Chemistry

The term matter commonly indicates all that is endowed with a mass and that occupies a space or,
even more generally, how much is visible and perceptible with our senses.

To introduce the states of aggregation of the matter is important as first thing remember that atoms,
the smallest constituent parts of matter, can bind together to form the molecules and how the
formation of the aggregates derives from their union macroscopic that constitute the matter.

A portion of matter on which it is possible to make macroscopic observations is efined thermodynamic

system. The laws of thermodynamics are fundamental for the study and understanding of chemical-
physical phenomena, and are born precisely by changes in the content of energy resulting from the
passage of a system thermodynamic from one state to another.

Thermodynamics is capable of forecastif for example certain reactions can occur spontaneously or not
under certain experimental conditions and regardless from the knowledge of the basic structure of the
subject that makes up the studio system .

Depending on their ability to exchange energy and / or matter with the outside, the systems can be
divided into three types:

Isolated, if they do not exchange matter or energy with the outside;

Closed, if they exchange energy with the outside (but not matter);

Open, if they can exchange both energy and matter with the outside.

The different parts that make up a system are called phases and each phase is one part of matter well
distinguishable from the others and with constant characteristics.

It is good to point out at this point that in a single system there may be phases which they belong to
the three possible states of aggregation of matter, or gaseous, liquid and solid.

2The matter in the gaseous state

The gas particles are able to rotate, vibrate and move freely and randomly in all directions because the
interactions between them are very weak.

The main characteristics of the gases can be traced back to the following points main:

The volume of the gases coincides with that of the container that contains them and depends
from pressure and temperature (lack of a constant and own volume)

The particles that make up the gases are free to move in all directions

The particles that make up the gases are generally very distant from each other and from very small
size (negligible volume compared to what they occupy)

Gases are characterized by a very low density

The increase of temperature causes an increase in the disorder of the gaseous state. As a result, the
kinetic energy of the particles they tend to occupy all available space and to spread.
3The matter in the liquid state

Liquids have their own volume but, like gases, take on the shape of liquids container that contains
them (therefore they do not have their own form). Forces intermolecular that occur between the
particles of a liquid, are intermediate between those of the gases and those that characterize solids
(strong interactions capable of maintaining the particles in certain positions).

Like intermolecular forces, the free volume of liquids also assumes intermediate values compared to
that of solids and gases. The free volume, a quantity that can be associated with all three aggregation
states, indicates the volume not occupied by the particles: for liquids is estimated at around 3% of the
entire volume, for gases it reaches much higher values high.

We also remember that:

At the same temperature, the density of a liquid is intermediate between those observed for a gaseous
and a solid substance (similar in terms of compressibility, viscosity e diffusion)

As in the case of solids, the surface of liquids has different characteristics compared to those inside
their mass. On the surface, the forces acting on the particles do not are balanced: the resultant of the
residual forces gives rise to the surface tension, specific for each liquid (and for each solid).

From a report published in Nature, it seems that scientists have been able to create the "superionic
ice", or a particular type of solid and liquid ice at the same time. It seems that this ice, obtained by
working the subject at precise pressures and temperatures until recently not easy to reach, both the
shape under which the water is present on Neptune and Uranus.

Although slight, the volume variations of the liquids that occur depending on the temperature can be
used for temperature measurement. For this purpose it can be used for example the mercury, a liquid
that expands homogeneously in large areas temperature ranges.

Solid state matter

Contrary to the two states described in the previous paragraphs, the solids present a definite form. In
solids, even with their own volume, the interactions are strong and in able to keep the particles in
certain positions (very close together). The solids they also have a higher density than gases, they
are incompressible is, moreover, they do not tend to spread. For solids, the change in volume as a
function of temperature is mild.

The kinetic energy associated with the particles that make up the solids is only vibrational. Solids are
also characterized by a known phenomenon as adsorption, which involves the concentration of a
chemical species in the vicinity of the surface. Two other phenomena related to the nature and
intensity of interactions on surface are those for which some particles can pass from solid to that
gaseous.

The crystalline solids are characterized by ordered structures, all the others are defined as
amorphous. The crystalline solids have a defined melting temperature which corresponds to the
temperature at which the passage of solid-liquid state begins below a constant external pressure . For
the pure substances the fusion process is completed in short while; amorphous solids on the other
hand do not have a net melting point but merge with usually over a wide temperature range.

Liquid crystals represent a state of thermodynamically stable matter. The characteristics are

intermediate between those of crystalline solids and those of liquids. They found application in the
realization of the displays, that is of the luminous panels of calculators, clocks and numerous electronic
instruments. Liquid crystals are transformed to low temperatures in crystalline solids.

5 The changes in the state of matter and heat

As we have seen, the states of aggregation of matter are determined by the type of forces that exist
between the particles that make up the test substance. Such forces can be modified by subtracting or
supplying energy in the form of heat and is in this way a change occurs or status change.

Many bodies can present themselves in each of the three states described, depending on of the
temperature and pressure conditions considered. In the case of status changes made happen in closed
containers in the presence of the only species under examination, the data experimental in this regard
are summarized in what are known as diagrams of state, characteristic of each substance.

In practice, these are diagrams that show the equilibrium curves between states of aggregation of a
given system. Such curves are constructed by providing gradually to the system small amounts of heat,
waiting for it to reach equilibrium and gradually recording the values of pressure and temperature.

5.1Solidificazione

The solidification represents the passage from the liquid to the solid state and takes place at a certain
pressure, at a constant temperature. Cooling the water, at 0 ° C yes transforms into ice and the
temperature remains constant even if we continue to subtract heat until all has passed to the solid
state. The latent heat of solidification indicates the amount of heat that is transferred by a fixed
amount of liquid during solidification.

5.2Fusione

The fusion indicates the inverse passage with respect to the solidification, that is from solid to
liquid. The melting temperature remains constant until all the solid is passed to the liquid state. The
latent heat of fusion is the heat absorbed by a quantity fixed of solid during the melting process.

5.3Evaporazione

Evaporation is the transition from a liquid to a gaseous state. Affects the surface of the liquid and the
speed with which it depends depends on the temperature, on the surface affected and the presence of
air currents. The amount of heat to be administered per bringing in the gaseous phase a mole of liquid
or solid depends instead only on the temperature.

A pure liquid in an open container, kept at a certain temperature, after a some time it will evaporate. If
the container is closed, a balance will be established instead dynamic: the number of particles that
evaporates in the unit of time, will be equal to that that from the vapor state passes to the liquid one
(condensation). The speeds of that is evaporation and condensation are equal.

Vapor pressure or pressure

There liquid vapor pressure or vapor pressure indicates the pressure due to the molecules of steam on
the liquid itself at the balance and at the temperature considered. At the same level conditions, the
vapor voltages of solids generally do not reach, compared to liquids, very high values.

Boiling
By heating a liquid, it will be possible to observe the formation of bubbles inside it they rise to the
surface causing a strong mixing: this process comes called boiling and occurs at a certain temperature
called the temperature of boiling. The latter remains constant until all the liquid has become vapor.

The latent heat of vaporization is instead the heat (constant) that a fixed quantity of liquid substance
requires to pass completely to the state of vapor. There boiling temperature of a substance directly
depends on the environment it dominates the liquid: alla pressure of 1 atmosphere (at sea level) the
water boils at 100 ° C while at lower pressures (eg in the mountains) the boiling temperature
decreases.

5.4Condensazione

When we cool the steam, it passes into the liquid state:

condensation can occur at all temperatures equal to or lower than that of boiling (depending on the
pressure at which the steam is found). The latent heat of condensation is the amount of heat that must
be removed for a quantity of substance at a certain temperature. The passage of a gas in the liquid
state is called liquefaction.

Example of a heating curve of a solid

A heating curve of a solid allows us to identify the following steps:

The substance heats up: the heat supplied is used to increase the kinetic energy solid molecules; the
vibrations become more significant and therefore will be observed a temperature increase up to the
melting point;

The substance melts: during the transformation from solid to liquid, the temperature remains constant
because the heat supplied is used only to increase the potential energy of particles;

The liquid heats up: the heat supplied is used to increase the kinetic energy of the liquid molecules
until they reach the boiling temperature to which they are molecules are able to overcome the forces
that held them together in the liquid;

The liquid boils: the temperature remains constant during the passage from liquid to vapor since the
heat is used to increase the potential energy of the molecules;

The temperature increases as the heat supplied is used to increase energy average kinetics of vapor
molecules.

An ideal or perfect gas is defined as a set of particles that meets these requirements:

The particles are animated by perennial motion and uniformly occupy all of it available space.

The movement of the particles is regulated by the laws of the case.

The particles have a negligible volume compared to the volume available to the gas.

There are no interactions between the particles.

Bumps and particles are elastic.

LAWS OF PERFECT GAS: STATE OF A GAS. The parameters that describe the state of a gas they are:
pressure, temperature, volume and number of particles.

Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.

Temperature is a property of matter due to the possibility of the bodies of transfer heat from one to
the other.

The properties of gases depend on pressure, temperature, volume and number of particles according
to simple relationships, known as the empirical laws of gases.

LAW OF PERFECT GAS: DEFINITION. For a given amount of gas, Boyle's Law expresses the
relationship between pressure and volume at a constant temperature; that of Charles la relationship
between pressure and temperature at constant volume, while that of Gay Lussac la relationship
between volume and temperature at constant pressure.

Boyle's Law:

PV = constant

the volume of a given quantity of gas decreases with increasing pressure at which is
subjected. (Isothermal transformation)

LAWS OF PERFECT GAS: CHARLES'S LAW. Charles Law:

V / T = constant

the volume of a perfect gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

(Isochore transformation)

PERFECT GAS LAWS: GAY LUSSAC'S LAW. Gay Lussac law:

P / T = constant

the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

(Isobar transformation)

LAWS OF PERFECT GAS: STATE EQUATION. There is a single equation that binds together

pressure, volume and temperature, ie a state equation for the ideal gaseous state,

called Equation of state of Ideal Gases:

PV = nRT

For 1 mole of gas, calling R the universal gas constant, we get the expression of the volume of an ideal
gas.

The word "atom", which derives from the Greek á tomos, "indivisible", was introduced by the
philosopher Greek Leucippus to define the elementary, indestructible and indivisible entities, of which
he believed that matter was constituted. The atom is the smallest fraction of an element able to
preserve its chemical and physical characteristics. It is a complex structure made up of different types
of particles: protons (which carry positive charge) neutrons (electrically neutral) electrons (which
carry negative charge) Protons and neutrons, formed in turn by elementary particles called quarks *,
are united in the nucleus, around which the electrons are distributed. The different number of protons
in the nucleus characterizes the different elements: this number is called the atomic number; the
number of nucleons (the sums of the number of protons and neutrons) is defined instead number of
mass (or atomic mass or atomic weight).

In an electrically neutral atom the number of protons and neutrons is equal, the electrons however
they can be partly lost or acquired by an atom during a reaction chemistry; in this case a positive ion
or cation and an ion are formed respectively negative or anion, but the chemical individuality of the
atom remains unchanged. The elements they are ordered in the periodic system according to the
atomic number of the atoms they are feature. All elements have atoms that, despite having the same
number atomic, can have different atomic mass, due to the presence in the nucleus of a different
number of neutrons: these atoms are called isotopes and some are unstable and therefore radioactive
(it is for the existence of the isotopes that the mass number of an element is not a integer, since it
results from the weighted average of the mass numbers of the various isotopes).

The unit of atomic weight is the uma (atomic mass unit) and is fixed in 1/12 of the carbon-12 mass (6
protons and 6 neutrons) and coincides with the mass number. When two or more atoms of the same
type are combined, homoatomic molecules are formed; if atoms belong to different elements,
heteroatomic molecules are formed and, in this case chemical compounds are obtained. THE NUCLEUS
Virtually all of the mass of the atom it concentrates in the nucleus (being the mass of the electron just
under 2000 times lower than those of the proton and the electron). Protons and neutrons are also
collectively called nucleons. Inside the nucleus the electric repulsion between protons is very intense:
the nucleus is kept united by a specific force, called strong nuclear interaction (or strong force), of a
different nature than gravitational forces and electricity that act in the macroscopic world. The strong
nuclear force is extremely intense but decreases very rapidly as the distance between the nucleons
increases (al double the distance decreases 100 times); therefore, the core when its size increases so
as not to allow the strong force to exceed that electrical repulsive, tends to break down and become
more stable nuclei. The mass of the the nucleus of the atomic nucleus is never exactly equal to the sum
of the masses of the single protons and neutrons that compose it, but it results slightly lower (defect
mass), because a part of it is in the form of energy that binds the nucleons between them (according to
Einstein's theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent)

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRON The arrangement of electrons in energy levels is called the
electronic configuration of the atom. The total number of electrons is equal to atomic number of the
atom. The electronic shells (so the different levels are also defined energy between which electrons
are distributed) are filled in a regular way, from the first level up to the seventh, and each of them can
contain a maximum number defined electron. The first level is complete when it contains two
electrons, the second it can contain eight electrons, the third eighteen, and so on. The seventh level is
not complete in any of the existing elements in nature. The chemical behavior of an atom is
determined by the number of the most external electrons, that is belonging to the level energy more
distant from the nucleus. The radius of the orbits to which they are bound can in fact, assume multiple
integer values of the so-called Bohr radius, which is the radius of the most internal orbit. Each orbit
corresponds to a certain average dependent energy from the distance from the nucleus (energy
level). The orbits are spherical or ellipsoidal; there different shape determines slight but important
differences between the energy of the orbits of one same energy level. Furthermore each orbit follows
an orientation based on the magnetization of the electron. Therefore to know the state of an electron
one must measure average energy, orbit shape and magnetization; as well as the spin. The four
"coordinates" that identify an electron in the atom are called quantum numbers main: quantum
number and main symbol n azimuthal l magnetic spin magnitude represented energy of the electron
form of the orbit orientation of the orbit of rotation of the electron on itself Between two energy levels
the electron always tends to occupy the one with less energy. If you supply energy to an electron (that
is, if it is excited), it jumps on a higher orbit and then returns on the starting orbit, losing the excess
energy in the form of light or another type of electromagnetic wave. If the energy supplied is greater
than the energy of the orbit more external, the electron is torn from the positively charged atom
phenomenon is called ionization. ORBITS AND ORBITALS So far, we have talked about orbits,
trajectories, energies and other physical quantities according to the physical model formulated before
of the elaboration of quantum theory. According to the modern vision, determined by the Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle, it no longer makes sense to talk about the trajectory of an electron: what can be
known is the probability that the electron is in a certain position at a certain point in time and
subsequently found at another point. Therefore al concept of orbit has been replaced that of orbital,
which represents in terms mathematicians the region of space in which the probability of finding the
electron is maximum.

When atoms combine to form molecules, due bonds are established between them. in many cases, the
sharing of their outermost electrons. This involves that their atomic orbitals overlap and change,
turning into orbitals molecular. DIMENSIONS AND MASS OF THE ATOM The atom is predominantly
"empty".

Including electronic orbits, it has dimensions of the order of 1010 m, while the nucleus, in which its
mass is almost totally concentrated (the proton and the neutron have mass respectively, about 1836
times and about 1840 times higher than that of the electron) ha size of the order of 1015 m. HISTORY
OF THE ATOM 1803 The Englishman J. Dalton (1766- 1844) argues that each element is characterized
by a particular type of atom, which determines the properties.

1869 The Russian Mendeleev (1834-1907) exposes the periodic system of the elements, in which
orders according to atomic weight and chemical-physical properties. 1869 The French Becquerel
(1852-1908) discovers radioactivity. 1897 The English Thomson (1856-1940) identifies the electron
and exposes the first atomic model. 1905 The German A. Einstein (1879-1955) interprets Brownian
motion in corpuscular terms. 1911 New Zealander Rutherford (1871-1937) proposes a planetary
atomic model (electrons revolve around the nucleus like planets). 1913 The Danish Bohr (1885-1962)
exhibits a new model atomic, according to which electrons can move, without irradiation, on orbits
stationary circulars. His model is subsequently perfected by the German Sommerfeld (1868-1951),
who hypothesized the elliptical shape of the allowed orbits. 20 years Mainly thanks to the contribution
of De Broglie (1892-1978), Born (1882-1970), Heisenberg (1906-76), Pauli (1900-78) and
schroedinger (1887-1961) the structure of the atom is interpreted according to the accepted model of
mechanics Quantum. 1932 The American Chadwick (1891-1974) discovers the neutron. * quark:
elementary particle hypothesized as a constituent of all hadrons (protons, neutrons), that is the
subatomic particles that are affected by the strong interaction, and having charge fractional electric
power (ie in absolute value equal to a fraction of that of the electron).

The modern periodic table: disposition criterion and law of periodicity. TO difference of the periodic
table of Mendeleev (1871), whose criterion for ordering gli elements was the atomic mass and in
which the noble gases did not appear, the table Modern periodic uses the atomic number Z as a
criterion for ordering the elements. [remember that the atomic number Z corresponds to the number
of protons present in the nucleus and, if the atom is neutral, also to that of electrons]. The law that
governs Periodic table elements is the law of periodicity, which states that the properties Chemical
elements are a periodic function of their atomic number. But for what reason do the chemical elements
have cyclically similar properties? The affinity of the chemical and physical properties of the elements
of the same table group periodic depends on the similarity of their external electronic configurations
atoms.

Specifically, the elements of the same group (I-VIII) are related in the energy level more external than
their configuration, ie what is called a valence shell, whose electrons appearing there are called
valence electrons. 

2. The periodic table modern: the structure. The modern periodic table is divided horizontally into
periods and vertically in groups. The number of the period in which an element is located indicates the
quantum number n of its valence electrons. [We remember that the number Quantum n, also called the
main quantum number, defines the energy of the electron.

As n increases, the distance of the electron from its nucleus also increases and there is a consequent
increase in energy.] Therefore, the number of each period indicates the level of energy on which it is
possible to find the electrons of valence of all the elements of the period. The first 3 periods are called
short periods and the elements that belong to them they have their own electrons that complement
the sep sublevels belonging to the level energy lower than that of valence. The periods 4 to 7 are called
long periods and the elements that belong to you have their own electrons that complete I def
sublevels belonging to the lower energy level than the valence level.

The elements that close the periods are called noble gases, which are characterized by a zero
reactivity, given their stable electronic configuration. The group number inside which the element is
found, instead, it indicates the number of electrons present on the shell of valence. It must be
remembered that the groups have a double numbering: one in Arabic numerals (1 to 18), the other in
Roman numerals (I-VIII). Only the second of these numbering corresponds to the number of electrons
of valence of the atom. Moreover, only eight of these groups, whose elements have valence electrons in
the sep sublevels, are called main groups. The elements that belong to the main groups are called
typical elements, because their behavior is an example of how properties change chemical. Between
group II and III, there are the transition elements, which are elements metal whose electrons are found
both in the sublevel s and in the sublevel belonging to it at the lower energy level than the valence
level. At the bottom of the periodic table, then they find 14 elements, that is the lanthanides and the
actinides, whose elements have electrons belonging both to the sublayer s and to the sub-level f
belonging to the energy level two units lower than the valence one. 

3. The periodic properties of the elements: the atomic radius. There are four periodic properties of the
elements, which they vary according to their external electronic configuration. Let's concentrate now
on the first of these: the atomic radius. The atomic radius (which actually has dimensions very small at
around 1 Angstrom), is half the minimum approach distance between two atoms of the same
element. The atomic radius increases along a group, but decreases over a period. Why this happens:
Over a period also increases the atomic number Z and, consequently, the nuclear charge. Also
increases the number of electrons. The overall result is the increase in the attractions between the
nucleus and the electrons, with the consequent decrease of the atomic radius; Along a group more
external electrons gradually occupy more and more distant energy levels nucleus, therefore the atomic
radius increases, since the nuclear attraction e increases the distance between nucleus and
electrons. The periodic properties of the elements:
ionization energy. The ionization energy of an atom is the energy needed for remove an electron from
the atom itself when it is isolated. It is expressed in kJ / mol.

By supplying an increasing amount of energy, it is possible to remove even a second, a third, a fourth
electron, even if the necessary energy always increases at each ionization since it is more difficult to
remove an electron from a positive ion rather than from a neutral atom. Taking as an example the
sixteen electrons of the sulfur atom, we can see that the ionization energies do not grow in a regular
way. Indeed, there they are real energetic jumps between 6 and 7 electron and between 14 and 15.
These jumps they happen because there is a transition between two energy levels. In fact, if you take
away the first six electrons do not require energy, since electrons are found in the most valent layer
external and far from the nucleus, it is more difficult to remove the others because they belong at the
nearest energy levels of the nucleus. It increases over a period but decreases along a group. It
decreases along a group, since the external electrons are located at increasingly higher distances from
the core and therefore more easily removable, since decreases the attraction of the nucleus. It
increases over a period because the external electron is attracted to more protons in the nucleus. The
periodic properties of the elements: electronic affinity and electronegativity. Electronic affinity is the
energy that is free when an element's atom captures an electron. It is measured in kJ / mol. Increase
along a period and decreases along a group. Electronegativity expresses the trend of an atom that
INTERACTS with another to attract the bonding electrons to itself.

Two things must be noted about this definition: the first that electronegativity it only makes sense if I
compare or combine two elements. The second is to understand well what are the bonding electrons:
they are those electrons most involved in the interaction between two atoms. Increases over a period
and decreases along a group.

This is because: Over a period of time the nuclear charge increases, the radius decreases atomic and
increases the force with which the nucleus attracts electrons to itself, therefore increases
electronegativity. The atomic radius e increases considerably along a group the force with which the
nucleus attracts external electrons decreases, therefore decreases electronegativity.

4. Metals, non-metals and semi-metals. All elements, depending on their properties chemical and
physical, belong either to the group of metals or to non-metals or semi-metals.

There are about 80 metals and they are on the left side of the periodic system. I am in solid, hard, good
conductors of heat and electricity, they are malleable and ductile. They have a tendency to lose
electrons, given their very low ionization energy e they react faster as the ionization energy is
lower. The property Metals of metals depend on their outer electrons, which move freely from one
atom to another of the crystal lattice. The transition metals of the block d are the metals most
frequently used in construction (iron and copper), but also precious metals (gold, silver,
platinum). Actinides are also radioactive. I don't metals occupy the upper right part of the table. Their
chemical reactivity depends by their electronic affinity. The elements of the seventh group are called
halogens. THE semimetals exhibit both a metallic and non-metallic behavior depending on the reaction
environment. Chemical bonds 1. Bond energy and the octet rule The elements present in nature are 89,
but the substances ascertained up to now are as many as 15 millions. This is because everything that
exists in the Universe responds to the aggregation of these 89 elements, which however are
aggregated with an infinite variety of combinations.
The binding energy is the necessary amount of energy to supply to a mole of substance to break the
bond that holds your atoms together. The binding energy is equivalent to the one that is released when
the bond is formed. When an atom reaches, in its more external electronic configuration, eight atoms,
means that he has achieved his stability. [Noble gases are characterized by the presence of eight
valence electrons in the their outer shell, except for the helium that has two]. This consideration he led
the chemist Abegg to think that the atoms could have accepted or given way electrons to achieve the
same configuration. According to the octet rule, when an atom combines with others reaches its
maximum stability by exchanging electrons (ionic bond) or sharing electrons of the valence state
(covalent bond), in so as to achieve the external electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. 2.1
The pure and polar covalent bond The covalent bond is formed when two atoms put in common one or
more pairs of electrons. The electrons that are shared they belong simultaneously to both one and the
other atom. The covalent bond it is said pure if the atoms that share electrons are identical, otherwise
the bond is called polar. An example is HCl. If atoms are of a different nature, in fact, they will exercise
a different force of attraction on the bonding electrons. Indeed, in this molecule for example, the
common electron pair is shifted towards chlorine, which is the element which has greater
electronegativity and therefore attracts more electrons to itself of bond. The general balance of the
molecule is not altered, but I am now present a partially negative pole, in correspondence with the
chlorine atom and a pole partially positive at the hydrogen atom. There is therefore one charge
separation. SO MUCH MORE IS THE DIFFERENCE OF ELECTRONEGATIVITY BETWEEN

TWO ATOMS, SO MUCH MORE IS THE POLARITY OF THE BOND THAT COMBINES THEM. 2.2 The
covalent dative bond The covalent dative bond occurs between two atoms of which they have has
already reached the octet. If this atom has an unshared pair of electrons, can behave as a donor
towards another atom, that of consequently it becomes acceptor. 

3. The ionic bond The ionic bond is obtained when the electronegativity difference between two atoms
is very high, generally higher than 1.9.

When the difference in electronegativity is very high, in fact, the pair of electrons shared is pooled so it
is moved towards an atom that can be consider that there has been an electron transfer. The ionic
character of a bond, however, increases as the difference in electronegativity increases.

Taking the ionic bond between Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) as an example, it is a must remember
that for the exchange of electrons between Sodium and Chlorine it is necessary to provide a energy
amount equal to 145kJ, because the ionization energy of sodium atoms it is superior to that released
by the Chlorine atoms (electron affinity). When, then, aggregate the positive and negative ions to form
a crystal of salt; amount of energy equal to 787 kJ. 

4. Ionic compounds The ionic bonds form ionic compounds. By studying a sodium chloride crystal with
X-ray diffraction, discovers that the Na + and Cl- ions are arranged in a precise pattern. The
arrangement of the atoms is called packing. According to this provision, each Na + ion can consider
yourself at the center of a cube. On each of the six faces, in a central position find an ion. The other Na +
ions are in a diagonal position. Many cubes the same as this I have just described form the crystal
lattice, that is a scaffold formed by ions. The formula of the ionic compound indicates the relationship
minimum combination of positive and negative ions to make it electrically neutral, and does not
indicate a compost molecule because it is impossible to distinguish in crystal molecular units.
5. Metallic bonds About 80% of all elements are metals. Apart from a few exception they are solid at
room temperature and are characterized by a particular crystal lattice. Let's use Sodium as an
example, whose atoms have only one electron of value. While the 10 internal electrons of each sodium
atom are linked more firmly to the core, the one on the valence shell has enough energy to move away
and move freely between neighboring atoms. The crystal lattice of Sodium is a sequence of Na + ions
among which the valence electrons of each sodium atom roam. At the wandering electrons are called
Fermi Sea.

The metal bond is due to the attraction between the positive metal ions and the electrons furniture
that surrounds them. It is precisely because of the freedom these electrons enjoy vagus that the
properties of metals include good thermal conductivity e electricity. 

6. The VSEPR theory The VSEPR theory is called the theory of repulsion of couples of valence
electrons, because it assumes that the pairs of external electrons repel each other reciprocally. The
fundamental principles of the theory are the following:

1. the arrangement of atoms in a molecule depends on the number of electronic pairs, both free and
shared, belonging to the level of valence, 2. electronic couples repel each other and set at maximum
distance from each other. Based on the number of electronic pairs shared there are three forms: two
electronic pairs form a linear form, with 180 degree bond angle (ie the angle formed by the axes
joining the nuclei of bound atoms); if they are 3 pairs it is triangular planar with a 120 degree ngle; self
I'm 4 is tetrahedral and the angle is 109.5 degrees. This regards molecules with simple covalent bonds,
which all shared pairs have. The pairs of electrons free exercise a force of repulsion greater than those
of bond, which are therefore forced to approach, and therefore the bond angle decreases. Chemical
bonds chemical behavior of the elements does not depend on all the electrons but only on those of
valence (the most external).

Chemical bond = Electric attraction force that holds atoms together Inside of atoms there are repulsive
forces between the electrons and forces of attraction between the nucleus and electrons
electronegativity = property that determines the strength with which an atom succeeds to attract the
electrons. Ionic bond = tensile force that holds the ions together they are formed during the exchange
of electrons. 

cation: ion + (loses a electron)

anion = ion - (acquires an electron)

Covalent bond = traction force due to electron sharing

Double bond = when there are 2 pairs of electrons shared

Triple bond = three shared pairs

Ionic compounds (characteristics) – are compounds, only atoms of different elements can form an
ionic bond. - They are all solid at room temperature - In the liquid state they are good conductors -
They melt at high temperatures - They are hard (they do not scratch easily) - They are fragile (if you
try to change the shape they break)

Molecular substances (characteristics) - they can be gaseous, liquid or solid - they can be elements or
compounds – not lead the current Molecules = atoms that are arranged in regular structures eg
diamond

Macromolecules = structures without precise limits formed by equal atoms

Bond polarized covalent = Electrons move towards the most electronegative atom e this acquires
negative charge while the other positive the different electronegativity of the atoms determines the
formation of two opposite polarities. The polarity depends on arrangement of the tomes and the
distribution of the electric charge. 

Apolar molecules = present a symmetric charge distribution

Polar molecules = They present one asymmetric charge distribution and have two polarities (dipoles)
Forces of dipole-dipole attraction = they hold together polar molecules in the condensed state

Dipoles instantaneous = continuous movement of electrons and change the sign of their polarity
continuously. 

Van Der Forces Waals = Electromagnetic forces between apolar molecules in the condensed state

Solubility = The distribution of molecules in a solvent due of the attraction of solute molecules by the
solvent

The substances.

The substances are divided into pure substances and mixtures. Each pure substance has precise
chemical-physical characteristics that allow it to recognition.

The density of the metallic elements varies according to the arrangement of the atoms in the space.

The chemical formula is the way in which the composition of the substances is described, in it are the
elements and the combination ratio.

The mixtures are divided into: Homogeneous mixtures, formed by two substances found in the same
phase (state of aggregation);

Heterogeneous mixtures, formed by two substances that are not found in the same phase in which it is
distinguish the two components;

The solutions are homogeneous mixtures.

Through experiments the mixtures can be transformed into pure substances.

Filtration: to separate a solution formed from sodium chloride and sand, the filter can be filtered
solution.

Distillation: after placing the sodium chloride solution in a glass flask and having it heated by placing a
refracting glass tube at the extreme the liquid particles come heated to overcome the cohesive force
that holds the two components together. The particles that they come out in the form of steam they
raise the mercury inside the thermometer e they meet cold water by condensing and coming out of the
container. Distillation can be used to separate a liquid mixture.
Fractional distillation: during fractional distillation the thermometer assumes the value of boiling
temperature, not constant for the pure substances, of the single substances. When a mixture is
distilled, the temperature increases until the end of the process, it varies through the boiling
temperatures of the two liquids, the element with the temperature of lower boiling comes out
first. The resulting mixture is collected in different containers to separate the substances. Fractional
distillation allows substances to be separated according to value of their boiling point however does
not allow a clear separation but can be obtained by repeating the process.

When there is a ratio of the solid based on the liquid where the solvent is not able to dissolving the
solid the solution is saturated. Solubility depends on the type, quantity and type temperature of the
compound.

Crystallization: different compounds can be separated by precipitating the compound, this it happens
through a lowering of the temperature favoring a decrease kinetic energy of the particles leading to
the formation of crystals.

Fractional crystallization: this process occurs when a little compound is separated soluble, generating
a soluble compound and then applying the crystallization process.

Chromatography: draw a point with a pencil on a strip of paper on which it is poured a mixture of
organic substances, it is noted that by immersing the sheet in the solvent it transports the substances
present on it in a different way based on the affinity between solute and solvent, the more the
substance is similar the faster the solvent, in the end there are two colors that indicate substances
separated by chromatography.

Physical transformations are reversible.

Substances subject to physical transformation remain unchanged, there is no change in their chemical
nature.

During the transformation there is no transfer or absorption of heat by the system.

Chromatography, distillation and crystallization are physical transformations.

Chemical transformations are not reversible.

The substances subjected to chemical transformations change their chemical nature.

Heat is the chemical transformation product.

Fundamental laws of chemistry:

Law of conservation of mass (general statement): nothing is created, on it is destroyed but everything
is transformed.

Law of conservation of mass (chemical statement): in a chemical reaction the sum of the masses of the
reagents must be equal to the mass of the product.

Law of definite proportions: in a given compound the combination ratio in weight between two
elements is defined and constant.

The law of multiple proportions: the combination ratios of an element x with an element y have a
certain combination ratio described by small and whole numbers.
Avogadro's principle: taken two different gases and two equal volumes, kept at same temperature and
pressure, the number of particles contained within the gases is the same.

The atom.

Dalton conceived the first atomic theory according to which the atom was the smallest particle, it is the
particle that characterizes the elements. Atoms combine with each other, following the laws of
chemistry, to form compounds. Inside the atom some particles have been established subatomic.

The atomic theory of Thomson: Thomson took a glass tube with two circular walls perpendicular to
the tube, low gas particles were present inside the tube pressure that does not make the tube
completely empty. Thomson covered the two ends of the tube with a substance that became
fluorescent if it had been hit by particles with certain energy. Also inside the tube Thomson positioned
electrons to create a magnetic field, meanwhile bright spots appear on the screens. From this
experiment Thomson realized that the atom is a neutral particle that is placed in a field electric is
divided into both negative and positive particles. Then Thomson did the same again experiment using
other gases belonging to group 0, noting that, despite the gas varied, the behavior of the particles was
always the same, from this Thomson understood that everyone atoms have smaller particles. Thomson
added electrodes perpendicular to the previous ones and orthogonal to the cathode ray tube. With this
addition Thomson noted that the positive particles moved down the negative zone while the particles
negative shifted up towards the positive zone, plus the negative particles suffered one deviation from
positive particles. Thomson justified this occurrence with the explanation that defined the mass of the
negative particles lower than that of the particles positive. Furthermore, the deviation of the particles
was always the same with each variation of the gas, so with this experiment Thomson discovered the
electron. Thomson imagines an atom with a positively charged homogeneous mass containing
negative particles which they balance the positive charges. The model designed by Thomson is called a
panettone model.

Thomson's model was superseded by subsequent experiments that determined one different atomic
structure.

Rutherford's atomic theory: Rutherford took a source of energy that emanated from α particles that
bombarded a layer of gold; to hit the lamina the particles must pass through collimators (screens) that
select those orthogonal to the lamina e which therefore can go beyond it. A photographic plate is
placed around the lamina which records the spectrum of particles that pass through it. Based on the
spectrum that these last left on the lamina Rutherford was able to understand the composition of the
atoms. Self Thomson's theory was right the particles should have come back instead some particles
passed the lamina while others were diverted or bounced off the foil. According to Rutherford the
mass of the atom was surrounded in a lot of space small, and most of the atom was composed of empty
space. The positive charge of the atom was balanced by electrons in chaotic movement, so others were
performed experiments to search for subatomic particles. It was understood that in the atom they
were contained protons and neutrons. In a neutral atom the number of protons and electrons, called
number atomic, they are equal (atomic number = number of protons + number of electrons). The
atomic number classifies the atoms. Neutrons are neutral particles that contribute to varying the
weight of the atom without vary the properties of the element. The mass number is the sum of the
number of protons and the number of electrons (number of mass = number of protons + number of
neutrons). According to Rutherford the electron would move on its orbit in equilibrium between the
electric force of attraction of the core and the centrifugal force resulting from its speed. An electric
particle in motion loses electromagnetic energy, the electron that loses energy gets closer and closer to
core until it falls on it, but in reality this does not happen. Thus the Rutherford model it's not right.
Period T: time interval in which the wave performs a complete oscillation. Frequency v: number of
complete oscillations that the wave performs in a second, the unit of measure is the Hertz (1 Hz = 1
circle per second); moreover, frequency and period are the reverse of the other (v = 1 / T and T = 1 /
v)

Mechanical waves: they need a means to propagate.

Electromagnetic waves: they do not need a means to propagate and also propagate in the
void; electromagnetic waves all have the same speed. Being therefore c = λv for all electromagnetic
waves, frequency and wavelength are between them inversely proportional. (c = speed of light = 3 ∙
108, v = frequency and λ = length wave)

Electromagnetic radiation: wave that propagates at the speed of light.

Characteristics of a wave:

λ (wavelength): distance between two maxima and two minima;

v (frequency):

number of waves passing at a point in a second; A (width): height of maximum indicating the intensity.

The set of electromagnetic radiations and different from λ constitutes the spectrum electromagnetic.

Visible light: part of the spectrum perceptible to the human eye.

The spectroscope: it is the instrument used to separate the light in its colors (wavelengths)
components. In the simplest case it is formed by a narrow slit through which light enters, a dispersing
element (prism) and a detector (photographic plate).

Spectrum: it is a diagram that shows the intensity of the radiation as a function of its wavelength (or
frequency) and can be absorption or emission.

Spectroscopy: around the middle of the nineteenth century Kirchoff began spectroscopic analysis. Gas
Heated vapors produce a striped emission spectrum, while cold gases and vapors produce spectral
absorption spectra, these two types of spectra, emission and striped, they are complementary. The
rows have a position (wavelength) characteristic of the substance. The emission of light is produced by
the movement of the "excited" electrons in consequence of heat. However, nineteenth-century physics
cannot explain the spectra stripes.

Quantum theory: in the twentieth century Max Planck proposes the quantization of energy, energy is
not transferred continuously, but by discrete quantities called quanta; for the electromagnetic
radiation the energy of the various how many depends on the length of the radiation associated.

Energy quantization theory: energy, like matter, cannot be subdivided to infinity, but up to a certain
minimum quantity: the quantum.

How much: the smallest portion that can be obtained from the subdivision process Energy.

Planck's law: in all physical processes, energy can only be emitted or absorbed in quanta or in
multiples of them.

E = hv
Where: h = Planck constant, v = frequency.

In 1905 Einstein used quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect; to any light wave is
associated with a quantum, whose energy depends on the frequency, according to the law of Planck. A
quantum of sufficient energy, which hits an electron of the metal, puts it in movement as in a collision
between the balls of a billiard table.

Wave-particle dualism: An electromagnetic wave can be present in some cases as a particle (photon),
light therefore has a double wave and corpuscular nature.

The atomic spectra: each element has its own atomic line spectrum that characterizes it; in 1885
Balmer found a simple empirical formula to calculate the position of the rows spectra of hydrogen
emission spectra in the visible area.

n2

λ=b

2 n −4

Where: b = constant: 3645.6 A en = 3,4,5,6

In 1890 Rydberg obtained a more general expression.

Where: RH (Rydberg constant) = 109677.76 cm-1, nor me internal numbers with n> m

Bohr's atomic theory:

Bohr postulate (1): stationary orbits are characterized by an angular momentum of the electron equal
to an integer multiple of the Planck constant. (mvr = nh / 2π – condition of angular momentum
quantization)

Bohr's postulate (2): the transition of an electron between stationary orbits is accompanied from the
emission of radiations whose frequency n is linked to the initial energy E1 and to the final energy E2 of
the relation E2 - E1 = hv.

-Eo2

Quantized electron energy: En = 2 n

The electron energy depends on the main quantum number (n):

n = 1 E = - E0

ground state (maximum value)

n> 1 excited state

n = ∞ E = 0 the atom has lost the electron

Second hypothesis of Bohr: when an electron passes from an excited state to the state fundamental
energy is emitted in the form of packets: E2 - E1 = hv. The electron does not it can be at any distance
from the core, because it rotates around it only on circular orbits certain. The radius of the orbits can
assume fixed values, defined by n, the greater is n so much the further away from the nucleus the
electrons rotate and the higher their energy. When the electron runs through one of these orbits,
called stationary orbits, it does not emit or absorb them energy: that's why it can't fall on the core.

The electron absorbs or emits energy only when it jumps from one orbit to another (quantum leap),
the electrons of each element exchange only the exactly necessary energy to pass by one to the other
of their own orbits.

Bohr showed that it was not possible to reconstruct the structure of the atom using physics classical,
but that it was necessary to resort to quantum theory, however its atomic model it was valid only for
the hydrogen atom while it was no longer able to explain the spectra of the more complex atoms.

In 1924 the French de Broglie argued that if a light wave corresponds to one particle (photon) then
also a particle (electron) corresponds to a wave electromagnetic: λ = h / cm

Where: λ = wavelength, m = mass of the electron, c = speed of light eh = constant of Planck.

The wave is stationary, ie it oscillates constantly, covering Bohr's circular orbits with an integer
wavelength. However, this did not solve the limitations of Bohr's model, indeed it introduces the
problem of obtaining the position of the electron inside the atom. Despite the progress made by Bohr
in energy quantization, representation atomic required other advances that would lead to new
physics.

The uncertainty principle (1927): it is not possible to know, exactly, whether the position that the
energy possessed by an electron. If you measure very accurately one of the two quantities then one
makes a big measurement error of the other. This happens because measuring it interferes with the
size of the system we want to measure. This leads to definitive overcoming of the mechanistic
conception of the atom, where the electron runs fixed sections with regular motion.

The orbital (1926): the physicists Erwin Schrodinger elaborates a mathematical function ψ with which
one can calculate the probability of finding a known energy electron in a certain region of space
around the nucleus. From the deterministic model, where it was thought possible to know with detail
the motion of the electron in every moment, based on the knowledge of physical forces which
determine it, passes to a probabilistic model, based on the probability of finding the electron in a given
volume of space around the nucleus. Schrodinger's works mark the definitive overcoming of classical
mechanics concerning the description of atomic motion. There new physics that will take its place will
be called quantum physics. Based on the theory according to which the electron possesses an
oscillatory nature Schrodinger formulated an equation mathematics describing the behavior of
electrons in the atom, the solutions of the Schrodinger equation depend on three integers called
quantum numbers, each of them corresponds to an orbital.

Main quantum number (n); n = 1,2,3,4… ∞, the energy of the orbital depends on n.

Secondary quantum number (l); varies as n varies, assuming all values between 0 and n -1. This
number gives indications on the shape of the orbitals:

l = 0 spherical orbitals (s) l = 1 butterfly orbitals (p) l = 2 orbitals with complex shape (d) l = 3 orbitals
complex in shape (f)

Magnetic quantum number (m); varies as you change, assuming all integer values included between -
l, oe + l. this number gives indications on the orientation and number of orbitals of a given form (for
each orientation there must be an orbital).
Quantum number of spin (ms); takes only two values (+ ½ and - 1/2). It refers to the electron, not to
the orbitals, and indicates its sense of rotation on itself.

Pauli exclusion principle: in each orbital can be at most two electrons which they must have opposite
spins.

Hund's rule: having available orbitals with the same energy, of which some half filled and someone
empty, an electron fills one of the empty ones, arranging itself with spin parallel to that of the electron
or electrons present.

Electronic configuration: the electronic configuration is the way in which the electrons are dispose in
orbitals.

External electronic configuration: configuration of the last energy level (the most external); it is more
important than the inner one because the atoms interact with each other only the chemical behavior
also depends on the outermost orbitals atom.

Internal electronic configuration: configuration of the energy levels that are found at the last level.

Ionization energy: amount of energy that must be supplied to the isolated atom of a element in the
gaseous state to tear off an electron. Alkaline metals have low energy ionization while noble gases
have a very high ionization energy.

Low ionization energy: to remove an electron from a neutral atom it is necessary spend little energy

Electronic affinity: energy developed when at the isolated atom of an element in the state an electron
is supplied, it also measures the tendency of an atom to buy electrons.

Electronegativity: it is the average of the ionization energies and the electronic affinity of the atom.

The chemical bond.

Atoms tend to bind spontaneously to each other to form molecules of any kind Once this process
allows them to reach a condition of greater stability

Energy. This process gives rise to the chemical bond.

A system that is at a lower energy level has an advantage over a system which is at a higher level.

Each bond between atoms involves in one way or another the peripheral electrons called electrons of
valence of the atom itself.

With the approach between two atoms the electronic clouds change, creating some attractions that
lead to the formation of the bond. If the attractive forces are stronger than those repulsive electrons
have the highest probability of being between two atoms, whereas if they are attractive forces are less
than repulsive forces, the bond is destabilized.

Ionic valence or electrovency: number of electrons lost or acquired by an element in the formation of
an ionic compound. In general, every element that appears as a cation in an ionic compound forms the
most stable compound when it loses all valence electrons (in some cases only those of the outermost
level); similarly all the atoms that form anions they tend to buy all the electrons needed to complete
their outer level.
Nomenclature of some ionic compounds:

Halides (fluorides, chlorides, bromides, iodides); metal binary compounds with halogens (ions F-, Cl-,
Br-, I-).

oxides; metal binary compounds with oxygen (O2- ion).

hydrides; binary compounds of metals with hydrogen (ion H-).

Polyatomic ions: most of the elements are able to form negative polyatomic ions in which, generally,
an atom of the element is bound to oxygen with covalent bonds. The positive polyatomic ions (NH4)
are quite rare.

Geometry of ionic compounds: the ionic bond is directional, the number of charge ions the opposite
surrounding a given ion depends on geometric factors.

Principle of maximum packaging: the geometry of an ionic compound is that which maximizes the
reticular energy (Madelung constant). Each ion must be surrounded from the maximum number of
ions of opposite sign and the distance between positive ion and negative ion must be the minimum
possible.

Coordination number: maximum number of anions that can be placed "in contact" with a cation; it
basically depends on the relative size of the positive ions e negative.

Ionic structures: each type of combination and each stoichiometry of the compounds corresponds a
well-defined structure of the crystal lattice of the Madelung constant. Properties of ionic compounds:
there are some properties common to all ionic compounds which often they serve to identify them.

They are crystalline, hard but fragile solid substances;

They have a very high melting point (and boiling point);

Generally they are soluble in polar solvents and with a high dielectric constant; - good conductors in
molten state and in solution.

Ionic bond: transfer of electrons from one atom to another to form an ion negative, among which an
electrostatic attraction arises.

Covalent bond: part of the electrostatic charge moves towards the intermediate zone between the
nuclei; some electrons are affected by the attraction of both nuclei.

Valence bond theory or Lewis theory (1916): covalent bonds are formed by two electrons, shared
between two atoms, which belong to the sphere of valence (outer sphere).

Symbolic formalism of Lewis:

Convenient representation of valence electrons;

The chemical symbol of the element plus a dot for each valence electron, in which the single points
represent an unpaired electron.

Homeopolar covalent bonds: they involve equal atoms.

Triple bond: link consisting of three pairs of electrons.

Heteropolar covalent bonds: they involve different atoms.

Rule of the octet: the elements of the second period, placing only four valence orbitals, they can never
be surrounded by more than eight electrons. The octet is a configuration stable electronics. The octet
rule is carried out rigorously for the elements of the 1 st period while for those of subsequent periods
there are exceptions.

Electron deficient molecules: they do not have enough electrons to satisfy the rule

Molecules with expanded octet: they occur when the central atom belongs to a period higher than the
second.

Formal charges: in a Lewis formula, each atom can be associated with a charge formal (hypothetical)
according to the following rules:

1) The binding electrons are equally shared between the two bound atoms; 

2) Couples solos are assigned to the atom of belonging.

3) The formal charge is given by:

numerodielettronidivalenzaatomoneutro- (numerodielettroninoncondivisi + numerodielettroni

shared)

Resonance structures (or resonance formulas): they are used to describe the same compound, they are
used mainly in organic chemistry and give the idea of the distribution of atoms in space.

Benzene molecule (C6H6): in the benzene molecule all carbon bonds are equal among them, this
molecule is described by two hybrids (sp2).

Dative bond: the dative bond presupposes the formation of a covalent bond where it exists a species
that gives a pair of electrons and a species that accepts them having the orbitals available.

Ozone molecule (O3): ozone is an allotrope of oxygen, allotropes are the forms with which the
elements can be found in nature, ozone has the function of absorbing UV radiation.

Ozone is an angled molecule of about 117 ° and has a binding distance of 128 pm. There observed
bond distance has an intermediate value between that of a single bond and that of a double bond.

Molecular geometry.

Number of directional doublets

Expected molecular geometry

2 Linear

3 Planar triconal

4 tetrahedral

5 Triangular bipiramidale
6 octahedral

Hybridization: in the act of binding formation the starting orbitals hybridize producing a set of orbitals
with intermediate character between seps are called sp orbitals. With hybridization explains the
molecular geometry. Sp orbitals are organized by the fusion of a orbital if of an orbital p, are two and
have the same energy.

Sp2 hybridization; by hybridization of 1 orbital if 2 p orbitals we obtain a set of 3 sp2 orbitals.

Only one p orbital is involved in hybridization.

Sp3 hybridization; by fusion of an orbital if 2 p orbitals we get a set of four orbitals

sp3 hybrids.

Polar covalent bond: in the polar covalent bond the electron pair is more displaced towards one of the
two atoms, the center of gravity of the positive charges does not coincide with that of the negative
charges; the molecule must behave like an electric dipole and must possess a bipolar moment μ. The
dipole moment is a vector quantity, this involves some consequences towards the molecules. The
polarity of a molecule determines the difference of electronegativity of atoms and their forms.

Intermolecular interactions: form and arrangement depend on the interactions involved of atoms in
molecules.

Weak interactions:

Dipole-dipole forces: they manifest themselves between polar molecules presenting moments of pole
permanent; the molecules are disordered arranged favoring interactions between poles of opposite
sign, with the lowering of the temperature the interactions are favored in the state of thermal
agitation. Over time there is a combination of polar molecules.

Polar molecules can also occur in condensed states.

Induced dipole-dipole forces (or Van der Walls forces): sim manifest in apolar molecules, these forces
are due to electronic clouds, if the electronic cloud grows it increases possibility to create interactions
and their importance. With the increase in weight there is an increase of the electronic cloud and
consequently an increase in Van der Walls forces which make the molecules more closely together.

Hydrogen bond: weak interaction that occurs when a hydrogen atom does interposes between two
electronegative atoms. The hydrogen bridge bond is always present too when water is used as a
solvent. These types of bonds are directional and occur according to precise directions there is a
solitary couple (tetrahedral pair).

The aggregation states.

The gaseous state: the gaseous state, characterized by very intermolecular binding forces weak (Van
der Waals forces), is a disordered state in which the particles endowed with high kinetic energy move
independently of each other.

The properties of gases: the properties of gases are:

Low viscosity;

They have no shape or volume of their own;

High compressibility;

They are miscible with each other;

They exert pressure ie a force per unit area on the contact wall following the impacts on these last
particles formed during their disordered motion.

The experience of Torricelli (1643):

- Pressure: force that any body exerts on the surface unit, is measured with Torricelli's barometer.

Torricelli took a thin and long glass tube, filled it with mercury and spilled the tube into one basin,
when he measured the height of the mercury in the tank he noticed that the mercury had a height of
760 mm. Torricelli hypothesized the presence of a force that determined the height of the mercury. A
gas exerts atmosphere pressure when it is able to balance the gas pressure exerted by a column of
mercury 760 mm high and 0 ° C at sea level.

Boyle's Law (1660): if we have a gas in a container at a constant temperature ed increase the pressure
the volume decreases. (PV = constant)

Charles law (1787): the volume of a certain quantity of gas kept at constant pressure varies linearly
with temperature. (Vt = KT)

Avogadro's law: equal volumes of different gases under the same pressure conditions e temperature
contain the same number of moles. Volume of 1 mole of gas at 0 ° C pressure of 1atm (cn) = 22.414
liters.

General gas law: PV = nRT (P = pressure, V = volume, n = number of moles, T = temperature and R =
universal gas constant equal to 0.082057 latm / Kmol). The equation applies only under certain
conditions:

The attractions and the repulsions between the particles must be negligible.

The volume occupied by the particles must be neglected with respect to that in which the is moving
gas.

Dalton's law (partial pressure law): the pressure of a gas mixture is equal to sum of the partial
pressures of the individual components.

RT n P = TO

TO

V
RTN

P=B

RT nA RT nB RT RT

P TOT = PA + PB =

= (nA + nB) = nTOT

VVVV

ni

Pi =

PTOT = xi PTOT

∑xi = 1

x1 = molar fraction of the gas "i" nTOT

The kinetic theory of gases: kinetic energy depends only on the temperature that increases the
frequency of impacts exerted by the molecules on the walls of the vessel. assumptions:

The gas consists of point particles similar to small spheres among which there are no forces attractive
and / or repulsive and whose volume is negligible compared to that of the container which contains
gas.

The particles move in a rectilinear motion hitting each other and hitting the wall of the container.

The shocks are elastic (constant total kinetic energy).

The molecules transform thermal energy into kinetic energy. as the temperature increases increases
the average kinetic energy.

Microscopic definition of pressure: impact on the vessel wall.

Perfect gas equation according to the kinetic theory of gases: PV = Nmv2 where N = number of
molecules, m = mass of molecules, v2 = mean square speed (average of the squares of the speed).

Graham's law: allows the gaseous molecules to be separated on the basis of molecular weight, is an
experimental law.

v2 M2

Diffusion and gaseous effusion: the gaseous particles with lighter molecules emit more quickly.

Equation of state of real gases (Van der Waals equation): (v − b) (p + a2) = RT where v - b = v
volume available single molecules, a = depends on the volume (if b triples a = 0), a and b are
parameters that change depending on the gas considered.

The solid state: in solids the forces that exist between the particles are important and cannot be won
by thermal agitation.

Properties of solids:

Rigidity;

compressibility;

Defined geometric shape.

Types of solids: Crystalline solids:

homogeneous;

Solid figure bounded by flat dregs; o Anisotropic properties (vary depending on the direction).

Amorphous solids:

o Disordered arrangement of atoms; 

o They do not assume polyhedral forms; or Property isotropic.

Polymorphism: the same substance can have more crystalline forms (diamond).

Isomorphism: different substances crystallize in the same form (A2BO4).

Crystal lattice: linear lattice, plane lattice; each of them is regulated by constants reticular that
determine the type.

Properties of ionic compounds:

They do not form discrete molecules and in the solid state the bonds extend to all the structures;

High melting and boiling temperature;

Good conductors of electricity in the molten state (not in the solid);

They dissolve well in polar solvents (such as H2O) giving solutions that conduct the current electrical:
NaCl → Na + (aq) + Cl- (aq).

Molecular solids: they are formed by molecules linked together by intermolecular forces. In these
solids the bonds between the atoms are not all of the same type:

- The atoms that make up a molecule have covalent bonds; 

- The atoms of different molecules are linked by intermolecular forces:

o Van der Waals forces; o Dipole-dipole interactions; o Hydrogen bonds.

Covalent solids: there is a covalent bond that extends to the whole solid, the example more significant
is given by the diamond (carbon) which has a tetrahedral structure with bonds covalent.

Metallic solids: there is also a crystalline lattice in them, the bonds between metallic solids are all
among electropositive atoms. Alkali metals lose an electron while alkaline metals earthy lose two
electrons. Metals are excellent conductors of heat, so that it is possible the conduction of the metal is
linked to the mobility of the particles. Atoms in the solid oscillate in fixed positions, increasing the
temperature the oscillation increases in the metals, then, as in the diamond, an oscillating particle hits
another and so on. The effect occurs in metals photovoltaic because the electrons are not fixed but
mobile.

The liquid state: the attractive energy is slightly higher than the kinetic energy. the property of liquids
are:

Short-range order and long-range disorder;

They have their own volume but do not have their own form;

They have a lower density than solids;

They are isotropic;

They extend by raising the temperature;

They are volatile (they easily pass to the gaseous state).

Evaporation: it is a phenomenon that occurs spontaneously, the particles to evaporate they must have
a certain speed (threshold speed); temperature rise does increase the molecules with a speed higher
than the threshold speed. This process takes place continuously to match the speed of the particles
from the liquid state they pass into the vapor state and the velocity of the particles which pass from
the gaseous state to that one liquid.

Liquid-vapor balance; steady state: the number of molecules that pass by the state liquid to gaseous (L
→ V) is equal to the number of molecules passing by the state liquid vapor (V → L).

Vapor tension: it is the pressure exerted by the vapor in the liquid-vapor balance.

P = Ae-B / T where A, B are substance-dependent constants.

State diagram: you can understand from it the physical transformations that can be made performing
on a given substance at the conditions of temperature and pressure.

Melting temperature: temperature at which there is a solid-liquid passage to the pressure of 1 atm.

Boiling temperature: temperature at which the liquid-gas passage takes place pressure of 1 atm.

Sublimation temperature: temperature at which there is a liquid - solid passage to pressure of 1 atm.
The solutions.

A solution is a physically homogeneous mixture, ie a set of two or more components which constitute a
single phase.

The excess compound is called solvent while the others are called solutes.

The solubility of one compound in another depends on the affinity of the compound for the solvent.

The solutions that form are physically homogeneous and have similar characteristics.

Ionic or electronic solutions: they have positive and negative ions, therefore they conduct the electric
current.

Gas solubility:

Influence of temperature: the solubility of a gas at constant pressure decreases with the increase in
temperature.

Pressure influence (Henry's law): the stability of a gas in a liquid at a temperature constant is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution. S = KP

Where K = gas solubility, P = gas pressure and K = Henry constant.

Vapor pressure in the solutions:

Raoult's law: for a generic substance dissolved in a solution the vapor pressure of the generic
substance is equal to the mole fraction due to the vapor pressure of the pure compound.

Pi = XiP0i

Where Pi = partial pressure in the generic mixture of the compound "i", Xi = molar fraction of "i"

in the solution and P0i = vapor pressure in the pure compound "i".

Raoult's law (specific statement): the partial pressure of each volatile compound in the mixture is less
than the vapor pressure that it would exert in its pure state.

Dalton's law: P = PA + PB in the case of two volatile compounds P = XA P0A + XB P0B.

Dalton's law (specific to gases): Pi = yiPTOT.

Ideal solutions: they are those in which the components A and B are similar (they have the same
features).

Colligative properties of solutions: properties that depend on the number of dissolved particles and
not by their nature.

Osmotic pressure: in a glass tube covered with a semipermeable membrane (leaves pass the solvent
but not the solute) we pass the water on one side and the solute plus one on the other dissolved
solvent. Initially the level of the two tubes is then equal spontaneously in the two embers create a drop
due to the passage of the solvent towards the solvent solvent mixture. The process stops when the
flow of solute molecules is blocked. Π = CRT.
Thermodynamics and thermochemistry.

System: portion of material that contains one or more substances in one or more phases. The system
can be:

Open, the system can exchange energy and matter with the environment.

Closed; the system continues to exchange energy with the environment but not matter.

Isolated; the system does not exchange energy or matter with the environment.

Phase: homogeneous system by chemical composition and state of aggregation. Phase examples are
the mixtures of water and salt (one phase) and water and sand (two phases).

Balance: the system is in equilibrium when the number of particles passing to a state coincides with
the one found in the original state. There is no transformation.

Heat exchange occurs when it is possible to transfer kinetic energy to the particles nearby.

Kinetic energy = total energy = kinetic energy + potential energy

The only way to exchange energy is with heat and work.

Heat: energy transferred between the system and the environment, caused by the temperature
difference between two bodies; the exchange takes place until the two bodies reach the same
temperature. IS defined as energy transferred as a result of a temperature difference (hot → cold).

q = c∆t

Where c = specific heat (for 1 gram of substance, 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules) and ∆t = difference of
temperature.

q> 0 (+) if it enters the system q <0 (-) if it exits the system

The job is positive (w> 0) if it exits the system.

The job is negative (w <0) if it enters the system.

State functions: the variables that describe the status of a system are status functions if:

There is a mathematical law that correlates them: note one variable if another can be known;

Their variations depend only on the final result and the starting value and not on the process followed.

The principle of thermodynamics: ∆E = q - w

Measurement of ∆E in a chemical transformation: ∆E = qv

Calorimeter: Q = c (T - T0) where c = heat capacity of the calorimeter.

Reaction heats: if the pressure is constant ∆E = qp - P∆V

Enthalpy: represents the amount of heat exchanged at constant pressure.

Self:
∆H = Hf - Hi> 0 endothermic process (heat is absorbed)

∆H = Hf - Hi <0 exothermic process (heat is released)

Enthalpy of formation of the compounds ∆H0f: enthalpy variation related to the reaction of formation
of the compound in the standard state starting from the elements that compose it also in their
respective standard states. The enthalpies of formation of the elements in their states standards are
void by convention.

Hess's law: the enthalpy of a reaction does not depend on the path traveled to pass by initial state to
the final one but it is always the same whether this reaction takes place in a single stage or multi-stage.

Irreversible process: the initial potential energy is transformed without returning to the state
initial. They are real processes that do not stop because balance is never reached.

Reversible process: these are ideal processes that take place in all senses, they are constituted by a
succession of balances.

Entropy: state function that describes the extent of the disorder of a system.

III principle of thermodynamics: every real (irreversible) transformation takes place in the direction in
which it produces an increase in entropy.

∆S> 0 irreversible process

∆S = 0 reversible process at equilibrium

For the principle to be valid ∆STOT (∆Ssystem + ∆Sambiente)> 0 must always be valid.

Defined G (Gibbs free energy) we have ∆G = ∆H - T∆S

Self:

∆G <0 spontaneous process

∆G> 0 non-spontaneous process

∆G = 0 process in equilibrium

∆G = ∆H - T∆S depends on the enthalpy content.

∆H <0

∆S> 0 spontaneous process

∆H> 0

∆S <0 spontaneous process

∆H> 0 ∆S> 0 spontaneous process only if T∆S> ∆H with temperature influence, in general the process
is defined at high temperature (endothermic process)

∆H <0

∆S <0 favorite process if | ∆H |> T | ∆S | ie for T <∆ H (low ∆ S temperature - exothermic process)
Standard free energy: free energy variation that occurs when a mole of substance (25 ° C and 1 atm) is
formed from its constituent elements in their stable forms to the standard state of reference.

The chemical balance.

Balance occurs when the concentrations of products and reagents are in a reaction they reach the
same concentration.

The state of equilibrium involves both the formation of the product and the reverse process of reagent
formation.

In the equilibrium state the speed of the direct reaction and that of the reverse reaction are equal.

A process that is in a state of equilibrium is a reversible process.

Dynamic equilibrium: v direct = inverse v Law of mass action: the product of the concentration of
products, each element for the its stoichiometric coefficient, in relation to the product of the
concentration of the reagents, high for their stoichiometric coefficient, is equal to a constant. The law
applies only to balance. For gaseous substances the law of mass action refers to partial pressures.

Le Chatelieur principle: if we have a system at equilibrium and equilibrium is disturbed the system
tries to minimize the perturbations bringing the equilibrium back. In the event that the mixture of
reaction not being at equilibrium it is necessary to take into consideration the reaction quotient
(Q)and compare it to the equilibrium constant K.

Self:

Q> K the products are in greater quantity than the one desired by the balance because the reaction
reaches the balance Q must decrease therefore the reaction will proceed towards reagents (to the left).

Q <K the reagents are in less quantity than the one desired by the equilibrium because the reaction
reaches the balance Q must increase therefore the reaction proceeds towards products (to the right).

Q = K the reaction is at equilibrium.

Le Chatelieur principle (volume change):

If the volume increases the reaction moves in the direction in which there is an increase in the number
of moles. o If the volume decreases the reaction moves in the direction in which there is a decrease of
the number of piers.

Le Chatelieur principle (pressure variation):

If the pressure increases the reaction moves in the direction in which there is a decrease in the
number of piers.

If the pressure decreases the reaction moves where there is an increase in the number of moles.

Temperature variation: to know the effect of temperature on the balance one must to know if the
reaction is endothermic or exothermic.

If the temperature increases in an endothermic reaction the balance moves towards the products;
If the temperature decreases in an endothermic reaction the balance moves towards reagents;

If the temperature increases in an exothermic reaction the balance moves towards the reagents;

If the temperature decreases in an exothermic reaction the balance moves towards the products.

Heterogeneous equilibrium: the chemical species involved are part of two or more phases.

Common ion: if a substance is dissociated in a salt with a common ion it is reduced quantity.

Arrhenius theory:

Acid; substance that in water dissociates forming H + ions (protons)

Base; substance that dissociates in water forming OH- (hydroxyl) ions

According to the Arrhenius theory, acids and bases must already contain the H + and OH- ions,
however some substances with acidic and basic character do not always contain H + and OH- ions.

Bronsted Theory - Lowry:

Acid; proton donor

Base; proton acceptor

A substance can act as an acid if there is the presence of a base that accepts the proton.

Base and acid may be present at the same time.

Conjugated acid base pair: two species that differ in the content of 1 proton. All the acid base pairs are
explained based on the transfer of 1 proton from one to the other.

Water can act as both an acid and a base, it can buy or sell protons depending on the type cases. The
substances that have the same behavior as water are called substances anfiprotiche.

Lewis theory:

Acid; acceptor of a pair of electrons

Base; donor of a copy of electrons

Buffer solution: they have properties that do not significantly change their pH for small intakes of
acids or bases.

Electrochemistry.

Electrochemistry deals with the transformation of electrical energy into chemical energy e the other
way around.

Electric cells are devices that transform electrical energy into chemical energy making reactions
happen that in reality could not happen.

Galvanic cells: devices that transform chemical energy into electrical energy using the
thermodynamics.

Electrical conductors: solution of acids, bases and salts; the molten salts.

Electrolysis: spontaneous chemical transformation produced by electric current.

Faraday's law: the mass of an element deposited at the electrodes is proportional to the amount of
electricity channeled.

The kinetics of chemical reactions.

Kinetics assesses the influence of the speed of reactions on the process.

Kinetics studies the speed of reactions.

Factors that influence the speed of a reaction:

- Nature of the reagents;

- Reagent concentration;
- Temperature;
- Catalysts;
- Electromagnetic radiation; 

6) For heterogeneous reactions:

Surface dispersion (the greater the contact surface the greater the speed of the contact) reaction)

Agitation (in reagents they mix faster)

Reaction rate: the reaction rate is a concentration change with respect to time.

The kinetic law represents the link between the reaction speed and the concentration of substances, it
depends on the stages in which the reaction takes place and is the expression of the various states in
where the element is found during the reaction.

Reaction mechanisms: they are a representation of how the stage by stage reaction takes place that is,
how the reactants meet to give the reaction.

Elementary processes: Processes the molecularity (number of molecules involved during the reaction)
coincides with the order of the reaction.

Temperature effect: an increase in temperature causes an increase in the number of effective impacts
between the reactant molecules. Effective shocks are created only by the molecules that have energy>
Ea (activation energy)

A chemical reaction is a process during which matter is transformed by means of a redistribution of

atoms, which involves breaking bonds and forming new bonds.

A molecular representation of a chemical reaction is shown opposite. Matter undergoes processes of

continuous chemical transformation. Sometimes, the transformations are obvious, as in the image
below, or if for example the reaction is accompanied by development of gas, or change in color, or
formation of precipitates. Other times, transformations occur less conspicuously, such as in the
complicated network of processes that constitutes our metabolism. Furthermore, some reactions are
labeled according to their main applications: we have for example synthesis reactions, combustion
reactions, of precipitation, neutralization, dissociation and oxidation-reduction, although sometimes
the classification is not unique.

In all cases, we can outline a chemical reaction as a generic process of guy:

Reagents -> Products

It should be remembered at this point that all reactions respect the conservation law of the mass
(see lesson 1, slide 8), presented in the first chapter.

Molecular representation of a chemical reaction: which one? A combustion reaction.

Chemical reactions

If to indicate a chemical transformation we use the chemical formulas of reagents e products, we get a
chemical equation, which just like any equation must be balanced. For example, the image to the side
illustrates the reaction between a metal, aluminum, and one aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid,
with formation of gaseous hydrogen and chloride of aluminum. This transformation can be
represented through an equation of reaction:

Al + HCl -> AlCl3 + H2

To balance the reaction we need to find the appropriate coefficients, as will be reiterated on the
following page, to ensure that not only the type, but also the number of atoms present be the same on
both sides of the equation.

It is therefore evident that the equation reported above is not balanced, as reactants e products have a
different number of hydrogen and chlorine atoms. The balanced reaction is:

2 Al + 6 HCl -> 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2

Aluminum reacts with a solution of HCl.

Chemical reactions such as equations

As mentioned earlier, any chemical reaction can be represented in the form of an equation, which just
like an algebraic equation must respect the principle of mass conservation (see lesson 1, slide 8).

To illustrate this concept in more detail, let's consider the reaction of water synthesis, which is
obtained from the combination of hydrogen and oxygen:

H2 + O2 -> H2O

For a chemical equation to be balanced it is necessary not only that all the elements that appear among
the reagents are also present in the products (and vice versa), but also that the number of the atoms of
each element is the same on both sides. The water synthesis reaction just reported, for example, is not
balanced as it contains two oxygen atoms left and only one on the right. The balancing procedure it
consists solely in identifying the appropriate coefficients to be placed before reagents and / or
products, without these being added, subtracted or modified in any way. In this simple case the
balanced reaction is:

2 H2 + O2 -> 2 H2O

Balancing of Chemical Equations

There is a strategy for balancing chemical equations, which is based on some simple criteria. First of
all, as already mentioned, once the reaction has been defined not never modify the reagent and / or
product formulas, nor add or subtract other substances.

If there are elements that appear in one reagent and in one product, they go balanced first.

The elementary substances must be balanced last.

The polyatomic groups, when they do not change during the reaction, must be balanced as one entity.

In some cases it may be appropriate to use fractional coefficients to reach more quickly to balance, but
later it is advantageous to eliminate fractions multiplying all the coefficients by the same integer (the
least common multiple of the denominators).

Using these criteria, as an exercise identify the coefficients to balance the reaction of oxidation of
propane which leads to the formation of carbon monoxide and water:

C3H8 + O2 -> CO + H2O

Meaning of Coefficients

What is the meaning of the coefficients? They represent the reports according to which the reagents
are they combine, and the products are obtained. They are named for this reason Stoichiometric
coefficients, as stoichiometry concerns all quantitative aspects concerning the masses of reagents and
products. To better understand these concepts let's start with a balanced chemical equation, like the
oxidation of propane with formation of carbon monoxide and water, seen on the previous page:

2 C3H8 + 7 O2 -> 6 CO + 8 H2O

2 molecules 7 molecules

6 molecules 8 molecules

As in any algebraic equation, the relationships between reagents and products do not change if let us
multiply all the coefficients by the same number. The chosen number is the number of Avogadro,
which allows us to make a transition from the microscopic scale, referred to molecules, to the
macroscopic one, referred to the moles and therefore to the masses in grams. Using this conversion
the relationships become:

2 moles of C3H8 = 88.194 g

7 moles of O2 = 223.99 g

6 moles of CO = 168.06 g

8 moles of H2O = 144.12 g

That is, 88,194 g of C3H8 react with 223.99 g of O2 to give 168.06 g of CO and 144.12 g of H2O

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components.

Components of a solution

A solution is formed by a solventwhich is the substance present in greater quantities, able to dissolve
and from a solute (or solute) the substance (or substances) present in the minor amounts that melt.

For example, in aqueous solutions the solvent is water and the solute any substance water-soluble:
sugar, salt, alcohol, CO2, etc.

The simplest solutions consist of a single chemical species as a solvent and a single one chemical
species such as solute (eg sugar dissolved in water), but may exist solutions in which the solvent
consists of more soluble chemical species among them, and the solutes are more than one (eg sugar
and sodium chloride dissolved in onewater mixture edethanol).

In our discussion we will refer only to solutions consisting of a single solvent and from a single solute.

Types of solutions

There are different types of solutions:

Gaseous solutions consisting of a gaseous solute dissolved in a gaseous solvent (oxygen mixed with
nitrogen).

Liquid solutions, can consist of:

gaseous solute dissolved in a liquid solvent (nitrogen dissolved in water);

liquid solute dissolved in a liquid solvent (acetone dissolved in water);

solid solute dissolved in a liquid solvent (salt dissolved in water).

Solid solutions, can be made up of:

gaseous solute dissolved in a solid solvent (hydrogen dissolved in palladium);

liquid solute dissolved in a solid solvent (mercury dissolved in cadmium);

solid solute dissolved in a solid solvent (zinc dissolved in copper).

In one solution, the particles of the dispersed substances have dimensions of the order of a few tenths
of nanometer(molecules, ions, atoms) and are not distinguishable by optical means.

Chemical balances

Theoretically, all reactions are reversible, ie it is possible that the atoms forming compounds produced
rearrange themselves by breaking the new bonds and reforming the reagents.

In practice, however, there are systems in which the reverse reaction does not occur: such reactions do
they say irreversible.

In reversible reactions there are measurable quantities of products and reagents and the same they
proceed until they reach a state of dynamic balance , where those that proceed in opposite directions
have the same speed.

Speed of reaction
It is the amount of substance transformed in the unit of time. It is directly proportional to the product
of the concentrations of the reagents, each raised to its own coefficient stoichiometric and with a
constant K (kinetic constant) characteristic for each reaction, which includes all those factors that
influence the reaction rate.

For example, for the reaction:

aA + bB -> cC + dD,

the expression of speed is:

v = K [A] a [B] b

The factors that influence the reaction rate are:

* The chemical nature of the reagents

* Reagent concentration: as concentration increases, so too speed because it increases the probability
of collision between the particles

* The contact surface of the reagents: it is intuitive that the greater the contact surface, the faster the
reaction (why? ... ..)

* Temperature: the increase in temperature increases the speed of reactions endoergonic and
discourages exergonic reactions

* Catalysts; the presence of catalysts increases the reaction speed when the presence of catalysts
increases the reaction speed when they lower the energy of activation, on the contrary slow it down.

The equilibrium constant

We speak of balance when the speed of product formation is the same as that of reagent reformation,
so that the chemical composition of the sample studied remains constant over time; this balance is a
dynamic balance, in the sense that the reactions in the two directions they continue to happen, but
with the same speed for which one apparently has a situation that seems not to change over time.

Principle of Le Chatelier (year 1884) It is also called mobile equilibrium:

An equilibrium system, disturbed by an external action, reacts in such a way as to contrast it the effect,
restoring balance.

Applications of the Le Chatelier principle

The effects of certain factors on an equilibrium system can be predicted.

1. Effect of temperature changes: when the temperature of a system is increased at equilibrium, the
same moves in the direction of heat absorption.

2. Effect of pressure changes: when the pressure of a system is increased at equilibrium, it is shifted in
the sense in which there is the least possible volume.

3. Effect of concentration changes: increasing the concentration of a component of a system at

equilibrium, the same moves in the sense in which there is the consumption of the substance addition.
4. Effect of the catalyst: the catalyst has no influence on the position of balance, since it does not
appear in the reaction. It therefore does not affect the value of equilibrium constant but acts on the
speed of reaching it, accelerating to the same way the two half-reactions.

Solubility product

In a saturated solution of a slightly soluble salt, the product of the molar concentrations of the
dissolved ions, each raised to their stoichiometric coefficients, is a constant (a constant temperature),
called solubility product (Kps). It is a dynamic balance between ions in solution and salt.

Acids, bases and pH

There are three theories on acids and bases, developed in different years and still used today.

1. Acids and bases according to Arrhenius (year 1887)

* Acid: substance that releases H + ions in water

* Base: substance that releases OH- ions in water

2. Acids and bases according to Brö nsted-Lowry (year 1922)

* Acid: substance that can give protons

* Base: substance that can accept protons

The most important consequence of the proton transfer theory is that an acid is one base react with
each other to form another acid and another base.

Each acid, in fact, losing protons, becomes a base, called conjugate base; each base, accepting protons,
it converts to conjugated acid.

Acids and bases according to Lewis (year 1923)

* Acid: substance capable of accepting a pair of electrons.

* Base: substance that is able to yield a pair of electrons.

Strength of acids and bases

The acids and bases, in aqueous solution, dissociate remaining in equilibrium with their ions in
solution. This equilibrium reaction is called dissociation and the relative constant, called dissociation
constant, it is called Ka if it refers to the dissociation of an acid and Kb refers to the dissociation of a
base.

The strength of acids and bases is established based on their degree of dissociation; how much more
substance dissociates (ie the more the balance is shifted to the right) the more it is said that the acid,
or the base is strong.

The little dissociated acids are weak acids.

PH and pOH of a solution

The pH determines the degree of acidity of a solution (as well as the pOH determines the degree of
alkalinity).

The pH is the logarithm, changed of sign, of the molar concentration of the ions hydrogen in one
solution;

the pOH is defined as the logarithm, changed of sign, of the molar concentration of the hydroxyl ions
OH- in solution.

The scale of pH values is an arbitrary scale that starts from the ionic product of water;

in pure water the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is the same.

Based on the definition of pH and pOH just supplied, we will have pH = - Log [H +] = -Log 10-7 = 7

It can therefore be deduced that in the acidity scale the value 7 is that of neutrality, all values fewer
than seven up to 0 show a growing acidity of the substance and all the major ones of seven to 14 an
increasing basicity of the substance.

In summary:

[H +]> [OH-] pH <7 acid solution

[H +] = [OH-] pH = 7 neutral solution

[H +] <[OH-] pH> 7 basic solution

Indicators

The pH indicators are generally solid or liquid substances organic compounds, weakly acidic or weakly
basic, which have the property of changing color depending on of the pH of the solution with which
they come into contact. Their range of action is small pH ranges so that we can make a good
approximation of the acidity of the solution. A fundamental characteristic of the indicators is that they
do not react with solutions with which they come into contact.

Since the indicators are weakly acid (or weakly basic) they tend, even if little, to disassociate.

Buffer solutions

These are solutions thanks to which the pH of a solution remains practically constant even for
substantial additions of acids and strong bases. They are conjugated acid-base systems, formed by a
weak acid and its salt.

Acid-base titration

It is a quantitative analysis that allows to determine the quantity of acid (or base) present in a known
volume of solution, neutralizing them with calculable volumes of a basic solution (or of acid), by way of
(known) concentration.

The moment when the neutralization takes place is evidenced by the presence of a appropriate
indicator: this in fact turns from one color to another.

The known solution is called titrant. The fundamental relationship of the titrations is

N1V1 = N2V2

N1 = unknown solution concentration

V1 = unknown solution volume

N2 = concentration of titrant solution

V2 = consumed volume of titrant solution

Saline hydrolysis

It is the relation of the ions of a salt to water. In fact, when a salt comes into contact with water, its ions
can behave like acids or bases.

The hydrolysis is distinguished in:

acid hydrolysis: when the salt comes from the weak strong-base acid pair, the salt cation

it reacts with water forming H3O + ions, thus lowering the pH.

basic hydrolysis: when the salt comes from the weak-base strong acid pair, the anion of salt reacts
with water to form OH- ions, thus raising the pH.

Catalysis

Some spontaneous reactions do not take place because they are too slow, a primer is needed Catalysts:
substance that increases the reaction speed without becoming part of the reaction itself and without
undergoing modifications, offering an alternative path to reaction

• homogeneous: in the same phase of the reaction (gas , liquids ..)

• heterogeneous: different phase

The enzymes are biological catalysts with a very specific form

Eg of heterogeneous catalysts: absorption of a gas on a solid surface:

the decomposition reactions of the polluting gases in the combustion processes are many

lens → a catalyst is needed → catalytic converters

es. decomposition ofhydrogen peroxide

Chemical equilibrium

For a generic reaction:

A -> B direct reaction (forward), v reaction = kf [A]

B -> Reverse direction (reverse), v reaction = kr

All ' balance:

kf [A] = kr
The reaction is reversible.

It is called dynamic balance because the reaction did not actually stop, but the opposite speeds they
are the same and concentrations no longer vary. It can only occur in a closed system The square
bracket indicates the conc expressed in mol or moles of gas

kf [A] decreases to a cost value

kr increases up to a cost value

The initial composition of the reaction mixture does not matter: at equilibrium we will always obtain
the same concentration ratio between reagents and products, given by the equilibrium constant

Kc, at a certain T

Size: 〖(mol l)〗 ^ ∆v ∆v = variation n. of piers

Depending on the partial pressures (if the reaction takes place in the gas phase):

the greater the value of K, the greater the quantity of products at equilibrium

the lower the value of K, the greater the quantity of reagents at equilibrium

We can determine the direction of reaction

At equilibrium Q = K (Q = reaction quotient)

-if Q> K, the reverse reaction occurs (the products are consumed, the numerator of the constant of
equilibrium decreases and Q decreases to equal K)

if Q <K, the direct reaction takes place to reach equilibrium

Equilibrium:

homogeneous: all reagents and products in the same phase

heterogeneous: different phase

eg:

The concentration of solid (or pure liquid) is constant

We do not consider the conc of pure solids in the expression of equilibrium constants: hence the CO2
concentration does not depend on the amount of CaO and CaCO3 redox are those reactions in which
there is an electron transfer between two species chemical; one species undergoes an oxidation
reaction, the other undergoes a reaction of reduction.

Oxidation reaction

The oxidation reaction is a reaction in which a chemical species, atom or ion loses
electrons. Its oxidation number increases.

Fe → Fe2 + + 2 e-

NB e- is the symbol of the electron which has a negative charge.

Reduction reaction

The reduction reaction is a reaction in which a chemical species, atom or ion acquires electrons. Its
oxidation number decreases.

2H + + 2 and- → H2

It is clear that if in an chemical reaction an element oxidizes and loses electrons, it will have to there
exists another element which, by acquiring electrons, is reduced.

Leaving the reactions of oxidation and direduction must occur simultaneously.

One speaks therefore of redox reactions or redox reactions.

It is also defined oxidizing the chemical species that is reduced and therefore determines oxidation of
another species.

The chemical species that oxidizes is defined as reducing agent and therefore determines the
reduction of another species.

How to recognize oxidation-reduction reactions A simple way to recognize redox reactions is to

observe if there is variation of the oxidation number of two different elements.

In fact, if there is a variation in the number of oxidation, the reaction is oxidation-reduction.

1st example:

Consider the reaction between potassium iodide and bromine:

2 KI + Br2 → 2 KBr + I2

Following the rules for assigning oxidation numbers, we have that:

the iodine I in KI has an oxidation number -1, while in I2 it has an oxidation number 0.

-1 → 0

The oxidation number of I passes from -1 to 0, its oxidation number increases. KI then oxidizes and is a
reducing substance.

Bromine in Br2 has an oxidation number of 0, while in KBr it has an oxidation number of -1.

0 → -1

The oxidation number of Br passes from 0 to -1, its oxidation number decreases.

Br2 therefore reduces and is an oxidizing substance.

In this reaction there is variation of the oxidation number of two different elements, it is therefore a
redox reaction.
2nd example:

Consider the following chemical reaction:

2 HNO3 + 3 H2S → 2 NO + 3 S + 4 H2O

Following the rules to attribute the oxidation numbers, we have that:

The nitrogen in HNO3 has an oxidation number +5, while in NO it has an oxidation number +2.

+5 → +2

The oxidation number of N goes from +5 to +2, its oxidation number decreases.

HNO3 is therefore reduced and is an oxidizing substance.

The sulfur in H2S has oxidation number -2, while in the right ta i products has number of oxidation 0.

-2 → 0

The oxidation number of S goes from -2 to 0, its oxidation number increases. H2S then it oxidizes and
is a reducing substance.

In this reaction there is variation of the oxidation number of two different elements, it is therefore a
redox reaction.

Acids are substances that in water release ions H + The bases are substances that in water release
OHACID ions: HCl (g) H + (aq) + Cl- (aq) in water the hydrogen chloride is IONIZED releasing H + ions
and therefore according to the Arrhenius theory is a BASE ACID: NaOH (s) Na + (aq) + OH- (aq) in
water the sodium hydroxide DISSOCATES releasing OH- ions and then according to the theory of
Arrhenius is a BASE The hydrogen ion H + is a PROTONE, its charge is so concentrated that it can
instantly combine with a water molecule to form ION IDRONIO H3O +.

So the HCl dissociation reaction is: HCl + H2O H3O ++ Cl Pure acids are covalent compounds, they are
not ionized and therefore do not conduct electricity, they release water hydrogen ions and become
conductors The bases are formed by a metal and a group hydroxide.

They are ionic already in the solid state and dissociated in water (metal cation + OH-) lead
electricity. There are bases that do not contain OH groups which, when dissolved in water, make them
grow the concentration of OH- because they produce hydroxide ions:: NH3 + H2O NH4 + + OH
Ammoniaca covalent compound

BRÖ NSTED AND LOWRY DEFINITION: Any molecule or ion that can giving a proton is an acid, any
molecule or ion that can accept a proton is one basis. There must always be a proton transfer reaction,
so that the properties acid and basic appear. ACID: H2S + H2O H3O + + HS1 A proton donor is one any
substance that possesses H atoms covalently linked to other atoms more electronegative. BASE:: NH3
+ H2O NH4 + + OHACQUA is an ANFOTERE substance that involves base (1st example) and acid (2nd
example) The acid base reaction can take place also in the gaseous state: HCl (g) +: NH3 (g) NH4 +
ClAccording to this theory: ACID + BASE

ACID + BASE ACID that has donated a pair of electrons turns into a BASE
CONJUGATE BASE that has accepted a pair of electrons turns into an ACID

CONJUGATE So the reaction will be in balance. · LEWIS DEFINITION: They are called acids substances
(atoms, molecules or cations) that can accept a pair of electrons We say bases substances (atoms,
molecules or anions) that can give up a pair of electrons

CATIONS make the acid solution ANIONS make the basic solution ACID: Zn ++ + 2H2O

Zn (OH) 2 + 2H + BASE: CO3- + 2H2O H2CO3 + 2OHLA WATER IONIZATION Pure water is a weak
electrolyte and therefore a bad conductor of electricity. Inside are very little ion content due to water
autoionization: 2 H2O H ++ OHIn what it is at equilibrium this reaction has a constant which is: Keq =
1.8 x 10-16 then the equilibrium moved to the left. The ionic product of water is: Kw = 10-14 Ion
concentrations in pure water they are [H +] = [OH -] = 10-7 M [H +] = [OH-] ENVIRONMENT NEUTRAL
[H +]> [OH-] ENVIRONMENT

ACID [H +] <[OH-] BASIC ENVIRONMENT The pH The negative decimal logarithm of the pH is defined
as the pH.

molar concentration of H + Neutral ions: pH = 7 Acid: pH <7 Basic: pH> 7 Kw = [H +] [OH-] pKw = pH +
pOH pH + pOH = 14 Example: Calculate the pH of a solution with concentration ions H + 0.01 M pH =
-log (1 x 10-2) = 2 acid 1. FORCE OF ACIDS AND BASES Acids and bases they are classified as strong
and weak based on the behaviors they take in aqueous solution.

Strong acid acids that ionize completely in water. Bases fortiubas that in water completely dissociate
An example of a weak acid is: CH3COOH H + + CH3COOL'acid acetic water releases few ions, so its Keq
is very low and therefore the equilibrium shifted to the left. An example of a strong acid is: HNO3 H + +
NO3- 3 The HNO3 solution is decidedly more acid than the acetic acid solution, just compare the pH of
the two 1 M solutions:

HNO3 pH 0 CH3COOH pH = 2.4 An example of a weak base is:: NH3 + H2O NH4 + + OH strong base
example is: NaOH (s) Na + (aq) + OH- (aq) The solution of NaOH (s) is decidedly more basic than the
NH3 solution, just compare the pH of the two 1 M solutions: NaOH pH = 14

NH3 pH = 11.6 The equilibrium of the reaction is expressed by the ionization constant for acids and
the dissociation constant for the bases. The higher the constant, the more the acid or the base in water
ionize or dissociate. EVEN SALTS MAKE CMBIARE THE pH Anions or cations that derive from strong
acids or bases do not react with water q so do not change the pH. Anions or cations that derive from
weak acids or bases react with water to behave from bases and acids respectively. KCN K + + CNCN- +
H2O HCN + OH- BASICA NH4Cl NH4 + + Cl-and NH4 ++ H2O NH3 + H3O + ACID KCl K + + Cl- NO
HYDROLYSIS NEUTRAL 4 Sale contains an ANION

which is the CONJUGATED BASE of a WEAK SOLUTION BASIC SOLUTIONS Salt contains a CATIONE

which is the CONIUGAT ACID of a WEAK ACID SOLUTION Fe +++ + H2O FeOH ++ + H +

(Acid for Lwis and Brosten-Lowry) A high charge and small size ion produces solutions whose acidity
comes close to hydrochloric acid, (as it is able to accept one pair of electrons.) BUFFER SOLUTIONS
Water with modest additions of acids or bases changes its pH suddenly: water + sulfuric acid pH from
7 to 3 water + dioxide carbon pH from 7 to 6 TAMPONE solutions are prepared to stop this change
they resist changing the pH for moderate doses. The buffer solutions are formed by:
WEAK ACID and its STRONG JOINT BASE, or from a WEAK BASE and from the its strong conjugate
acid.

The two partener of the pair must be in approximately equal concentrations. Example: CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H + · Increased concentration H + which are absorbed by the acetic acid that forms

· Balance shifts to the left · Small pH decrease CH3COOH CH3COO- + H + -I add OH + ions that react
with the H + ions to give water · The equilibrium moves towards right · Small increase in pH 5.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the science that studies the composition of matter and its behavior based on this
composition. It can be said that he studies the relationship between property and structure, so as to
act effectively on reality.

Atom: It is the basic unit of matter, the smallest portion of a chemical element which preserves the
chemical properties of the element itself. This in turn is composed of subatomic particles such as: the
electron, the proton and the neutron.

Modern chemistry was born precisely from the theories of Dalton (1808) that can be summarized in
four key points, necessary to understand the later evolutions that chemistry had, mainly thanks to
mechanics Quantum.

The elements are made up of extremely small particles, called atoms.

All the atoms of a given element are identical, they have the same dimensions, mass chemical
properties. The atoms of a given element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

The compounds are formed by atoms of at least two different elements. In any compound, the ratio of
the number of atoms of any pair of elements present is on whole number or a simple fraction. (Law of
definite proportions of Proust 1799)

A chemical reaction involves only the separation, the combination or the rearrangement of atoms, its
result is not their creation from nothing or theirs destruction.

Element: pure substance from which it is not possible to obtain, by ordinary chemical means, simpler
substances with the same chemical and physical properties. The elements in nature may not even be
atomic in nature and therefore it is important to categorize in order to get to know the various
"substances".

Atomic elements (they are present on the periodic table and so in nature, not naturally they make
ties. Ex. Noble gases)

Molecular elements (In nature they are found in diatomic or tetratomic form, therefore in
molecules. Ex. O2, N2, H2)

Reticular elements (in nature I do not find isolated atoms, rather chains of atoms bonded by covalent
or metallic bond. Ex. Carbon graphite / diamond)
Compounds: Pure substance from which it is possible to obtain simpler substances, constituent
elements. These do not have the starting properties of the elements basic atomic. The relationships
between the elements are precise and defined. They can be:

Molecular (molecular compounds are all those that can be described by a chemical formula and whose
atoms are covalently linked. Ex. NH3)

Ionic (They are all those compounds formed by ions united through ionic based bonds on the Coulomb
electrostatic attraction forces. Using the formula unit. Ex. NaCl (Salts)

Reticular (individual a single complex, rather than single formula units.

This case is the rarest, but typical of the metals that naturally carry out bonds metal. Ex. SiO2)

The atomic number (Z): Number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of a element.

The mass number (A): Sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of the
element atom.

A = Z + number of neutrons.

Isotope: To indicate that atoms of the same element have different numbers mass is said to be isotopes
of that element.

AZX [Ex. 11H hydrogen, 21H deuterium and 31H tritium] Relative atomic mass: when speaking of the
atomic mass is actually not being considered an absolute number, rather it is an average percentage of
mass of the element isotopes, weighed with respect to the frequency with which these occur. This
mass is the same as expressed in Dalton, but it is a pure number as a relationship between masses.

Mole: quantity of substance with contains as many elementary units as there are atoms contained in
12 grams of carbon-12. The actual number of atoms was called Avogadro's number. N: atoms present
in exactly 12 grams of isotope 12 of carbon.

Molar mass: is the mass of a mole of units of a substance. If we know the Atomic mass we also know its
molar mass. According to the law: moli = mass / molar mass

Molecular mass or molecular weight: it is the sum of the atomic masses of the elements that make up
the molecule. It is important to remember that we must multiply the atomic mass of each element that
appears in the formula for the N: 6.0221367x102

respective index and sum all the values. → From the molecular mass we can determining the molar
mass of a molecule or compound. Knowledge of molar mass allows us to calculate the number of moles
and atoms of a single one atomic species in a known quantity of compound.

→ In ionic compounds the term is replaced with "mass of the formula unit".

Composition of compounds percentage: it is the percentage of mass of each element in a compound. It

can be obtained by dividing the mass of each element that appears in the compound due to the molar
mass of the compound itself and then multiplying the value obtained for 100.

percentage composition = nx molar mass element / molar mass compound x 100

Experimental determination of the empirical formula

It is based on the observation and measurement of the compound that is first analyzed for understand
which elements compose it and then it is burned or subjected to a reaction such that its composition
can be derived a starting from the concentrations or masses of the products.

→ The empirical formula indicates the proportions with which atoms occur.

→ To know the actual molecular formula it is essential to know the mass molar, even approximate of
the compound

Stoichiometry: represents in a chemical reaction the quantitative study of reagents and products. We
will always use the mole as a calculation of the quantity of reagents and products, called the mole
method, which interprets the coefficients

Stoichiometrics in a chemical reaction like the number of moles of each substance.

The limiting reagent

Since in the laboratory it is difficult to make elements react in the exact quantities stoichiometric, that
is in the proportions indicated in the balanced chemical equation, is essential to introduce the concept
of limiting reagent. The limiting element is precisely what is consumed totally in the reaction and that
in a certain meaning it limits the creation of new products although there is an abundance of other
reagents.

Usually the limiting reagent is the most expensive.

→ Based on the stoichiometry of the reaction it is sufficient for you to know the quantity of one
reagent or product to determine the amount of all other substances involved, so it is likely that if more
than two items are provided one of the two will be the limiting reagent.

The reaction yield

The amount of limiting reagent determines the theoretical yield of a reaction, i.e. the amount of
product that would form if all the reagent is limiting He reacts. However often the actual yield, or the
quantity of product actually obtained from the reaction is almost always less than the theoretical
yield. For determining the efficiency of a given reaction, chemists often refer to percentage yield that
describes the relationship between the actual yield and the theoretical yield.

Yield percentage = actual yield / theoretical yield x 100%

From classical physics to quantum theory

It took a long time to realize (and even more to accept) that the properties of atoms and molecules are
not governed by the same laws that hold so good for larger items. The new era of physics, quantum
mechanics for the precision was born in 1900 with Max Planck. This is based on some principles and

basic steps:

1. Quantization of energy (M.Planck-1900)

Atoms and molecules were discovered to emit energy only in the form of quantities discrete who
called how many. Physicists had previously considered energy as continuous, that is, in a radiative
process any amount could be released of energy. Planck's quantum theory shocked physics.

→ The amount of radiant energy emitted by a body at a given temperature is closely related to the
wavelength of the emitted radiation, plus precisely multiple of the product h (λ).

→ Planck failed to explain why it was so, but he had no problems in applying the law experimentally in
everyday reality.

2. Photoelectric effect (A.Einstein-1905)

The German physicist used Planck's theory to solve a mystery of physics:

the photoelectric effect, or the phenomenon that occurs when determined metals are exposed to light
of a frequency greater than or equal to a minimum value called threshold frequency. This exposure
involves the emission of electrons from the metal surface. The number of electrons emitted is
proportional to the intensity of incident light, while the energy of the emitted electrons is not.

E=h∙v

Einstein proposed that a light beam can also be considered as a beam of particles.

These light particles were called photons.

→ Using Planck's quantum theory as a starting point, Einstein deduced that an energy is associated
with each photon

→ The electrons are held in the metal by attractive forces so theirs removal requires a radiation with a
sufficiently high frequency value to free them.

→ An increase in intensity will increase the number of electrons emitted, while a increase in frequency
will increase the kinetic energy with which the elements come ejected from the metal.

3. The dualistic nature of the electron (L. De Broglie-1924)

The physicist hypothesized that since the waves can behave like bundles of particles (photons), then
even particles like electrons can possess undulatory properties.

→ An electron attached to a nucleus behaves like a standing wave, or the wavelength must be such as
to cover the circumference exactly orbit.

→ De Broglie understood that the relationship between the properties of a particle is a wave are linked
by the relationship:

where meu are the wavelength, mass and speed respectively associated with a moving particle. The
equation implies that a particle in movement can be treated as a wave, and that a wave can exhibit
property of a particle

→ Although the De Broglie equation can be applied to different systems, wave properties become
observable only for submicroscopic objects. This distinction derives from the extremely small value of
the Planck constant.
E=h∙v

λ=h/m∙u

→ Thomson got a set of concentric rings on the screen by firing electrons on a thin gold leaf, this
demonstrates the undulating properties of the electrons.

NB It is not possible to observe the double nature of a particle at the same time.

Quantum mechanics

The dualistic nature of the electron proves particularly problematic due of their exceptionally small
mass. To solve the problem of localization of a subatomic particle that is composed like a wave, the
physical German Heisenberg formulated what is now known as the principle of Heisenberg
indeterminacy: it is impossible to know simultaneously and with accuracy of the moment (product
between masses and velocities) and the position of a particle.

Speed and energy are linked to the wave nature (xvx = uncertainty of the speed)

The position is linked to the corpuscular nature (Δx = position uncertainty)

Δx ∙ n × Δv ≥h / 4πx

His theory failed to provide a complete description of the behavior of electrons in atoms, so in 1926
the physicist Erwin Schrӧ dinger, using one complicated mathematical technique, he formulated an
equation able to describe the behavior and energy of a generic submicroscopic particle. The law
incorporates both particle (mass) and behavior such as wave (wave function ψ)

Ѱ∙H=E∙Ѱ

→ The wave function (or atomic orbital) indicates the probability of finding the electron in a certain
region of space, directly proportional to the square of the wave function. This idea came about by
analogy with the wave theory according to which the intensity of the light is proportional to the square
of the amplitude wave.

Electronic density

The concept of electron density defines the possibility of finding an electron in a particular region of
an atom. The square of the wave function defines the electronic density distribution in three-
dimensional space around the nucleus. (dτ is the infinitesimal volume → a point)

Ptot = ψ2 × dť

An atomic orbital can be thought of as a wave function of an electron in an atom. The Schrӧ dinger
equation has been solved for the simple atom of hydrogen consisting of a single proton and a single
electron, but cannot be resolved precisely if it contains more than one electron → per approximations
we consider the energy and the wave function obtained as valid for each electron, even in the most
complex atoms.

Quantum numbers
Quantum mechanics requires three quantum numbers to describe the distribution of electrons in
hydrogen and other atoms. These numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of the
Schrӧ dinger equation for the hydrogen atom. These will be used to describe atomic orbitals and to
detect electrons in them residents.

Main quantum number (n) | n = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 ... → defines the average distance from core

Angular quantum number (l) | l = n-1

Magnetic quantum number (ml) | -l, ... 0 ....., + l → defines the orientation of the sublevel

Quantum number of spin (ms) | -1/2, +1/2 → defines the direction of rotation electron

nl

ml

Orbital

10

0,01.0.0 → 1s (spherical)

2 0.1 -1.0, + 1,02.0.0 → 2s (spherical); ,12.1, ml → 2p (3 orbitals a double lobe)

3 0,1,2 -2, -1,0, + 1, + 2,33,3, ml → 3d (5 d type orbitals)

4 0,1,2,3 -3, -2, - 1,0, + 1, + 2, + 3,34.3, ml → 4f (7 f-type orbitals)

Geometries of atomic orbitals

→ The orbitals do not have a well-defined shape because the function extends from the infinity
core. On the other hand it is certainly convenient to think that the orbitals have specific
forms. Although in principle an electron may be found everywhere, we know that most of the time it is
quite close to core. There is a 90% chance of finding the electron within his orbital.

→ The energy of the orbital grows as the main quantum number and its grow angular quantum
number, in fact the energy of the orbital depends not only on the distance from the nucleus rather also
from the interaction with the other electrons from the screen effect. The energy value is negative and
therefore decreases in module (Coulomb attraction energy)

The electronic configuration

The four quantum numbers n, l, ml and ms allow us to uniquely identify a electron in any orbital of any
atom. In a sense we can consider the set of the four quantum numbers as the address of an electron in
an atom. The electronic configuration is the way in which the electrons are distributed among the
various atomic orbitals, so as to understand electronic behavior.
•Pauli exclusion principle

There cannot be two electrons in an atom that have the same four quantum numbers. From this it
follows that only two electrons can occupy the same atomic orbital, and these must have opposite
spins.

•Diamagnetism and paramagnetism

The paramagnetic substances are those that contain unpaired spins and are attracted by a magnet. On
the other hand, if the spins were paired or antiparallel the magnetic effects would cancel. The
diamagnetic substances are those which they do not contain unpaired electrons and are slightly
repelled by a magnet.

•The effect of screen in poly-electronic atoms

The stability of an electron is determined by the force with which it is attracted to the nucleus and so
we can say that an electron will have a lower energy if it is on a level 2s rather than on a 2p level. In
fact the 2p orbital is "shielded" by the force of nucleus attraction due to the presence of orbitals 1 and
2s.

Zeff = Z-σ

•Hund's rule

The most stable arrangement of electrons in a sublayer is the one with the major number of parallel
spins. This is due to the fact that two electrons on the same orbital would exert a repulsive force such
that it would require great amount of energy.

•The principle of Aufbau

As the protons add themselves one by one to the nucleus in the construction of the elements, so the
electrons add up to the atomic orbitals.

The electronic configurations of all elements except hydrogen and helium are represented by a noble
gas core that shows the noble gas in brackets immediately preceding the item we are considering,
followed by the symbol of the highest sub-levels filled in the outer levels.

Element Electronic configuration Element Electronic configuration

There [He] 2s1

[He] 2s2sp5

Well

[He] 2s2

Neither

[He] 2s2sp6
B

[He] 2s2sp1

Na

[It] 3S1

[He] 2s2sp2

mg

[It] 3S2

[He] 2s2sp3

To the

[It] 3s23p1

OR

[He] 2s2sp4

Yes

[It] 3s23p2

The electrons of an atom are subdivided into:

Internal electrons = in common with the noble gas that precedes it, they are closer to the core

Valence electrons = less attracted, on average more distant, are those used for ties.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

In 1864, the English chemist John Newlands realized that by arranging the elements then known in
order of atomic mass, they exhibited similar properties if considered at regular intervals of eight
elements.

Summary

1. Each main level of quantum number n contains n sublevels.

2. Each sub-level of quantum number l contains 2l + 1 orbitals.

3. No more than two electrons can be placed per orbital so the maximum number of electrons is
simply double the number of orbitals which are considered.
4. A quick method to determine the number maximum of electrons that an atom can have in the main
level n is to use the formula 2n

2 .

All the same elements electronic configuration have the same reactivity and they belong to the same
one group.

→ For this reason first fill the 4s orbital of the d. 3

In 1869 the Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev and the German chemist Lothar Meyer proposed a
much more accurate classification of elements based on regular and periodic recurrence of some of
their properties, thus allowing the predicting the properties of numerous elements that had not been
until then still uncovered.

It soon became clear that the elements were periodic not precisely according to their atomic mass,
rather according to their atomic number (number of electrons).

The electronic configuration therefore helps to explain the recurrence of certain properties of the
elements, and how they vary through groups (vertical) and periods (horizontal) A) A first general
classification of the periodic table is that between:

Metals: they tend to reach the electronic configuration of the noble gas there above.

◦ They tend to create cations

◦ Form metal bonds

◦ They form basic oxides (in reaction with water they give hydroxides) ◦ They have good reactivity
with non-metals.

Non-metals: they tend to reach the electronic configuration of the noble gas following.

◦ Tend to create anions

◦ Form covalent bonds

◦ Form acid oxides (anhydrides) B) Further classifications can be made for groups (vertically)
distinguishing in:

Alkaline (1A) // [noble gas] ns1

Earthy alkaline (2A) // [noble gas] ns2

Transition elements (groups B) // they or their cations have a sub-level incomplete

Halogens (7A) // // [noble gas] ns2np5

Noble gases (8A) // // [noble gas] ns2np6

Lanthanides and Actinides // them or their cations have an incomplete sublevel

Periodic changes in physical properties

1. The actual nuclear charge

The presence of shielding electrons reduces the electrostatic attraction between the protons of the
nucleus positively charged and external electrons. In a polyelectronic atom repulsive forces between
electrons further compensate for the attractive force of the core.

The effective nuclear charge perceived by an electron is: Zeff = Z-σ (sigma changes along the groups) →
The electrons of a given element are shielded from the electrons of the internal levels but not of the
electrons of the external levels. Also the electrons complete internal levels shield more effectively than
electrons of the same sublayer.

2. The atomic radius and ionic radius

It is the experimental measure of the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms. The ray
atomic is mostly determined by the force of attraction existing between the nucleus and the outer
electrons. The greater the effective charge, the greater the radius atomic.

RA (Ne) = 1.90 A ° RA (K) = 2.35 A ° In the same way we reason for ions, which they will have larger
dimensions if they are anions, and smaller dimensions if they are cations.

3. Ionization potential

Energy that must be provided from the outside to rip an electron from an atom gaseous in the ground
state. This is because the gas is virtually free from the influence of neighboring atoms and not there

they are intermolecular forces. X (g) → X + (g) + 1e-

The higher the ionization energy the more difficult it will be to remove the electron, and the more the
molecule will be stable in its condition. In fact the highest energies of ionization has the noble
gases. For polyelectronic atoms it is possible to calculate the energies of the first, second and
subsequent ionizations, which will increase exponentially.

Although it increases over a period and decreases along a group, there are some exceptions:

The elements of group 3A have lower ionization energies than those of the elements of group 2A
because they have a single electron in the sublayer p.

In the elements of group 5A the p electrons are in three separate orbitals, while in the group 6A we
have two electrons in an orbital, creating a repulsive force that

it makes it easier to ionize an atom of the 6A group, despite the nuclear charge is increased.

4. Electronic affinity It is the value, changed of sign, of the variation of energy that is had when an atom
in the gaseous state it acquires an electron to form an anion.

The more positive the value of electronic affinity, the greater the capacity of a generic element atom to
accept an electron. So a high value positive means that the negative ion is very stable, as well as
highionization energy for an atom indicates that the electron in the atom is a lot stable.

→ Experimentally, electronic affinity is determined by considering removal of an electron from the

anion. For this reason noble gases have affinities electronic negatives.
→ The general trend involves an increase in the tendency to accept electrons from left to right over a
period, while they vary slightly within a group.

→ The electron affinity values are equal to ΔH (enthalpy variations) of the reaction:

X (g) + 1e- → X + (g)

meaning that if the value is negative, the process will be spontaneous (energy sold), if positive it will
require energy and therefore induced (absorbed energy).

THE CHEMICAL TIES

A) Primary chemical bonds

1. Ionic bond

An ionic bond consists mainly of the electrostatic force it holds together the ions in an ionic
compound. This interaction does not occur between just two atoms, rather lattices are formed, typical
of salts.

Ionic compounds in solution often dissolve in their anions and cations fundamental, but at the same
time to break the ionic bonds one is needed large amount of energy as evidenced by high melting
points.

→ The atoms of the elements with low ionization energy tend to form cations (alkaline and alkaline
earth metals), those with high electronic affinity tend to form anions (Halogens and oxygen)

→ The charges in an ionic compound are balanced and therefore the resulting compound will be
electrically neutral. Standard reticular enthalpy (ΔH °)

ret.

We can predict which elements have a tendency to form compounds Ionic based on ionization energy
and electronic affinity. Stability global of a solid ionic compound depends on the interactions of all
these ions and not exclusively from the interaction of a single cation with a single anion.

A quantitative measure of the stability of an ionic compound is its energy reticular, defined as the
energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid ionic compound in its ions in the gaseous
state. → Energy value necessary for the disintegration of the ions of an ionic compound.

NaCl (s) → Na + (g) + Cl- (g) H ° ret. = +787 KJ / mol (Energy released is -787 KJ / mol)

2. Metal bond

It is the typical bond of metals, in which electrons are placed in a network of atoms in which they are
free to move. This demonstrates how metals are good conductors of current, but also that they have
high melting temperatures. Indeed for to fuse a metal it is necessary to win both the bonds metallic
and the lattice of atoms.

It is effective to imagine the metallic bond as the nuclei immersed in a cloud of surrounding electrons.
3. Covalent bond

Bond in which two electrons are shared between two atoms. The covalent compounds are compounds
that contain only covalent bonds. The covalent bond between the atoms polyelectronic involves only
the valence electrons, but there may be cases in which not all valence electrons are used in the bonds
and thus are formed "Ione pairs", or solitary pairs of ions. The covalent bond unlike the Ionic bond has
a precise directional nature.

The Lewis structure

It is a representation of the covalent bond in which the pairs of electrons share they are shown as lines
or as pairs of points between the two atoms, while pairs solos are shown as pairs of points on
individual atoms.

The formation of these molecules illustrates the octet rule formulated by Lewis.

An atom other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by eight valence electrons. In
other words, a covalent bond is formed when, however every atom, there are not enough electrons to
have the complete octet.

→ Atoms can form different types of covalent bonds:

•In a bond single two atoms are held together by a pair of electrons.

If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond is called double bond.

A triple bond is created when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, such as occurs in the nitrogen
molecule (N2) → Multiple bonds are shorter than the single covalent bond. The length of bond is
defined as the distance between the nuclei of the two covalently linked atoms in a molecule. These in
addition to being shorter are also more stable.

electronegativity

In a molecule like H2, where atoms are identical we expect electrons are equally shared — that is, the
electrons spend the same time in the vicinity of each atom. However this is not true of many other
molecules including H - F. It is a polar covalent bond, or simply polar bond, because the electrons
spend more time near one atom than the other. Evidence experimental have shown that the electron
spends more time near the atom of fluorine, as it is the most electronegative atom of the couple.

A property that allows us to distinguish between a bond polar covalent and a non-polar covalent bond
is electronegativity, that is the capacity of an atom, in a chemical bond, to attract electrons towards
itself. This is directly related to the electronic affinity and energy of ionization: for high values of these
two entities we will have high electronegativity.

The most important scale of electronegativity is that formulated by Linus Pauling which he was able to
calculate the relative electronegativity of most elements.

This experimentally is observed to increase towards the right over a period decrease going down a
group.

23 ∙ ΔX2 AB = EAB - ½ (EAA + EBB)

Where ½ (EAA + EBB) is the arithmetic mean of dissociation energies

23 is a number to obtain more "comfortable" values

The concepts of electronegativity and electron affinity are concepts linked together but different. Both
indicate the tendency of an atom to attract electrons, however, electronic affinity refers to the
attraction of an additional electron from part of an isolated atom, while electronegativity indicates the
ability of an atom, in a chemical bond, to attract shared electrons.

An ionic bond is formed when the electronegativity difference between the two elements is at least
equal to 2.0.

A bond is formed when the difference in electronegativity between the atoms is in the range 0.5-1.6.

Write Lewis structures

Write the structure of the skeleton of the compound using chemical symbols and placing the bound
atoms together. Generally the least atom electronegative occupies the central position, fluorine and
hydrogen peripheral positions.

Count the total number of valence electrons present by referring to the Lewis structures of individual
atoms.

Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of the atoms that surrounding
it. Complete the atom's octet linked to the central atom. The electrons belonging to the central atom or
to the atoms that surround it must be shown as solitary couples if they are not involved in the
formation of ties.

If the central atom has less than eight electrons, try adding double or triple links between the
surrounding atoms, using the solitary pairs of surrounding atoms for complete the octet.

→ The formal charge of an atom is the difference in electric charge between the electrons of valence of
an isolated atom and the number of electrons assigned to that atom in one Lewis structure.

The concept of resonance

Through the Lewis structure we can write the structure of Ozone (O3) in two different equivalent
ways. However none of these structures is capable of explain the bond lengths observed in
Ozone. Experimental tests show that both oxygen bonds have the same length.

Each of these structures is called a resonance structure (resonance hybrid).

A resonance structure is one of two or more existing Lewis structures for one single molecule that
cannot be accurately represented by just one Lewis structure.

→ It is important to keep in mind that the structures we design do not under no circumstances do they
correspond to the real situation, rather they obviate a problem created by the representative
simplicity of the structures.

Similarly it is possible to reason for the carbonate ion (CO32-) and for benzene (C6H6)

In aqueous solution the bond O - H breaks and the electron that H shared it remains on Oxygen and
thus two H + ions are released for each mole of carbonic acid.
2) Experimentally we know that benzene is a regular hexagon, whose bonds they all have the same
length. Neither of the two limit forms exists in reality. THE 6 and - of the three bonds are delocalized
on the whole molecule.

Exceptions to the octet rule

The octet rule applies mainly to the elements of the second period. The exceptions to the octet rule fall
into three categories:

➢ The incomplete octet

In some compounds the number of electrons surrounding the central atom of one stable molecule is
less than 8.

Beryllium group 2A (1s22s2) → forms the beryllium hydride (BeH2)

Elements of group 3A (Boron, Aluminum ..) → tend to form compounds with the halogens. In the case
of Boro (BX3 → BF3 / BCl3)

➢ Molecules with odd electrons

Some molecules contain an odd number of electrons. These molecules are often called radicals, which
are often very reactive. This is due to the fact that the unpaired electron tends to form a covalent bond
with an electron unpaired in another molecule.

•(x2) Molecule of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) → form nitrogen tetroxide the which satisfies both the
oxygen and nitrogen octet.

➢ The expansion of the octet

The atoms of the second period cannot have more than eight valence electrons around the central
atom, but the atoms of the elements of the third period and of those successive of the periodic table
form some compounds in which the central atom is surrounded by more than eight electrons. This is
possible because in addition to the 3p orbitals there is the possibility of filling the orbitals d. (S, P, Cl)

→ double bonds or dative ties. • Sulfuric acid (H2SO3) in which sulfur uses 4 of its 6 valence electrons
expanding the octet to 10 electrons.

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in which sulfur creates a 12-electron expanded octet.

Sulfur hexafloride (SF6) with 12 electrons on sulfur.

Perchloric acid (HClO4) are shared with the central atom Cl 14 electrons.

The bond enthalpy (ΔH °A measure of the stability of a molecule is the binding enthalpy, or the
enthalpy variation required to break a particular bond in a mole of gas molecules.

In the case of molecules formed by more than two atoms we speak of bond enthalpy average of a
particular bond. For example we can measure the bond energy O - H in 10 different molecules
composed of more than two atoms and obtain the enthalpy of bond by dividing the sum by 10.

The knowledge of the bond enthalpies and therefore of the stability of the molecules tells us also
something about the thermochemical nature of the reactions that the molecule suffers.
In many cases it is possible to predict the enthalpy of reaction in an approximate way using medium
bond enthalpies. We can estimate the enthalpy of a reaction counting the total number of broken and
formed bonds in the reaction and writing them all possible energy variations. ΔH ° = total energy
supplied - energy released If the total energy supplied is greater, ΔH ° is positive and the reaction is
endothermic.

If the total energy released is greater, ΔH ° is negative and the reaction is exothermic.

4. Dative bond Covalent bond in which the electrons that form the bond are set to one-atom
arrangement. However, this in no way affects the type of bond, which looks absolutely similar to a
normal covalent bond.

NH4 + → The positive charge is located on the nitrogen as it has sold a partial concentration of charge.

BCl3NH3 → N shares its doublet with the Boron electronic, thus also completing its configuration.

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION

(molecular geometries)

Molecular geometry defines the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in one molecule. Geometry

affects its chemical and physical properties, like the dot melting point, the boiling point, the density
and the type of reactions it undergoes. The lengths and bond angles are determined experimentally,
however there is a simple procedure that allows us to foresee with considerable success the global
geometry of a molecule or an ion as long as it is known in a Lewis structure the number of electrons
present around the central atom.

→ In a molecule where there are two or more bonds between the central atom and the atoms
surrounding, the repulsion between the electrons of the different bond pairs causes them place
themselves as far from each other as possible. The final geometry assumed from the molecule is such
as to minimize these repulsions. (VSEPR approach) Tiene account of the geometric arrangement of the
pairs of electrons around an atom central in terms of electrostatic repulsion between the pairs of
electrons themselves.

→ There are two essential rules that underpin the VSEPR model:

Double and triple bonds can be treated as single bonds. This approximation is valid for qualitative
purposes. However it must be remembered that the bonds multiples are larger than the single bonds
and the electron density will take up more space.

If a molecule has two or more resonance structures, we can apply the model VSEPR only to one of
them.

✔ Bonding geometry around the carbon atom

Tetrahedron → carbon forms 4 simple covalent bonds per sp3 hybridization of atomic bonds. This
means that the wave functions e are mathematically combined 4 new sp3 hybrid wave functions are
created. Hybridization of the carbon atom explains why 4 covalent bonds occur and therefore of the
formation of the tetrahedral structure.

Planar trigonal → carbon forms a bond double, where the atoms occupy the vertices of a triangle
equilateral not perfect. We have a sp2 hybridization, or with two characters if two orbitals p.

The same applies to the doublets of value not engaged in no link. These will ideally occupy the space
occupied by bonding orbitals albeit with volumes much more extensive.

Linear → carbon forms a triple bond with two molecules that are arranged linearly along the triple
bonding axis. Here the hybridization is sp. (same C N bond)

✔ Bonding geometry around the oxygen atom

a) Bent or angular → oxygen forms simple bonds similar to those of carbon, but having two free
electronic doublets, these occupy the ends of two vertices of geometry. In this case the actual geometry
is different from a tetrahedron in since the electrons have more expanded free orbitals, so it is possible
to understand the reason why the bond angle is 105 °

✔ Bonding geometry around the atom of nitrogen

a) Trigonal pyramidal base → the nitrogen atom forms simple covalent bonds, such as in ammonia.

b) Bent or Angular → the nitrogen atom forms a double bond, typically with carbon.

This structure is explainable, as with the H2O, understanding that on the atom of nitrogen we have a
mismatched electronic doublet.

c) Linear → nitrogen forms a triple bond, similar to what happens with the carbon atom.

Guidelines for the application of the VSEPR model

Write the Lewis structure of the molecule considering only the pairs of electrons around the central
atom.

Count the number of pairs of electrons around the central atom. Consider the doubles and triple bonds
as single bonds

Use the table below to predict the behavior of the various molecules

Note that a solitary couple rejects a lone pair or a bonding pair more than a bonding couple does not
reject another bonding pair. Self the central atom has one or more solitary couples, there is no simple
method to define bond angles accurately.

The electric dipole moment This is a quantitative measure of the polarity of a bond, given by the
product of the charge Q for the distance r existing between the charges:

μ = Q ∙ r The unit of measure is the Debye () → A molecule is polar when the module of the electric
dipole moment is different from zero. All the molecules that have | μ | = 0 are apolar.

→ To calculate the electric dipole of a molecule I must make the vectorial sum, then know the
geometry of the molecule.

1D = 3.336x10-30
→ Carbon is an element that creates apolar molecules due to its lack electronegativity with respect to
hydrogen and since it always forms radial bonds (or symmetrical) with respect to their own nucleus
and therefore they are set to zero in a vector calculation.

It is possible to establish experimentally whether a molecule is polar or apolar by placing the

molecules in question within an electric field and displaying theirs orientation.

THE CHEMICAL TIES II

B) Secondary chemical bonds

1. Van der Waals interactions

They are coulombic electrostatic interactions between molecules of solid compounds divide into: ➔
Dipole-dipole interactions: interaction between molecules, known as a permanent dipole. This is
because the semi-charges affect the position of the electrons of the other molecules, thus creating at
the extremes of the solid of partial charges. (the whole molecule aligns itself with any external electric
fields)

➔ Dispersion or London forces: interactions between apolar molecules, known also as an instant
dipole. This depends on the fact that small ones are created random variations in electronic
concentration that influence atomic orbitals of molecules surrounding, especially if in the solid state.

2. Hydrogen bonds

Some liquids have boiling points much higher than predictable values considering only the dipolar
interactions. This indicates presence of more accentuated intermolecular forces. This strength of
attraction is due precisely to the hydrogen bond. Molecules in where one hydrogen atom is bound to a
small atom electronegative as nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine present this effect.

→ Although this bond is weaker than any bond strength, it is greater of Wan der Waals interactions.

→ Boiling points increase as the element's electronegativity

hydrogen bonded increases, with the exception of hydrofluoric acid. This is because it is necessary to
observe the number of potential binding sites in each molecule.

Water has two partially positive sites and two partially negative sites, as well will form 4 hydrogen
bonds.

Ammonia and hydrofluoric acid can form a single hydrogen bond, since one has only one partially
negative site and three partially positive ones, whereas the acid has a partially positive site and three
partially negative sites.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: THE FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms with chemical properties e typical physical It is the
reactive part of the molecule that gives it its characteristics.

1. Hydrocarbons: they are compounds consisting only of the elements carbon hydrogen. They can be of
two types:

1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons

Alkanes → have only sigma C – C bonds and no functional group. (Methane, Ethane)

Alkenes → have a double C = C bond as functional group (Ethylene)

Alkynes → have a triple C≡C bond as a functional group (Etino / Acetilene)

2. Aromatic hydrocarbons: this class of hydrocarbons was so named because many of the first known
aromatic compounds had a typical strong odor.

Benzene → ring with 6 carbon atoms with delocalized electrons, when it binds to another group is
called the phenyl group.

Compounds containing sigma C – Z bonds: the electronegative element Z creates a polar bond, making
the carbon deficient in electrons. The solitary couples on Z they are available to react with protons and
other electrophiles, especially when Z is a atom of N or O.

Alkyl halide → bound to the carbonaceous chain we find one or more atoms of halogens, this family of
compounds is also known as halogen derivatives. (-X)

Alcohol → to the carbon chain we have bound a hydroxyl or hydroxy group (–OH).

The simplest alcohol is methanol or methyl alcohol.

Ether → It has an alkoxy group (–OR), which is a carbon atom in the center of the chain. The simplest
compound is dimethyl ether. (CH3-O-CH3)

Amine → Organic ammonia derivatives in which one or more hydrogens come replaced by
carbonaceous chains. We will then have primary, secondary or tertiary based on the number of
replaced H. The simplest amine is methylamine. (NH2)

3. Compounds containing the C = O group (carbonyl group): this bond makes carbon an electrophile,
while solitary couples on O allow it to react as a nucleophile and as a base.

Aldehyde → has the aldose group (R – COH). The simplest compound is the Methanal.

Ketone → has the carbonyl group in the center of the chain (R – CO – R)

Carboxylic acid → owns the carboxyl group (–COOH)

Ester → derived from carboxylic acids by replacing hydrogen with one carbonaceous chain. (R - COOR)

The esters derived from methane / formic acid have a structure (H – COOR)
Amide → derived from carboxylic acid by oxygen substitution of hydrogen with nitrogen and I will
have secondary or tertiary primary amides based on how many carbonaceous groups are bound to the
nitrogen atom.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES

Ionic substances (salts): composed of a three-dimensional lattice of anions (-) and cations (+) When
these substances are in the molten state we have charge motions, however, high temperatures are
necessary to melt considering that it is necessary break the ionic bonds.

Metallic substances (reticular)

They have the best mechanical and electrical conduction properties, so they are very employed.

3. Covalent (reticular) substances We can distinguish them in elements (graphite or diamond) and
compounds. These don't they have good mechanical properties.

4. Molecular substances: composed of discrete units made from bound atoms from covalent bonds

✔ Status changes in molecular substances → To boil / melt a substance you need to supply the
necessary energy to break the interactions between the molecules. The substances to compare the
temperature of state change must have similar molecular masses.

✔ Solubility in molecular substances Considering that in chemistry the similar dissolves the similar, in
order to bring in solution organic substances it is necessary to use apolar solvents such as:
dichloromethane, propanone, ethyl ethane, diethyl ether / ether.

These substances are able to dissolve the organic compounds because they replace the interactions
between molecules. An organic substance only dissolves in water if there is a functional group that
every 4 atoms can give or accept hydrogen bridges with water, such as ethanol or
acetaldehyde. Exception to the rule of thumb is butanol which, despite having 4 carbon atoms, is not
miscible in water

5. Macromolecular substances (polymers)

Composed of long chains of which we cannot give an exact molecular mass, but average. They have
excellent mechanical properties because the chains slip one on others, like plastics, so as to make them
much more pliable and malleable than metals, but also cheaper.

→ An example of this type of molecule is also protein, formed by long chains of amino acids.

THERMODYNAMICS

Almost all chemical reactions absorb or release energy in the form of heat. To analyze the energy
variations associated with chemical reactions we must first define the system as the specific portion of
the universe that we are it affects (the reaction). The environment is the rest of the universe that is not
part of the system. Thus three types of systems emerge:
open system: it can exchange mass and energy with the environment closed system: allows energy
transfers but not mass isolated system: no mass or energy transfer is allowed.

Internal energy (U): it is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy of the system

Thermodynamic. This is a status function, ie it depends solely on the initial and final status and not
how they are achieved.

()

First law of thermodynamics: energy can be converted from a form to the other but it cannot be
created or destroyed. AmbienteEnvironment + 0Usystem = 0 from which it derives →

This law means that the internal energy change ΔU of a system is the sum of the heat q and labor w
exchanged between system and environment.

q system <0 → the system releases heat around

w system <0 → the system does work

q system> 0 → the system absorbs heat w system> 0 → the system undergoes work

In thermodynamics work has a broader meaning which includes work mechanical, electrical work and
work to increase the size of one surface. Thus we can define the work performed by a gas on the
environment as: ΔV (work and heat is not a status function)

Remember: reactions that keep internal energy constant are possible universe.

Exothermic reaction = heat transferred to the surroundings (ΔHr <0)

Endothermic reaction = heat is transferred to the reaction (ΔHr> 0)

The enthalpy of chemical reactions (constant pressure reactions)

ΔU = q + w

w = -P ∙

Most reactions take place under constant pressure conditions. If one this reaction gives rise to a
certain number of moles of a gas then the system performs work on the environment so that the gas
that forms is able to enter the atmosphere.

No work is done if there is no net change in reagents and products number of gas piers. In general we
write:

ΔU = q - P ∙ ΔV

It is useful to introduce a new thermodynamic function of a system called enthalpy (H) which is
defined as: H = U + PV where U is the internal energy of the system and P and V are the system
pressure and volume respectively. It follows that variations in H or ΔH depend on the initial and final
states. Therefore also H is one status function. In a constant pressure process we note that qp = ΔH
Because most reactions take place at constant pressure we can equal heat variations to enthalpy
variations. For each type reaction "Reagents → products" we define the variation of enthalpy, and we
call it the enthalpy of reaction, ΔHr as the difference between the enthalpies of the products and those
of reagents.

Useful indications for thermochemical equations When writing thermochemical equations we must
always specify the physical states of all reagents and all products because they help determine the
variations of enthalpy in play.

If we multiply both members of a thermodynamic equation by a factor n, then also ΔH must vary by
the same factor.

When we write an inverse reaction the entity of the enthalpy change remains the itself but changes
sign.

Comparison between ΔU and ΔH

ΔU and ΔH are approximately equal. The reason why ΔH is less than ΔU is that part of the internal
energy is used for the gas expansion work, and therefore develops less heat. For reactions that do not
involve gas the ΔV is usually so small that ΔU is practically identical to ΔH.

Another way to calculate the internal energy change of a gaseous reaction is that of assuming that the
behavior is that of an ideal gas with temperature constant.

ΔH = H (products) - H (reagents) r

ΔU = ΔH - RT Δn

enthalpy standard of formation (ΔH ° f) = the standard enthalpy of formation, at 1 atm, for each
substance in its most stable state it is zero. It is used as reference parameter for calculating the
enthalpies of all other substances.

→ The standard enthalpy of a compound is the variation of enthalpy that takes place when a mass of
that compound is formed from its elements taken into the their shape more stable at 1 atm.

Standard enthalpy of reaction (ΔH ° r) = the enthalpy of a reaction conducted at 1 atm.

ΔH ° = ΣΔH °f

products-

∑ΔH ° f

reagents

There are two methods to measure the standard reaction enthalpy:

1. The direct method

This method works for compounds that can be easily synthesized from their elements.

We must essentially measure the enthalpy of the reaction that occurs in them standard states. Note
that the arbitrary assignment of ΔH ° f = 0 for each element in the stable form under standard
conditions does not influence in any way i calculations. In thermochemistry we are only interested in
the variations ΔH because they are measurable. 

2. The indirect method (Hess's law)

Many compounds cannot be synthesized directly from their elements. In some cases the reaction
proceeds too slowly or side reactions produce substances other than the desired compound. In these
cases we can calculate ΔH ° f through an indirect approach that is based on Hess's law. When the
reagents they are converted into products the enthalpy variation is the same independently from the
series of steps in which it takes place. (in fact ΔH is a state function) E '

It is therefore necessary to organize a series of chemical equations in such a way that, added together,
all the species cancel themselves except the reagents and the products that appear in the overall
reaction.

→ The more negative the formation standard enthalpy of a compound the more the compound is
stable, however the enthalpy is not able to give information on spontaneity of the reaction. To
understand this characteristic of a reaction there we must base ourselves on another thermodynamic
quantity: entropy.

Entropy (S)

Measure of how the energy of a system is dispersed among the different possible ways in which the
system can contain energy. The greater the dispersion, the greater the entropy. IS' a status function.

A system with fewer micro-layers among which to disperse one's energy has less entropy.

A system with more micro-layers among which to disperse one's energy has greater entropy.

An "order → disorder" transition will result in an increase in entropy because the number of micro-
layers increases.

Izzazione Vaporization leads to an increase in entropy, rather than fusion Oluzione Dissolution leads
to an increase in entropy

◦ Hydration brings a reorganization of the molecules and therefore a decrease entropy

◦ An increase in entropy occurs when the temperature rises, considering that the electrons will have
more chances to move thanks to their kinetic energy.

Standard entropy (ΔS °): It is possible to determine entropy through methods calorimetric in an
absolute manner, and this measurement at 25 ° and 1 atm is called standard entropy and its unit of
measurement is J / K ∙ mol per mole of substance.

Second law of thermodynamics: the entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and
remains unchanged in an equilibrium process.

For a spontaneous process ΔSuniverso = ΔSystem + Δ Environment> 0

for an equilibrium process ΔSuniverso = ΔSystem + Δ Environment = 0

Standard entropy of reaction (ΔSreaz.): Difference of standard entropies between products and
reagents. °S ° reaz = ∑nS ° (products) - ∑nS ° (reagents)

The standard entropy values of a large number of compounds was measured in J / K ∙ mol.

If a reaction produces more gas molecules than it consumes then the ΔS ° is positive

if the total number of gaseous molecules decreases the ΔS ° is negative

ΔS = S Sf

if there is no net change in the total number of gaseous molecules then ΔS ° can being both positive
and negative, but numerically very small.

Changes in entropy in the environment (ΔS)

When an exothermic process takes place in the system the heat that is transferred to the environment
the thermal motion of the molecules present in the same environment increases.

Conversely, a process endothermic absorbs energy from the outside and decreases the entropy of the
environment because it decreases the molecular motion. AmbSamb = - ΔHsis / T (p, T constant)

Third principle of thermodynamics: The entropy of a substance perfectly crystalline is zero at absolute
temperature zero. With the increasing of temperature the freedom of motion increases, and, therefore,
also the number of micro-layers.

Gibbs free energy (G)

We need a new thermodynamic function to help us determine if a reaction occurs spontaneously

considering only the system.

-T ∙ ΔSuniv = ΔHsis - T ∙ sSsis <0

The equation tells us that for a process conducted at constant pressure and at temperature T, if the
enthalpy and entropy variations of the system are such that SHsis - T ∙ ΔSsis is less than zero the
process will be spontaneous. → The reaction proceeds spontaneously in the direction in which there is
a decrease in Gibbs free energy.

G has the dimensions of an energy and is a function of state. In this context free energy is the energy
available to do work. Therefore, if a particular reaction is accompanied by a release of usable energy,
this fact is enough for to ensure that it is spontaneous and not to worry about what happens to the rest
universe.

ΔG <0 the reaction is spontaneous to the right

ΔG> 0 the reaction is spontaneous to the left

ΔG = 0 the reaction is at equilibrium

ΔG = ΔH -T ∙ ΔS
Variations of standard free energy (ΔG °): the free energy variation of a reaction when this occurs
under standard conditions and when the reagents in them standard states turn into products in their
standard states.

ΔG ° reaz = ∑nGf ° (products) - ∑mGf ° (reagents) where the stoichiometric coefficients are.

The term G ° is the standard free energy of formation of a compound, that is, the variation of f free
energy that occurs when 1 mole of compound is synthesized by its own elements in their standard
states.

→ We define the standard free energy of formation of each element in his stable allotropic form at 1
atm and 25 ° C as zero.

Applications of the equation:

ΔG = ΔH - T ∙ ΔS

If both ΔH and ΔS are positive then ΔG will be negative. (T is large)

If ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative, ΔG will always be positive, independently by temperature.

If ΔH is negative and ΔS is positive, then ΔG will always be negative regardless of temperature

If ΔH is negative and ΔS is negative then ΔG will be negative. (T is small)

Before applying the free energy variation to predict the spontaneity of one reaction it is useful to
distinguish between ΔG and ΔG °. Suppose we conduct a reaction in solution with all reagents in their
standard state (concentration 1 M). Not as soon as the reaction starts, the standard status situation no
longer exists for it to be for the products and for the reagents the concentrations are no longer 1 M. →
In conditions non-standard, we must use the sign of ΔG and not that of ΔG ° to predict the direction of
the reaction. The ΔG ° sign on the other hand tells us if reagents are favored or products when the
system reaches equilibrium.

Free energy and chemical balance

In the course of a reaction not all reagents and products will be in their state standard. In these
conditions, the relationship between ΔG ° and ΔG is:

ΔG = ΔG ° + RT lnQ

where R is the gas constant (R = 8.314 J / K ∙ mol), T is the absolute temperature and Q is the reaction
quotient.

At balance this formula is:

ΔG ° = - RT lnK (ΔG = 0 and Q = K)

free energy variation of the system varies with the progress of the reaction and becomes zero at
equilibrium.

ΔG ° is a constant for a particular one reaction at a given temperature. Self ΔG ° <0 products are
favored over to equilibrium reagents. If instead the ΔG °> 0 there will be more reagents than
balanced products. It is the sign ofΔG and not that of ΔG ° which determines the direction in which the
reaction proceeds spontaneously. [ΔG <0 spotanea]

CHEMICAL BALANCES

At the beginning of a reversible process, the reaction proceeds towards the formation of products. As
soon as the products are formed, the process begins to occur inverse, the molecules produced react to
give the reagents. When the speeds of direct and inverse process are equal and the concentrations of
reagents and products the chemical equilibrium has not changed over time.

→ The equilibrium in which all the species present are called homogeneous equilibrium in the same
phase. → A reversible reaction involving reagents and products that they are in different phases
leading to a heterogeneous balance. It is possible to approximate the equilibrium constant at gas
concentrations, since by definition the activity of pure solids and liquids is equal to 1.

G = G ° + R ∙ T ∙ ln [Q] → general equation

rr

G = G ° + R ∙ T ∙ ln [K] → equation at equilibrium

rr

A) Equilibrium in gaseous phase [aA (g) ↔ bB (g)]

1. Gas phase using Dalton partial pressures (pC ....)

→ free energy of a mole of gas A. P0 = 1atm

→ free energy in a reaction. P0 = 1atm

At equilibrium I will have Q = Kp and ΔG = 0. In an equilibrium in gaseous phase the Kp describes the
composition of the system at equilibrium according to the partial pressures of the gases.

→ The equilibrium constant does not change if the temperature T = 298 K remains constant.

→ ΔG ° r> 0 means that Kp <1, while if ΔG ° r <0 means that Kp> 1

2. Ideal gas phase using the perfect gas law (p→ as a function of molar concentrations: [M] = nx / Vol

B) Equilibrium in solution [aA (aq) + bB (aq) ↔ cC (aq) + dD (aq)]

1. Ideal solution

Q = XB → XB is the molar fraction: B in the case where there is only the solvent and p0 = 1 atm

Q = (Xc) c + (Xd) d / (Xa) a + (Xb) b → general case with respect to the one given in the point previous
one

2. Real diluted solution

Q = mB / m0 → mB is the molality: 0 = 1mol solute / 1kg solvent

Q = ([C] c ∙ [D] d / [A] to ∙ [B] b) → by approximation I use molarity and exclude m0 because unchanged

Law of mass action

At constant temperature the "equilibrium constants" (K) remain constant. Furthermore it depends on

temperature according to the equation: / R (Van't Hoff equation)

The sign depends on the value of ΔH ° r, or if the reaction is exothermic or endothermic.

ΔH ° r <0 → If T increases, K decreases

ΔH ° r> 0 → if T increases, K increases

In a constant temperature and volume reaction the change in energy Gibbs free is equal to the
maximum work that is different from that volume expansion ()

Principle of Le Chatelier

If an external disturbance is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system tries to restore balance by
reorganizing so that the disturbance comes minimized. The word "disturbance" means a change in
concentration, pressure, volume or temperature that keeps the system away from equilibrium.

(a) Temperature changes

By increasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction the balance moves towards reagents, because
it must counteract the temperature increase, favoring the reaction inverse that absorbs heat. And vice
versa for an endothermic reaction. 

(b) Variations of pressure

If I increase the pressure the balance moves towards the sense that reduces the number of gaseous
moles.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ↔ 2NH3 (g) → the equilibrium moves to the right to increase pressure ii. PCl5 (g) ↔
PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) → the equilibrium moves to the left to pressure increase iii. H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) ↔ 2 HCl
(g) → the balance remains unchanged for pressure variation

(c) Concentration changes

In this case it is enough to observe the equilibrium constant to understand the effects of the variation.

ΔG = W extra

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ↔ 2NH3 (g) → if the partial pressure of nitrogen increases so as if removing ammonia
the reaction moves towards the products.

ACIDS E BASES
→ The water goes in versus to self-ionization, that is to say the break of OH bonds, with the electronic
doublet which remains on the oxygen (localized negative charge) and therefore the consequent release
of H + ions (subsequently H3O +) and OH-.

→ I can approximate molarity and consider constant water activity the.

Neutral solution pH = 7 ii. Acid solution pH <7 iii. Basic pH solution> 7

Arrhenius (1883)

An acid can be described as a substance that dissolves in water produces for direct dissociation of
hydrogen ions (H +). The H + ion is equivalent to a proton. The Acid formulas contain one or more
hydrogen atoms and an anionic group. → lowering of the pH, or of the concentration of H3O + ions to
298 K.

A base can be described as a substance that dissolves in water produces hydroxide ions (OH-) and
therefore able to increase the pH of the solution.

! → He did not explain why ammonia was a base.

(2) Bonsted and Lowry (1923)

It is not necessary to be in an aqueous solution to define an acid and one

in fact these are defined based on their ability to yield a proton (acid) to a base, which consequently is
the one able to accept a proton from an acid. [married couples]

All acids for Bronsted and Lowry are also for Arrhenius, such as acids hydrohalic. → Neutralization is a
reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water.

pH = log [H O +] 3

K=a

H3O + (aq) + a

OH- (aq) / a

H2O

(l) = 1.0 x 10 -14

(3) Lewis

A base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons, and an acid is one substance that can accept a
pair of electrons.

Formulas for pH calculation

1. Aqueous solution of acid or strong base

We have complete dissociation of H + ions, which means concentration of H + ions or OH- ions will be
equal to the concentration of the acid or base in solution.
HCl (aq) + H2O → H3O + + Cl- (aq) // the reaction is all shifted to the right.100%

ionization.

NaOH (aq) → Na + (aq) + OH- (aq) // the reaction is all shifted to the right. 100%

ionization.

2. Aqueous solution of acid or weak base

These acids or bases are weak so they ionize only partially in a way

proportional to their dissociation constant. The acid or dissociation constant

basic is so high for strong acids and bases that this is not considered. It's the same as

Ka = [H3O +] [CH3COO -] / [CH3COOH] as they approximate concentrations

molars. Kb = [OH -] [NH4 +] / [NH3].

CH3COOH (aq) + H2O ↔ H3O + (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) → [H3O +] = √Ka [acid]

NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4 + + OH- → [OH -] = √Kb [base]

Polyprotic acids

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O + ] = √ K

to

[NH

They are those acids that yield more than one ion per mole of molecule. Here we will talk about

first / second / third dissociation constants. In most cases,

dissociations are always less spontaneous, that is, Ks diminish

exponentially. (carbonic acid)

H2SO4 + H2O → HSO4- + H3O +

HSO4- + H2O ↔ SO4-- + H3O + with a Ka = 1.0x10-2

Salt solutions in HO

2
•

NH4 + Cl- → acid hydrolysis

◦ NH4 + + H2O↔ NH3 + H3O +

◦ HCl + H2O → H3O + + Cl- (very weak base does not react) [H3O +] = √Kw / Kb [NH4 +

Cl]

→ Anions of strong acids do not give reactions in aqueous solution (Cl-, Br-, I-, NO3-)

→ Weak acid anions perform basic hydrolysis (CH3COO-, F-, CN-)

→ Cations from metals are not involved in the modification of the pH (Na +, K +, Ca2 +, Ba2 +)

→ Cations from weak ionized bases perform acid hydrolysis (organic amines,

NH4 +)

If the cation and anion do not give hydrolysis they do not modify the water pH (KBr,

NaNO3)

If the anion comes from strong acid not from hydrolysis. If the base comes from a weak base that

it ionizes then acid hydrolysis takes place (pH <7)

Weak acid anion: basic hydrolysis. Metal cation no reaction.

Weak acid anion: basic hydrolysis. Weak base cation: acid hydrolysis.

Ka> Kb-ACIDA- (pH <7)

Ka <Kb -BASICA- (pH> 7)

Ka ≈ Kb -NEUTRA- (pH = 7)

Buffer solutions

pH <7 weak acid + a strong base salt (conjugate base)

pH = pK + log ([SALE] / [ACID]) a

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pH> 7 weak base + its salt with strong acid (conjugated acid)

pH = 14-pOH

SOLUTIONS

Most chemical reactions do not occur between solids, liquids or gases

pure state, but between ions and molecules dissolved in water or other solvents. The solutions
they can be :

liquid: gases, solids and other liquids dissolved in a solvent.

solid: metal alloys

gaseous: gas mixtures such as air

Solubility [g / l] is the amount of solute at a given temperature that can be dissolved

in the solvent at a given volume. (concentration of the solute to saturated solution)

Molarity (M) → [M] = nx / Vol

Molality (m) → mB = nB (moles) / Kg solvent

Molar fraction (X) → XB = nB / nA + nB

1. Saturated solutions

Chemists also define solutions based on their ability to dissolve a

solute. A solution that permanently contains the maximum amount of a solute in

a given solvent at a well-defined temperature is called a saturated solution. Before

that the saturation point is reached, the solution is called unsaturated, it contains

pOH = pk + log ([SALE] / [BASE]) → b

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less solute than it can dissolve. → dynamic equilibrium process which

depends on concentrations.

2. Dissolution of ionic compounds in H2O

In ionic compounds we have positive ions and negative ions

that interact with the solvent due to interactions

Coulomb electrostatic The moment the H2O

penetrates into crystals decreases bonding forces,

precisely because it has a high constant value

relative dielectric.

The water polarity separates the ions, dissociating the lattice, thus allowing the

ion formation surrounded by hydration water molecules that depend on

concentration and working temperature.

3. Dissolution of molecular substances in H2O

I'm not going to break the molecules, rather the interactions between molecules are won

(similar melts similar) which the solvent replaces. ΔH ° diss is a balance between the

intermolecular forces and between often and solute.

4. Electrolytic solutions

A substance is electrolytic if dissolved in water it increases its conductivity

electricity.

Salts and ionic compounds release ions

molecular substances give rise to the ionization of water

5. Effect of pressure on solubility (Henry's law)

Pressure does not influence the solubility of solids and liquids, rather gases. These

they will be more soluble at higher pressures, since the equilibrium shifts in the direction in which

I have fewer gaseous moles, according to the principle of Le Chaelier. → The solubility of a gas

in a liquid it is directly proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas on the

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solution: c = kP where c represents the molar concentration, k is a constant

which depends only on the temperature and P is the pressure exerted.

OXIDATION NUMBER

Formal charge that the element would have if the binding electrons were attributed

to the most electronegative atom. The summation of all oxidation numbers must

be equal to the charge of the ion. (if the molecule is neutral it must be zero)

H2 → + 1, -1 in hydrides [NaH], 0 in molecular hydrogen

O2 → -2, -1 in peroxides [H2O2], 0 in molecular oxygen

N2, C, Na, Fe → the elements have oxidation number 0 in the ground state

Ca2 +, Na +, Cl- → the oxidation number is the ion charge

OXIDOREDUCTION REACTIONS

These reactions consist in the transfer of electrons from a reducing agent a

an oxidizing agent. By using separate compartments, this reaction can

be used to generate a flow of electrons in a system called a cell

Galvanic.

Zn (s) + Cu2 + (aq) ↔ Zn2 + (aq) + Cu (s) [Daniell stack or Zinc-copper stack]

Oxidation (OX): Zn (s) → Zn2 + + 2e-

Reduction (RD): Cu2 + + 2e- →

Cu (s)

Balancing redox reactions

write the unbalanced equation of the reaction in the ionic form

separate the equation into two semi-reactions

balance each semi-reaction according to the number and type of atoms and charges. For

reactions in an acid environment, add water to balance the O and H + peroms

balance atoms H.

gather the two half-reactions and balance the final equation for verification. The electrons

present on both sides must be eliminated. If the semi-reactions are oxidation and of

reduction contain a different number of electrons we have to multiply one or

both to balance the number of electrons

GALVANIC CELLS

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The electrons transfer directly into solution from the reducing agent

to the oxidizing agent. However if we physically separate the oxidizing agent from that

reducing agent, electron transfer can take place via a conductor

external. As the reaction progresses, a continuous flow of electrons is established

and then electricity is generated. The experimental apparatus used to generate

electric current by the use of a spontaneous reaction is called a battery or battery

galvanic cell or voltaic cell. By definition the anode in a galvanic cell is

the electrode where oxidation takes place and the cathode is the electrode where the

reduction.
To complete the electrical circuit the solutions must be connected by a means

conductor through which cations and anions can move from

compartment of one electrode to the other. This requirement is met by the bridge

saline which is an inverted U-shaped tube containing an inert electrolyte solution whose

Ions do not react with other ions in solution or with electrodes. During the course

of the reaction the electrons come out of the anode and flow towards the cathode. In

solution the cations move towards the cathode and the anions towards the anode.

An electric current flow is observed

from the anode to the cathode because there is one

potential electric energy difference

between the electrodes. The voltage between the

Electrodes of a galvanic cell is called

cell voltage or cell potential. A

another common term for the potential of

cell is the electromotive force or fem (E),

measure of potential difference, not of

power.

The conventional notation for representing the galvanic cell is the diagram of

cell.

Zn (s) | Zn2 + (1M) || Cu2 + (1M) | CU (s) → Pila daniell

Standard reduction potentials (E °)

E ° is the standard reduction potential or the potential difference associated with one

reduction reaction that occurs at an electrode when all solutes have

1M concentration and all gases are at 1 atm.

The standard potential for reducing the hydrogen electrode is zero,

in fact it is called standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) This electrode is used

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as a reference for the calculation of the potential differences of individuals

half cells.

By convention the standard emf of the cell, E ° cell, which is obtained from the contribution

of the anode and of the cathode contribution is given by: E ° cell = E ° cathode - E ° anode

→ As for G °, we can use the sign of E ° to predict the spontaneity of

a Redox reaction. A positive value of E ° means that the reaction will favor the

balancing product formation. Conversely, a negative value will indicate that

at balance there will be more reagents than products.

The values of E ° refer to the reactions of semi-cells as they are written (da

left to right)

The more positive it is, the greater the tendency of the substance to be reduced. In condition

Standards of oxidizing agents have major potentials and reducing agents

they have minor potentials.

Depending on the operating conditions, any electrode can behave as an anode

both from cathode. We have seen before that SHE is the cathode when coupled with lo

zinc in a cell, and becomes the anode when used in a cell combined with

the copper electrode.

Any species that is to the left of a given half-cell reaction will react

spontaneously with a species that appears right in any reaction of

half-cell that is below the previous one in a table in which are arranged the

reactions from minor potentials (below) to major potentials (top). -> rule

of the diagonal

Changing the stoichiometric coefficients of a half-cell reaction does not change the

potential value because the electrode potentials are intensive properties.

This means that the value of E ° is not influenced by the size of the electrodes

or the amount of solution present.

Like ΔH, ΔG, ΔS when we reverse a reaction the sign of E ° changes but its

absolute value remains the same.

Potential of a semielement

Zn2 + + 2e- → Zn (s)

Cu2 + + 2e- → Cu (s)

This is the experimental method to calculate the activity of an ion or an element

under certain conditions.

Ecatodo> Eanodo

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The thermodynamics of redox reactions

The electrical energy is given by the product of the cell's emf for the electric charge

total passing through the cell. The measured emf is the maximum difference of

potential that the cell can

where the faraday constant, F = 96490 C / mol e-. The minus sign indicates that the job

electric is done by the system on the environment. More precisely the change in energy

Gibbs free represents the maximum amount of useful work you can get in

a reaction:

It is now possible to correlate E ° cell to the equilibrium constant of a redox reaction

E ° cell = 0.0592 V / n ∙ log K

The Nernst equation (galvanic cells different from the standard state)

E = E ° - 0.0592V / n ∙ log Q

During the operation of a galvanic cell, the electrons flow from the anode to the

cathode, leading to product formation and decreased concentration

of the reagent. Q increases which means that E decreases. In the end, the cell reaches

the dynamic equilibrium, where there is no electron transfer for which E = 0 e

Q = K. The Nernst equation allows us to calculate E in a redox reaction in

function of the concentration of reagents and products.

BATTERY

1. Standard hydrogen electrode

(SHE)

Hydrogen gas gurgles in a solution

of hydrochloric acid at 25 ° C. The platinum electrode

has two functions. First of all it provides a

surface on which dissociation can occur

of hydrogen molecules, it also behaves

as a conductor for the external circuit. The

cell diagram is:

if it is connected to a cell with zinc.

2. Concentrated batteries

to reach. It is given by the completed electrical work divided by the total charge (q = n ∙ F):

w ele

= -n ∙ F ∙ E

Mobile

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We combine two semi-elements of the same

nature that have different activities since

placed in different concentrations. In this case

the nenst equation holds: E =

There

reduction should occur in the

more concentrated compartment and oxidation

in the most diluted one. The cell diagram is:

The emf of the concentration cells is usually small and decreases

continuously during operation

of the cell because the concentrations in the two compartments tend to equalize.

A biological cell can be compared to a concentration cell if you want to

calculate its membrane potential

3. Fuel cells

A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that requires a continuous supply of

reagents to stay in operation. A hydrogen oxygen fuel cell is

consisting of an electrolytic solution (KOH), such as, for example, a solution of

potassium hydroxide, and two electrodes

inert. Hydrogen oxygen gases

they gurgle in the compartments

cathode anodes where they occur

reactions:

2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-

→ 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

The cell reaction is spontaneous under standard conditions considering that

positive potential energy. Fuel cells do not conserve chemical energy

therefore the reagents must be continuously entered and constantly removed

products.

4. Lead accumulators

The lead accumulator, commonly used in automobiles, consists of

six identical cells placed in series. Each cell has a lead anode and a cathode

Zn (s) | Zn2 + (0.10 M) || Zn2 + (1

M) | Zn (s)

Page 100

consisting of lead dioxide packed on a metal plate. both the anode and the

cathodes are immersed in an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, which acts as

electrolyte. The reactions of the cell are:

Pb (s) + SO42- (aq) ↔ PbSO4 (s) + 2e-

ANODE (-) OX

PbO2 + 4H + (aq) +

SO42- (aq) + 2e- ↔ PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) CATODO (+) RD

→ Pb (s) + PbO2 + 4H + (aq) + 2SO42- (aq) ↔ 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)

Since the electrochemical reaction consumes sulfuric acid, the level can be verified
discharge of a battery by measuring the density of the electrolyte with a densimeter,

as is usually the case in service stations.

ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is the process in which electrical energy is used to induce one

non-spontaneous reaction. An electrolytic cell is a way to make things happen

electrolysis.

1. Electrolysis of sodium chloride (Cella di Downs)

In its molten state, sodium chloride, an ionic compound, can be electrified

to form sodium metal and chlorine. The electrolytic cell contains a pair of

electrodes connected to a battery. The battery acts as a pushing electron pump

electrons towards the cathode, where the reduction takes place, and subtracts them from the anode
where

oxidation occurs. (not spontaneous process)

2Na + + 2Cl- → 2Na + Cl2

By studying the electrolytic processes, it is sometimes discovered that the voltage required for

to make a given reaction take place is considerably higher than that indicated by

electrode potential. Overvoltage is the difference between the potential

of the electrode and the actual voltage needed to induce electrolysis. Overvoltage

for the formation of gaseous oxygen it is therefore particularly high when operating

under standard conditions the anode forms gaseous chlorine instead of oxygen.

! NB! the cations will be reduced to the cathode and the anions will oxidize at the anode

2. Water electrolysis

The water contained in a Becker in atmospheric conditions does not decompose

spontaneously to form hydrogen and oxygen gases because the variation

the standard free energy of this reaction is largely positive. However, yes

can induce this reaction in an electrolytic cell consisting of a pair of

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non-reactive metal electrodes such as platinum, in a 0.1M H2SO4 solution which

allows the passage of current. Note that there is no solute consumption.

2H2O → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

3. Purification of metallic copper

The metallic copper obtained from its minerals often contains a large number of

impurities such as zinc, iron, silver and gold. The metals more positive electrons are

removed by an electrolytic process in which impure copper behaves as

anode and the pure cathode one, in a solution of sulfuric acid containing ions

Cu2 +.

Cu (s) → Cu2 + (aq) + 2e- ANODE - OX (+)

Cu2 + (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s) CATODO -RD (-)

Faraday's law: to calculate the quantities of substances produced

Faraday observed that the mass of the product formed at an electrode is proportional

both to the amount of electricity transferred to the electrode and to the molar mass of the

substance in question.

1 C = 1 A x 1s

Current (amps) and time (seconds) → Charge (Coulomb)

Faraday charge / constant → Number of moles electrons

Use the molar ratio in the half-cell reaction → Moles of reduced substances or

oxidised

Use the molar mass or the perfect gas equation → Grams or liters of product

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

Many important properties of solutions depend on the number of particles of

solute and not by the nature of the particles themselves. These properties are called

colligative properties. These are :

1. Lowering of the vapor pressure

If a solute is not volatile (ie it does not have a measurable vapor pressure) la

The vapor pressure of the solution is always lower than that of the pure solvent.
This definition is defined by Raoult's law which states: partial pressure

of a solvent on a solution P1, is given by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent

P1 °, multiplied by the molar fraction of the solvent in solution, X1.

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P1 → Ideal solution where the intermolecular forces between the molecules of solute and di

solvent are equal to the interactions between solvent molecules and molecules of

solute (∆Hsol = 0)

PA → Diluted real solutions where XA >> XB. For this reason I can still

apply Raoult's law to solvent A, but not to the solute which will be proprzionale

to Henry's experimentally calculated constant

In a real solution I cannot derive the pressures PA and PB starting from

concentrations. The solution is real when solvent and solute are similar.

→ In case the solute is an electrolyte I have to consider inside

of the equation the value i. This is equal to the number of electrons that are formed per

moles of electrolyte.

2. Ebulloscopic elevation

The boiling temperature of a solution is the temperature at which its voltage

of steam equals external atmospheric pressure. This increases with increasing

of the addition of solute to pure solvent.

3. Cryoscopic lowering

Similarly to what happened with the ebulloscopic raising, so it happens with

the cryoscopic lowering, defined as: ∆Tcrio = Tcrio ° - Tcrio = Kcrio ∙ mB ∙ i

4. osmotic pressure

Many chemical and biological processes are based on the selective passage of molecules of

solvent through a porous membrane from a diluted solution to one more

concentrated. The two compartments are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, which

allows the passage of solvent molecules, but blocks that of the molecules of

solute. At first the water level in the two tubes is the same, after a while
of the two he will have risen, more precisely the one where the solute will be present. The

net movement of solvent molecules through the semipermeable membrane

from a pure solvent or a diluted solution to a more concentrated solution is

called osmosis. The osmotic pressure (π) of a solution is the necessary pressure

to block the osmosis process.

Π = MRT ∙ i

where M is the molarity of the solution, R the gas constant and T the temperature

absolute. → It is a dynamic balance. The solutions can therefore be:

ISOTONIC (= concentration) → solutions with the same concentration of solutes

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HYPOTHONICS (- concentrated) → inflate cells that can explode when

the surrounding water enters the cell.

HYPERTONICS (+ concentrated) → hypertonic solutions dry cells,

recalling their water to compensate for the difference in solutes.