Digital Modulation PDF

Principles of Communications
Weiyao Lin
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Chapter 8: Digital Modulation

Techniques Textbook:
extbo Ch 8.4
4–8 . .7
2009/2010 Meixia Tao @ SJTU 1

Topics to be Covered
Digital
data baseband
modulator
Bandpass
Noise
channel
Digital
detector BPF
demodulator
Binary digital modulation Tradeoff study

M-ary digital modulation

Digital Modulation
The message
g signal
g is transmitted byy a sinusoidal carrier
wave
In digital
g communications,, the modulation p
process
corresponds to switching or keying the amplitude, frequency,
or phase of the carrier in accordance with the incoming
di it l d
digital data
t
Three basic digital modulation techniques
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) - special case of AM
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) - special case of FM
Phase-shift
Phase shift keying (PSK) - special case of PM
Will use signal space approach in receiver design and
performance analysis
8.1 Binary Modulation Types
In binary signaling, the modulator produces one of two
distinct signals in response to 1 bit of source data at a
time.
Binary modulation types
Binaryy PSK ((BPSK))
Binary FSK
Binary ASK

Binary Phase
Phase-Shift
Shift Keying (BPSK)
Modulation 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
“1”
“0”
, , bit duration
: carrier frequency, chosen to be for some fixed
integer or f c >> 1/ Tb
: transmitted signal energy per bit, i.e.
The pair of signals differ only in a relative phase shift of 180

degrees
Signal Space Representation for
BPSK
Clearly,
C ea y, there
e e is
soone
e bas
basis
s function
u c o o of u
unit e
energy
e gy
Then
A binary PSK system is therefore characterized by having

a signal
i l space that
th t iis one-dimensional
di i l (i.e.
(i N N=1),
1) and
d with
ith
two message points (i.e. M = 2)
0 s1
s2

Decision Rule of BPSK
Assume that the two signals
g are equally
q y likely,
y, i.e. P(s
( 1) =
P(s2) = 0.5. Then the optimum decision boundary is the
midpoint of the line joining these two message points
Region R2 Region R1
s2 0 s1
Decision rule:
Guess signal s1(t) (or binary 1) was transmitted if the
received signal point r falls in region R1
Guess signal s2(t) (or binary 0) was transmitted otherwise

Proof of the Decision Rule
Observation scalar (output of the demodulator) r is
If s1 is transmitted
If s2 is transmitted
where n represents
p the AWGN component,
p , which has
mean zero and variance
Thus the likelihood function of r is
Thus,

Recall ML decision criterion:
Choose s1
Ch
>
<
Ch
Choose s2
Thus
s1
>
<
s2
s1
And <
>
s2
s1
>
Finallyy <
s2
Probability of Error for BPSK
The conditional probability of the receiver deciding in favor
of symbol s2(t) given that s1(t) is transmitted is
Due to symmetry

0 r
Since the signals s1(t) and s2(t) are equally likely to be

transmitted, the average probability of error is
Note:
N t probability
b bilit off error d
depends
d on ratio
ti Eb/N0. This
Thi ratio
ti
is normally called bit energy to noise density ratio
(or SNR/bit)
BPSK Transmitter
Input binary m(t)

Spectrum
S t Product
P d t Binary PSK
Bi
data shaping filter modulator wave s(t)
Carrier wave
Rectangular
pulse

BPSK Receiver
Tb
∫ 0
dt
demodulator
de odu ato detector
is the carrier-phase offset, due to propagation delay or
oscillators at transmitter and receiver are not synchronous
The detection is coherent in the sense of
Phase synchronization: ensure local oscillator output at the receiver
is synchronized to the carrier in modulator
Timing synchronization: to ensure proper bit timing of the decision-
making operation

Binary FSK
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Modulation
“1”
“0”
: transmitted signal energy per bit
fi : transmitted frequency with separation Δf = f1 − f 0

Δf is selected so that s1(t) and s2(t) are orthogonal i.e.
(Example?)

Signal Space for BFSK
Unlike BPSK
BPSK, here two orthogonormal basis
functions are required to represent s1(t) and s2(t).
Signal space representation

Signal space diagram for binary FSK
Message
point
Message point
Observation vector

Decision Regions of Binary FSK
R2 Decision boundary
Message
point
R1
Message point
The receiver decides in favor of s1 if the received signal point

represented
p byy the observation vector r falls inside region
g R1.
This occurs when r1 > r2
When r1 < r2 , r falls inside region R2 and the receiver decides in
favor of s2
Probability of Error for Binary FSK
Given that s1 is transmitted,,
and
Since the condition r1 < r2 corresponds to the receiver
making a decision in favor of symbol s2, the conditional
probability of error given s1 is transmitted is given by
Define a new random variable

Since n1 and n2 are i.i.d
i i d with
Thus, n is also Gaussian with

By symmetry
Since the two signals are equally likely to be

transmitted the average probability of error for
transmitted,
coherent binary FSK is
3 dB worse than BPSK
i.e. to achieve the same Pe, BFSK needs 3dB more

transmission p power than BPSK
Binary FSK Transmitter
On-off
On off signalling form
1
0

Coherent Binary FSK Receiver
Tb
∫ 0
dt
+
Choose 1 if l>0
Choose 0 otherwise
-
Tb
∫ 0
dt

Binary ASK
Modulation 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
“1”
“0”
(On-off signalling)
Average
g energy
gy p
per bit
Region R2 Region R1
s2 s1

Probability of Error for Binary ASK
Average probability of error is
Identical to that of coherent binary FSK
Exercise: Prove Pe

Probability of Error and the Distance
B t
Between Si
Signals
l
BPSK BFSK BASK
These expressions illustrate the dependence of the error

probability on the distance between two signal points. In
general,

Probability of Error Curve for BPSK and FSK/ASK
0
10
-1
10
ASK/FSK
of Bit Errror
-2
10
-3
10
PSK
ability o
-4
10
Proba
-5
10
3dB
-6
10
-7
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
e.g. ☺ Eb/No in 2009/2010
[dB] Meixia Tao @ SJTU 25
Example #1
Binary data are transmitted over a microwave link
at the rate of 106 bits/sec and the PSD of the
noise at the receiver input is 10-10 watts/Hz.
watts/Hz
a) Find the average carrier power required to
maintain
i t i an average probability
b bilit off error
for coherent binary FSK.
b) Repeat the calculation in a) for noncoherent
binaryy FSK

We have discussed
Update
Coherent modulation schemes, .e.g.
BPSK, BFSK, BASK
They needs coherent detection,
assuming that the receiver is able to
detect and track the carrier wave’s
phase
In many practical situations, strict phase

synchronization is not possible. In these
situations,
i i non-coherent
h reception
i is i required.
i d
We now consider:
Non-coherent detection on binary FSK
Differential phase
phase-shift
shift keying (DPSK)
8.2: Non-coherent scheme BFSK
Consider a binary FSK system
system, the two signals are
Where and are unknown random phases with

uniform distribution

Signal Space Representation
No matter what the two phases are
are, the signals
can be expressed as a linear combination of the
four basis functions

Correlating the received signal r(t) with the four basis
functions p
produces the vector representation
p of the
received signal
D t t
Detector

Decision Rule for Non
Non-coherent
coherent FSK
ML criterion, assume P(s1) = P(s2):
Choose s1
>
<
Choose s2
Conditional pdf
Similarly,

For ML decision, we need to evaluate
i.e.
Removing
g the constant terms

We have the inequality
B d
By definition
fi iti
where I0(.) is a modified Bessel function of the zeroth order

Decision Rule (cont
(cont’d)
d)
Thus,, the decision rule becomes: choose s1 if
But note that this Bessel function is monotonically

increasing. Therefore we choose s1 if
Interpretation: compare the energy in the two frequencies

and pick the larger => envelop detector
Carrier phase is irrelevant in decision making

Structure of Non-Coherent Receiver for
Bi
Binary FSK
Comparator
(select
the
largest)
It can be
b shown
h th
thatt
(For detailed proof, see Section 10.4.2 in the textbook )

Performance Comparison Between coherent
FSK and
d Non-Coherent
N C h t FSK
0
10
-1
10
ASK/FSK
Bit Error
-2
10 NC FSK
-3
3
bility of B
10 BPSK
-4
10
Probab
-5 DPSK
10
-6
10
-7
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Eb/No in2009/2010
[dB] Meixia Tao @ SJTU 36
Differential PSK (DPSK)
DPSK can be viewed as the non-coherent
non coherent version
of PSK.
Phase synchronization
Ph h i ti iis eliminated
li i t d using
i
differential encoding
Encoding the information in phase difference
between successive signal transmission
In effect:
to send “0”
0 , we phase advance the current signal
waveform by 1800 ;
t send
to d “1”,
“1” we lleave th
the phase
h unchanged
h d
DPSK (cont
(cont’d)
d)
Provided that the unknown phase contained in
the received wave varies slowly (constant over two
bit intervals),
intervals) the phase difference between
waveforms received in two successive bit interval
will be independent of

Generation of DPSK signal
We can ggenerate DPSK signals
g by
y combining
g two basic
operations
Differential encoding of the information binary bits
Phase shift keying
The differential encoding process starts with an arbitrary
fi t bit,
first bit serving
i as reference
f
Let {mi} be input information binary bit sequence, {di} be
the differentially encoded bit sequence
If the incoming bit mi is “1”, leave the symbol di unchanged
with respect
p to the p
previous bit di-1
If the incoming bit mi is “0”, change the symbol di with respect
to the previous bit di-1

Illustration
The reference bit is chosen arbitrary, here taken as 1
Bi
Binary d
data
t 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 mi
Differentially
___________
encoded 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 di
binary data Initial bit d i = d i −1 ⊕ mi
Transmitted
Phase 0 0 π 0 0 π 0 0 0
DPSK transmitter diagram

Differential Detection of DPSK Signals
Tb
∫ 0
dt
Multiply the received DPSK signal with its delayed version

Output of integrator (assume noise free)
The unknown phase becomes irrelevant

If = 0 (bit 1), the integrator output y is positive
if π (bit 0), the integrator output y is negative
=π
Error Probability of DPSK
The differential detector is suboptimal in the sense
of error performance
It can be
b shown
h that
th t

Summary of Pe for Different Binary
M d l ti
Modulations
Coherent PSK
Coherent ASK
Coherent FSK
Non-Coherent FSK
DPSK

Pe Plots for Different Binary
y Modulations
0
10
-1
10
ASK/FSK
or
-2
of Bit Erro
10 NC FSK
-3 BPSK(QPSK)
10
bability o
-4
10
DPSK
Prob
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Eb/No in [dB]
We have discussed binary case
Update
Coherent modulation techniques:
BPSK, BFSK, BASK
Noncoherent modulation techniques:
Non-coherent FSK, DPSK
We now consider:
M-ary
M ary modulation techniques
MPSK
MQAM
MFSK

8.3 M
M-ary Modulation Techniques
In binaryy data transmission,, send onlyy one of two possible
p
signals during each bit interval Tb
In M-ary data transmission, send one of M possible signals
during each signaling interval T
In almost all applications, M = 2n and T = nTb, where n is
an integer
i t
Each of the M signals is called a symbol
These signals are generated by changing the amplitude,
phase or frequency of a carrier in M discrete steps.
Th s we
Thus, e ha
haveeMM-ary
ar ASK,
ASK M M-ary
ar PSK,
PSK and M M-ary
ar FSK
digital modulation schemes

Binary is a special case of M-ary
Another way
a of generating M
M-ary
ar signals is to
combine different methods of modulation into
hybrid forms
For example, we may combine discrete changes
in both the amplitude and phase of a carrier to
produce M-ary amplitude phase keying. A special
form of this hybrid modulation is M-ary QAM
(MQAM)
M-ary
M ary Phase
Phase-Shift
Shift Keying (MPSK)
The phase of the carrier takes on M possible values:
Signal set:
= Energy per symbol

1
f c >>
T
Basis functions

MPSK (cont
(cont’d)
d)

MPSK Signal Constellations
BPSK QPSK 8PSK 16PSK

The Euclidean
Th E lid di
distance
t b
between
t any ttwo signal
i l points
i t iin th
the
constellation is
⎛ 2π (m − n) ⎞
d mn = s m − s n = 2 Es ⎜1 − cos ⎟
⎝ M ⎠
The minimum Euclidean distance is
⎛ 2π ⎞ π
d min = 2 Es ⎜1 − cos ⎟ = 2 E s sin
⎝ M ⎠ M
dmin plays an important role in determining error performance as

discussed previously (union bound)
In the case of PSK modulation
modulation, the error probability is dominated by
the erroneous selection of either one of the two signal points adjacent
to the transmitted signal point.
Consequently, an approximation to the symbol error probability is
⎛ d min / 2 ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
PMPSK ≈ 2Q ⎜ ⎟ = 2Q ⎜ 2 E sin ⎟
⎜ N /2⎟ ⎝
s
M ⎠
⎝ 0 ⎠
Exercise
Consider the M=2
M 2, 4
4, 8 PSK signal constellations.
constellations
All have the same transmitted signal energy Es.
Determine
D t i the
th minimum
i i di
distance
t d min b
between
t
adjacent signal points
For M=8, determine by how many dB the
transmitted signal
g energy
gy Es must be increased to
achieve the same d as M =4.
min

Error Performance of MPSK
For large M, doubling the

number of phases requires an
additional 6dB/bit to achieve
the same performance
4dB 5dB 6dB

M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(MQAM)
In an M-ary
M ary PSK system,
system in-phase
in phase and quadrature
components are interrelated in such a way that the
envelope
p is constant ((circular constellation).
) If we
relax this constraint, we get M-ary QAM.
Signal set:
E0 is the energy
gy of the signal
g with the lowest amplitude
p
ai, bi are a pair of independent integers

MQAM (cont
(cont’d)
d)
Basis functions:

MQAM Signal Constellation
Square lattice
1 3 5 7
Can be related with two L-ary ASK in in-phase and

quadrature
d t components,t respectively,
ti l where
h M = L2
Error Performance of MQAM
It can be shown that the symbol error probability of
MQAM is tightly upper bounded as
⎛ 3kEb ⎞
Pe ≤ 4Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (for M = 2k )
⎝ ( M − 1) N 0 ⎠
Exercise: From the above expression, determine the increase

in the average
g energy
gy pper bit Eb required
q to maintain the same
error performance if the number of bits per symbol is increased
from k to k+1, where k is large.

M-ary Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) or
M ltit
Multitone Si
Signaling
li
Signal set:
where
As a measure off similarity
A i il it b between
t a pair
i off signal
i l
waveforms, we define the correlation coefficients

MFSK (cont
(cont’d)
d)
0.715/T
For orthogonality, minimum frequency separation

between successive frequencies is 1/(2T)

M ary orthogonal FSK has a geometric presenation as M
M-ary
M-dim orthogonal vectors, given as
s0 = ( E , 0, 0,L, 0)
s
s1 = ( 0,, E , 0,, L , 0 )
s
(
s M −1 = 0, 0, L , 0, Es )
The basis functions are
2
φm = cos 2π ( f c + mΔf ) t
T

Error Performance of MFSK

Notes on Error Probability Calculations
Pe is found by integrating conditional probability of

error over the decision region
Difficult for multi
multi-dimensions
dimensions
Can be simplified using union bound (see ch04)
Pe depends only on the distance profile of signal

constellation

Example #2
The 16-QAM signal constellation shown below is an
international standard for telephone-line modems (called
V.29).
)
a) Determine the optimum decision
boundaries for the detector
b) Derive the union bound of the
probability of symbol error
assumingi ththatt the
th SNR iis
sufficiently high so that errors
onlyy occur between adjacent
j
points
c) Specify a Gray code for this 16-
QAM V.29 signal constellation
Symbol Error versus Bit Error
Symbol errors are different from bit errors
When a symbol error occurs, all bits could
be in error
In general, we can find BER using
is the number bits which differ between and

Bit Error Rate with Gray Coding
Gray coding is a bit
bit-to-symbol
to symbol mapping
When going from one symbol to an adjacent
symbol,
b l only
l one bit outt off the
th k bits
bit changes
h
j
An error between adjacent symbol
y p
pairs results in
one and only one bit error.

Example: Gray Code for QPSK
11 10
01 00
Bit Error Rate for MPSK and MFSK
For MPSK with g
gray
y coding
g
An error between adjacent symbol will most likely occur
Thus, bit error probability can be approximated by
For MFSK
When an error occurs anyone of the other symbols may result
equally likely.
On average, therefore, half of the bits will be incorrect. That is k/2
bits every k bits will on average be in error when there is a symbol
error
Thus, the probability of bit error is approximately half the symbol
error 1
Pb ≅ Pe
2
8.4 Comparison of M-ary Modulation
Techniques
Channel bandwidth and transmit power are two
primary communication resources and have to be
used as efficient as possible
p
Power utilization efficiency (energy efficiency):
measured by the required Eb/No to achieve a
certain bit error probability
Spectrum utilization efficiency (bandwidth
efficiency): measured by the achievable data rate
per unit bandwidth Rb/B
It is always desired to maximize bandwidth
efficiency at a minimal required Eb/No

Example # 3
Suppose you are a system engineer designing a part of the communication
systems. You are required to design three systems as follow:
I. An ultra-wideband
ultra wideband system. This system can use a large of amount of
bandwidth to communicate. But the band it uses is overlaying with the other
communication system. The main purpose of deploying this system is to
provide high data rates.
II A wireless
II. i l remote
t control
t l system
t d i
designated
t d ffor controlling
t lli d devices
i
remotely under unlicensed band.
III. A fixed wireless system. The transmitters and receivers are mounted in a
fixed position with power supply
supply. This system is to support voice and data
connections in the rural areas or in developing countries. The main reason to
deploy this in such areas is because it is either very difficult or not costeffective
to cover the area through wired networks. This system works under licensed
band.
band
You are only required to design a modulation scheme for each of the above
systems. You are allowed to use MFSK, MPSK and MSK only. If you choose
to use MFSK or MPSK,, youy also need to state the modulation level. For
simplicity, the modulation level should be chosen from M=[Low, Medium, High].
Justify your answers. (Hints: Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has
a power spectral density limit in unlicensed band. It is meant that if your
system
sys e workso s under
u de uunlicensed
ce sed ba
band,
d, the
e po
power
e cacannot
o be larger
a ge than
a a limit.))

Energy Efficiency Comparison
MFSK MPSK

Energy Efficiency Comparison (cont
(cont’d)
d)
MFSK:
At fixed Eb/No, increase M can provide an improvement
on Pb
At fixed Pb increase M can provide a reduction in the
Eb/No requirement
MPSK
BPSK and QPSK have the same energy efficiency
At fixed Eb/No, increase M degrades Pb
At fixed Pb, increase M increases the Eb/No
requirement
MFSK is more energy efficient than MPSK

Bandwidth Efficiency Comparison
To compare
p bandwidth efficiency,
y, we need to know the
power spectral density (power spectra) of a given
modulation scheme
MPSK/MQAM
Bandwidth required to pass MPSK/MQAM signal is given by
But
= bit rate
Th bandwidth
Then b d idth efficiency
ffi i may b
be expressed
d as
(bits/sec/Hz)

Bandwidth Efficiency Comparison (cont
(cont’d)
d)
MFSK:
Bandwidth required to transmit MFSK signal is
(Adjacent frequencies need to be separated
by 1/2T to maintain orthogonality)
Bandwidth efficiency of MFSK signal
(bits/s/Hz)
As M increases, bandwidth efficiency of MPSK/MQAM

increases but bandwidth efficiency of MFSK decreases.
increases, decreases
This is a consequence of the fact that the dimension of the
signal space is two for MPSK/MQAM and is M for MFSK
MFSK.
Fundamental Tradeoff :
Bandwidth Efficiency and Energy Efficiency
To see the ultimate power-bandwidth
power bandwidth tradeoff, we need to
use Shannon’s channel capacity theorem:
Channel Capacity is the theoretical upper bound for the maximum
rate at which information could be transmitted without error
(Shannon 1948)
For a bandlimited channel corrupted by AWGN
AWGN, the maximum rate
achievable is given by
Ps
R ≤ C = B log2 (1 + SNR ) = B log2 (1 + )
N0 B
Note that Eb PsT P PB B
= = s = s = SNR
N 0 N 0 RN 0 RN 0 B R
Thus Eb B R / B
= (2 − 1)
N0 R
Power-Bandwidth Tradeoff
Capacity boundary
with R = C
Unachievable
Region with R > C
Shannon
limit

Notes on the Fundamental Tradeoff
In the limits as R/B g
goes to 0, we g
get
This value is called the Shannon Limit

Received Eb/N0 must be >-1.6dB for reliable communications
to be possible
BPSK and QPSK require the same Eb/N0 of 9.6 dB to achieve
Pe=10-5. However, QPSK has a better bandwidth efficiency,
which is why QPSK is so popular
MQAM is superior to MPSK
MPSK/MQAM iincreases b bandwidth
d idth efficiency
ffi i att th
the costt off
lower energy efficiency
MFSK trades energy gy efficiency
y at reduced bandwidth efficiency. y

System Design Tradeoff
Bandwidth Limited Systems:

Bandwidth scarce
Power available
Which
Modulation
to Use?
Power Limited Systems:

Power scarce
but bandwidth available

Example # 3
Suppose you are a system engineer designing a part of the communication
systems. You are required to design three systems as follow:
I. An ultra-wideband
ultra wideband system. This system can use a large of amount of
bandwidth to communicate. But the band it uses is overlaying with the other
communication system. The main purpose of deploying this system is to
provide high data rates.
II A wireless
II. i l remote
t control
t l system
t d i
designated
t d ffor controlling
t lli d devices
i
remotely under unlicensed band.
III. A fixed wireless system. The transmitters and receivers are mounted in a
fixed position with power supply
supply. This system is to support voice and data
connections in the rural areas or in developing countries. The main reason to
deploy this in such areas is because it is either very difficult or not costeffective
to cover the area through wired networks. This system works under licensed
band.
band
You are only required to design a modulation scheme for each of the above
systems. You are allowed to use MFSK, MPSK and MSK only. If you choose
to use MFSK or MPSK,, youy also need to state the modulation level. For
simplicity, the modulation level should be chosen from M=[Low, Medium, High].
Justify your answers. (Hints: Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has
a power spectral density limit in unlicensed band. It is meant that if your
system
sys e workso s under
u de uunlicensed
ce sed ba
band,
d, the
e po
power
e cacannot
o be larger
a ge than
a a limit.))

Practical Applications
BPSK:
WLAN IEEE802.11b (1 Mbps)
QPSK:
WLAN IEEE802.11b
IEEE802 11b (2 Mbps,
Mbps 5.5
5 5 Mbps,
Mbps 11 Mbps)
3G WDMA
DVB-T (with OFDM)
QAM
Telephone modem (16QAM)
Downstream of Cable modem ((64QAM,
Q , 256QAM)
Q )
WLAN IEEE802.11a/g (16QAM for 24Mbps, 36Mbps; 64QAM for 38Mbps
and 54 Mbps)
LTE Cellular Systems
FSK:
Cordless telephone
Paging system

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Principles of Communications

Chapter 8: Digital Modulation

2009/2010 Meixia Tao @ SJTU 1

Binary digital modulation Tradeoff study

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The pair of signals differ only in a relative phase shift of 180

A binary PSK system is therefore characterized by having

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Since the signals s1(t) and s2(t) are equally likely to be

Input binary m(t)

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: transmitted signal energy per bit

fi : transmitted frequency with separation Δf = f1 − f 0

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Signal space representation

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The receiver decides in favor of s1 if the received signal point

Define a new random variable

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Since the two signals are equally likely to be

3 dB worse than BPSK

i.e. to achieve the same Pe, BFSK needs 3dB more

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Identical to that of coherent binary FSK

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BPSK BFSK BASK

These expressions illustrate the dependence of the error

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In many practical situations, strict phase

Where and are unknown random phases with

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Signal space representation

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where I0(.) is a modified Bessel function of the zeroth order

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But note that this Bessel function is monotonically

Interpretation: compare the energy in the two frequencies

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(For detailed proof, see Section 10.4.2 in the textbook )

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DPSK transmitter diagram

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Multiply the received DPSK signal with its delayed version

The unknown phase becomes irrelevant

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= Energy per symbol

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