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Clinical overview
Clinical practice recommendations for
depression
Malhi GS, Adams D, Porter R, Wignall A, Lampe L, OÕConnor N, G. S. Malhi1,2,3, D. Adams1,2,
Paton M, Newton LA, Walter G, Taylor A, Berk M, Mulder RT. R. Porter4, A. Wignall5,
Clinical practice recommendations for depression. L. Lampe1,2,3, N. OÕConnor3,6,
M. Paton2, L. A. Newton2,
Objective: To provide clinically relevant evidence-based G. Walter3,5, A. Taylor2,
recommendations for the management of depression in adults that are M. Berk7,8,9, R. T. Mulder4
informative, easy to assimilate and facilitate clinical decision making. 1
CADE Clinic, Department of Psychiatry, Royal North
Method: A comprehensive literature review of over 500 articles was
Shore Hospital, 2Northern Sydney Central Coast Mental
undertaken using electronic database search engines (e.g. MEDLINE, Health Drug and Alcohol, Northern Sydney Central
PsychINFO and Cochrane reviews). In addition articles, book chapters Coast Area Health Service, 3Discipline of Psychological
and other literature known to the authors were reviewed. The findings Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW,
were then formulated into a set of recommendations that were Australia, 4Department of Psychological Medicine,
developed by a multidisciplinary team of clinicians who routinely deal University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand, 5Child
with mood disorders. The recommendations then underwent and Adolescent Mental Health Services, NSCCAHS,
6
consultative review by a broader advisory panel that included experts Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney,
in the field, clinical staff and patient representatives. NSW, 7Barwon Health and the Geelong Clinic,
Results: The clinical practice recommendations for depression Melbourne University, 8Orygen Research Centre,
Melbourne University and 9Mental Health Research
(Depression CPR) summarize evidence-based treatments and provide a
Institute, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
synopsis of recommendations relating to each phase of the illness. They
are designed for clinical use and have therefore been presented
succinctly in an innovative and engaging manner that is clear and
informative. Key words: major depression; treatment
Conclusion: These up-to-date recommendations provide an evidence- recommendations; clinical practice guidelines;
based framework that incorporates clinical wisdom and consideration evidence-based review
of individual factors in the management of depression. Further, the Professor Gin S. Malhi, CADE Clinic, Level 5, Building
novel style and practical approach should promote uptake and 36, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, Sydney,
implementation. NSW 2065, Australia. E-mail: gmalhi@med.usyd.edu.au
Clinical recommendations
• The management of depression should be based on a combination of data-driven evidence and
clinical experience.
• Management strategies should be tailored to the individual so as to SET A PACE for treatment that
matches the phase of illness.
• Consideration should be given to the clinical context, potential comorbidities and the quantification
of symptom severity using rating scales.
• Psychological strategies should be given greater consideration.
Additional comments
• The clinical practice recommendations (CPR) for depression should be used in conjunction with
other recognized sources to guide the management of depression.
• Practice recommendations or treatment guidelines cannot fully capture the myriad of variables
unique to each individual and thus need to be used flexibly alongside consideration of the person,
their sociocultural context and availability of resources.
• The Depression CPR focus on the management of depression in adults. Special populations,
comorbidities and novel treatments have not been reviewed in detail.
8
Depression CPR
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Malhi et al.
Table 1. DSM-IV (16) and ICD-10 (2) major depressive disorder diagnostic criteria: symptoms
Relapse Recurrence
Pro diso
to
Relapse
gre rder
ssi
on
Symptoms
Syndrome
Treatment-resistance
Fig. 1. Course of illness in depression [adapted from Ref. (19)]. Stages of illness – Response: significant reduction in clinical
signs ⁄ symptoms (often quantified in studies as a 50% decrease in the score of a rating scale such as HAM-D ⁄ MADRS). Remission:
state of minimal or no signs ⁄ symptoms but lacking full functional recovery. Recovery: stable state of minimal or no signs ⁄ symptoms
with return to premorbid functioning. Relapse: re-emergence ⁄ worsening of signs ⁄ symptoms prior to having achieved recovery.
Recurrence: emergence of signs ⁄ symptoms following recovery. Phases of treatment – Acute Phase: initial phase of treatment with
active signs and symptoms. Treatment targets response. Continuation: following remission, treatment continues with a focus on
achieving functional improvement. Maintenance: treatment continues until signs and symptoms have fully remitted, and functional
recovery has been achieved. It is on this basis that continuation treatment prevents relapse and maintenance treatment prevents
recurrence. However, in practice depression does not always manifest as discrete episodes and therefore clinically, such a distinction
can be difficult. In many contexts, relapse and recurrence are used interchangeably.
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Depression CPR
as 50% reduction in rating scale score from base- Table 2. Definition of levels of evidence criteria used in recommendations
line, does not necessarily equate to clinical remis- Level NHMRC level of evidence (21)
sion) and ongoing successful treatment, during the
subsequent continuation phase, ideally eventuates in Level I Systematic review of all relevant randomized controlled trials (RCT)
Level II One or more properly designed randomized controlled trial
functional recovery. In practice, treatment often Level III Well-designed prospective trial (non-randomized controlled trial);
continues into the maintenance phase to further Comparative studies with concurrent controls and allocation not
diminish the risk of future recurrence. randomized;
The Depression CPR have been structured case-controlled or interrupted time series with a control group
Level IV Case series, either post-test or pretest ⁄ post-test
according to these phases of treatment. Additional Level V Expert opinion
consideration has then been given to dealing with
specific subtypes and managing non-response. NHMRC, National Health and Medical Research Council.
SET A PACE
Assesment: Psychological therapy (I)
Safety
- characterise
Antidepressant treatment (I)
Education
- calibrate
Combination (I)
Therapeutic - corroborate
relationship
- consider ECT (I)
Fig. 2. Schematic overview of the management of depression. See Boxes 2–4 for detailed explanation. ECT, electroconvulsive
therapy.
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Malhi et al.
ÔEÕ: Educate the affected individual and, where appropriate, the family ⁄ carer about the illness, treatment options and possible consequences.
Psychoeducation and structured problem solving are effective interventions for the treatment of depression in primary care (23–25) and should be routinely
provided. Recommend lifestyle changes (sleep hygiene, regular exercise, reduction in alcohol, smoking and illicit drugs and anxiety management) to assist
recovery (26–28).
ÔTÕ: Therapeutic relationship begins at the time of assessment and remains integral throughout treatment. Irrespective of the therapeutic modality used in
the treatment, the relationship between the therapist and patient is an important factor in the process that governs the outcome. Specifically, the quality of
the therapeutic relationship, as perceived by the patient, the therapistÕs overall expectation of change and continuity of care have been shown to
independently predict treatment outcome (29).
ÔAÕssessment
The factors that govern treatment choice (PACE) and treatment response are determined by a
comprehensive ÔAssessmentÕ (see Box 3).
*Validated clinician-rated scales include Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) (30, 31), Montgomery–Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) (32) and the
Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS) (33).
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Depression CPR
• SSRI (44–52). SSRIs are generally better tolerated than other classes of antidepressants and are suitable first-line. Sexual dysfunction and gastrointestinal
symptoms are common. Many SSRIs (especially fluoxetine and paroxetine) cause significant CYP450 inhibition and care is needed when co-prescribed with other
medications (53).
• NARI (reboxetine) (54–56). Reboxetine is suitable first-line. Common side-effects include hypersomnia, fatigue and nausea.
• NaSSA (mirtazapine) (57–60). Mirtazapine, a suitable first-line option, is associated with weight gain and drowsiness.
• SNRI (venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine and duloxetine) (61). SNRIs appear to be more effective than SSRIs in treating severe depressive symptoms (HAM-D ‡25) and
melancholia (62). In some cases, adverse effects may limit SNRIs to second-line treatment. However, if depression is severe (i.e. HAM-D >25), then SNRIs are a
suitable first-line option. Sexual dysfunction and gastrointestinal symptoms are common with venlafaxine.
• TCA (45–49, 63–65). In comparison with SSRIs, TCAs have a greater side-effect burden (anticholinergic and CNS) (66) and toxicity in overdose (53) and therefore
are considered second-line. However, TCAs (especially those that have both noradrenergic and serotonergic activity such as amitriptyline and clomipramine) may
be more effective when compared with other antidepressants in treating severe depressive symptoms (HAM-D ‡25), in particular patients with melancholia and
those hospitalized because of severe depression (67–72).
• MAOIs. Efficacious antidepressants but not recommended first-line because of risk of hypertensive crisis if necessary dietary and drug interaction restrictions are
not adhered to (Fig. 3).
SSRIs
NARIs
NASSAs
First-line
SNRIs
Second-line Legend
TCAs
Key to Figure
MAOIs Acute efficacy
0 Tolerability difficulties
Fig. 3. Consideration of efficacy and tolerability for the principal antidepressant classes.†
†
Many agents possess some degree of antidepressant properties and this list is not intended to be comprehensive.
CBT, cognitive behavioural therapy; IPT, interpersonal therapy; BAS, behavioural activation strategies; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; TCA, tricyclic antidepressant;
SNRI, serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor; NARI, noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor; NaSSA, noradrenaline and specific serotonergic antidepressant; MAOI,
monoamine oxidase inhibitor; HAM-D, Hamilton rating scale for depression; ECT, electroconvulsive therapy.
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Malhi et al.
The above recommendations (PACE) apply to in particular those with treatment implications
depressive disorders as defined by the signs and are discussed briefly in Fig. 4 and Box 5.
symptoms in Table 1. Typically, unipolar depres- The precise criteria and treatment recommen-
sion is a recurrent episodic illness that causes dations for atypical depression lack widespread
significant functional impairment. However, the consensus; however, in practice, ÔatypicalÕ features
latter can also be caused by subsyndromal are not uncommon (see Box 5). In some
depression, which subsumes admixtures of epi- contexts, and somewhat confusingly, ÔatypicalÕ is
sodes that are brief (episodes of less than 2-week erroneously used to describe a depressive disor-
duration) and those marked by chronic symp- der with psychotic features. In these recommen-
toms of low intensity (dysthymia). Depression dations psychotic depression is used to refer to
can therefore manifest with a variety of Ôsub- the occurrence of delusions and ⁄ or hallucinations
thresholdÕ symptoms and such presentations can (usually mood-congruent) within the context of a
remain undetected and untreated because of depressive disorder. Further, it is important to
comorbid anxiety or personality disorders. As note that psychotic features confer a greater risk
such, subsyndromal depression is under- of suicide, and in this regard ECT may be
researched and it is difficult to make specific considered first-line because of its greater efficacy
detailed recommendations. in this ÔsubtypeÕ of depression (84, 85).
Depression subtypes
Other ÔsubtypesÕ of depression that have been
identified with somewhat greater consistency, and
Melancholic features
Melancholia is characterized by psychomotor changes and somatic symptoms (16). Melancholic depression has a lower placebo response rate compared with depression
without melancholic features, suggesting lower rates of spontaneous recovery and a greater need for active treatment (89).
• Evidence suggests that TCAs and dual acting agents have superior efficacy when compared with SSRIs (62, 67, 90, 91).
• Depression with melancholic features appears to respond well to antidepressant and ECT treatment (80, 81).
• Limited data report mixed findings in relation to efficacy of psychological treatments in depression with melancholic features (92, 93). Adjunctive psychological
therapy may be of benefit for residual symptoms following an antidepressant response (refer to Box 7 ÔMaintenanceÕ section).
Psychotic features
Describes depression accompanied by delusions and ⁄ or hallucinations that are usually, but not always, mood congruent (16).
• TCAs appear to be more effective than other antidepressants in treating psychotic depression (94).
• Combining an antidepressant with an antipsychotic may be more effective than an antidepressant alone; some but not all studies support the benefit of this
combination (94).
• Antipsychotic monotherapy is not as effective as a combination of antipsychotic and antidepressant (level I) (94). ECT is an effective alternative (84, 85).
TCA, tricyclic antidepressant; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; ECT, electroconvulsive therapy.
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Depression CPR
Summary of Recommendations
Atypical Melancholic Psychotic
Depression
features features features
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Malhi et al.
MBCT
CBT
IPT
BAS
Fig. 5. Schematic demonstrating the potential phase-specific application of psychological therapies with level I evidence.† See Table 4 for further details.
†
In the light of its phase-specific application, MBCT (level II) has also been included.
Psychosocial
• Address psychosocial ⁄ lifestyle factors (accommodation, social support, employment).
• Ensure social supports are in place or assist patient to link into support networks.
• Consider occupational therapy or vocational support where there has been disengagement from activities.
Pharmacological
• Antidepressant treatment diminishes the risk and severity of depressive relapse (116, 117); however, even with ongoing maintenance administration, recurrences
may occur (118).
• Lithium monotherapy is an effective alternative maintenance treatment option in unipolar depression (119) and may be considered if antidepressants cannot be
tolerated (e.g. because of sexual dysfunction). However, long-term administration of lithium is associated with serious side-effects such as renal dysfunction (120)
and therefore lithium levels should be closely monitored.
Maintaining antidepressant treatment
• Maintain therapeutic dose that was effective during acute treatment because this dosage is generally more efficacious in preventing relapse or recurrence than
lower Ômaintenance dosesÕ (121–124).
• Assess and monitor for tolerability, adverse effects and adherence to treatment.
Stopping antidepressant treatment
• Discontinuation symptoms may emerge following the cessation of all classes of antidepressants. Therefore, although the optimal regime remains unclear,
antidepressant treatment should be discontinued gradually.
• The risk of discontinuation symptoms is the greatest with higher doses of antidepressants and longer duration of treatment (up to 2 months); however, symptoms
are usually transient and mild, and resolve with antidepressant reinstatement (125).
• Amongst the antidepressants, discontinuation is more likely with venlafaxine (126, 127) and short-acting SSRIs (e.g. paroxetine) but less likely with fluoxetine (128,
129).
• Abrupt cessation of TCAs may cause cholinergic-rebound phenomena (flu-like illness, myalgia and abdominal cramps).
ECT
• There is limited evidence for long-term ECT treatment (130); however, maintenance ECT has been shown to be as effective as combined nortriptyline and lithium
and superior to placebo in preventing relapse ⁄ recurrence (131, 132).
• Review on an individual case-by-case basis and seek consultation (level V).
BAS, behavioural activation strategies; IPT, interpersonal therapy; CBT, cognitive behavioural therapy; MBCT, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy; SSRI, selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitor; TCA, tricyclic antidepressant; ECT, electroconvulsive therapy.
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Depression CPR
Cognitive Behavioural Level I (38–41) Level II (110–112) CBT employs a combination of cognitive and behavioural techniques to target
Therapy (CBT) maladaptive thinking, deficits and factors predisposing to and perpetuating
depressed mood.
Interpersonal Level I (42, 43) Level III (113) IPT emphasizes the correlation between depression and the social
Therapy (IPT) environment. The therapy focuses on the current context and attempts to
bring about active changes to help the individual to find solutions for, or
adapt to, interpersonal problems.
Behavioural Activation Level I (26, 27) – BAS strategies targets behaviours that maintain or worsen depression,
Strategies (BAS) particularly inertia and loss of pleasure and achievement. It involves, for
example, scheduling activities and graded task assignments.
Mindfulness-based – Level II (114, 115) MBCT differs from traditional CBT in that it does not focus on the content of
Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) thoughts. Rather, it emphasizes the process of attending to thoughts and
feelings and experiencing and tolerating these without judgment.
Cognitive Behavioural Analysis Level II Level III (135) The focus of CBASP is to apply situational analysis techniques to social
System of Psychotherapy (133, 134) interactions and remedy the thought and behaviour patterns that lead to a
(CBASP) disconnection between the patient and their environment. Thus far, therapy
has been largely studied in patients with chronic depression.
Internet-based Self- Level II (136) – A structured treatment approach delivered online applying CBT principles with
management CBT the aim of developing new types of behaviour and cognition. Can be deliv-
ered with or without therapist support (usually via online email or forum).
Short-term Psychodynamic Level II (137). – Strategies include the use of the triangle of conflict (feelings, anxiety and
Psychotherapy defence) and the triangle of person (past, therapist and present). Short-term
psychodynamic psychotherapy differs from longer term psychodynamic
analysis in that it applies therapeutic focus, active therapist involvement and
time restriction.
Family Therapy Level II (138–140) – Family therapy refers to a range of approaches including psychoeducational,
systemic, behavioural and psychoanalytical models. Essentially, family ther-
apy for depression aims to help family members disengage from destructive
forms of communication, and through that process, reduce the symptoms of
depression.
Marital Therapy Level II (141) – Marital therapy, derived from social learning theory, aims to modify negative
interactional behaviours between the couple and increase mutually sup-
portive aspects of the relationship.
With respect to psychological interventions, it is important to consider the potential phase-specific benefits of individual therapies (see Fig. 5), noting, however, that, as yet,
the evidence is incomplete and the findings from many studies are inconclusive. Further, to date, insufficient studies have been conducted to determine the specific benefits of
psychological monotherapy vs. combination with medication. However, as regards IPT and CBT in combination with antidepressants, in addition to efficacy in the acute phase
of treatment, these psychological interventions have been shown to facilitate remission and recovery and diminish the subsequent likelihood of relapse and recurrence (110–
113).
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Malhi et al.
Therefore, the practical treatment of partial or integration of clinical management skills and
no treatment response requires experience and therapeutic strategies. The key elements of these
careful consideration. Specifically, this entails the are outlined in Box 8.
Review
adherence & Clinical Optimise
dose
Management
Seek
ECT
consultation
Therapeutic
Re-evaluate Re-assess for Strategies Augment/
Substitute
diagnosis comorbidities Combine
Clinical management
Review adherence and dosage. Ensure adherence to and satisfaction with treatment plan. If taking an antidepressant review dosage (Fig. 6).
Re-evaluate diagnosis. Consider maintaining factors of depression, such as psychosocial stressors. Re-evaluate substance abuse or personality issues and re-consider
alternative causes (e.g. bipolar disorder and thyroid dysregulation).
Re-assess comorbidities. Especially anxiety, drug and alcohol, or personality disorders. Assess for medical comorbidities.
Refer and consult. Consultation with colleagues or referral to a specialist or specialist clinic should be considered in complex cases, or where there has been partial or no
response to multiple treatment trials. Advice should also be sought when prescribing novel treatments.
In conjunction with clinical management, structured rating scales (see ÔAssessmentÕ) can assist in quantifying treatment response and determining change in clinical
profile.
Therapeutic strategies
Optimize
• Optimize existing treatments.
• If taking an antidepressant, optimize dose (where possible, e.g. TCAs, check levels).
• TCAs, venlafaxine and escitalopram generally have antidepressant activity across a broader dose range (150–152).
Augment and ⁄ or combine
• Add psychological treatment (CBT) or antidepressant medication as indicated ⁄ necessary.
• Pharmacological augmentation strategies: lithium (level I) (153, 154), atypical antipsychotics (level I) (olanzapine, risperidone, quetiapine) (155), short-term
benzodiazepine use (level I) (156) or thyroid hormone (157, 158). Note, lithium is used widely as an augmentation agent and can be administered in conjunction
with all antidepressants.
• Combining antidepressants: there is little controlled evidence to support this approach, but clinically it is occasionally used to treat non-response. Logical
combinations include combining serotonergic and noradrenergic acting drugs (159–161).
• Caution: when employing augmentation strategies or if combining antidepressants, monitor carefully for side-effects and potential toxicity.
Substitute
Includes changing between antidepressants and psychological treatments, or substituting class of antidepressant.
• Before altering any treatment, allow a trial of appropriate duration, usually 2–6 weeks, at adequate dosage for pharmacological or psychological treatments
(sometimes longer) (162, 163) (see also Box 6).
• When substituting antidepressants, alter antidepressant class unless reason for substitution is poor tolerability, which has prevented an adequate trial.
• Consider dual-acting agents (e.g. venlafaxine and duloxetine) (164), TCAs (165) or MAOI (e.g. phenelzine) if adverse effects and dietary restrictions can be tolerated
(109).
TCA, tricyclic antidepressant; CBT, cognitive behavioural therapy; MAOI, monamine oxidase inhibitor; ECT, electroconvulsive therapy.
18
Depression CPR
management of depression in adults, clinical use the Depression CPR in conjunction with
depression arises in other populations and often publications that outline the evidence for managing
in conjunction with other illnesses. These specific depression with comorbid anxiety (173), substance
circumstances, along with antidepressant side- misuse (174, 175), personality disorders (176),
effects and novel ⁄ emerging treatments, are briefly schizophrenia (177) and medical problems (178,
addressed. 179).
Fig. 7. Side-effects associated with the principle antidepressant classes. Source: adapted from Refs (191–193). MAOIs require dietary
restrictions to prevent hypertensive crisis, some combinations with other drugs can be fatal. +, uncommon; ++, common; +++,
very common; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; TCA, tricyclic antidepressant; SNRI, serotonin and noradrenaline re-
uptake inhibitor; NARI, noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor; NaSSA, noradrenaline and specific serotonergic antidepressant; MAOI,
monoamine oxidase inhibitor; RIMA, reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase. Antidepressants are generally well-tolerated and are
not addictive, but non-compliance or discontinuation because of adverse effects remains a significant problem in clinical settings and
research trials. The figure outlines the main adverse effects experienced, according to each antidepressant class. Compared with other
antidepressants, SSRIs tend to be safer and better tolerated by patients, with a more favourable adverse effect profile, even at high
doses (68). Many of the adverse effects of SSRIs, such as gastrointestinal symptoms, tend to be transient and cease within a few days or
weeks after commencing treatment (194). Tricyclic antidepressants have higher discontinuation rates than SSRIs (191), are associated
with greater rates of anticholinergic side-effects, hypotensive and sedation effects and can also be toxic in overdose (194). The side-
effect and safety profile of TCAs limits their use as a first-line treatment option. Similarly, MAOIs are not favoured as initial treatment
options because of the risk of hypertensive crisis if strict dietary requirements are not maintained (195). The blood levels of some
antidepressants (e.g. TCAs) can be monitored, but this is not usually necessary and is not routinely advocated.
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Malhi et al.
ulation (184–187) and light therapy (188–190)], all sory boards, received funding for research and has been in
of which are increasingly used worldwide in the receipt of honoraria for talks at sponsored meetings world-
wide involving the following companies: AstraZeneca, Eli
treatment of mood disorders. Lilly, Jansen-Cilag, Organon, Pfizer and Wyeth. Professor
To conclude, the imprecision with which depres- Garry Walter has received educational grants from Eli Lilly,
sion has been defined has limited research and Janssen-Cilag and Pfizer, a research grant from AstraZeneca,
understanding of the disorder and thereby con- and travel assistance and an honorarium for a talk from Eli
stricted the sophistication with which it is routinely Lilly. Dr Lisa Lampe has received honoraria for lectures,
workshops, advisory boards and educational material in the
managed. past 5 years from the following companies: Wyeth, Lund-
The Depression CPR have been developed to beck, Pfizer, Sanofi, Janssen Cilag and AstraZeneca. She has
provide basic practical guidance as to the manage- received travel assistance from Wyeth and sits on the Pristiq
ment of depression and are a combination of data- Advisory Board (Wyeth). In the last 5 years Professor
driven evidence and clinical experience. They Richard Porter has received honoraria for speaking engage-
ments from Janssen-Cilag and Sanofi-Aventis. During the
cannot take into account the myriad of clinical past 3 years, Professor Roger Mulder received honoraria for
variables that are invariably present, and are thus speaking and travel assistance from Douglas Pharmaceuti-
not prescriptive, and need to be used flexibly. cals, Janssen-Cilag and AstraZeneca. Professor Michael Berk
Recommendations, like guidelines, are practical has received funding for research from Stanley Medical
clinical tools, derived from an incomplete and Research Foundation, MBF, NHMRC, Beyond Blue, Gee-
long Medical Research Foundation, Bristol Myers Squibb,
evolving database. They need to be interpreted Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, Organon, Novartis, Mayne
taking into account the personÕs clinical circum- Pharma, Servier, AstraZeneca, has received honoraria for
stances, sociocultural context, comorbidities and speaking engagements from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers
local health resources. Therefore, they do not Squibb, Eli Lilly, Glaxo SmithKline, Janssen Cilag, Lund-
represent a reference standard of care in medico- beck, Organon, Pfizer, Sanofi Synthelabo, Solvay, Wyeth and
served as a consultant to AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb,
legal proceedings. The recommendations have been Eli Lilly, Glaxo SmithKline, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck and
constructed so as to provide a useful framework Pfizer.
for the clinical management of depression and Danielle Adams, Andrea Taylor, Dr Nick OÕConnor, Dr
should ideally be used in conjunction with other Michael Paton, Dr Liz Newton and Dr Ann Wignall have no
recognized sources of information (72, 191, 192, competing interests.
196) and the application of clinical wisdom.
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