, spruce, etc.) the mixed temperate forests with both coniferous and deciduous trees, the
temperate forests, the sub tropical forests, the tropical forests, and the equatorial rainforests. There
are about 16 major types of forests in India from the tropical type to the dry type.
In India it is believed that organized exploitation of forest wealth began with an increase
in hunting. Ashoka the Great is said to have set up the first sanctuary to protect the forests and all
life in it. The Mughal rulers were avid hunters and spent a great deal of time in the forests.
It was during the British rule that the first practical move towards conservation in modern
times took place. They established ‗Reserved Forest‘ blocks with hunting by permit only. Though
there were other motives behind their move, it at least served the purpose of classification of and
control over the forests.
Uses of forests: Forests are the most important environmental components responsible for the
essence of life on earth. They produce many valuable things and maintain ecological balance of
the land area.

The important products we get from forests are as follows:

Wood: The wood which we get from forests is utilized almost in all the spheres of day to day life.
For example, it is needed as timber, wooden crates for packing fruits, tea etc. paper board and
news prints.
Industry also consumes much of wood. Wood is also used for making boats, sports goods, railway
sleepers etc. In developing countries a major portion of wood is consumed as fire – wood.
Food and spices: Forests give us most of dry fruits (e.g. almond, walnut, cashew nut, coconut etc)
and spices (e.g. clove cinnamon, cardamom etc).
Forests provide us Tannins, Gums, Resins and Dyes. Tannins are used in the preparation of inks
and leather polish. Gums in the preparation of chewing gums and resins (such as haematoxylin
and henna) are also obtained from forests.
Forests are the best producers of many drugs and medicines, e.g. quinine, aconite, belladonna etc.
The other products such as natural rubber, rudraksha, tendu leaves, cork, honey, coamphor etc are
also the gifts of forests.
Q.No.7:- What do you mean by sustainability management of forests?

Ans) Sustainability management of forest resources means to manage the forests and its products
in such a way so that it will continue to benefit generations to come and will help in
maintaining the biodiversity and ecological balance of the forests. Forests are rich and complex
ecosystems, which support biodiversity, provide valuable ecological services and have
considerable potential for tourism. In particular, millions of poor people depend on forest
ecosystems for food, water, fuel, fibre and both timber and non-timber products-indeed, for their
survival. To achieve sustainability, there must be a rethinking of what we consider a basic need. It
is common in our society to say that we need a given resource, but how much of it do we really
need to use? Also, how do we decide what the basic needs of our ecosystem and the organisms
living within it are? Defining what constitutes a basic need is perhaps the greatest challenge to
adopt sustainability practices in our daily lives.
Q.No.8:- Write a short note on the Chipko Andolan (Hug the trees movement)?
Ans) The „Chipko Andolan‟ (Hug the trees movement‟): It was the movement which originated
from an incident in a remote village called Reni in Garhwal, high-up in the Himalayas during the
early 1970s. There was a dispute between the local villagers and a logging contractor who had
been allowed to fell trees in a forest close to the village. The local villagers stood against the
ruthless cutting of the trees. At the initial stage of the movement (in 1972), the women of Advani
village in Tehri-Garhwal protested against indiscriminate felling of trees by clasping the tree
trunks. In March 1973, a sports goods factory was to cut ten Ash trees near the village Mandal in
Chamoli district. The local people prevented the same by hugging (Hindi Chipko) the marked
trees. In 1974, a group of women led by Gaurs Devi successfully prevented felling of trees near
village Reni. The movement became famous in 1978 when the women of Advani village in Tehri-
Garhwal faced police firing and later courted arrest. In this way, the ―Chipko Movement‖ spread
slowly to all nearby areas under the leadership of Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna of Silyara in Tehri
region and Shri Chandi Prasad Bhatt of Gopeshwar.
Q.No.9:- What is Deforestation? Give its reasons?

The indiscriminate cutting or felling down of trees leads to destruction, reduction or removal of
forest cover, this is known as deforestation.
Reasons for deforestation:
i) Expansion of agriculture: The increasing demand of food has resulted in deforestation, to
convert forests into agricultural fields.

ii) Firewood collection: In rural and suburban areas, firewood is the main source of fuel. To
obtain firewood large numbers of trees are being felled every year resulting in the depletion
of forests.
iii) Timber harvesting: Felling or logging of forest trees for obtaining timber is an important
cause of deforestation.
iv) Urbanization and industrialization: Extension of urban areas and establishment of
industries are the important factors causing depletion of forest resources.
v) Cultivation on hill slopes: Forests existing on hill slopes are gradually being destroyed, in
order to use these slopes for cultivation.
vi) Cattle ranching: Large areas of tropical forests have been converted into grazing fields to
raise cattle.
vii) Fire: Fire in the forests cause devastating effect on trees and wild animals.
viii) Constructing of roads, railway tracks and mining: are other factors responsible for
deforestation:
ix) Shifting cultivation: In this method of cultivation (popularly known as jhoom kheti or slash
and burn cultivation), a patch of forests is cleared, vegetation is burnt and ash is mixed with
soil to increase fertility. Crop is grown there till the land is fertile, after that the cultivators
move to other patch of forest. In this way forests are being destroyed. In India this type of
cultivation is observed in North Eastern region.
Q.No.10:- What are the consequences of deforestation?

Ans) Consequences of deforestation:-
i) Change in climatic conditions, like temperature, humidity, wind velocity, precipitation,
etc.
ii) Soil degradation and erosion.
iii) Depletion and change in pattern of rainfall.
iv) Loss of wildlife.
v) Destruction of natural habitat and reduction in biodiversity.
vi) Increase in environmental pollution.
vii) Increase in frequency of floods and droughts.
Q.No.11:- What do you mean by conservation of forests?

Ans) The development, management and full protection of existing forest cover to provide
optimum sustainable yield is called as conservation of forests. For the conservation of forests,
some of the important measures are suggested as:
(i)Afforestaion: The afforestation or plantation of indigenous or exotic species to develop forests
prevents denaturation of natural forests. The plants developed in all the available land of villages,
fields, road sides and waste lands help the villagers, cattle and small industries to meet their basic
requirements. Several forest protection committees involve villagers to follow many afforestation
schemes.
(ii)Conservation of reserve forests: Many areas of natural forests are protected from fuel-starved
villagers, fodder starved cattle and commercial exploitations. These areas include national parks,
sanctuaries, sacred graves, biosphere reserves etc. Such forests are not allowed to be disturbed.
(iii)Social forestry: It is described as ―forestry from the people, by the people and for the people.‖
It includes rising of trees on government owned lands for obtaining food, fodder, wood, fruits,
etc.
Social forestry was started in India by National Commission of Agriculture (NCA) in 1976 to
reduce pressure on real forests.

(iv)Agro forestry: It is a type of afforestation where multipurpose trees, shrubs, horticultural

plants and forage plants are grown in fields along with crops. It fulfils the requirement of fodder,
fruits, flowers, fuel wood and timber. Agro forestry also reduces pressure on real forests.
(v)Urban forestry: It is a special type of afforestation of multipurpose trees, shrubs and flower or
fruit bearing plants in open lands of urban areas. It helps to check air pollution and reduce noise
pollution. It is also helpful in providing fuel, wood, timber, fruits and many other products.
Q.No.12:- What is Wildlife? What is its importance?
All the naturally occurring life forms in the forest, which are neither domesticated nor tamed, are
collectively called wildlife. The term wildlife was coined by William Hornady in 1913. The
wildlife has a great importance in maintaining the ecological balance of forests.
Importance of wildlife:
i) The wildlife can be used commercially to earn money through tourism.
ii) The wildlife provides best means of sports and recreation.
iii) The wildlife is responsible for maintaining the natural balance of the environment.
iv) The wild plants act as producers on which thrives the herbivorous animals upon whom
depends the carnivorous ones.
v) The wildlife is deeply related to literature, religion, art, sculpture and culture.
vi) Study of wildlife helps naturalists to study living organisms in their natural habitat.
vii) Wildlife is considered as gene bank, which can be used for producing high yielding plants
and animals through the process of selection and hybridization.
viii) Wildlife is a symbol of national pride and represents the cultural heritage.
(ix) Since wildlife is a renewable source of large variety of commercial products, like food,
fur, lac, musk, leather, ivory, timber, fibre, fodder, fuel, medicines, etc it can be used time and
again.
Q.No.13:- What are the various threats to wildlife?
Ans) The various threats to wildlife are: hunting, destruction of habitats, overgrazing by domestic
animals, endangered flora and fauna and economic consideration of some animals as they are
always in great demand for their highly priced articles like skin, wool fur, horn, musk, ivory etc.
Q.No.14:- What are endangered species? Give some examples of endangered plant and animal
species?
Ans) All those species of plants (flora) and animal (fauna) which are liable to become extinct are
called endangered species.
Examples of some endangered plant species:
Nepenthes Khasiana (pitcher plant)
Snow orchid
Drosera indica (insectivores plant)
Aldsovanda vesiculosa
Rhus hookeri
Examples of some endangered animal species:
Indian wild ass
Great Indian rhinoceros
Indian wolf
Lion tailed macaque
Tillyards dragonfly
Q.No.15:- What do you know about wildlife conservation?
Ans) Wildlife conservation is the management of wild flora and fauna in order to save them from
their extinction as well as to get sustainable benefit for both the present and the future
generations. Various governmental organizations and NGO‘s have been set up to protect the
wildlife. These organizations mainly focus at:

(i) Protection of natural habitat:

(ii) Maintenance of wildlife in protected areas (reserves)
(iii) Protection through legislation
(i) Protection of natural habitats: Natural habitats of animals must be protected by identification
and safeguard of feeding, resting, breeding and nursing habitats of each species.
(ii) Maintenance of wildlife in protected areas: The wildlife can be protected and maintained in
protected areas such as in biosphere reserves, national parks and in sanctuaries.
(iii) Protection through legislation: In India, several laws and acts have passed from time to time
in order to protect the dwindling wildlife. Out of all, the wildlife (protection) act, 1972 is treated
as the most effective. Under this act, possession, trapping, shooting of wild animals alive or dead,
serving their meat in eating houses, their transport etc are completely under strict control. There
are some laws and acts of wildlife conservation which are made by state as well as union
government. Among those some are mentioned below:
i) CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: It regulates international
trade of wild florae and fauns (1976)
ii) IBWL – Indian Board of Wild Life (1952)
iii) MAB – The Man and Biosphere program of UNESCO: It was started in 1971 for studying
biosphere reserves.
iv) The preservation of trees act, introduced in 1975 to protect and regulate felling of trees and to
provide space for planting of new trees in those areas. The act was emended in 1996.
v) Special projects for endangered species: Project Tiger (1973), Gir Lion Project (1972),
Crocodile Breeding Project (1974) etc.
Q.No.16:- What changes would you suggest for water harvesting designs for rainfall areas in
J&K State?
Ans) We suggest the following designs which depends on the soil, topography, size of the land
holding etc.
a) Contour cultivation: Contour cultivation would form barriers across the flow path of runoff
water. It is most affective on moderate slopes. The water is collected in the depressions.
b) Contour bunding: The construction of narrow based bunds on contour to impound runoff
water behind them, so the impounded water is absorbed gradually into the soil profile. The bunds
are normally impounded upto a height of 30cms. The bunds should be constructed from the top of
the catchment and preceded downwards.
c) Bench terracing: It involves converting the original ground into level step like fields
constructed by half cutting and half filling, which reduces the degree of slope. It is practiced on
steep hilly slopes where agriculture practices are common.
d) Strip farming: It is method of farming when a slope is too steep or too long. Strip farming
helps to stop soil erosion by creating natural dams for water, helping to pressure the strength of
the soil. The principle lying behind this process is to collect runoff water from catchment area to
improve soil moisture on the cropped area.
e) Storing runoff water for recycling: In semi-arid areas, summer rainfall is short in duration and
the intensity of rainfall is high which gives high runoff. This is because high intensity of rainfall
has low infiltration rate and runoff rate is therefore, very high. Therefore, catchment area, which
has low-lying region, is selected and bunded for collection of runoff water.
f) Check dam construction on Nallas and off-stream: It is a process in which construction of
bunds of suitable dimensions across Nalla or stream is carried out to hold maximum runoff water
and to create temporary flooding in the stream with arrangements to drain water at suitable
intervals. The water released from bunds will be free from silts and will have suitable velocity,
which is unable to cause erosion.

Q.No.17:- What are dams? Give some examples of few important dams in India?
Ans) Dams are the large water-storing bodies usually built by the government agencies across the
rivers to regulate the flow of water. They store enormous amount of water sufficient for irrigation
of fields throughout the year. Many dams have been constructed across the major rivers in India
which serve as big store houses of river water. The stored water is then allowed to flow
downstream in order to generate electricity and carry water to long distances for the purpose of
irrigation. Thus, dams not only help in the irrigation of agricultural fields, but also employed for
generation of electricity. Some example of famous dams and canals in India are:
(i) Bhakra dam: It is built across the river Satluj in the state of Punjab.
(ii) Sardar Sarovar dam: It is built on the river Narmada in 1940 in the state of Gujrat.
(iii)Tehri dam: It is situated on the river Ganga in Tehri. (Uttaranchal)
(iv) Tawa dam: It is a large reservoir on the Tawa river located in Hoshangabad (M.P)
(v) Mettur dam: It is situated on river Kaveri in Tamilnadu and is one of the oldest dams in
India.
(vi) Indira Gandhi canal: It is spread over a large area of Rajasthan. It has brought greenery
in deserts.
Q.No.18:- What are the various uses of dams?

Ans) The various uses of dams are as follows:
(i) Large dams store adequate amount of water which is used for irrigation in fields through a
canal system. The canal systems originating from dams can transfer large amounts of
water to great distances which helps to raise agricultural production in far away places.
e.g. Indira Gandhi Canal originating from Bhakra dam has brought greenery in deserts of
Rajasthan.
(ii) Dams ensure continuous water supply in the surrounding area. It is also used to supply
water in towns and cities through pipe lines.
(iii)The water of dams flowing from a height is used for generating electricity.
Q.No.19:- Discuss the problems associated with the construction of large dams?
Ans) The problems associated with the construction of large dams can be categorized into
following categories:
(i) Social problems: Construction of high-rise dams results in a vast area of land submerged
under water. Many people residing in the area are rendered homeless. This creates
displacement of a large number of peasants and tribes without adequate compensation or
rehabilitation. These social problems result in protests like ―Narmada Bachao Andholan‖
(‗Save the Narmada Movement‘). The people who have been displaced by the
construction of Tawa Dam in the 1970s are still fighting for the benefits they were
promised.
(ii) Economic problems: Construction of high-rise dams swallow up huge amounts of public
money without the generation of proportionate benefits.
(iii)Environmental problems: The construction of dams also contributes enormously to
deforestation, loss of biodiversity and displacement of poor tribals. Large reservoirs of
water formed by the dams destroy flora and fauna of the area which get submerged under
water.
Q.20) What is rainwater harvesting?
Ans) It is the technique of capturing and storing rain water into dug wells, check dams and
percolation pits in order to increase the recharge of ground water. Rain water is stored in ground
water reservoirs by adopting artificial recharge techniques in order to meet the household needs
through storage in tanks. Two techniques involved are:
(i) Rooftop harvesting (ii) Check dam and percolating pits

(i) Rooftop Harvesting: This involves collecting rainwater from rooftops of the house and
other buildings and storing the water in tanks, trenchers, percolation pits or
underground reservoirs. This water is then used for growing vegetation, cultivation of
crops, gardening etc.
(ii) Check dam and percolating pits: Water is stored in natural depression on the surface of
the earth. Inexpensive barriers are constructed to prevent run off. The water stored in
the check dams is used for irrigation during dry season. This scheme has been
undertaken with successful results in many parts of western U.P, Punjab and Haryana.
The objectives of rainwater harvesting are:
a) To meet the increasing demand of water.
b) To reduce the wastage of rainwater which drains of the ground into the rivers, oceans and seas.
c) To avoid flooding of roads and fields.
d) To raise the level of the water table.
e) To reduce ground water pollution.
f) To meet the water requirement during summer and long dry spells.
Q.21) Name National Parks of the state of Jammu & Kashmir?
Ans) The National Parks of the Jammu & Kashmir are:
i) Dachigam National Park
ii) Hemis High Altitude Park (Leh)
iii) High Altitude National Park (Kishtawar)
Q.22) What do you know about ADBN award for Wildlife Conservation?
Ans) ―Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for wildlife conservation‖ is the award instituted by
government of India in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi, who in 1931 sacrified her life along
with 363 others for the protection of ‗Khejri‘ trees in Khejrali village near Jodhpur in Rajisthan.
Q.23) What are the environmental laws of India?
Ans:- Environmental laws of India: The environment and conservation laws in India have been
framed and enforced in phases, according to the needs that arose from time to time.
Some of the environmental laws formed by government during pre and post independence
period are as below:-
 Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873 – it is supposed to be the earliest
preservation law of India.
 Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.
 Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1932.
 Assam Rhinoceros Protection Act, 1954.
 The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905 (amended in 1973)
 The Mines and Minerals (regulation and development)Act, 1947
 The Insecticides Act, 1968
 The water (preservation and control of pollution) Act, 1974 (amended in 1988)
 The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981 (amended in 1988)
 Forest Conservation Act, 1980 amended in 1988).
 Environment protection Act, 1986.
 Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972 (amended in 1991).
 Public Liability insurance Act, 1991.
Q.24) List five main reasons for the depletion of wildlife.
Ans:- The reasons for the depletion of wildlife are as follows:-
a) Deforestation for various reasons like urbanization, cultivation, dam building,
establishment of industries, etc.
b) Indiscriminate hunting by man for meat, skin and for sports.

c) Natural calamities like flood, drought, fire, epidemic, etc have played a major role in
depletion of wildlife.
d) Decrease in shelter or hiding places for animals.
e) Noise pollution by transport vehicles and nearby industries and also air pollution and
water pollution have played their role in depletion of wildlife.
Q.25) Write a note on renewable and non-renewable resources?
Renewable resources: Those resources that are or can be created regularly are called renewable
resources. Most of the biotic resources such as forest resources are renewable. The renewable
resources can be exhaustible if the rate of their exploitation is higher than the rate of natural
accrual. For example the forests and fish resources, though both renewable, are exhaustible if the
rate of exploitation is too high. However, some of the renewable resources are inexhaustible also
as their supply is very large, for example the solar energy and wind energy.
Non-renewable resources: Those resources that cannot be created once they are used, are called
the non-renewable resources. Most of the exhaustible resources such as minerals and fossil fuels
(coals, natural gas and petroleum) are non-renewable resources.
Textual Questions
SECTION - A
Q.1) What changes can you make in your habits to become more environment friendly?
Ans) We have come across the three R‘s i.e reduce, recycle and reuse, which must be followed
in each time to save the environment. We should follow them as detailed below:
(a) Reduce: Natural resources can be saved by their lesser use. It means, we must use
every thing in less quantity to conserve the resources. We should avoid unnecessary use of
electricity, wasting of food and water, cutting of trees, too much use of automobiles, etc.
(b) Recycle: There are certain resources which can be recycled to be used again. The
materials like plastic, clothes, paper and metal pieces which are not of any use at our home
are recycled to make required things instead of synthesizing or extraction of fresh plastic,
paper, glass or metal. It helps to reduce the production of fresh items. Thus, recycling
saves resources, decreases use of toxic chemicals, cuts the use of energy and helps the
environment in many ways.
(c) Reuse: It is better than recycling because in this process we use the already used article
again and again and no energy is required as compared to recycling. For example, a plastic
container in which we buy various food-items like tea leaves, sweets or pickle can be
reused for storing some other thing in the kitchen. Similarly, newspapers and magazines
can be used to make envelopes.
Q.2) What would be the advantages of exploiting resources with short-term aims?
Ans) Exploitation of resources for short-term aims will be more advantageous than long term
needs because only fewer amounts will be exploited while the remaining resource will be
retained for future generation. It is also beneficial to meet the immediate basic human
needs and should not be merely exploited for short term gains.
Q.3) How would these advantages differ from the advantages of using a long-term
perspective in managing our resources?
Ans) Short term exploitation of natural resources is to meet the current demand. It is beneficial
for the present generation only, whereas management of resources with long term

perspective is aimed to fulfill the needs of future generations. Long term use of resources
can be achieved through its sustainable use.
Q.4) Why do you think there should be equitable distribution of resources? What forces
would be working against an equitable distribution of our resources?
Ans) Equitable distribution of resources will ensure benefits to all the sections of people, rich as
well as poor, which is necessary for the growth and development of a country. Money
force is the main factor working against an equitable distribution of resources, as rich
people and rich nations try to encroach upon the resources share of the poor people or
poor nation.
SECTION - B
Q.1) Why should we conserve forests and wildlife?
Ans) (A) Conservation of forests:- The development, management and full protection of
existing forest cover to provide optimum sustainable yield is called as conservation of
forests. For the conservation of forests, some of the important measures are suggested as:
(i) Afforestation: The afforestation or plantation of indigenous or exotic species to
develop forests prevents denudation of natural forests. The plants developed in all the
available land of villages, fields, road sides and waste lands help the villagers, cattle and
small industries to meet their basic requirements. Several forest protection committees
involve villagers to follow many afforestation schemes.
(ii) Conservation of reserve forests: Many areas of natural forests are protected from fuel-
starved villagers, fodder starved cattles & commercial exploitations. These areas include
national parks, sanctuaries, sacred graves, biosphere reserves etc. Such forests are not
allowed to be disturbed.
(iii) Social forestry: It is described as ―forestry from the people, by the people and for the
people.‖ It includes rising of trees on government owned lands for obtaining food, fodder,
wood, fruits, etc.
Social forestry was started in India by National Commission of Agriculture (NCA) in
1976 to reduce pressure on real forests.
(iv) Agro forestry: It is a type of afforestation where multipurpose trees, shrubs,
horticultural plants and forage plants are grown in fields along with crops. It fulfils the
requirement of fodder, fruits, flowers, fuel wood and timber. Agro forestry also reduces
pressure on real forests.
(v) Urban forestry: It is a special type of afforestation of multipurpose trees, shrubs and
flower or fruit bearing plants in open lands of urban areas. It helps to check air pollution
and reduce noise pollution. It is also helpful in providing fuel, wood, timber, fruits and
many other products.
(B) Conservation of wild life: Conservation of wild life is the management of wild flora
and fauna in order to save them from their extinction as well a to get sustainable benefit
for both the present and the future. Several governmental organizations as well as non
government voluntary organizations have been set up to protect the wild life. These
organizations aim at: (i) Protection of natural habitats (ii) Maintenance of wild life in
protected areas (Reserves) (iii) Protection through legislation.
i) Protection of natural habits:- Natural habitats of wild animals must be protected by
identification and safeguard of feeding, vesting, breeding and nursing habitats of each
species.
ii) Maintenance of wild life in protected areas:- The wild animals are allowed to grow
in number in natural habitats in protected area through preventing poaching, maintaining
habitats and their requirements. This is done by conserving the wild life in (i) Biosphere
reserves (ii) National parks and (iii) Sanctuaries.

iii) Protection through legislation:- Wild life is also protected by a number of wild life
acts made by state as well as union Government same of these are listed below.
(a) Convention on international trade in Endangered species (CIES). It regulates
international trades of wild flora and fauna.
(b) Indian Board of wild life. It was established in 1952.
(c) Wild life (protection) act, 1972. This act ha been uniformly adopted by all states.
(d) The man and Biosphere (MAB) programme of UNESCO. It was started in 1971 for
studying Biosphere Reserve.
Q.2) Suggest some approaches towards the conservation of forests?
Ans) The following measures are suggested for the conservation of forests:
(i) Plantation of indigenous or exotic species to develop forests in all the available land.
(ii) The forest reserves must be protected from fuel-starved villagers, fodder starved
cattles and commercial exploitations.
(iii) Indiscriminate felling of trees for the purpose of timber must be reduced.
(iv) Participation of local people and villagers must be taken in conservation of forests and
they should be given proper employment.
(v) Multipurpose trees, shrubs, horticultural trees be grown in fields to reduce pressure on
real forests.
SECTION - C
Q.1) Find out about the traditional systems of water harvesting/management in your region.
Ans) The traditional system of water harvesting/management in our region are ponds, pits, lakes
and other water reservoirs where rain water is stored.
Q.2) Compare the above system with the probable system in hilly/mountainous areas or
plains or plateau regions.
Ans) Check dams are built across seasonally flooded gullies in hilly regions. They are different
from bonds and pits as they store the running water. They are more advantageous because
they do not provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes and do not get easily polluted by
human and animal wastes.
Q.3) Find out the source of water in your region/locality. Is water from this source
available to all people living in that area?
Ans) In our locality, the water is supplied by municipal board through taps. The water is mainly
obtained from river or from tube wells. The water supply is not sufficient to catter the
needs of general people. Some rich and resourceful people get more water supply as
compared to poor people. Some village people get their water supply from wells.
SECTION - D
Q.1) Deforestation generally decreases.
Ans) (a) Rainfall.
Q.2) Non conventional source of energy is.

Ans) (d) Biogas and Solar energy.
Q.3) Greatest problem for water conservation is to reduce the amount of

Ans) (b) Evaporation.

Q.4) Who are Ethologists ?

Ans. Ethology is the study of animal behavior. As a branch of Zoology, ethology examines
such processes as animal aggression, mating habits and animal communication. Ethologists are
the people having expertise of knowing and learning animal behavior. They use both laboratory
and field science. Evolution and ecology science are also related areas of interest for ethologists.
Q.5) What changes would you suggest in your home in order to be environment-friendly?
Ans) I will suggest the following changes in my home in order to be environment-friendly:
(a) to save energy turn off lights when not in use.
(b) use kitchen wastes as manure.
(c) use drip irrigation for watering the plants.
(d) use cloth bags in place of polythene and plastic bags.
Q.6) Can you suggest some changes in your school, which would make it environment
friendly?
Ans) I will suggest the school authority to adopt these environment-friendly measures:
(a) grow big trees along the boundary wall.
(b) grow shrubs and hedge on the sides of internal road and around playground.
(c) harvest water from rooftop to be utilized for watering the plants.
(d) arrange awareness programmes among students through poster exhibition and popular
lectures.
Q.8) How can you as an individual contribute or make a difference to the management of
(a) Forests and wildlife,
(b) Water resources and
(c) Coal and petroleum?
Ans) As an individual I can contribute to conserve these natural resources in the following
ways:
(a) Forests and Wildlife
i) Educating the people about the importance of forest.
ii) Using less forest products and avoid wasting forest resources.
iii) Changing our life style and adapting eco-friendly methods.
iv) Avoid hunting
(b) Water Resources
i) Usage of recycled water for gardens.
ii)Avoid using water directly from tap; instead collect water in containers and use for
various purposes.
iii)Create awareness about rainwater harvesting.
(c) Coal and Petroleum
i) Taking a bus, rather than using our personal vehicle.
ii) If the distance for traveling is short walking will be better option rather than taking a
vehicle.
iii) Be conservative while using LPG at homes.
Q.9) What can you as an individual do to reduce your consumption of the various natural
resources?
Ans):- (a) I will use public transport system to move instead of individual vehicle.
(b) I will use solar cooker to conserve fossil fuel.
(c) Instead of lift I will prefer to move through stairs.
(d) I will use fluorescent tubes in my home to conserve electrical energy.
(e) I will prefer to use renewable source of energy.

Q.11) On the basis of the issues raised in this chapter, what changes would you incorporate in
your life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our resources?
Ans) (a) I will move in public transport system to conserve petrol.
(b) Instead of coal or natural gas I will prefer to use solar energy for cooking.
(c) I will obey rationalized husbanding of all renewable resources.
(d) I will adopt willingly sustainability as a way of life.
(e) I will advice controlled extraction of forest wealth.
Multiple choice questions
1. MAB stands for
a) man and biology programme. b) man and biosphere programme.
c) mammal and biology programme. d) mammal and biosphere programme.
2. Project tiger, in India was started in the year

a) 1973 b) 1981
c) 1985 d) 1988
3. Deforestation causes
a) thermal pollution b) soil erosion
c) noise pollution d) all of these
4. The role of forest is

a) productive b) protective
c) regulative d) all of these
5. Read data book, is produced by

a) IBWL b) ZSI
c) WWF d) IUCN
6. Conservation is
a) proper use of natural resources b) protection of natural resources
c) management of natural resources d) all of these
7. Which of the following animal has become extinct in India?

a) tiger b) rhinoceros
c) cheetah d) lion
8. Chipko movement, originated in

a) Panchmari in Madhya Pradesh b) Silent valley of Kerala
c) Kaziranga in Assam d) Tehri Garhwal in Uttaranchal
9. Wildlife protection Act was enacted by the government of India in

a) 1952 b) 1972
c) 1958 d) 1973
10. Deforestation causes

a) loss of wildlife b) soil degradation and erosion
c) increase in environmental pollution d) all of these
Answers of Multiple Type Question
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9.(b)

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Class10 /Science /2016-17 Scholars‟ School Srinagar-0194-2437181 1

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

(i) What is the colour of precipitate formed?

Q2): Write balanced equation for the following chemical reaction.

(ii) Barium Chloride + Aluminium Sulphate Barium Sulphate +Aluminium Chloride

(iii) Sodium + water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

The skeleton chemical equation is: K + H2O KOH + H2

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Potassium Chlorate Potassium chloride oxygen

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

FeS(s) + dil. H2SO4 FeSO4(aq) + H2S(g)↑

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)

ii. Triad: At. mass Arithmetic Mean

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Q.2) What is Newland‟s law of Octaves? Explain with an example?

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Q.6) What are the limitations of Mendeleev‟s periodic table?

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

f) The elements of groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Variation of Non-metallic character:-

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Q.3) What were the limitations of Newland‟s law of classification?

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

its oxide is SiO2.

its oxide is BaO.

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Element At. No. Electronic configuration

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Ans) (a) Ne atomic No. 10 Electronic configuration 2, 8

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Element Atomic No Electronic Configuration

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

chemical properties resembling calcium ?

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

Lesson No. 3 Carbon & Its Compounds

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

(straight, branched, closed). This property of carbon is known as catenation.

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

(Methane) (Ethane) (Propane)

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

H cyclo hexene or benzene

Formation of Hydrogen. (H2) molecule:

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

C8 C9 C10 C11 C12

Where C1,C2,C3,………………… represents no. of carbon atoms in the chain.

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

D:\Radiant Files\Notes given 2009\Higher block\Class 10th\Science\Session 2008-09\Physics\Light

(X=Br) Bromo CH3 - CH - CH3 3 ane Carbon No. 2 2- Bromo propane

CH3 - CH - CH3 3 ane -OH ol Carbon No. 2 2- Propanol