TOMSK POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

O.A. Kozhemyak, D.N. Ogorodnikov

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES

It is recommended for publishing as a study aid

by the Editorial Board of Tomsk Polytechnic University

Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House

2014
1
 UDC 621.38(075.8)
BBC 31.2
K58

Kozhemyak O.A.
K58 Computer aided design of electronic devices: study aid / O.A.
Kozhemyak, D.N. Ogorodnikov; Tomsk Polytechnic University. –
Tomsk: TPU Publishing House, 2014. – 130 p.

This textbook focuses on the basic notions, history, types, technology and
applications of computer-aided design. Methods of electronic devices simulation,
automated design of power electronic devices and components, constructive-
technological design are considered and discussed. Some features of the popular
electronics CADs are also shown. There are a lot of practical examples using
CADs of electronics.
The textbook is designed at the Department of Industrial and Medical
Electronics of TPU. It is intended for students majoring in the specialty
„Electronics and Nanoelectronics‟.

UDC 621.38(075.8)
BBC 31.2

Reviewer
Cand.Sc, Head of Laboratory,
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics
Aleksandr V. Osipov

© STE HPT TPU, 2014

© Kozhemyak O.A., Ogorodnikov D.N., 2014
© Design. Tomsk Polytechnic University
Publishing House, 2014

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Introduction. CAD around Us ...........................................................................5
What is CAD?................................................................................................5
Overview .......................................................................................................6
History ...........................................................................................................7
Uses ...............................................................................................................9
Types ...........................................................................................................10
Technology ..................................................................................................11
Electronic Design Automation ....................................................................12
Modern EDA Software ................................................................................15
Chapter 1 General Information on Design......................................................28
1.1 Definition of Design ..............................................................................28
1.2 The description of the automated designing process ............................31
1.3 Process Approach in Electronic Design Automation ............................33
1.4 Structure of CAD systems .....................................................................35
1.4 General Description of CAD .................................................................38
1.5 Decision-making in CAD. Choosing the Criterion of Optimality ........42
1.6 Application of Experiments Planning Methods in CAD ......................45
Chapter 2 Simulation of Electronic Devices ...................................................48
2.1 Methods of Electronic Devices Simulation ...........................................48
2.2 Kinds of simulation on design stages of electronic devices ..............51
2.3 Circuit Simulation .................................................................................55
2.4 Functional-logic Simulation of Digital Devices ...................................61
Chapter 3 Automated Designing of Power Electronic Devices and
Components ....................................................................................................62
3.1 Designing Devices of Power Electronics ..............................................62
3.2 Modeling example of rectifier designing ..............................................65
3.3 Methods of formation of static models elements of power electronics 68
Chapter 4 Designing of Low-Current Electronic Devices..............................73
4.1 Methods and Algorithms of Designing .................................................73
4.2 Automated Synthesis of Control Systems .............................................77
4.3 Procedures of Minimization at the Design of Electronic Devices ........79
4.5 Reliability Control of the Developed Electronic Device ......................81
Chapter 5 Constructive-Technological Designing .........................................83
5.1 Constructive-technological designing ...................................................83
5.2 The Design Analysis of Electromagnetic Compatibility of Electronic
Devices ........................................................................................................84
Chapter 6 Design of DC-DC Buck Converter ................................................86
6.1 Technical project ...................................................................................86
6.2 Analysis of the technical project ...........................................................86
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 6.3 Calculation of DC-DC converter...........................................................90
6.4 Designing and calculation of circuit components .................................91
6.4.1 Calculation of smoothing inductor .....................................................91
6.4.2 Calculation of power transistors .........................................................93
6.4.3 Calculation of electrolytic capacitors for smoothing filter circuits ...96
6.4.4 Calculation of diode blocks ................................................................98
6.4.5 Calculation of circuit parameters .......................................................99
6.4.6 Calculation of load parameters .........................................................100
6.4.7 Calculation of control circuit parameters .........................................100
6.4.8 Calculation of converter‟s efficiency and weight ............................101
6.5 Simulation............................................................................................102
6.5.1 Simulation circuit and conditions .....................................................102
6.5.2 Current and voltage waveforms .......................................................103
6.5.3 Testing protocol ................................................................................108
Conclusion ....................................................................................................111
Bibliography .................................................................................................112
Appendix A ...............................................................................................114
Appendix B ................................................................................................116

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Introduction.
CAD around Us
This chapter focuses on the basic notions, history, types, technology and
applications of computer-aided design systems. It is general information
about CADs.

What is CAD?

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist

in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD
software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the
quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to
create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of
electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations.
Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in electronic
design is known as Electronic Design Automation, or EDA. In mechanical
design is known as Mechanical Design Automation, or MDA, it is also
known as computer-aided drafting which describes the process of creating a
technical drawing with the use of computer software.
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector based graphics
to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster
graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it
involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and
engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as
materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-
specific conventions.
CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D)
space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many
applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries,
industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also
widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies,
advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC Digital content creation.
The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume
bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by
engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD
has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry,
computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential
geometry.
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 The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is
occasionally called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD).
While the goal of automated CAD systems is to increase efficiency, they
are not necessarily the best way to allow newcomers to understand the
geometrical principles of Solid Modeling. For this, scripting languages such
as PLaSM (Programming Language of Solid Modeling) are more suitable.

Overview

Beginning in the 1980s computer-aided design programs reduced the

need of draftsmen significantly, especially in small to mid-sized companies.
Their affordability and ability to run on personal computers also allowed
engineers to do their own drafting and analytic work, eliminating the need for
entire departments. In today's world, many students in universities do not
learn manual drafting techniques because they are not required to do so. The
days of hand drawing for final drawings are virtually over. Universities no
longer require the use of protractors and compasses to create drawings,
instead there are several classes that focus on the use of CAD software.
Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D
vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern
CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions,
allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the
inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical
modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD.
CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting
and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to
the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D
drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the
engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through
strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing
methods of components. It can also be used to design objects. Furthermore
many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation
capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs. 4D BIM is
a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or
schedule related information for project management.
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope
of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product
development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables

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designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for
future editing, saving time on their drawings.

History

Designers have long used computers for their calculations. Digital

computers were used in power system analysis or optimization as early as
proto-“Whirlwind” in 1949. Circuit design theory, or power network
methodology would be algebraic, symbolic, and often Vector based.
Examples of problems being solved in the mid-1940s to 50s include, Servo
motors controlled by generated pulse (1949), The digital computer with built-
in compute operations automatic co-ordinate transform to compute radar
related vectors (1951) and the essentially graphic mathematical process of
forming a shape with a digital machine tool (1952) were accomplished with
the use of computer software. The man credited with coining the term CAD.
Douglas T. Ross stated “As soon as I saw the interactive display equipment,
[being used by radar operators 1953] I said “Gee, that's just what we need””.
The designers of these very early computers built utility programs so that
programmers could debug programs using flow charts on a display scope
with logical switches that could be opened and closed during the debugging
session. They found that they could create electronic symbols and geometric
figures to be used to create simple circuit diagrams and flow charts. They
made the pleasant discovery that an object once drawn could be reproduced
at will, its orientation, Linkage [flux, mechanical, lexical scoping] or scale
changed. This suggested numerous possibilities to them. It took ten years of
interdisciplinary development work before SKETCHPAD sitting on evolving
math libraries emerged from MIT`s labs. Additional developments were
carried out in the 1960s within the aircraft, automotive, industrial control and
electronics industries in the area of 3D surface construction, NC
programming and design analysis, most of it independent of one another and
often not publicly published until much later. Some of the mathematical
description work on curves was developed in the early 1940s by Robert Issac
Newton from Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Robert A. Heinlein in his 1957 novel
The Door into Summer suggested the possibility of a robotic Drafting Dan.
However, probably the most important work on polynomial curves and
sculptured surface was done by Pierre Bézier (Renault), Paul de Casteljau
(Citroen), Steven Anson Coons (MIT, Ford), James Ferguson (Boeing), Carl
de Boor (GM), Birkhoff (GM) and Garibedian (GM) in the 1960s and W.
Gordon (GM) and R. Riesenfeld in the 1970s.

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 It is argued that a turning point was the development of the
SKETCHPAD system at MIT by Ivan Sutherland (who later created a
graphics technology company with Dr. David Evans). The distinctive feature
of SKETCHPAD was that it allowed the designer to interact with his
computer graphically: the design can be fed into the computer by drawing on
a CRT monitor with a light pen. Effectively, it was a prototype of graphical
user interface, an indispensable feature of modern CAD. Sutherland
presented his paper Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication
System in 1963 at a Joint Computer Conference having worked on it as his
PhD thesis paper for a few years. Quoting, “For drawings where motion of
the drawing, or analysis of a drawn problem is of value to the user, Sketchpad
excels. For highly repetitive drawings or drawings where accuracy is
required, Sketchpad is sufficiently faster than conventional techniques to be
worthwhile. For drawings which merely communicate with shops, it is
probably better to use conventional paper and pencil.” Over time efforts
would be directed toward the goal of having the designers drawings
communicate not just with shops but with the shop tool itself. This goal
would be a long time arriving.
The first commercial applications of CAD were in large companies in
the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as in electronics. Only large
corporations could afford the computers capable of performing the
calculations. Notable company projects were at GM (Dr. Patrick J.Hanratty)
with DAC-1 (Design Augmented by Computer) 1964; Lockheed projects;
Bell GRAPHIC 1 and at Renault (Bézier) – UNISURF 1971 car body design
and tooling.
One of the most influential events in the development of CAD was the
founding of MCS (Manufacturing and Consulting Services Inc.) in 1971 by
Dr. P. J. Hanratty, who wrote the system ADAM (Automated Drafting And
Machining) but more importantly supplied code to companies such as
McDonnell Douglas (Unigraphics), Computervision (CADDS), Calma,
Gerber, Autotrol and Control Data.
As computers became more affordable, the application areas have
gradually expanded. The development of CAD software for personal desktop
computers was the impetus for almost universal application in all areas of
construction.
Other key points in the 1960s and 1970s would be the foundation of
CAD systems United Computing, Intergraph, IBM, Intergraph IGDS in 1974
(which led to Bentley Systems MicroStation in 1984)
CAD implementations have evolved dramatically since then. Initially,
with 3D in the 1970s, it was typically limited to producing drawings similar
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to hand-drafted drawings. Advances in programming and computer hardware,
notably solid modeling in the 1980s, have allowed more versatile
applications of computers in design activities.
Key products for 1981 were the solid modelling packages - Romulus
(ShapeData) and Uni-Solid (Unigraphics) based on PADL-2 and the release
of the surface modeler CATIA (Dassault Systemes). Autodesk was founded
1982 by John Walker, which led to the 2D system AutoCAD. The next
milestone was the release of Pro/ENGINEER in 1988, which heralded greater
usage of feature-based modeling methods and parametric linking of the
parameters of features. Also of importance to the development of CAD was
the development of the B-rep solid modeling kernels (engines for
manipulating geometrically and topologically consistent 3D objects)
Parasolid (ShapeData) and ACIS (Spatial Technology Inc.) at the end of the
1980s and beginning of the 1990s, both inspired by the work of Ian Braid.
This led to the release of mid-range packages such as SolidWorks in 1995,
Solid Edge (then Intergraph) in 1996 and Autodesk Inventor in 1999.

Uses

Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and

designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user
and the type of software in question.
CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD)
activity within the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) processes, and as
such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or
stand-alone products, such as:
 Continuous acquisition and life cycle support (CALS) – continuous
information support of life cycle of a product
 Electronic design automation (EDA) the automated designing of
electronic devices
 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)
 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines
 Photorealistic rendering
 Document management and revision control using Product Data
Management (PDM)
 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) resource management of the
enterprise.

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 CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are
often required in the preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which
computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into
photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be
like were the proposed facilities allowed to be built. Potential blockage of
view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the
use of CAD.
CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four
properties which are history, features, parameterization, and high level
constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the
model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole
model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape,
and other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the
CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as
tensile strength, yield strength, electrical or electro-magnetic properties. Also
it‟s stress, strain, timing or how the element gets affected in certain
temperatures, etc.

Types

There are several different types of CAD, each requiring the operator to
think differently about how to use them and design their virtual components
in a different manner for each.
There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a
number of free and open source programs. These provide an approach to the
drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing
sheet that accompanied hand drafting, since these can be adjusted as required
during the creation of the final draft.
3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used
today). Each line has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final
product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features
directly added to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar
fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the
wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.
3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of
real world objects (not often used today). Basic three-dimensional geometric
forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or
subtracted from them, as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-
dimensional projected views can easily be generated from the models. Basic

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3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of components,
set limits to their motion, or identify interference between components.
3D parametric solid modeling requires the operator to use what is
referred to as “design intent”. The objects and features created are adjustable.
Any future modifications will be simple, difficult, or nearly impossible,
depending on how the original part was created. One must think of this as
being a “perfect world” representation of the component. If a feature was
intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator needs to locate
it from the center of the model, not, perhaps, from a more convenient edge or
an arbitrary point, as he could when using “dumb” solids. Parametric solids
require the operator to consider the consequences of his actions carefully.
Some software packages provide the ability to edit parametric and non-
parametric geometry without the need to understand or undo the design intent
history of the geometry by use of direct modeling functionality. This ability
may also include the additional ability to infer the correct relationships
between selected geometry (e.g., tangency, concentricity) which makes the
editing process less time and labor intensive while still freeing the engineer
from the burden of understanding the models. These kinds of non-history
based systems are called Explicit Modellers or Direct CAD Modelers.
Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic,
aesthetics and ergonomic features into designs. Freeform surface modeling is
often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit
the human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the
machine.

Technology

Originally software for Computer-Aided Design systems was developed

with computer languages such as Fortran, ALGOL but with the advancement
of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical
modern parametric feature based modeler and freeform surface systems are
built around a number of key C modules with their own APIs. A CAD system
can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface
(GUI) with NURBS geometry and/or boundary representation (B-rep) data
via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint engine may also be
employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as
wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.
Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a
new form of prototyping called digital prototyping. In contrast to physical
prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD
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models can be generated by a computer after the physical prototype has been
scanned using an industrial CT scanning machine. Depending on the nature
of the business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen
according to specific needs.
Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux,
UNIX and Mac OS X); some packages even support multiple platforms.
Right now, no special hardware is required for most CAD software.
However, some CAD systems can do graphically and computationally
intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card, high speed (and possibly
multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM may be recommended.
The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can
also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of
the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a
Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for
viewing the 3D model. Technologies which in the past were limited to larger
installations or specialist applications have become available to a wide group
of users. These include the CAVE or HMD`s and interactive devices like
motion-sensing technology.

Electronic Design Automation

Electronic design automation (EDA or ECAD) is a category of software

tools for designing electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and
integrated circuits.
Electronic circuit simulation uses mathematical models to replicate the
behavior of an actual electronic device or circuit. Simulation software allows
for modeling of circuit operation and is an invaluable analysis tool. Due to its
highly accurate modeling capability, many Colleges and Universities use this
type of software for the teaching of electronics technician and electronics
engineering programs. Electronics simulation software engages the user by
integrating them into the learning experience. These kinds of interactions
actively engage learners to analyze, synthesize, organize, and evaluate
content and result in learners constructing their own knowledge.
Simulating a circuit‟s behavior before actually building it can greatly
improve design efficiency by making faulty designs known as such, and
providing insight into the behavior of electronics circuit designs. In
particular, for integrated circuits, the tooling (photomasks) is expensive,
breadboards are impractical, and probing the behavior of internal signals is
extremely difficult. Therefore almost all IC design relies heavily on

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simulation. Probably the best known digital simulators are those based on
Verilog and VHDL. The most well-known analog simulator is SPICE.
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a
general-purpose, open source analog electronic circuit simulator. It is a
powerful program that is used in integrated circuit and board-level design to
check the integrity of circuit designs and to predict circuit behavior.
Circuit simulation programs, of which SPICE and derivatives are the
most prominent, take a text netlist describing the circuit elements (transistors,
resistors, capacitors, etc.) and their connections, and translate this description
into equations to be solved. The general equations produced are nonlinear
differential algebraic equations which are solved using implicit integration
methods, Newton's method and sparse matrix techniques.
SPICE was developed at the Electronics Research Laboratory of the
University of California, Berkeley. SPICE1 was first presented at a
conference in 1973. SPICE1 was coded in FORTRAN and used nodal
analysis to construct the circuit equations. SPICE1 had relatively few circuit
elements available and used a fixed-timestep transient analysis. The real
popularity of SPICE started with SPICE2 in 1975. SPICE2, also coded in
FORTRAN, was a much-improved program with more circuit elements,
variable timestep transient analysis using either the trapezoidal (second order
Adams-Moulton method) or the Gear integration method, equation
formulation via modified nodal analysis. SPICE became popular because it
contained the analyses and models needed to design integrated circuits of the
time, and was robust enough and fast enough to be practical to use. As an
early open source program, SPICE was widely distributed and used. Its
ubiquity became such that “to SPICE a circuit” remains synonymous with
circuit simulation.
SPICE inspired and served as a basis for many other circuit simulation
programs, in academia, in industry, and in commercial products. The first
commercial version of SPICE was ISPICE, an interactive version on a
timeshare service, National CSS. The most prominent commercial versions
of SPICE include HSPICE (originally commercialized by Shawn and Kim
Hailey of Meta Software, but now owned by Synopsys) and PSPICE (now
owned by Cadence Design Systems). The academic spinoffs of SPICE
include XSPICE, developed at Georgia Tech, which added mixed
analog/digital “code models” for behavioral simulation, and Cider
(previously CODECS, from UC Berkeley/Oregon State Univ.) which added
semiconductor device simulation. The integrated circuit industry adopted
SPICE quickly, and until commercial versions became well developed many
IC design houses had proprietary versions of SPICE. Today a few IC
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manufacturers, typically the larger companies, have groups continuing to
develop SPICE-based circuit simulation programs. Among these are ADICE
at Analog Devices, LTspice at Linear Technology (available to the public as
freeware), Mica at Freescale Semiconductor, and TINA at Texas Instruments.
The birth of SPICE was named an IEEE Milestone in 2011; the entry
mentions that SPICE “evolved to become the worldwide standard integrated
circuit simulator”.

Some electronics simulators integrate a schematic editor, a simulation

engine, and on-screen waveforms, and make “what-if” scenarios easy and
instant. They also typically contain extensive model and device libraries.
These models typically include IC specific transistor models such as BSIM,
generic components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors and transformers,
user defined models (such as controlled current and voltage sources, or
models in Verilog-A or VHDL-AMS). Printed circuit board (PCB) design
requires specific models as well, such as transmission lines for the traces and
IBIS models for driving and receiving electronics.
While there are strictly analog electronics circuit simulators, popular
simulators often include both analog and event-driven digital simulation
capabilities, and are known as mixed-mode simulators. This means that any
simulation may contain components that are analog, event driven (digital or
sampled-data), or a combination of both. An entire mixed signal analysis can
be driven from one integrated schematic. All the digital models in mixed-
mode simulators provide accurate specification of propagation time and
rise/fall time delays.
The event driven algorithm provided by mixed-mode simulators is
general purpose and supports non-digital types of data. For example,
elements can use real or integer values to simulate DSP functions or sampled
data filters. Because the event driven algorithm is faster than the standard
SPICE matrix solution, simulation time is greatly reduced for circuits that use
event driven models in place of analog models.
Mixed-mode simulation is handled on three levels: (a) with primitive
digital elements that use timing models and the built-in 12 or 16 state digital
logic simulator, (b) with subcircuit models that use the actual transistor
topology of the integrated circuit, and finally, (c) with In-line Boolean logic
expressions.
Exact representations are used mainly in the analysis of transmission
line and signal integrity problems where a close inspection of an IC‟s I/O
characteristics is needed. Boolean logic expressions are delay-less functions
that are used to provide efficient logic signal processing in an analog
14
environment. These two modeling techniques use SPICE to solve a problem
while the third method, digital primitives, use mixed mode capability. Each
of these methods has its merits and target applications. In fact, many
simulations (particularly those which use A/D technology) call for the
combination of all three approaches. No one approach alone is sufficient.
Another type of simulation used mainly for power electronics represent
piecewise linear algorithms. These algorithms use an analog (linear)
simulation until a power electronic switch changes its state. At this time a
new analog model is calculated to be used for the next simulation period.
This methodology both enhances simulation speed and stability significantly.

Modern EDA Software

Some types of modern electronic design automation software are

described below.

Advanced Design System (ADS) is an electronic design automation

software system produced by Keysight EEsof EDA, a division of Keysight
Technologies. It provides an integrated design environment to designers of
RF electronic products such as mobile phones, pagers, wireless networks,
satellite communications, radar systems, and high-speed data links.

Figure 0.1. Advanced Design System window

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 Keysight ADS supports every step of the design process – schematic
capture, layout, design rule checking, frequency-domain and time-domain
circuit simulation, and electromagnetic field simulation – allowing the
engineer to fully characterize and optimize an RF design without changing
tools.
Keysight EDA has donated copies of the ADS software to the electrical
engineering departments at many universities, and a large percentage of new
graduates are experienced in its use. As a result, the system has found wide
acceptance in industry.

Altium Designer is an electronic design automation software package

for printed circuit board, FPGA and embedded software design.
It is developed and marketed by Altium Limited of Australia. Altium
Designer version 6.8 from 2007 was the first to offer 3D visualization and
clearance checking of PCBs directly within the PCB editor.

Figure 0.2. Altium Designer window

Altium Designer is productivity focused electronics design software for

professionals, incorporating unified stress-free schematic and Printed Circuit
Board CAD functions with design verification, validation and formal release
16
and reuse capabilities. Altium Designer is used by PCB designers and
engineers to create new electronic gadgets for entertainment, industry,
defence, and the well-being of people and society. Altium Designer is
powerful and flexible, making it much easier to do highly constrained PCB
designs faster. By keeping the schematic and PCB in sync, all design
domains share a common interface increasing usability and reducing effort.
Collaboration beyond PCB layout is essential in today‟s engineering teams:
Native 3D, importers, formal validation and PCB release process will give
you big efficiency gains.

AutoTRAX DEX is a MS-Windows XP/MS-Windows Vista 7/8

schematic design and PCB layout program with built-in Spice simulator and
3D part and board visualization. It is not to be confused with the simple PCB
CAD package originally developed by Protel (now Altium) in the 1980s and
1990s and which is still available as a free download from Altium's website
at www.altium.com.

Figure 0.3. AutoTRAX DEX window

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 Unlike other EDA program, AutoTRAX DEX integrated all of the
schematic and PCB design into a single XML project file. It uses parametric
parts which define the parts schematic symbols, PCB footprint and 3D
package models using numeric parameters. This allow a simple parametric
model to be quickly changed to represent an of a family of similar parts, e.g.
DIP and BGAs.
AutoTRAX Design Express (DEX) has now replaced AutoTRAX EDA.
It is based on Microsoft .NET 4 and has both a Microsoft Office 2007 and
2010 interface as well as a classic Dropdown menu with toolbars.
Unlike the Protel version, AutoTRAX DEX uses the Microsoft
Windows platform and runs on Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows
7. The file format is open and viewable with any text editor as it is XML
based, and the XML schema is fully documented.

CircuitLogix is a software electronic circuit simulator which uses

PSpice to simulate thousands of electronic devices, models, and circuits.
CircuitLogix supports analog, digital, and mixed-signal circuits, and its
SPICE simulation gives accurate real-world results. The graphic user
interface allows students to quickly and easily draw, modify and combine
analog and digital circuit diagrams.

Figure 0.4. CircuitLogix window

18
 CircuitLogix was first launched in 2005, and its popularity has grown
quickly since that time. In 2012, it reached the milestone of 250,000 licensed
users, and became the first electronics simulation product to have a global
installed base of a quarter-million customers in over 100 countries.
CircuitLogix was developed by Dr. Colin Simpson, an electronics
professor at George Brown College, in Toronto, Canada, and John (Bud)
Skinner, a computer programmer. The electronics program has won awards
including the Award of Excellence from the Association of Canadian
Community Colleges (ACCC). CircuitLogix is used exclusively as the
electronic circuit simulation tool for the George Brown College Electronics
Technician distance education program, which is the largest Electronics
technician program in the world with over 4,000 students in 37 countries.
The professional version of CircuitLogix (CircuitLogix Pro) includes
over 10,000 device models, as well as 8 virtual instruments. It also includes
3DLab, which is a software product that combines an interactive 3-
dimensional learning environment and electronic devices and tools to
enhance the user's comprehension of electronics. 3DLab virtual components
include batteries, switches, motors, lamps, resistors, inductors, capacitors and
instruments including oscilloscopes, Signal generators, and frequency
counters.

DipTrace is EDA software for creating schematic diagrams and printed

circuit boards. The first version of DipTrace was released in August, 2004.
The latest version as of July 21, 2014 is DipTrace version 2.4.0.2. The
interface and tutorials are multi-lingual (currently English, Czech, Russian
and Turkish).
DipTrace includes modules: Schematic Design Editor; PCB Layout
Editor; Component Editor; Pattern Editor; Shape-Based Autorouter; 3D PCB
Preview, using Wings 3D format.
A version of DipTrace is freely available with all the functionality of the
full package except that it is limited to 300 pins and non-commercial use or
500 pins (non-commercial use, for a moderate charge) and 2 signal layers.
Power and ground plane layers do not count as signal layers, so the free
versions can create 4-layer boards with full power and ground planes.

19
 Figure 0.5. DipTrace window

SmartSpice is a commercial version of SPICE developed by Silvaco.

SmartSpice is used to design complex analog circuits, analyze critical nets,
characterize cell libraries, and verify analog mixed-signal designs.
SmartSpice is compatible with popular analog design flows and foundry-
supplied device models. It supports a reduced design space simulation
environment, and is a popular choice in the electronics industry for such
applications as Dynamic Timing Analysis.
Key features:
 HSPICE-compatible netlists, models, analysis features, and results;
 can handle up to 400,000 active devices in 32-bit and 8 million active
devices in 64-bit version;
 supports multiple threads for parallel operation;
 multiple solvers and stepping algorithms;
 collection of calibrated SPICE models for traditional technologies
(bipolar, CMOS) and emerging technologies (e.g., TFT, FRAM);

20
 Figure 0.6. SmartSpice window

 provides an open model development environment and analog behavioral

capability with Verilog-A option;
 supports the Cadence analog flow through OASIS;
 offers a transient non-Monte Carlo method to simulate the transient noise
in nonlinear dynamic circuits.

Micro-Cap is a SPICE compatible analog/digital circuit simulator with

an integrated schematic editor that provides an interactive sketch and
simulate environment for electronics engineers. It is developed by Spectrum
Software and is currently at version 11. The eleventh generation blends a
modern, intuitive interface with robust numerical algorithms to produce
unparalleled levels of simulation power and ease of use.

21
 Figure 0.7. Micro-Cap window

The name Micro-Cap was derived from the term Microcomputer Circuit
Analysis Program. The forerunners to the Micro-Cap simulator were the
Logic Designer and Simulator. Released in June 1980, this product was the
first integrated circuit editor and logic simulation system available for
personal computers. Its primary goal was to provide a “circuit creation and
simulation” environment for digital simulation.

NI Multisim (formerly MultiSIM) is an electronic schematic capture

and simulation program which is part of a suite of circuit design programs,
along with NI Ultiboard. Multisim is one of the few circuit design programs
to employ the original Berkeley SPICE based software simulation. Multisim
was originally created by a company named Electronics Workbench, which
is now a division of National Instruments. Multisim includes microcontroller
simulation (formerly known as MultiMCU), as well as integrated import and
export features to the Printed Circuit Board layout software in the suite, NI
Ultiboard.
22
 Figure 0.8. Multisim window

Multisim is widely used in academia and industry for circuit education,

electronic schematic design and SPICE simulation.
Multisim is an industry-standard, best-in-class SPICE simulation
environment. It is the cornerstone of the NI circuits teaching solution to build
expertise through practical application in designing, prototyping, and testing
electrical circuits. Using the intuitive graphical environment of Multisim,
students can quickly place electronic components and simulate behavior to
understand fundamental concepts. The component library includes resistors,
capacitors, inductors, power sources, switches, bipolar junction transistors,
and field effect transistors while the environment comprises oscilloscope
instruments, probes, and SPICE analyses to truly build analog electronics
expertise. Complete integration with the NI myDAQ and NI Educational
Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite (NI ELVIS) platforms help students
learn through hands-on exploration.

23
 OrCAD is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for electronic
design automation. The software is used mainly by electronic design
engineers and electronic technicians to create electronic schematics and
electronic prints for manufacturing printed circuit boards.
The name OrCAD is a portmanteau, reflecting the company and its
software's origins: Oregon+CAD.

Figure 0.8. Multisim window

Founded in 1985 by John Durbetaki, Ken and Keith Seymour as

“OrCAD Systems Corporation” in Hillsboro, Oregon, the company became a
supplier of desktop electronic design automation software. Since 1999,
OrCAD's product line has been fully owned by Cadence Design Systems.
OrCAD Layout has been discontinued. The latest iteration of OrCAD CIS
schematic capture software has the ability to maintain a database of available
integrated circuits. This database may be updated by the user by downloading
packages from component manufacturers, such as Analog Devices and
others. Another announcement was that ST Microelectronics will offer

24
OrCAD PSpice models for all the power and logic semiconductors, since
PSpice is the most used circuit simulator. Intel offers reference PCBs
designed with Cadence PCB Tools in the OrCAD Capture format for
embedded and personal computers.

Oregano is a graphical software application for schematic capture and

simulation of electrical circuits. The actual simulation is performed by the
ngspice or Gnucap engines. It makes use of GNOME technology and is
meant to run on open source Unix environments like Linux or FreeBSD.
Oregano was first developed by Richard Hult, who worked on it until
2002. Most of the design ideas and a lot of the current code are still his. He
released various versions, up to version 0.23. All of them were based on the
Spice engine, and supported only the old GNOME libraries.

Figure 0.9. Oregano window

25
 TopSpice is a true analog/digital/behavioral mixed-mode circuit
simulator for the PC. It offers the most advanced SPICE simulator in its price
range, compatibility, and an easy to use integrated design environment from
schematic capture to graphical waveform analysis.
With TopSpice you have the choice to design from schematic drawings,
text netlist (SPICE) files or both. All design and simulation functions are
available from either the schematic or netlist editor front-ends.

Figure 0.10. TopSpice window

TopSpice includes a native full-featured mixed-mode mixed-signal

circuit simulator capable of simulating circuits containing any arbitrary
combination of analog devices, digital functions and high-level behavioral
blocks. With TopSpice you can verify and optimize your design from the
system to the transistor level. By using the built-in logic simulator to simulate
the digital sections of your circuit instead of analog equivalents, mixed-mode
simulation times can be reduced by orders of magnitude.
TopSpice offers industry standard PSpice and HSPICE compatible
simulation. TopSpice works with most PSpice netlists, manufacturer SPICE
26
model libraries and IC foundry HSPICE libraries.

Quite Universal Circuit Simulator (Qucs) is an open source

electronics circuit simulator software released under GPL. It gives you the
ability to set up a circuit with a graphical user interface and simulate the
large-signal, small-signal and noise behaviour of the circuit. Pure digital
simulations are also supported using VHDL and/or Verilog.

Figure 0.11. Quite Universal Circuit Simulator window

Qucs supports a growing list of analog and digital components as well

as SPICE sub-circuits. It is intended to be much simpler to use and handle
than other circuit simulators like gEDA or PSPICE.
The following categories of components are provided: lumped
components (R, L, C, amplifier, phase shifter, etc.); sources; probes;
transmission lines; nonlinear components (diodes, transistors, etc.); digital
components; file containers (S-parameter datasets, SPICE netlists); paintings.
There is also a Component library that includes various standard components
available in the market (bridges, diodes, varistors, LEDs, JFETs, MOSFETS,
and so on).

27
Chapter 1
General Information on Design

1.1 Definition of Design

Design is a process of drawing up of the description that is necessary for

creation of non-existing object in the specified conditions.
On the basis of the initial description of the object and (or) algorithm of
its functioning in the designing process, there is a transformation (in some
cases numerous) of the initial description, optimization of the set
characteristics of the object, elimination of an incorrectness of the initial
description and consecutive representation of descriptions (if necessary) in
various languages.
The result of design is the description of the object that will be used for
its manufacture.
History of the development of designing methods:
I. Traditional designing methods (evolution of domestic industries –
gradual adjustment of products);
II. A drawing way of designing (this method appeared at the stage of
a mechanical production). The basic feature of drawing methods – only one
concept of the whole is considered.
III. Modern ways of designing. These ways allow considering the set
of concepts of the whole due to expansion of decisions space in which the
search for new structures is conducted. New methods of designing are formal
schemas, allowing dividing a designing problem into parts and specifying
connections between them. The volume of the information necessary for
decision-making at each level can be provided only on the basis of modern
information technologies.

General features of modern designing methods

Designing strategy includes three basic stages:

1. Analysis: gathering a set of alternative decisions and preparation of
models for research.
2. Synthesis: simulation and rejection of unnecessary models.
3. Estimation: elimination of internal contradictions and definition of
one sample solution that satisfies all criteria.
The designing strategy can be linear: when each subsequent action
depends on an outcome of previous action, but does not depend on an
28
outcome of the subsequent action. Otherwise the strategy becomes cyclic or
ramified.
To formalize the process of generation of the variety of model structures
the following methods can be used:
1. Brainstorming – method of initiation of collective creativity.
Processes of ideas generation and their critical estimation are separated in
time.
2. Synectics – active application of analogies.
3. Liquidation of impasses.
4. Morphological cards (usually made up as tables).

Intermediate decisions
Key parameters (functions)
1 2 3 4
A X
B X
C X

The purpose of application of a morphological card is the solution of a

design problem.
The plan of action:
1. To define basic parameters or functions of the product.
2. To list a wide spectrum of possible solution, i.e. alternative means of
realization of each function.
3. To choose solution for each function.

The designing process should cover all stages of product life cycle:
1. The formation of requirements to the system and development of the
requirement description.
2. Designing.
3. Manufacturing, test and operational development of pre-production
models.
4. Serial production.
5. Operation and target application.
6. Recycling.

The system approach to designing of electronic devices

The system approach to designing of electronic devices includes:

1. The establishment of the projected system borders as a whole, i.e. its
allocation from the environment.
29
 2. The definition of the purposes of the system, criteria of quality of its
functioning and methods of their calculation.
3. Decomposition of the system on components or subsystems.
4. Studying the system in all required aspects.
The classical approach is based on the idea that properties of the whole
are determined by the properties of its parts. The system approach is also
based on that the parts are determined by the whole within that they function.
Moreover, the system has properties which are not presented by its parts.
There are five principles of the system approach in designing of power
electronic devices:
1. The electronic device is considered not in itself, but in aggregate with
the power supply on an input and loading on an output.
2. The necessary set of criteria of quality and functioning of the electronic
device is determined, and existing techniques of its calculation are
examined.
3. Decomposition of the device is made for simplification of its analysis
and calculation.
For example, any converting device should realize the following
functions:
 Transformation of the current type (circuit).
 Regulation of parameters of the transformed energy (pulse modulation,
physical effects in linear and nonlinear circuits).
 Matching of voltages levels of the power supply and a load.
 Galvanic decoupling.
 Electromagnetic compatibility.
 Conditioning input and output parameters (filtration).

First two operations are performed by means of semiconductor

switches, the following two – with the help of transformers, and the last two
– with the help of filters.
Two levels of decomposition:
 The top level - the system is divided into elementary basic cells.
 The bottom level - elementary basic cells are considered as the set of
elements.
4. At the analysis of electromagnetic processes in electronic devices the
following classes of assumptions are accepted:
 All elements of the circuit are ideal; sources provide unlimited power;
load is idealized.

30
  Real parameters of elements of the circuit are taken into account;
loading remains idealized.
 All elements of the circuit are replaced by real models with real
parameters.
5. During designing the account of interrelations between design procedures
(the strategy is not always linear) is carried out.

1.2 The description of the automated designing process

The automated designing is determined as the process at which separate

transformations of the description of the object, and also representation of the
description in various languages, is carried out by interaction of the person
with a computer.
Up to 90% of all design operations can be performed in automated
mode. Other 10% can be considerably intensified due to the automated
directory service. The person in such a system is the person that makes
decisions.
Block-hierarchical approach is a basic in automated design process. It is
based on decomposition of a developing system in accordance to systems
complexity levels (see Fig. 1.1).

Level of system groups

Level of systems

Level of products (devices)

Level of components (units)

Figure 1.1. Systems complexity levels

The hierarchical approach at each system level includes:

1. Structural-parametric designing during which conceptual structural and
constructive problems are determined, as well system (external)
connections of the designing object.
31
2. Functional-constructive designing during which key parameters and
characteristics for each structural variant are determined. For the further
consideration perspective variants are selected.
3. Constructive-technological designing at which several fully detailed
solutions are considered and the final variant is selected.
The designing process consists of stages, design procedures, design
operations.

The basic stages of the designing process

1. Pre-project researches and development of the requirements specification.

2. Development of the prototype project.
3. Development of work project.
4. Manufacturing and preliminary test of a pre-production model.
5. Hand-over test of a pre-production model.

At the stage of the technical project the complex of requirements to the

device is determined. At the stage of prototype project electrical circuit of the
device is synthesized and the computation of its performance characteristics
is carried out. At the stage of the work design the constructive and
technological specifications for the device are developed.

Design stages (sequence of design stages is determined by the contract)

1. Development and endorsement of requirements specification.

2. Development and endorsement of electrical circuit.
3. Manufacturing a prototype and carrying out of laboratory tests.
4. Development of reliability program.
5. Development of the test circuit and test equipment.
6. Development of the technical conditions.
7. Development of working drawings.
8. Development of the operational documentation.
9. Development of the technological documentation.
10. Development of adjustment instructions.
11. Development of pre-test program.
12. Manufacture of pre-production models for pre-tests.
13. Carrying out preliminary tests.
14. Release of the pre-tests report and updating of the design documentation.
15. Assignment of the letter of readiness for manufacture to design
documentation.
32
16. Manufacturing, acceptance tests and serial production.

One of the main stages of the designing process is a design procedure -

formalized set of resulting in design solution. Procedure includes design
operations that are invariable for this procedure.

Design procedures of stage 2

 Specification and selection of elements of electrical circuit. It is finalized

by the release of the bill of materials.
 Specification and selection of electric connections between elements. It is
finalized by the model, prototype, drawing.
 Description of the electrical circuit in standard forms.

The design solution is the intermediate or final description of the

designing object which is necessary and sufficient for consideration and
definition of the further direction in designing.
Design document is a document prepared under the given form and
including some design solution.

1.3 Process Approach in Electronic Design Automation

In electronic design automation the process approach is realized.

The process approach is a management strategy. When managers use a
process approach, it means that they manage and control the processes that
make up their organizations, the interactions between these processes, and the
inputs and outputs that tie these processes together. It also means that they
manage these process interactions as a system.
A process is a set of activities that are interrelated or that interact with
one another. Processes use resources to transform inputs into outputs. They
are interconnected because the output from one process often becomes the
input for another process.
The new standard defines an output as the “result of a process” and then
goes on to list four general types of outputs: services, software, hardware,
and processed materials. However, ISO's very broad definition suggests that
there are many more types of outputs. If an output is the result of a process,
then many kinds of outputs (results) are possible including not only tangible
outputs like products but also intangible ones.
So outputs could include not only services, software, hardware, and
processed materials, but also decisions, directions, instructions, plans,
33
policies, proposals, solutions, expectations, regulations, requirements,
recommendations, complaints, comments, measurements, and reports.
Clearly, an output could be almost anything.
Since the output of an upstream process often becomes the input for a
downstream process, outputs and inputs are really the same thing.
When you think about all the processes that could make up a quality
management system and then think about all the possible input-output
relationships that tie these processes together, you soon realize how big and
complex such a system is. Because of this, you may find it difficult to create
a single map or diagram of your entire process-based quality management
system. There are just too many processes and too many input-output
relationships.
For this reason, we suggest that you diagram one process at a time using
a single flowchart on a single page. This will allow you to specify the most
important input-output relationships without getting buried in complexity.
The box in the center is the process you want to diagram. That is your
focus. Upstream processes provide outputs for the central process and
downstream processes receive inputs from them. Arrows represent inputs and
outputs and the associated text describes them. These arrows also show that
an input-output relationship is sometimes a two-way street. Sometimes inputs
go one way and outputs go the other way.
About documentation ISO 9001 says that you must maintain the
documents that you need in order to support your processes and retain the
records that you need in order to show that process plans are actually being
followed.
Process is a system of actions of an input-output transformation.
Processes transform the state of the subject. Each process has the purpose and
it is realized by procedures.
Procedure is a way in which works are carried out to perform the
process, the way of realization of the process.
Efficiency of the process – the resources that are used to achieve the
purpose.

Management cycle PDCA (Planning - Do - Check - Action).

34
 Control

Input Process Output

Call Resources

Figure 1.2. Process symbolic representation

Requirements to documents:
1. Systematization (references)
2. Functionality (completeness)
3. Adequacy (correspondence to the standard)
4. Identification (by kinds of documents)
5. Addressing (for whom)
6. Simplicity
7. Urgency (the account for changes)

1.4 Structure of CAD systems

CAD-system is an organizational-technical complex, consisting of a

large number of interrelated and interacting elements. The process scheme
aided design and CAD functional diagram shown in Fig. 1.3 and Fig. 1.4.
The basic purposes of CAD:
1. Improvement of quality and technical and economic level of
production.
2. Decrease of expenses for its creation and operation.
3. Reduction of terms, decreasing of labor input for designing.
4. Improvement of the quality of design documentation.

These purposes in CAD are realized for the account of:

1. Ordering and perfection of designing processes on the basis of
application of mathematical methods, effective mathematical
models and means of computer technique.
2. Complex automation of design works and improvement of quality
of management by designing process.
3. Uses of multiple choice methods of designing and optimization.
4. Automation of routine designing.
5. Replacements of natural tests by simulation.
35
 6. Creations of uniform database (supply with information).
7. Unifications and standardizations of designing methods.

Restrictions

Reception of design solutions

Input Design
data Variable Design solutions
parameters procedures

Estimation of designing results

Designing documentation

Figure 1.3. Chart of automated designing process

Monitor is a design process control system - DesPM (Design Process

Manager), which organizes the interaction between all the components of
CAD.
As a monitor PLM-PDM systems are used. They implement the
management of all product information, procedures and processes of its
development and technological preparation of production, combining all the
basic information about the product lifecycle and organizing an access to data
for all users.
In an integrated CAD the design process is carried out from entering the
initial description of the object up to the issuance of the project with the
required documentation.
In any automated design system regulates the following parts (types of
support):
o technical, which includes a variety of hardware (computers,
peripherals, communication lines, network switching equipment). On a
functional basis, the following groups of technical support:

36
  devices for data preparation and data entry (keyboard, magnetic
media, scanners, digitizers, digital photo cameras and
telecameras),
 data transmission facilities (repeaters, hubs, switches, modems,
multiplexers, NICs),
 data processing facilities (computer, processor),
 data display and documentation facilities (alphanumeric and
graphic displays (monitors, terminals), printers, plotters,
magnetic media devices, devices for special purposes
(photoplotters),
 archive facilities of design solutions - set of tools for storage,
monitoring, restoration and reproduction of data; includes all the
devices listed above devices.

Soft Soft

Special
User I/O Data transform Monitor hardware-
software
means

Database

Reference and Current project Archive data

normative data data

Figure 1.4. Block circuit of a CAD system

o mathematical, combining mathematical methods, models and

algorithms to perform design;
o software, representing by a computer CAD programs, including
documents with program texts, programs on storage media and
operational documents to them. The software is divided into system
software - operating systems, compilers, etc. and application software -
application packages intended for design solutions;
37
 o information - documents describing the typical elements, components,
materials, and other data, as well as files and blocks on storage media
with a record of such documents. Components of information support
are based on the maximum use of information retrieval systems (IRS)
and standard data banks with structuring data on formal grounds,
permissions and data protection. To access the data in the database the
SQL language (Structured Query Language) is used;
o linguistic, speaking in the language of communication between
designers and computers, programming languages and data exchange
between CAD technical facilities;
o methodical, including materials, which set out the theory, methods,
mathematical models, algorithms, design techniques, terminology,
standards, provides a methodology of designing in CAD, reflected the
composition of the selection rules and operation of computer-aided
design;
o organizational - a set of rules and orders, job descriptions and other
documents regulating the organizational structure of business units
and their interaction with the complex of computer-aided design, as
well as the rights, duties and responsibilities of participants of
automated design process.
The basic structural units of CAD are the subsystem ensuring the
implementation of a complete design procedure to obtain design decisions
and documents. Subsystem classified into object-oriented and invariant
(management, information processing) subsystem.
According the purpose all CAD systems and subsystem can be classified
as systems, providing different aspects of design: design CAD systems –
CAD-D, often referred to simply as CAD-systems; technological CAD –
CAD-T, otherwise known as the automated systems of technological
preparation of production systems or CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing).

1.4 General Description of CAD

CAD includes both problem and object oriented subsystems and base
program methodical complexes.
Subsystems of CAD for electronic devices:
1. A subsystem of calculation of circuits of electronic devices and
components designing.
2. A subsystem of simulation (PSPICE).
38
 3. The automated system of reliability maintenance.
4. A subsystem of designing of printed-circuit-boards (PCAD).
5. A subsystem of release of the design documentation.
2. A subsystem of development and release of the technological
documentation, including programs for technological automatic
devices.
The subsystem of reliability maintenance can include:
1. A subsystem of reliability calculation.
2. Information-search system of the choice of elements.
3. A subsystem of thermal calculations.
Information connection of subsystems is based on the principle of one-
time entering of the information.

Review of professional CADs

CAD of a circuit engineer. Making the circuit diagrams is implemented

in a graphics editor Schematic of P-CAD (Fig. 1.5).
All the elements are selected from libraries and placed on the drawing
and then electrical connections between the terminals of the components are
conducted.
After creation of the circuit diagram the file .sch contains all graphics
and text information necessary for the production of design documentation:
Circuit diagram, Engineering BOM, List of products to buy.
In addition, a list of networks, including information about the used
components and packaging, pin connections, serves as the initial data for the
schema package in PCB-editor.
With the help of programs EBOM.dot and LIistProd.dot circuit engineer
can automatically generate an engineering bill of materials (EBOM) and List
of products to buy to the circuit diagram in Microsoft Word.

39
 Enterprise
standard Circuit Diagram
List of wires
Technical
task To design Enterprise
the circuit standard

PCAD Circuit To design Engineering BOM

.SCH the EBOM
Components
Database
Microsoft
Engineer Word Engineer
Enterprise
EBOM.dot standard
To create List of
Circuit the List of products
.SCH products to buy
to buy
An electronic document
A paper version Microsoft
Word Engineer
SCH Schematic format
PCB Printed circuit boards format
ListProd.dot
Figure 1.5. CAD structure diagram for a circuit engineer

CAD of a design engineer. After receiving the file with schematic

diagrams from circuit engineer in P-CAD creates a list of networks, produces
packaging of the circuit in graphical editor PCB. Then, a constructive can be
developed and graphic design documentation is available: drawing of printed
circuit board (PCB) assembly drawing (AD).
Specification and technical requirements for the assembly drawing are
formed using Specif.dot in Microsoft Word (Fig. 1.6).
Calculation of the area of metallization (PCB plating area) is produced
in the program for the photomask production CAMtastic.
The layout of the unit is carried out in the AutoCAD on the base of
prototypes from previous projects either in the system for 3D solid modeling
SolidWorks, which uses a library of 3D-models of parts and assembly units.
Graphic design documentation for mechanical parts and assemblies (part
drawings, assembly, installation-owned, dimensional drawings) is made in
the AutoCAD, text documentation (specification, connection list, the table of
pins and terminals) is prepared in Microsoft Word.

40
Figure 1.6. CAD structure diagram for a design engineer

41
1.5 Decision-making in CAD. Choosing the Criterion of Optimality

The problem of designing is divided into two parts:

• problems of synthesis;
• problems of analysis.
Synthesis is the creation of a system on the requirement description. The
problems of synthesis are linked to the creation of design documents and the
project itself.
The analysis is the determining the system functioning under its
description. The task of the analysis is the estimation of design decisions.
In CAD for synthesis of devices the multivariate analysis is frequently
used.
Synthesis can be:
• structural;
• parametrical.

The synthesis refers to as optimization if the best structures and value of

parameters are determined. At designing on basis CAD it is possible to obtain
the set of decisions. Allocation of some subset of decisions concerns to the
problem of the choice and decision-making.
There are two types of problem:
1. The problem of choice – when all set of decisions is unknown.
2. The problem of optimization – when all set of variants and criterion are
known.
Decision-making process at designing is characterized by presence of
the purpose and alternative variants of the projected object, in view of
essential factors which refer to as terminators. If at designing it is possible to
allocate one parameter as the basic it is accepted then for criterion function
(criterion), thus the part of parameters can fall under the category of
restrictions.
F  x  – simple criterion.
The problem of designing on several criteria refers to as multi criterion
problem (the task of vector optimization).

F  x   Ф  Fi  x ...Fn  x   – is the generalized (integrated) criterion,

where Ф – some functional.
The basic kinds of integrated criteria:

42
 1. The additive criterion - is formed by addition of the normalized values
of simple criteria.

n
Fi  x 
F  x    Ci , (1.1)
i 0 F0i  x 
where:
Ci – weight factor (determines the degree of importance of the criterion),
F0 – a normalizing divider of the criterion (a base parameter).
2. The multiple criterion
m
F  x    Fi Ci  x  , (1.2)
i 1

3. The minimax criterion – such combination of x is searched at which

all simple criteria become equal among themselves.

Fi  x 
Ci K. (1.3)
F0i  x 

Methods of weight factors determining:

1. The quantity of parameters n are recorded in order of importance, and
their meaning is defined by:

n 1 i
Ci  . (1.4)
n  n  1

e.g. n  3 ; C1  0.5 ; C2  0.32 ; C3  0.17 .

2. All weights can be accepted equal:

1
Ci  . (1.5)
n

3. The method of interrogation of experts with the average estimation is

used, in which:

C
i 1
i  1. (1.6)

43
 Let's consider the example of optimization of independent system of
power supply by the criterion of total weight minimum.

Input supply Converter Load

source

PL  1000 W
 ISS  25kg kW

1. Pconv  200 W ; М conv  10kg .

2. Pconv  100 W ; М conv  11kg .

WL
 – power efficiency.
M ISS  М conv

М ISS  М L  М Р ; М L  РL   ISS  25kg

М Р  Рconv   ISS

1. М1  25  5  10  40kg
2. М 2  25  2.5  11  38.5kg – preferable variant.

At designing the converter of electric energy they use the concept of the
resulted weight including own weight of the converter and the attached
weight of the initial source.
MTotal  М conv  М Р
М Total  min – criterion.
1. М Total1  5  10  15kg
2. МTotal 2  2.5  11  13.5kg – preferable variant.

F1  x   M conv ; F2  x   Рconv
It is possible to show, that at   85% by the criterion of the resulted
weight  mi  Pi  ISS   min it is possible to project not only the converter,

44
but also its separate components. Thus the uncertainty interval does not
exceed of 5%.

1.6 Application of Experiments Planning Methods in CAD

Planning of experiments pursues two basic purposes:

1. Reduction of total amount of tests.
2. Increase of information from each experiment.
The factorial space is a set of external and internal parameters of the
model which are supervised in the experiment.
Since the factors can have both quantitative and qualitative character,
their value is underlined by levels. Each of factors has the top and bottom
levels located symmetrically concerning some zero level. The point of
factorial space corresponding to zero levels of all factors refers to as the
center of the plan.
The number j which addition gives the top level, and subtraction –
bottom level refers to as an interval of variation of the factor. Usually the
plan of experiment is under construction concerning one target parameter y
which refers to as an observable variable.
At planning experiment two problems should be solved:
1. Identification of factors.
2. The choice of levels of factors.
Identification of factors is factor ranging on the level of importance.
There are initial and secondary factors.
The initial factors are those the influence of which is examined.
Secondary factors are those the influence of which one cannot be
ignored.
The choice of factors levels:
1. Levels of factors should block all possible range of change of factors.
2. The total number of factor levels should not result in excessive volume
of modeling.

Kinds of experiments

1. Full factorial experiment.

N  LK , where
N – number of experiences,
L – number of levels (it is identical to all factors),
45
 K – number of factors.
e.g. If there are three factors on three levels then N  27 .
2. Random plan. Assumes the choice of values of factors in the casual
way. Such plans are used for complex multifactorial systems.
3. Latin plan. Here the experiment with one initial factor and several
secondary factors is carried out.
e.g. A - initial; B, C - secondary ( N  16 ).

Value В Value of the factor С

С1 С2 С3 С4
В1 А1 А2 А3 А4
В2 А2 А3 А4 А1
В3 А3 А4 А1 А2
В4 А4 А1 А2 А3

4. The experiment with change of factors one by one. One of factors

"runs" all L levels, and the others are supported by constants. Research
of each factor separately is provided.

N  l1  l2  l3 .

For example, in the previous table: N  12 . Between factors there

should not be mutual coupling.
5. Fractional factorial experiment (full for two levels).
N  2 K ( 23  8 ).
Let's construct a matrix of fractional experiment for three factors
( N  8 ).

Number of
X1 X2 X3
experiment
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 1
3 0 1 0
4 0 1 1
5 1 0 0
6 1 0 1
7 1 1 0
8 1 1 1

46
 6. The orthogonal plan.
Its graphic interpretation:

N  2 K  2 K  1.
Tops – 8; sides – 6; the center – 1 ( level  3; N  15 ).

Example of planning
The power supply. Control Vout. Two factors: Vps, Iload.

Vps Iload
Max. (+1) (+1)
Nom. (0) (0)
Min. (-1) (-1)

1. Full factorial experiment

N  32  9

2. Fractional factorial experiment

We exclude one level (nominal)
N  22  4

3. Experiment with change of factors one by one

N  6 Vout(Iload), Vout(Vps).

47
Chapter 2
Simulation of Electronic Devices
2.1 Methods of Electronic Devices Simulation

A model is a rough picture of a real physical system in which only the

main details "are drawn".
At designing and research of the electronic devices the following kinds
of simulation are applied:

MDA AS

PhM ADCS

Electrical Computer
modeling simulation
SNM DC
NE ММ
Experi-
ment Theory

MM – mathematical simulation.
DC – digital computers.
ADCS – analog-digital computing systems.
AC – analog computers.
MDA – model of direct analogy.
PhM – physical models (prototype).
SNM – subnatural model.
NE – natural experiment.

First four kinds of simulation are computer simulations. The others four
kinds are electrical modeling. The mathematical model of a technical object
is the set of mathematical objects (numbers, variables, matrixes, etc.) and

48
relations between them (mathematical circuits) which adequately reflect
properties of the technical object.
There are two terms:
 Mathematical modeling – the process of model drawing up.
 Simulation – the process of realization of the mathematical description
with the help of technical means and process of research on a model.
The basic methods of research of mathematical models are:
1. Analytical research.
2. Imitating simulation.
Analytical (symbolical) models are those models in which only formulas
(symbols) are used for representation of the process. The analytical model
gives the decision in the closed kind (formula). Thus analytical simulation is
a theoretical research of an object or its characteristics.
Imitating model is the description of objects including algorithm forms,
thus it is reflected both the structure of the system, and the process of
functioning of the structure in time, i.e. the sequence of events. Imitating
models are not capable to form the decision in that kind as in analytical
model, and can serve only as a tool for the analysis of system, i.e. imitating
simulation is not the theory, but methodology of the decision of a problem
(the means of virtual experiment).

Example
Distortion factor calculation:
1. By an analytical method (with an assumption about ideal fronts of
switching)

A frequently-used measure of harmonic levels is total harmonic

distortion THD (or distortion factor), which is the ratio of the rms value of
the harmonics (above fundamental) to the rms value of the fundamental,
times 100%, that is
49
 n

U
i 2
2
D
THDF  , (2.1)
U1
So, we have

UD 1
4
U D1 
 2

U D2  U D2 1 1 8 2 2  8
THDF      48%
U D2 1 8 2 8


2. With an imitating model:

U 2
D
THDF  i 2
,
U12

where n is the limited number of harmonics.

During mathematical simulation there is a task of an estimation of
conformity of mathematical models used for research to real object. This task
is solved by the following methods:
1. Verification – check of conformity of logic of model to logic of object
behavior.
2. An estimation of adequacy – check of conformity between model
behavior and a real object.
The correct organization of work with a model supposes:
1. Formation of a model and delimitation of its applicability.
2. Strategic planning – planning of experiment which should give the full
information on the system (the program of tests).
3. Tactical planning – definition of the way of carrying out of each series of
tests stipulated by the program (a technique of tests).
4. Simulation – the process of reception of the required data.
5. Interpretation – construction of conclusions on the received data.
6. Documenting – registration of the course of creation of model and
realization of the project.
50
2.2 Kinds of simulation on design stages of electronic devices

Design stage Simulation method

1. Design of the block diagram (its
calculation and designing of
components)
2. Design of a functional diagram
3. Design of the circuit diagram
Structural – parametrical simulation
on the basis of static models of
elements.
Functional simulation on the basis of
functional models.
Simulation on the basis of
component dynamic models (circuit
simulation).

1. The circuit of connections.

2. The structural (block) circuit. Its units: rectifiers, converters, filters,
regulators, stabilizers, etc.
3. A function circuit. Its units (operations): averaging, amplification,
shielding, etc.
4. The basic electric circuit. Elements of the circuit: transistors, diodes,
condensers, resistors, transformers, etc.
5. The equivalent circuit: impedance, and other parameters of elements.

Functional simulation

This is the research of transformation process of a signal at its

promotion from an input to an output of system. The circuit is broken into
separate blocks, each of which carries out this or that functional
transformation.
At functional simulation the assumption about the concordance of input
and output parameters of the blocks is done. Solution of the equations of
balance is not required.
All equations describing electric processes in the circuit are divided into
componential and topological equations (the equations of balance).
At functional simulation separate blocks of the circuit are often
described by transfer functions. It is easy to use methods of decomposition, -
when the mathematical model of the complex circuit is split on independent
subsystems. There is an example of the necessity of the concordance of
circuit elements characteristics.

51
 Divider Amplifier
x
2R

R
R
G y-?
U1

R
R 2R R
U1 y U1

R 2R R/2

if G

3
R *3R 3
X ( R) 3
R   R; U  4  X;
R  3R 4 3
R R 7
4

 
3 2R 2 Y 3 3
U1  X( )  X ; U1     Y
7 3R 7 7
 2 7
2
3 2 2
Y X; Y X
7 7 3

If Rout ( D) Rin ( A) , Y  X .

Circuit simulation
52
 At circuit simulation the componential dynamic elements are used. The
decision of the equations of balance and the componential equations is
required. For the analysis of logic and digital devices functional – logic
simulation is used (PSpice A/D).

Classification and application of functional models

The functional model is simpler in comparison with model at

componential level model of the circuit or its part, reproducing its behavior at
the level of input, output and transfer characteristics and taking into account
the most important for concrete kinds of calculations of the characteristic and
reaction of the circuit to external influence.
Three ways of formation of the functional model:
1. Simplifying macromodels. At their formation the reduction of the
circuit is used on the basis of exception of insignificant elements.
 Use of the idealized models.
 Replacement of blocks of the circuit with equivalent sources of
current and voltage.
 Exception of separate components of the circuit.
2. Formal macromodels (model of a black box). These models are based
on approximation of external characteristics of elements of circuit.
Circuit elements of such models have no similarity to elements of the
system. Model realization:
 The differential equations - models of mathematical operations.
 Models of «black box». These models are characterized by
approximation of characteristics by the built – in functions and
formal models on the basis of controlled sources of current and
voltage.
 Functional models of units of the circuit - logic models.
3. Mixed logic-circuit simulation. The simulation package contains the
program combining circuit and functional - logic simulation, i.e.
combines two various mathematical bases. Between both parts the
information is transferred through translators, converting electric
signals into their logic equivalents and visa verse.

Ways of realization of various forms of the model representation

53
 Forms of representation of model Way of realization

1. Differential equation, transfer With the help of the built – in models

function W  P 
2. Models of «a black box»
3. Functions of transformation of a
signal (replacement of a part of the
circuit with an equivalent source)
of solving amplifiers or integrators
on the basis of controlled sources of
current.
With the help of the built – in
functions or formal circuits.
Dependent or independent sources of
voltage or current.

Examples of models

IG
It is Volt-Ampere characteristic of the tunnel diode.

VG

1
The model of the tunnel diode:
GR 10 TABLE {V (GR) = (0,0)… (U1, I1)…}

GR

0
The Equation System

x1  0.5 x1  x 2
x 2  0.25  4 x1  0.6 x 2
x1 0   0
x 2  0   0.4

54
The model of the equation system

1 2

R1 GX2
GX1 C1 C2

R2

0
1 dU C x1  U C1
С
UC  iC dt iC  С
dt x2  UC 2

GX1 01 POLY (2) (1, 0) (2, 0) 0 -0.5 1

GX2 02 POLY (2) (1, 0) (2, 0) .25 4 -0.6
C1 … 1
C2 … 1
R1 … 1E9
R2 … 1E9
IC V(1)=0, V(2)=0.4

2.3 Circuit Simulation

This is a simulation of electric processes in electronic devices

represented as basic electric circuits, i.e. connection of symbols of elements.
For increase of accuracy an equivalent circuit is used.
At circuit simulation component dynamic models of elements are used.
The equations of balance (topological - first and second laws Kirchhoff), and
the component equations (the equation of separate elements of the circuit) are
required to solve.
The purpose of circuit simulation – exact definition of the form and
parameters of a signal in all points of the circuit. For this case the typical
tasks are solved:
1. Calculation of a mode of a circuit on a direct current (DC)
2. The analysis of sensitivity of characteristics of a circuit to a variation
of parameters of elements
3. The analysis of characteristics linearized circuits in frequency area
(AC)
4. The transients analysis

55
 5. The spectral analysis of currents and voltage with the help of Fourier
transformation
6. The statistical analysis at which casual value of each parameter is
calculated under the formula:

x  xnom (1  ) , (2.2)

where
ε – a random variable on a piece from –1 up to +1;
Δ – the relative deviation parameter x.
7. The worst case analysis

x  xnom (1  ) . (2.3)

On the basis of the solving of these tasks it becomes possible:

 To check conformity of electric modes of elements to the calculated
ones.
 To check conformity of modes of elements to the allowable ones in
transitive and emergency processes.
 To check static accuracy, spectra and quality of characteristics of target
signals, stocks of stability of system.
 To check sensitivity of the circuit to the parameters change of its
elements.
Programs of circuit simulation contain:
1. The description of the circuit (text and graphic redactor).
2. Library of models.
3. The task for simulation.
4. Options (management).
5. A virtual digital oscilloscope (Probe).

Models of bipolar transistors and diodes

Key parameters:
 BF – forward common-emitter current gain.
 BR – reverse common emitter current gain.
 RC – ohmic resistance of collector.
 RB – ohmic resistance of base.
 CJC – capacity of collector junction.
 CJE – capacity of emitter junction.
 TF – time constant of capacities diffusion of emitter junction.
56
  TR – time constant of capacities diffusion of collector junction.
For calculation of resistance of base points of current and voltage are
chosen under the input characteristic of the transistor in the circuit with
common emitter at U ce  0  10V .
Ib

Ube

For calculation of resistance of a collector two points of current and

voltage on a linear site of the output characteristic are chosen.
For calculation of BR the relation is used:

BR  BF  e  ,
I
(2.4)
 Ic 

where I is the initial current.

Capacities CJE and CJC are taken from the specifications.

BF
TF   2f c , (2.5)
h21

where fc is a cutoff frequency.

tS
TR   tS , (2.6)
 I b1  I b 2 
ln  
 I b 2  I c BF 

Parameters of the diode:

 RS – ohmic resistance.
 TT – a constant of time of renewal of return resistance.
 CJO – capacity.
 BV – a reverse breakdown voltage.

57
Model of a field-effect transistor

For model of the field-effect transistor with pn transition the following

parameters are determined:
 VTO – a cut off voltage.
 BETA – a specific steepness.
 LAMBDA – factor of modulation.
 RD – resistance of a drain.
 RS – resistance of a source.
 CGD – capacity (gate).
 CGS – capacity (source).
From the specifications an initial current of a drain ( I SN ) is chosen.

I SN
BETA  , (2.7)
UZIO 
2

where UZIO – a voltage gate – a source of cut off.

Model of an inductance

The inductance is represented by the model:

L
r0

Rs

where r0 – winding resistance, L – inductance, Rs – simulation of core losses.

Nonlinearity of inductance is described by polynomial of the second
order, as follows
L  L0 1  a1i1  a1i22  . (2.8)

Model of a transformer

The transformer is described by model coupling inductance or with the

use core model.

58
 r01 2 r02
1 3 4

Rc W1 W2

0 0

Equivalent circuit of a transformer model

* Description of a transformer model

Ro1 1 2 0.1
Ro2 3 4 0.1
Rc 2 0 5K
L1 2 0 50
L2 3 0 100
K1 L1 L2 0.9999 M2000
model M2000 CORE ( MS=334e3 A=4050 K=166 C=0.05
+ AREA=0.064 PATH=2.25 )

Model of a capacitor

The capacitor is represented by a three-component model.

rc
Rc
C

59
Models of controlled sources

E F
+

±
-

H
G

E – the voltage source controlled by voltage.

F – the current source controlled by current.
G – the current source controlled by voltage.
H – the voltage source controlled by current.

Vout 1  a0  a1V1  a2V12  ...

(2.9)
Vout  2   a0  a1V1  a2V2  a3V12  a4VV
1 2  a5V2  ...
2

The problem of convergence takes place at the analysis of circuits with

different constants of time. In that case it is recommended to increase the
quantity of iterations on one step of calculation. It is possible to worsen static
accuracy of calculation or to reduce a step of calculation. It is possible a bias
point calculation off, thus it is necessary to set initial conditions (IC). It is
necessary to exclude from the circuit capacitor contours and inductive stars.

Simulation programs:
• MultiSIM (Workbench)
• Pspice
• Circuit Maker

60
 • Micro-Cap
• Matlab-Simulink
• SystemViev
• Workview Office
• Labview

2.4 Functional-logic Simulation of Digital Devices

For development of logic circuits it is used:

1. Typical functional decisions and a direct (intuitive) way of synthesis.
2. The automated synthesis.
Process of the automated synthesis consists of stages:
1. Formation of a logic condition of the circuit operating.
2. Minimization of logic function is made.
3. Under the simplified logic formula the basic circuit of the device is
constructed. The minimal number and uniformity of logic elements is
preferred to.
The correctness of the developed circuits is estimated by simulation.
Loading ability of elements is checked, transients are investigated, tests for
the device check are generated.
Two methods of simulation:
1. Synchronous (time delays are not taken into account), ranging the
circuit is made.
2. Asynchronous (time delays are taken into account).

61
Chapter 3
Automated Designing of Power Electronic Devices and
Components
3.1 Designing Devices of Power Electronics

Generally the problem of designing of power electronic devices is

complicated by rational distribution of weight and power losses within the
elements of the circuit. Greatest effect at designing can be achieved if the
development is conducted at the system level in view of characteristics of
power supply and parameters of the load. It is possible to point out two
approaches to designing.
Method of complex optimization. Provides formation of functional
dependence of a file of key parameters (independent variables of designing
X1.... Xn) and a parameter of quality F(x) and definition of values of these
parameters providing minimum of a parameter of quality. Mathematically
task is formulated as follows.
To find a vector X = (x1, x2..., xn), providing the minimal value of
the quality function F (X )  F (x1, x 2...., xn) ,
at performance of system restrictions

gi  x1, x 2, ... xn   0,
(3.1)
x j1  x j  x j 2 ,

where i=1,2..., m; j=1,2..., n; D-area of allowable values of the vector X.

To find an optimum variant the algorithmic methods of the search of
extremum of the obtained function are used. A full model of power electronic
devices is formed individually for each designed device. Such approach
allows determining combination of the parameters X providing extreme value
of criterion function, but due to complexity of the task the part of parameters
is not taken into account even at the level of restrictions. Therefore such
circuit is of little use for practical designing and is usually used only for
tentative estimations on the basis of the simplified models (specific
characteristics).
In CAD the task is solved on the basis of application of methods of
decomposition and development of original algorithms and programs of
optimum designing of power electronic devices. The solution of the problem
of rational distribution of weight and power losses within circuit elements is
62
facilitated if to accept an assumption on independence of any element
operation on changing of the ratio between weight and power losses on other
elements. Such design method can be defined as method of nodal design on
condition mi  Pi   min with the interval of uncertainty (a deviation
2 1  
from optimum value)   . It is obvious, that at  > 0.9 we obtain
3
quite comprehensible value  < 0.7.
Such approach is stacked in CAD structure as it is based on
decomposition of the task of the device designing into the tasks of
components designing using universal programs (models). These programs
do not depend on the kind of the circuit and the organization of procedures of
the comparative analysis of variants by the set criterion.
At such designing the quantity of varied variables is limited, and the
direction and borders of their variation are determined by the features of
physical processes in the circuit, that essentially simplifies the task. Such
approach allows using available design procedures of circuits of electronic
devices. These programs are original on each device.
At designing of power electronics devices using CAD according to the
general strategy of designing it is possible to allocate the following basic
stages:
1. Formation of the file of the initial data.
2. Formation of the file of alternative structures.
3. Definition of designing criterion, independent variables and
restrictions.
4. Definition of algorithm of variation of independent variables to achieve
an extremum of the set criterion.
5. Comparative analysis of structures by results of their designing.
Basic data for designing of electronic device are:
• load and its range of change;
• output voltage or current and parameters of their quality;
• perturbation action on a system from the load, power supply and
control unit;
• operation conditions;
• power supply characteristics.
Results of designing are:
• chosen circuit of the device;
• calculation of static values of currents and voltages in the circuit;
• chosen elements of the circuit.
Generalized algorithm of designing is shown on Fig. 3.1.

63
 Begin

Input of the initial data

Calculation of the circuit; Models of cir-

formation of the RD on cuits (calculation
designing of components programs)
The "Polus"
analysis
Designing of components; Static models of
results,
correct calculation М ,  components
the data
Synthesis of structure and Functional
parameters of control models
"PSpice"
Circuit dynamic
The analysis static and
models
transients moods

End

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of the algorithm of electronic device designing.

After designing of the circuit the initial values of parameters of circuit

elements and their electrical modes are determined. These data are the
requirement description of elements choice. After designing of circuit
elements the weight and power losses in the device are determined. Then
synthesis of the structure and parameters of control unit are determined, and
testing of the circuit using modeling should be done. Iterative character of
this process is presented on block diagram (see Fig. 3.1) with block “Analysis
of results, updating of data and parameters”. During designing for the chosen
structure it is necessary to determine the parameters of elements and the
variants of their design performance providing achievement of set criterion
and correspondence to requirements description.
Designing of the components is based on the use of designing programs
of basic elements of the circuit (transformers, inductance, condensers, power
switches). These programs (models) are invariant to the circuits of power
electronics.
64
 Synthesis of structure and parameters of the control unit is based on the
assumption that it is possible to choose the control unit without change of
parameters power unit. At this stage the functional model of the device is
used.
At the analysis stage the correspondence of the developed circuit to the
requirements description, correspondence of elements operating modes to the
requirements of specification correspondence of the modeling modes of
operation to the calculated ones, the statistical control and boundary tests are
checked.

3.2 Modeling example of rectifier designing

This section is devoted to the description of the designing of controlled

rectifier for DC-motor.
Task description. It is necessary to design the rectifier to maintain the
start-up of DC-motor with a current value within rated current of a rotor and
to provide its continuous operation with the nominal moment (current) at
rated rotary speed with constant magnetic flux. Parameters of the DC-
motor: PL  100 kVA , U R.nom  440V , nL  1000turns / min . Allowable
current ripple of the rotor is no more than 7 % of I dH . Voltage of exciting
winding is U w  220V .
It is required to define parameters of the network transformer,
parameters of the rectifier switches in the rotor circuit, parameters of exciting
winding, and parameters of the rectifier smoothing inductors.
The limiting requirement: power factor of the rectifier in nominal mode
of operation should be not lower 0.8.
Power supply: a three-phase network 220/380 V (+10 % –15 %) with
accessible null. Capacity of short circuit of a network in unit of connection of
the converter SSC  5000 kVA , i.e. K SC  50 .
Designing of the new rectifier includes two stages:
1. Stage of structural synthesis on which the structure (the basic circuit)
of the rectifier is defined;
2. Stage of parametrical synthesis on which parameters of elements of
the chosen structure (the basic circuit) of the rectifier are calculated.
Results of calculation are checked by mathematical modeling of the
designed circuit of the rectifier.

65
Choice of the rectifier circuit (stage of structural synthesis)
Procedure of synthesis of the circuit of the rectifier can be reduced to a
choice of the proper circuit from the typical topologies that are known. This
procedure can be formalized having created an expert system based on the
specific knowledge on power electronics.
When it is impossible to choose the suitable circuit of the rectifier from
among known, it is required to create a new circuit or update the design
assignments of the rectifier.
By the results of analysis of basic circuits of rectifiers of single-phase
and three-phase voltage the summary table is completed (Table 3.1). In view
of multidimensionality of a vector of properties of each circuit, formed in the
parameters of columns of the table, the choice of the circuit at designing of
new rectifier with required target parameters is ambiguous.
Therefore the algorithm of choice of the rectifier circuit based on three
output parameters of the rectifier ( Pd 0 ,U d 0 , I d ) is necessary. The algorithm
specifies also the usage of power switches with the maximum value of
reverse voltage up to 1000 … 1500 V and the voltage margin of 1.5…2.
The algorithm of a choice of the rectifier circuit is represented below
(see Fig. 3.2).
Table 3.1. Parameters of basic rectifier circuits
Rectifier
Circuit qm2
Ud0 Id
 K п (1)
K т / U1 K т / I1 THD F
m1  1, m2  2, q  1
With center-tapped 2 0.9 1.11 0.9 0.667 0.24
transformer
m1  m2  1, q  2
2 0.9 1.11 0.9 0.667 0.24
Bridge rectifier
m1  m2  3, q  1
3 1.17 1.21 0.79 0.25 0.06
Delta–star
m1  m2  3, q  1
3 1.17 1.48 0.83 0.25 0.06
Star–zig-zag
m1  3, m2  6, q  1
With smoothing 6 1.17 2.56 0.955 0.057 0.0067
inductor
m1  m2  3, q  2
6 2.34 1.28 0.955 0.057 0.0067
Larionov's circuit

66
 Table 3.1. (continued)
Switches Transformer
Circuit Кf
I a* Ка U *
b max S 2* S1* S т*
m1  1, m2  2, q  1
With center-tapped 0.5 2 2 3.14 1.57 1.11 1.34
transformer
m1  m2  1, q  2
0.5 2 2 1.57 1.11 1.11 1.11
Bridge rectifier
m1  m2  3, q  1
0.33 3 3 2.09 1.48 1.21 1.345
Delta–star
m1  m2  3, q  1
0.33 3 3 2.09 1.71 1.21 1.46
Star–zig-zag
m1  3, m2  6, q  1
1.26
With smoothing 0.166 3 6 2.09 1.48 1.045
+0,07
inductor
m1  m2  3, q  2
0.33 3 3 1.045 1.045 1.045 1.045
Larionov's circuit

m – number of phases;
q – number of half-cycles;
mq – pulse number;
THDF – harmonic factor in a DC part of the circuit;
ka – amplitude factor of anode current;
kf – form factor of anode current;
 – power factor of the rectifier;
Ub max – maximum reverse voltage across the switches.

According to algorithm it is possible to draw the following conclusions:

1. According to the design assignment the rectifier should be three-phase
Pd 0  100kVA and full-wave (the bridge circuit) as output voltage
must be high enough.
2. The rectifier for an excitation winding of the drive is also three-phase,
but since the value of the output voltage is rather low the rectifier can
be performed in accordance to half-wave circuit as a transformation
factors and required output voltage of these circuits differ twice.
3. The variant of power supply for both circuits from one system of
secondary windings of the transformer is also possible.

67
 Figure 3.2. Intellectual algorithm of a choice of the circuit of the rectifier

4. Taking into account that K m of the transformer is more than unity, but
rather close to it (step-down transformer), the variant of power supply
for rectifiers directly from the network is possible (without the
transformer of the rectifier).
Thus, for the designer an expert system offers three alternative
solutions, and by results of detailed calculation and modeling it is necessary
to choose one.

3.3 Methods of formation of static models elements of power electronics

Static models are used in software of power elements designing. Static

models are intended for calculations with the use of RMS or average values
of currents and voltages and the algebraic equations. They serve for
calculation of circuits in static modes.
68
 To form static models methods of the analytical or tabulared
description of input, output and transfer characteristics of elements are used
together with methods of regression analysis. Regress y on x is any function f
(x), approximately representing statistical dependence y(x).
For the description of one variable function the polynomial is used:

y  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  ... . (3.2)

For the description of two variables function the polynomial is used:

y  a0  a1x1  a2 x2  a3 x12  a4 x1x2  a5 x22 . (3.3)

The degree of polynomial is determined by the kind of researched

characteristics and can reflect physical features of the electronic element.
For the diode:
I

UVD  U 0  i rd

The model of the element in this case is

represented by a set of the factors determined by
the least-squares method. Besides the model
should contain the description of parameters:
α U type of the case, dimensions, weight, thermal
parameters.

The model of the bipolar transistor should include the description:

69
 B  ic , q 
U be  ic , q 
U ce  ic , q 
ic
ib  q
B
B t C  . (3.4)
1
VT 
2f c
ton  VT , q 
toff  VT , q 
tS  VT , q 

Models of transformers and inductances include the description of the

following characteristics:
PC 0 ( f ) – dependence of specific losses on frequency.

log PC 0  a  b log f
. (3.5)
tg  a0  a1 f  a2 H  a3 Hf

In the basis of the model of electrolytic capacitors there are

specifications data or experimental data:

z, tg   f , T 
. (3.6)
I leak T ,U C 

Equivalent circuit and vector diagram:

70
 Uc
Lc Ul
Urc

U
rс
Rleak
δ
С
φ

ic

Let's simplify: LC  0 .

We shall write down ratio:

tg   rC C
z
XC   z cos 
1  tg  2

z tg  . (3.7)
rC  z sin  
1  tg 2
1
XC 
C

z  f ,T 
Initial ratio:
tg   f , T 

The tests circuit is used to obtain the parameters:

71
 φ

V1

Rs

V2

+
Gin G2
- =

In this circuit there are:

UV 2 Rs
zf 
UV 1
. (3.8)

f  
2

Frequency characteristics of electrolytic capacitors:

Capacitance, F 1000 470 100 10

Resonant Frequency, 0,05 0,12 0,25 3
МHz

72
Chapter 4
Designing of Low-Current Electronic Devices
4.1 Methods and Algorithms of Designing

The problem of structure optimization at designing of electronic devices

in a general view can be solved by comparison of possible variants to the best
one. Such approach is possible at the development of algorithms and
programs for separate classes (linear circuits) or even subclasses (filters,
amplifiers) of electronic devices. Process of synthesis becomes simpler if for
the construction of structures on the set circuit function the type of elements
(functional converters) for use is certain. But even in CAD the quantity of
considered structures in most cases is limited because of great labour-
consuming character, and the problem is usually solved by direct method of
synthesis consisting of three stages:
 formalization of the description of the device characteristics to obtain
the circuit functions description,
 choice of the circuit model from the library of typical structures or
constructing a new circuit model, allowing to perform circuit functions
description,
 parametrical optimization of the variant.
On the modern level of CAD development the variant of synthesis based
on association of methods of direct synthesis and parametrical optimization
finds wide application. Parametrical optimization in this case consists in
structurally-parametrical correction of the initial circuit according to
algorithm (Fig. 4.1).
For structure optimization a purposeful change of the initial elements
(inclusion or exclusion of the elements) and correcting parts is carried out
with the subsequent parametrical optimization. For this purpose CAD-
program should include an archive that allows usage of typical functional
decisions.
The degree of the process automation can be various:
– the developer specifies correcting units, priority and sequence of
connection of various correcting units,
– the developer specifies correction units but the choice of correcting
parts and their connection is carried out automatically.
Effective means of the organization of parametrical optimization is
application of methods of experiment planning.

73
 The designing criterion is determined according to the basic concept of
designing as follows: the device should reproduce with demanded accuracy
the circuit functions at minimum quantity of functional converters and
correcting and concordance parts.
For estimation of accuracy of functional converters it is not always
simple to generate integrated criterion. There are tasks of approximation of
the characteristics set on points, tasks of achievement of the extreme and
others. In such cases cad software should include modules of processing of
target characteristics and functions of quality calculation.
For example, for minimization of monotonous transients it is possible to
use a linear integrated estimation:


S0   Yn (t )dt , (4.1)
0

where Y (t) is the transitive characteristic.

For estimation of the quality of reproduction of a sinewave signal the

integrated estimation in the form of the harmonic factor is used:


THDF   U 
2
* 2
v , (4.2)

U
where U *  is relative value n-th harmonic.
U1

For an estimation of quality of the amplifier the amplification factor К0

as well as the frequency range (level 0.7 К0) is used.
At the organization of synthesis process it is necessary to avoid extra
formalistic approach, but to use an iterative trial and error method. The
developer gives the direction to tests, determining the purpose, function of
quality, parameters of search, restriction.
Realization of such approach is possible if CAD-program contains
analysis tools, first of all, universal software for simulation of electronic
functional converters.

74
 Table 4.1
Type of
Type of conversion Note
element

x y Example:
Analogue-to-
f y = f(x)
analogue

x y Example:
Analogue-to-
f  = f(x(t))
pulse

x y Example:
Pulse-to-
f y = kA(t)
analogue

x y Example:
Analogue-to-
f N(t) = kx(t)
digital N(t)
x y Example:
Digital-to-
f y(t) = kN(t)
analogue N(t)
x y Example:
Analogue-to-
f y = 0.5 ; 1 ; 1.5
logical

Logical-to- x y y ={y1 , y2 , y3
analogue f - levels}

x y Example:
Digital f Nx Ny Ny = f(Nx)

x y Example:
Logical L x1 , x2 y y = L(x1 , x2)

x y Example:
Logical-to-
L x1 , x2 N N = L(x1 , x2)
digital

x y Example:
Logical-to- if
pulse L x1 , x2 L(x1 , x2) = 1

75
 Start

Choice of initial circuit

and initial parameters

Analyzing block

Satisfies Ye
condition
s
description?

No

Possibilities of Ye
PS are
s
finished?
Possibilities
of PSS are
No
finished?
Parametrical synthesis
Ye
block
s
No
Block of partial structural
synthesis (PSS)

Receiving circuit decisions

End

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of algorithm of partial structural synthesis (PSS)

76
4.2 Automated Synthesis of Control Systems

Generally the process of synthesis consists of the following steps:

1. Liberalized model of the system should be composed.
2. Control law should be chosen.
3. Parametrical synthesis of the system is carried out.
4. The analysis and specification of the designing results with the account
of nonlinear characteristics is carried out.

Requirements to the control circuit:

1. System stability: lim y  t   0 , where y  t  is a signal of an error.
t 

2. Controllability and observability: there should be input vector U  t  ,

allowing to transfer output vector of the system from the initial
condition into the final condition for the set time. Supervision of
output vector is possible.
3. Control quality: allowable dynamic error of the transient process
should be less than the set one.
4. Noise stability: error of reproduction of the set input signal at the noise
should not exceed the set size.
5. "Roughness": Maintenance of system serviceability at uncertainty of
the set parameters.

Control system should provide:

1. The set factor of amplification and linearity of characteristics.
2. Maximum control range.
3. Maximum operation frequency.
4. External synchronization.
5. Noise immunity.
6. Galvanic coupling.
7. Soft start.
8. Multiple-loop control:
 Parallel operation of modules.
 Load current limitation.
 Voltage stabilization
9. Remote control.
10. Pulse balancing (push-pull output).
11. Protection systems.

Automated synthesis of control system can be carried out:

77
 1. Under the frequency response of open-loop system with maintenance
of the set position of its poles.
2. Under the transient characteristic of closed-loop system with
maintenance of the set transient performance. For systems with
nonlinearity it is possible to determine steadiness as damping of
transient processes.
Requirements for synthesis of control system are typical: dynamical
error is no more than 20 %; damping ratio is more than 0.4.

The order of synthesis under the frequency characteristic

Nyquist criterion

For stability of the closed-loop system, that is stable in the open-loop

state, it is necessary and enough that frequency hodograph of complex factor
of transfer function for open-loop system at the frequency range from 0 up to
∞ would not cover the point (-1, 0). K  Re  j Im .

Re

-1, 0 Im

Bode criterion

1. System that has positive phase margin in a cross point of the phase-
frequency characteristic and a circle of single radius is stable, whereas
system with negative phase margin is unstable

78
2. For stability of the system rate of change of an open-loop gain should be
20 dB per decade in the vicinity of cut-off frequency at which the
complex factor of transfer function of an open-loop systems is equal to 1.

80
60 дБ
дек

20 20 дБ
дек 4 CP

0.5 CP  CP
-20 40 дБ
дек

low
 0.5
c
high
4
c

Synthesis procedure: the structure and parameters of correction units

should be varied until the required transient performance is achieved.

4.3 Procedures of Minimization at the Design of Electronic Devices

Electronic devices design starts with an assumption that the circuit

consists of ideal elements. In the real circuit the response differs from an
ideal one because of losses, parasitic parameters, instability of parameters of
elements and etc. Hence, there is a necessity of minimization of deviations
with the help of following procedures:
1. Multiple analysis: reiterated calculations of output parameters for the
set variants of internal parameters.
2. Sensitivity analysis: sensitivity is understood as reaction of the circuit
to small change of parameters of its elements. Factor of sensitivity is a
quantitative estimation. Sensitivity analysis is necessary at definition
of requirements to accuracy of parameters of circuit elements at their
choice, and also at designing the circuits working in complex

79
 conditions of operation when elements are subjected to the accelerated
ageing.

y Y  x1 , x2  xi  xi  , xn   Y  x1 , x2 , xn 
 , (4.3)
xi xi

where n is a number of parameters, (n+1) – number of experiences.

3. Worst case method
The purpose of this method is definition of the worst value of output
parameter among all possible. Estimations obtained with the help of this
method are overestimated, since they are calculated without taking into
account the density of distribution.
Example:
R1

R2

R1 R1 1   R1 
K0   , (4.4)
R2 R2 1   R 2 

Algorithm of calculation for the worst case:

 The analysis of sensitivity is carried out. As the result, signs of
sensitivity factors are defined.
 The worst values are assigned to internal parameters x:

  y  
xP  xH   sign     xi (4.5)
  xi 

 A circuit analysis is carried out with the accepted parameters.

4. The statistical analysis. Random value of each parameter can be

calculated:
xP  xnom 1    , (4.6)

80
where  – random variable from the range (–1, 1).

4.5 Reliability Control of the Developed Electronic Device

The basic methods of the development of the electronic equipment

with high reliability are:
1. Application of components in the facilitated modes.
2. Protection of the circuit elements against environmental hazard.
3. Circuit protection.
4. Acceptance test of the circuit elements.
5. Reservation at the circuit level, at a structural level, at a system level.
6. Test and training of device during the time when constructive refusals are
shown.
The analysis of reliability guarantees best choice of the structure,
element base and operating modes.
Characteristics of reliability of elements are intensity of various types of
failure at work or storage. For example, the transistor is characterized by
three types of failure: open circuit, short circuit, disruption of operation.
The input data for calculation of reliability: measured electric and
thermal modes of elements, normative modes.
Each type of electronic device is characterized by the certain set of
parameters, normative and actual values of which are used for analyses of
operating modes and definition of calculated values of failure rate – .

  0 1     ; P  t   exp  t  . (4.7)

Probability of non-failure operation of the element:

Qe  1  Pe  P .
K
(4.7)

where K P  1 – non- reserved element, K P  2 means double reservation.

Types of reservation of blocks:

1. Non-loaded (cold).
2. Loaded (hot).
3. Facilitated (thermal).
4. Non-loaded with switching.
5. Loaded with switching.
81
 At parallel operation of blocks (m+1) the average time of non-failure
operation is calculated:

1 1 1 1 
Tnfo  1    ...  . (4.8)
  2 3 m 1

At the analysis of reliability the following documents are issued:

1. A card of conditions of operation – tables with the set of parameters
(normative (allowable) and measured), which are used for the analysis
of conditions of elements operation.
2. Cards of electric modes. The same tables for the analysis of electric
operating modes of elements.
3. Tables of failure rate in the measured modes.
4. The block diagram of reliability, calculation of reliability.
5. The report on reliability.

Parameters of search of elements in component information systems

(CIS):
1. Parameters of operating conditions.
2. Presence in restrictive lists on application.
3. The list of electric parameters which are necessary for a choice of
elements of each class.
4. Parameters from specifications.

82
Chapter 5
Constructive-Technological Designing
5.1 Constructive-technological designing

At the stage of constructive-technological designing the basic electric

circuit is transformed into the units which carry out its realization. Thus the
kinds of descriptions turned out at the previous stages are supplemented with
additional kinds of the description.
The designer should provide requirements of reliability in the set
operating conditions due to corresponding thermal modes, vibration (chatter)
stability, and possibility of repair. The designer should provide the set weight
and dimensions, requirements of electromagnetic compatibility.
According to principles of modular construction of the equipment
elements are united on the circuit boards, boards – in the block, blocks – in
the device.
First of all constructive design is intended for:
 Designing of two-layer and multilayered printed circuit boards.
 Banded cables.
 Case-shaped parts.
 Release of the design documentation and development of programs for
manufacturing of photo masks for printed circuit boards, drilling,
control of installation, test control of functioning.
Typical tasks of constructive-technological designing are:
1. Configuration of blocks.
2. Accommodation of components in the block.
3. Wiring.
The automated designing of technological processes includes:
 Development of the basic circuit of technological process.
 Designing technological processes of manufacturing of details.
 Designing of technological operations.
The initial data at designing of technological processes are:
1. Component drawing.
2. Specifications on manufacturing.
3. Annual programs of release.

83
5.2 The Design Analysis of Electromagnetic Compatibility of Electronic
Devices

Port of the case

Ports of an electric supply of an
alternating current Ports of input-output of signals
The electronic
device

Ports of an electric supply of a direct Ports of grounding

current

The port is a border between the electronic device and the external
electromagnetic environment (a clip, a socket, the plug, a joint, etc.).
The port of the case – physical border of the electronic device through
which electromagnetic fields can be radiated or external electromagnetic
fields can penetrate.
Ports of power supplies can be input and output.
Ports of input-output – ports of data transmission, control, etc.
Through the ports of power supplies conductive interferences circulate.
These are interferences which circulate on wires.
On power ports indirect conductive interference can circulate.

Z1 The pulse load

Zin

Zn

Radiated electromagnetic interferences can be reduced by screens and

the case of the device.
Electrostatic screens effectively reduce electric components of
interference: power electric lines are connected on the surface of the screen,
and the induced charges are removed into the ground. The less the resistance
between the screen and the ground, the better the effect. Copper screens are
widely used.
84
 Magnetostatic screens are based on the connection of magnetic power
lines in the screen. They are carried out from materials with high
magnetoconducting (nickel, permalloy). Efficiency improves at increase of
thickness of the screen and magnetoconducting. Magnetostatic screens are
are effective up to 10 kHz. In the field of high frequencies the screen operates
in electromagnetic mode.
The electromagnetic screen is based on repeated reflection and
attenuation of an electromagnetic wave in thickness of the screen.
Attenuation is caused by thermal losses on eddy currents in the screen and
counteraction of the fields caused by these currents.

Methods of decrease of interferences

1. Balancing and reduction of the areas of electric loops.

2. Application of the braided and shielded conductors.
3. Rational accommodation of elements and units.
4. Closing up sockets.

The block diagram of the procedure of the design analysis

of electromagnetic compatibility

Estimation of requirements description

Ranging of interference

Development of models of electric circuit, screen,

susceptibility

The analysis of Calculation of The analysis of

indirect interference processes with the set susceptibility
step

The analysis of The analysis of

radiated interference conductive
The analysis interference
излучаемых
handicapes
85
Chapter 6
Design of DC-DC Buck Converter
6.1 Technical project

Using programs OrCAD and POLUSE, design auxiliary power supply. Initial
data are given below.

DC input voltage Vin, V 30 – 40

DC output voltage Vout, V 27
Load power Pload, W 70 – 100
Ripple factor Kr, % 1.0
Power factor cosφ 1.0
Tolerance δ, % less 0.5
Operating conditions are normal.
Other conditions: minimum weight.

6.2 Analysis of the technical project

In order to enable the widening of the search area for the solution of the
project problem, i.e. the generation of the great variety of possible structures
of the designed object, we will use the morphological card (Table 6.1) during
the drawing of which:
 The basic parameters and functions of the goods are determined.
 The possible decisions, i.e. alternative ways of each function
implementation are described.
 The sequence of decisions which gives possibility to get the highest
quality of the designed project according to the set categories is chosen.

Table 6.1.
Conversion
Functions Variants
type

DC-DC Circuit type Buck Boost Boost- Half- Full-

converter buck wave wave

Control PWM PFM Relay control

Smoothing LC-filter LC-filter LR - filter

86
 (common) (complex)

Protection short-circuit over-voltage overheating

The analysis of requirements of the technical project allows to choose

the basic circuit of the step-down (buck) DC-DC converter (Fig. 6.2).
The block diagram (Fig. 6.1) of the DC-DC converter might be
presented in the form of the set of the electronic switch, which transforms the
direct input voltage Vin into the sequence of unipolar pulses. Filter is required
to smooth most of the output voltage pulsation. The regulation of the output
voltage Vout is carried out by means of changing the duty cycle.

Vin Switch Vout

Element Filter Load

Control System

Figure 6.1. Block diagram of DC-DC converter

POLUSE is a special electronic CAD programme with very simple

interface. POLUSE includes subprogrammes for calculation of different parts
of power converter circuit. Typical window of POLUSE programme you can
see in Figure 6.3.

87
 D0
L1 R2
Q1 Vout
V1 R1 C1
R3 R5
EU D1 R4

V2

Vout
C2 R9 C3
PWM Comp.
Rd1
VP+
R6 Error
Amp. R12
R10
Rd2 X1
R7
R11 X2
EU
VOP R8
VP-
EPOLY

VGPN

Figure 6.2. Buck converter circuit (with the control system)

88
Figure 6.3. POLUSE programme demonstration

89
6.3 Calculation of DC-DC converter

Initial data:
Choose the next action:
1. Input of initial data
2. Exit :1
Predicted efficiency of power circuit  = 0.9
Operating frequency of pulse device (Hz): f = 25000
Output voltage (V) : Vout = 27
Maximum rating amplitude of output voltage ripples (V):

Kr 1%
Vout _ ripple  2  Vout   2  27   0.54
100% 100%

Maximum input voltage (V): Vin max = 40

Minimum input voltage (V): Vin min = 30
0.5%
Output voltage accuracy (0.5%), (V): Vout  2  Vout  = 0.27
100%
Maximum power (W): Pload max = 100
Minimum power (W): Pload min = 70
The Zener voltage of a diode (V): VZ = 0
Re-enter the data? (yes – 1, no – 0): 0

INPUT DATA
.900 158.771
25000.000 27.000 .270 .540 40.000 30.000 100.000 70.000
.000

CALCULATION RESULTS

REQUIRED AND CALCULATED GAINS OF THE OPEN-LOOP

SYSTEM
27.57143 39.64552

REQUIRED CAPACITANCE OF INPUT CAPACITORS FOR GIVEN

AMPLITUDE OF RIPPLE: CBX= .000045(F)

CONTINUES CURRENTS MODE

INDUCTANCE .000068(Н), CAPACITANCE .000320(F)

90
 FILTER PARAMETERS
RO= .482403(Ω), КСИ= .873, ТФ= .000140(sec)

MAXIMUM, AVERAGE AND RMS CURRENT OF INDUCTOR

14.22113(A) 3.70370(A) 6.29630(A)

LOAD CURRENT, CURRENT RIPPLE OF INDUCTOR

3.70370(A) 5.18519(A)

MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM DUTY FACTOR

.67500 .94500

TRANSIENT TIME (sec)

TP = .000737

6.4 Designing and calculation of circuit components

6.4.1 Calculation of smoothing inductor

Initial data:
Choose the next action:
1. Input of initial data
2. Exit :1
Input the data for inductor design:
Select the type of inductor:
1. Smoothing inductor
2. AC inductor :1
Number of cores :2
Core material:
1. ОСТЧ-60
2. ОСТЧ-32
3. МП-140
4. МП-160 :3
Type of the wire:
1. ПЭВ-2
2. ПСДКТ-Л
3. ПЭТВ-2
4. ПЭТ-155
91
 5. ПНЭТ-ИМИД
6. ПЭВШО-ОС
7. ПЭТВШО-С-ОС :1
Ambient temperature (degree Celsius) : 25
Permissible overheating (degree Celsius) : 50
Operating frequency of pulse device (Hz) : f =25000
Required inductance (Henry) : L = 0.000068
I L
Ripples amplitude of inductor current (A): I Lripple  = 2.592595
2
Load current (A) : Iload = 3.70370

INPUT DATA

MARK OF THE CORE MATERIAL -П140 TYPE OF THE WIRE -

ПЭB-2

TEMPERATURE T = 25.00 OVERHEATING DT = 50.00

LOAD CURRENT IM = 3.70 CURRENT RIPPLE DI= 2.59

FREQUENCY F = 25000.00 REQUIRED INDUCTANCE LT = .0000680

DOUBLE CORE IS CHOSEN - 7.* 15.* 6.7*2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CALCULATION RESULTS

INDUCTION (B) .284 TESLA

NUMBER OF TURNS (WY) 20
LIMITING INDUCTION (BD) .720 TESLA
NUMBER OF TURNS IN LAYER (WCL) 14.197
CURRENT DENSITY J = 6.738 A/ MM 2
NUMBER OF WINDING LAYERS (NC) 1.436
CURRENT DENSITY (RMS) (JD) 6.664 A/ MM 2
NUMBER OF LAYERS (LP) 1.000
LOSSES IN MAGNET CIRCUIT (DPC) .220 W
2
WIRE SECTION (Q) .567 MM
WINDING LOSSES (DPM) .424 W
WIRE DIAMETER (D1) .850 MM
STRENGTH (HM) 2080.481 A/M
92
WIRE LENGTH (L1) 788.305 MM
STRENGTH (HN) 441.648 A/M
PACKAGE FACTOR OF WIRE (KYKL) .900
REQUIRED INDUCTANCE (LY) .0000680 H
AVERAGE LENGTH OF WIRE LAYER (LCP) 14.828 MM
INITIAL INDUCTANCE (LH) .0001063 H
AVERAGE LENGTH OF WINDING TURN (LCR1) 38.656 MM
RMS VALUE OF CURRENT (DM) 3.779 A
WINDING RESISTANCE (R2) .030 Ω
ALTERNATIVE CURRENT (IND) .748 A
THICKNESS OF WINDING WITH ISOLATION 1.576 MM
OVERHEATING OF INDUCTOR (DTD) 48.085 DEGREES CELSIUS
LIMITED DIAMETER OF THE WINDOW SPACE MARK (6) 2.600
MM
TANGENT (TG) .037
REAL DIAMETER OF THE WINDOW SPACE (DD) 3.447 MM
WEIGHT OF INDUCTOR (GD) 20.125 GRAMS
OUTPUT DIAMETER OF INDUCTOR (DH) 16.834 MM
WEIGHT OF INDUCTOR (GK) .254 GRAM
HEIGHT OF INDUCTOR (HD) 16.953 MM
WEIGHT OF WINDING (GOB) 3.974 GRAM
HEIGHT OF THE CARCASS (HK) 13.800 MM
WEIGHT OF ISOLATION LAYER GIS GRAM .497 REAL SPACE
FACTOR OF A WINDING (KOKD) .300
AVERAGE LENGTH OF MAGNET LINE LCR 34.557 MM
LOSS RATIO (NUD) .519
WEIGHT OF LAYING (GR) .000 GRAM
WEIGHT OF CORE (GO) 15.400 GRAM
*********************************************************
PARAMETERS OF INDUCTOR MODEL FOR PSPICE-PROGRAM
*********************************************************
Inductance: 6.8E-005 H
Resistance of windings: 2.96E-002 Ω
Equivalent loss resistance of core: 3484.8 Ω

6.4.2 Calculation of power transistors

Initial data:
Choose the next action:
93
 1. Input of initial data
2. Exit :1
Calculation of the power transistor blocks
Design or checking (0 or 1) :0
There are transistor‟s models in library:
1. 2T808
2. 2T808-2T630
3. 2T862Д
4. 2T828A
Select the number of the transistor : 1
Specify the type of the transistor : 2T808
Specify the type of a bypass diode
(0 – no diode, 1 – 2Д212, 2 – 2Д213) : 0
Power factor : 1 (means active load)
Select the method of transistor control
(active switching off – 1, passive switching off – 0) :1
Maximum collector-emitter voltage (V): VVToff = 40
RMS collector current (A): ICrms = 3.70370
Average collector current (A): ICav = 3.70370
Maximum collector current (A): ICmax = 6.29630
Switch-on transistor current (A): IVTon = 1.2
Switch-off transistor current (A): IVToff = 6.29630
Transistor operating frequency (Hz): f = 25000
Specific weight of the 1 cm2 of a heat sink (gram): 3
Specify overheating (degree Celsius) : 40
Set the coefficient of current overlap : 1
Duty cycle (max) : 0.945
How many cycles do we have?
(single-cycle – 1, two-cycle – 2) :1
Minimum case temperature (degree Celsius): 10
Specific added mass (gram/watt) :0

INPUT DATA

TRANSISTOR TYPE 2T808

TYPE OF FREE-WHEELING DIODE ZERO DIODE
POWER FACTOR 1.000
TYPE OF CONTROL ACTIVE CUTOFF
CUTOFF TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE 40.000000 V
RMS VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 3.703700 A
94
AVERAGE VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 3.703700 A
MAXIMUM COLLECTOR CURRENT 6.296300 A
CUT-ON AND CUTOFF TRANSISTOR CURRENT 1.200000 A,
6.296300 A
OPERATING FREQUENCY OF TRANSISTOR 25000.00000000 HZ
RELATED WEIGHT OF 1 CM2 HEAT SINK 3.000000 GRAM
OVERHEATING OF TRANSISTOR 40.00 DEGREES CELSIUS
FACTOR OF OVERLAPPING OF THE CURRENT 1.00
DUTY FACTOR .94
NUMBER OF CIRCUIT CYCLES 1.00
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE OF THE BOX 10.00 DEGREES
CELSIUS
RELATED VALUE OF THE ATTACHED WEIGHT .000 GRAM/W

CALCULATION RESULTS

MINIMUM WEIGHT
FOR N = 4 AND FOR Q = 2.40
MINIMUM AREA FOR HEAT SINK (ST) 96.789310 CM2
RELATED VALUE OF HEAT SINK AREA (STO) 25.000000 CM2 /W
OVERALL SQUARE OF N TRANSISTORS (SG) 36.000000 CM2
TOTAL LOSS (PS) 3.8052 W
SWITCHING LOSS (PTD) 1.7391 W
STATIC LOSS (PCT) 1.4464 W
RESISTANCE OF TRANSISTOR BASE CIRCUIT (RB) 9.7543 Ω
POWER LOSSES OF RB (PR) .6197 W
RMS VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 1.06481 A
AVERAGE VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 1.06481 A
MAXIMUM COLLECTOR CURRENT 1.81019 A
BASE CURRENT .12964 A
CUT-ON AND CUT-OFF TRANSISTOR CURRENT .3450 A, 1.8102
A
CONTROL SIGNAL VOLTAGE (UC) 2.10765 V
AVERAGE VALUE OF FREE-WHEELING DIODE CURRENT .000000
A
TOTAL WEIGHT (G) 378.3680 GRAMMS
HEAT SINK WEIGHT (GT) 290.3680 GRAMMS
TRANSISTOR WEIGHT (GTP) 88.0000 GRAMMS
TRANSISTOR PARAMETERS: IKO = .0030A
B = 13.9627
95
 UBASE = .8431 A
UC_E = .1767 V
ROUT = .0690 Ω
TON = .000000506 SEC
TOFF = .000000442 SEC
TS = .000002602 SEC
UC = .250139 V

6.4.3 Calculation of electrolytic capacitors for smoothing filter circuits

Initial data:

Choose the next action:

1. Input of initial data
2. Exit :1
Calculation of electrolytic capacitors
Design or checking (1 or 2) :1
Specify the type of the capacitor as shown
50<Enter>
29<Enter>
Select current waveform:
1 – triangle wave
2 – sine wave
3 – square wave :1
Minimum ambient temperature (degree Celsius) : 10
Maximum ambient temperature (degree Celsius) : 45
Permissible overheating (degree Celsius) : 15
DC voltage (V): VC = Vout = 27
Cutoff frequency of the filter (Hz):
1 1 1
f off    = 1079.5
T f 2 LC 2 68 106  320 106
Frequency of voltage ripple (Hz): f = 2500
Required capacitance at cutoff frequency (F): Coff = 320
I L
Amplitude of current ripples (A): I Lripple  = 2.592595
2
Limited amplitude of voltage ripple (on the side), (V):
Vout  Vout  0.01= 0.27
Duty cycle (max): 0.945
Utilization factor of the lateral surface of the capacitor bank: 0.6
96
Specify the optimization parameter
(1 – volume optimization, 2 – weight optimization) :1

INPUT DATA

CAPACITOR TYPE K50-29

CURRENT WAVEFORM TRIANGLE
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE 10.0 DEGREES CELSIUS
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE 45.0 DEGREES CELSIUS
LIMITED OVERHEATING 15.0 DEGREES CELSIUS
DC VOLTAGE 27.00 V
CUTOFF FREQUENCY OF THE FILTER 1079.50 HZ
FREQUENCY OF VOLTAGE RIPPLE 25000.00 HZ
REQUIRED CAPACITANCE ON CUTOFF FREQUENCY 320.00 µF
AMPLITUDE OF RIPPLE CURRENT 2.59 A
LIMITED AMPLITUDE OF VOLTAGE RIPPLES (ON A SIDE) .270 V
DUTY CYCLE .945
FACTOR TAKING INTO ACCOUNT USE OF A LATERAL SURFACE
OF THE CAPACITOR BANK .60
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

OPTIMUM ALTERNATIVE

3 CAPACITORS HAVE BEEN CHOSEN; TYPE K50-29- 63.0 V- 100.0

µF

CAPACITORS WEIGHT (GS) .0135000 KG

CAPACITORS VOLUME (VS) .0000054 CUBIC METERS
SQUARE OF LATERAL SIDE (SS) .0015381 SQUARE METERS
CAPACITANCE ON A CUTOFF FREQUENCY AT MINIMUM
TEMPERATURE (CSUM) 300.21590 µF
CAPACITANCE ON A RIPPLE FREQUENCY (CS) 275.96880 µF
RESISTANCE ON A RIPPLE FREQUENCY (RS) .0280749 Ω
RESISTANCE ON A RIPPLE FREQUENCY (RP) .0263601 Ω
MAXIMUM LIMITED VOLTAGE RIPPLE (DUMD) .1302572 V
RATED AMPLITUDE OF VOLTAGE RIPPLE (DUSM) .0836087 V
AMPLITUDE OF RIPPLE (DUSM1) .0771141 V
RMS CURRENT (ID) .7484177 A
LEAKAGE CURRENT (IUT) .0004292 A
POWER LOSSES (PP) .0263546 W
97
RATED OVERHEATING (DTRAS) 2.2406320 DEGREES CELSIUS
REQUIRED HIGH FREQUENCY CAPACITANCE (CW) .59030 µF

6.4.4 Calculation of diode blocks

Initial data:
Choose the next action:
1. Input of initial data
2. Exit :1
Calculation of the diode blocks
Design or checking (0 or 1) :0
There are diode‟s models in library:
1. 2D212A
2. 2D212B
3. 2D213A
4. 2D213B
5. 2D2997A
Select the number of the diode : 3
Specify the type of the diode : 2D213A
How many cycles do we have?
(single-cycle – 1, two-cycle – 2): 1
RMS diode current for pulse advance interval (A) : IVD = 3.70370
Average diode current for pulse advance interval (A) : IVDav = 3.70370
Maximum diode current (A) : IVDmax = 6.29630
Switch-on diode current (A) : IVDon = 6.29630
Switch-off diode current (A) : IVDoff = 1.2
Reverse diode voltage (V) : VVDoff = 40
10 10
Pulse time of maximum diode current (sec): tVD max   = 0.0004
f 25000
Operating frequency (Hz) : f = 25000
2
Specific weight of the 1 cm of a heat sink (gram): 3
Specify overheating (degree Celsius) : 40
Duty cycle : γ = 1– γmin = 1- 0.675 = 0.325
Specific added mass (gram/watt) :0

INPUT DATA
DIODE TYPE 2D213A
REVERSE DIODE VOLTAGE 40.00000 V
RMS DIODE CURRENT 3.70370 A
AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT 3.70370 A
98
MAXIMUM DIODE CURRENT 6.29630 A
CUT-ON DIODE CURRENT 6.29630 A
CUTOFF DIODE CURRENT 1.20000 A
NUMBER OF CIRCUIT CYCLES 1
PULSE WEIGHT OF MAXIMUM DIODE CURRENT .0004000 SEC
OPERATING FREQUENCY 25000.00000 HZ
WEIGHTS OF 1 SQUARE CENTIMETER HEAT SINK 3.0000
GRAM
DIODE OVERHEATING 40.000 DEGREES CELSIUS
DUTY CYCLE .3250
RELATED VALUE OF THE ATTACHED WEIGHT, GRAM/W .00
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CALCULATION RESULTS

MINIMUM WEIGHT
DIODE NUMBER M=2
DIODE: TD = .00000030 SEC
UD = .68667 V
RD = .03000 Ω
U0 = .62000 V
MAXIMUM DIODE CURRENT 3.77778 A
RMS DIODE CURRENT 2.22222 A
AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT 2.22222 A
CUT-ON DIODE CURRENT 3.77778 A
CUTOFF DIODE CURRENT .72000 A
TOTAL WEIGHT 68.64882 GRAMS
MINIMUM REQUIRED HEAT SINK AREA 20.21627 CM 2
STATIC LOSSES OF M DIODES .92441 W
SWITCHING LOSSES OF M DIODES .08640 W
TOTAL DISSIPATION POWER 1.01081 W
OVERALL SQUARE (AREA) OF M DIODES 7.84000 CM 2

6.4.5 Calculation of circuit parameters

L1 = 68 µH
R1 = RB/N = 9.7543/4 = 2.43 Ω, where N is the number of transistors in
parallel
R2 = 29.7 mΩ
R3 = 3.5 kΩ
R4 = 0.28 Ω
99
C1 = 320 µF
V2 (Direct Current) = 1 V
Eu = V2 + Uy = 1 + 2.1 = 3.1 V
K = Eu  3.1  0.31
10 10

6.4.6 Calculation of load parameters

Maximum load resistance (): Rload_max = Vout2/ Pload min = 272/70 = 10.4

Minimum load resistance (): Rload_min = Vout2/ Pload max = 272/100 = 7.29

6.4.7 Calculation of control circuit parameters

X1 – operational amplifier HA 2540/HA, X2 – comparator LM119.

Resistors: R6 = R7 = R10 = R11 = 10 k
Balancing capacitor C2 (usually from 5 to 30 nF):

L1  C1 68  106  320  106

C2    1.47  108  14.7 nF
R6 10 10 3

Resistors R8 = R9 (usually from 15 to 150 k):

V 1 V 2
R8  R9  K FB  R6   Vm _ VGPN  R6 = 74.5 k
Emin

Balancing capacitor C3 (usually from 0.25 to 5 nF):

0.1  L1  C1 0.1  68  106  320  106

C3    1.98  1010  0.198 nF
R9 74.5  10 3

Reference voltage VOP = 9 V

Power supply voltage: VP+ = 15 V
VP– = –15 V
Ramp generator VGPN (2V amplitude) (Period): 40µS
Resistor R13 = 10 k
Comparator feedback resistor R12 (required from 0.5 to 2 M): 1 M

100
6.4.8 Calculation of converter’s efficiency and weight

Efficiency:
Pload max
 
Pload max  PS   DPC  DPM   PP
100 100
   0.948
100+3.8052+ (0.0263546+1.01081) +0.644 105.486

Weight of the device Gtotal can be calculated as sum of all circuit element
weights.
We also used the coefficient allowing the design features: Kd = 1.5

Gtotal  K d  GD  GS  GT  GTP  GVD =

1.5(20.125+13.5+(378.3680)+68.64882) = 720.963 g

101
6.5 Simulation

6.5.1 Simulation circuit and conditions

R2 L1
Q1

R12 R3
R4

Vin

R1
D1
R5

C1

R13
0

V+
C3

V-
C2 R9
0

R21
11

11
R6 R10
5 4
V+

+ + V+
X1 X2 R14
10 12
R7 OUT R11 OUT
4 5 3
V-

V-

- - G

R22
6

0
R8 EU
VOP VSVG +
-

Figure 6.4. Buck converter simulation circuit

Setting the zero initial conditions in the circuit, the system is run and the
waveforms and the tables below shows the results of the simulation in the
static and dynamic modes of operation.

102
6.5.2 Current and voltage waveforms
30A
(98.438u,24.733)

20A

10A

(1.6768m,3.0939)

0A

-10A
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
I(L1)
Time
Figure 6.5. Inductor current (minimum load and minimum input voltage)

30A
(107.951u,24.872)

20A

10A

(1.5574m,3.0738)

0A

-10A
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
I(D1)
Time
Figure 6.6. Diode current (minimum load and maximum input voltage)

103
 30V

8.250u,28.931) (1.2810m,28.922)

20V

10V

0V

(1.3574m,-1.1392)

-10V
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
V(D1:2)
Time
Figure 6.7. Diode voltage (minimum load and maximum input voltage)

40V

(100.051u,32.373)
(1.7579m,30.139)

30V

20V

10V

(1.7957m,32.270m)

0V
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
V(V1:+,Q1:e)
Time
Figure 6.8. Collector-emitter transistor voltage (minimum load maximum input
voltage)

104
 30A
(98.388u,25.579)

20A

10A

(1.5930m,3.4351)

0A

(1.5178m,202.610n)

-10A
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
IC(Q1)
Time
Figure 6.9. Transistor collector current (minimum load and minimum input
voltage)

30V

(1.9166m,27.119)

20V

10V

0V
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
V(R4:2)
Time
Figure 6.10. Output voltage (minimum load and minimum input voltage)

105
30V

(1.6365m,27.119)

20V

10V

0V
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
V(R4:2)
Time
Figure 6.11. Output voltage (maximum load and minimum input voltage)

30V

(1.9564m,27.123)

20V

10V

0V
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
V(R4:2)
Time
Figure 6.12. Output voltage (minimum load and maximum input voltage)

106
30V

(1.7965m,27.119)

20V

10V

0V
0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms
V(R4:2)
Time
Figure 6.13. Output voltage (maximum load and maximum input voltage)

107
6.5.3 Testing protocol

Table 6.2.

Vin , RL , ts , Vout .av , V , Vout  , Vout  , RF, VOV , ,

V  ms V % V V % V %

30 10,4 0,85 27,067 0,248 27,119 27,015 0,192 27,90 3,07

30 7,3 1,18 27,067 0,248 27,117 27,017 0,184 27,91 3,11

40 10,4 0,95 27,068 0,253 27,123 27,014 0,201 27,95 3,25

40 7,3 1,48 27,067 0,248 27,119 27,015 0,192 27,89 3,04

Where:
Vin - input voltage Vout  - maximum
RL - load resistance Vout  - minimum
t s - transient time RF - ripple factor
Vout .av - average output voltage VOV - overvoltage
V - output voltage ripple amplitude  - tolerance

Useful formulas:

Vout  Vout .av Vout   Vout  VOV  Vout .av

V   100% ; RF  ; 
Vout 2  Vout .av Vout .av

108
 Table 6.3.

Measured value
Circuit Calculated Steady –
Parameter Start Limit
component value state
mode
mode

Q1 I C max , A 1.8 23.58 4.06 10

VCE max , V 40 32.40 30.3 120

D1 I av , A 3.70370 7.3 0.23 10

Vr ,V 40 28.96 28.89 200

C1 Vdc , V 27 27.2 26.9 63

Vac max , V 0.27 – 0.25 6.3

L1 I av , A 3.70370 17.2 3.7 –

I , A 2.592595 14.4 1.0 –

Table 6.4.

Circuit parameter Calculated value Measured value Given value

Efficiency 0.948 – –

Weight, grams 720.963 – –

The correspondence of parameters of the designed device to the

functional assignment and technical project requirements is depicted in tables
2, 3 and 4 of this chapter. From the table above it can be seen that the
109
minimum number of diodes required for the circuit to work optimally is 2.
This can be realized by connecting them in parallel. As for the transistors, a
minimum of 4 is required.
It should be mentioned that efficiency of the designed device equals to
0.948 and the weight of this devise is 720.963 gram. From the results
obtained and calculated, this system has not too much loss hence a large
value of efficiency. It can therefore be said that we have a highly efficient
device.
Thus, the device corresponds to the requirements of the project.

110
Conclusion
This textbook focuses on the basic notions, history, types, technology
and applications of computer-aided design. Methods of electronic devices
simulation, automated design of power electronic devices and components,
constructive-technological design are considered and discussed. Some
features of the popular electronics CADs are also shown. There are a lot of
practical examples using CADs of electronics.
The textbook is designed at the Department of Industrial and Medical
Electronics of TPU. It is intended for students majoring in the specialty
210100 „Electronics and Nanoelectronics‟. Authors hope their work will help
students who choose electronics for future.

111
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15.Tetelbaum I.M., Schneider Ju.R. Praktika analogovogo modelirovaniya
dinamicheskih sistem: spravochnoe posobie - M.: Energoatomizdat,
1987.- 384 s.
16.Automatizaciya proektirovaniya radioelectronnyh sredstv. O.V. Alexeev.
M. Vysshaya shkola, 2000. - 479 s.
17.Кazancev U.M. Automatizirovannoe proektirovanie elektronnyh
ustroystv. Uchebnoe posobie. - Tomsk: TPU, 1999. - 88 s.
18.Vlah I, Singhal K. Mashinnye metody analiza i proektirovaniya
elektronnyh shem. M.: Radio i svyaz, 1988. – 560 s.
19.Razevig V. D. Sistema skvoznogo proektirovaniya electronnyh ustroystv
DesignLab 8.0., M.: Solon, 1999. - 698 p.
20.Avetysyan D.A. Automatizaciya proektirovaniya elektricheskih sistem.
M. Vysshaya shkola, 1998 – 331s.
21.Analog and digital electronics: a first course / Beards H. Peter. – 2nd. ed.,
1996, Prentice Hall Europe. – 1073 p.
22.A practical introduction to electronic circuits / Jones H. Martin. – 3d. ed.,
1995, Cambridge University Press. – 548 p.
23.L. Faulkenberry An introduction to operational amplifiers with linear IC
applications. Texas State Technical Institute. 2nd. ed., 1982.
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1997. – 325 p.: il
25.The art of electronics / Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill. – 2nd ed., 1989. –
1105 p.
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28.Electronics: a system approach / Neil Storey. – 3rd ed., 2006. – 645 p.

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Appendix A

Symbols, SI units and Abbreviations

Symbol Representing Unit (SI)

A Area square meter
A, AV Voltage gain (open loop) of an amplifier dimensionless
AC, a.c. Adjective applied to alternating voltages and
currents
B Magnetic flux density tesla
b, B Base of a bipolar transistor
BW Bandwidth hertz
C Capacitance farad
c, C Collector of a bipolar transistor
CMRR Common-mode rejection ratio dimensionless
d Distance meter
D Drain of a MOSFET or JFET
DC, d.c. Adjective applied to non-alternating voltages
and currents (direct current)
e, E Electromotive force (e.m.f), e.m.f. source volt
e, E Emitter of a bipolar transistor
f Frequency hertz
G Closed-loop gain of feedback amplifier dimensionless
G Conductance; reciprocal of resistance Siemens
G Gate of a MOSFET or JFET
H Strength of magnetic field ampere/second
or oersted
I Current; d.c. value; or amplitude or r.m.s. value ampere
of a.c. current
IB Input bias current of an amplifier ampere
IF Forward current for a diode ampere
IH Holding current of a thyristor ampere
IS Diode saturation current ampere
i Magnetizing current ampere
L Inductance henry
n N-region of a semiconductor
Np, Ns Primary, secondary turns in a transformer dimensionless
P Power watt

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p P-region of a semiconductor
q, Q Instantaneous value of charge, Charge coulomb
R D.C. resistance of a resistor ohm
r Slope resistance, small-signal resistance ohm
RF Ripple factor dimensionless
r.m.s. Root-mean square value of current or voltage
Rin, Rout Input, output resistance of a circuit ohm
RL Load resistance connected to a circuit ohm
S Source of a MOSFET or JFET
SF Stabilization factor dimensionless
SR Slew rate volt per second
t Time second
T Period (Total time) second
V Voltage: d.c. value or amplitude or r.m.s. value volt
of a.c. voltage
V Instantaneous value of voltage volt
Vav , v Average value (of voltage or current)
VCC Supply voltage (continuous current) volt
VF Forward voltage drop for a diode volt
VP Pinch-off voltage of a JFET volt
VR Reverse voltage for a diode volt
V ref Reference voltage volt
VS Source voltage volt
VZ Zener voltage volt
X Reactance ohm
Z Impedance Ohm
 Efficiency dimensionless
 Damping ratio dimensionless

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Appendix B
EDA Glossary
A
analog simulator
An EDA software tool which simulates the behavior of analog signals.

analysis tools
EDA software tools or tool suites which may display simulator output for
analysis (as in waveform analyzers) or which may analyze the reliability,
electromagnetic interference, metal migration, signal integrity, or thermal
characteristics of a design. The tools in this category may work at any level
of abstraction – behavioral, register-transfer-level (RTL), gate-level, or with
the physical layout of an IC device or electronic system.

application
A computer program which is intended to perform a specific task. An
application includes an executable file which is invoked to run the desired
program. See also tool.

B
behavioral modeling
System-level modeling consisting of a functional specification plus modeling
of the timing of an implementation. A behavioral model consist of an HDL
description of a device or component which is expressed at a relatively high
level of abstraction (higher than the register-transfer level or gate level). It
uses underlying mathematical equations to represent the functional behavior
of the component. See also functional modeling.

benchmark
A design test case which is used to measure the capabilities, limitations, and
breakthroughs reported for newly proposed and existing algorithms and tools.

block
A group of interconnected cells. A block may contain instances of other
blocks.

bottom-up design
A design methodology whereby the designer starts with the most basic or
primitive components and incrementally builds up the system into higher-
level components.
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breadboard
A printed circuit board on which experimental electronic circuits can be
developed; so-called from the time when radios were constructed at home on
a breadboard.

C
CAD (Computer-Aided Design)
The electronic design automation of projects that were previously under
manual methods considered to be drafting functions; typically refers to PCB
layout, wire harness design, or mechanical design.

CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering)

The electronic design automation of projects that were previously under
manual methods considered to be electronic engineering functions, such as
the design of integrated circuits and computing devices.

CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing)

Electronic design automation applied to the manufacturing process. Involves
the planning, scheduling, simulation, and control of advanced manufacturing
systems.

chip
Semiconductor components which provide the memory, logic, and virtually
all other intelligence functions in an electronic system. Also known as a
microchip, chip, integrated circuit or IC. See also IC.

CIS (Component Information System)

An EDA or supply chain application which allows users to locate
components and suppliers, view parametric information about the
component, conduct procurement transactions, and in some cases to even
obtain design views of the selected components that can drive their particular
EDA design tools of choice. Also referred to as CSM (Component Supplier
Management).

convergence
Achievement of a final design solution in which all design constraints have
been successfully met. Often this involves balancing and trading off two or
more requirements that are in opposition with one another, such as timing
delay versus area.
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D
design cycle
The period of time required to complete an electronic design of any type,
from concept to production.

design entry
The process of creating a new design of any type – chip, board, module, or
system – using textual and/or graphical tools such as schematic capture or
other high-level graphical methods, hardware description languages, Boolean
equations, or other methods. Also referred to as design capture.

design flow
A series of connected processes for performing a complete design cycle.

design management
EDA software tools which automatically manage design data and the design
process by controlling the operation of one or more EDA tools.

design specification
A summary of the features and performance targets that are intended for a
new electronic product. This specification drives the requirements and/or
constraints that must be met during the design and manufacturing processes.

DFT (Design For Testability)

The practice of defining an ASIC manufacturing test strategy at the start of
the design process rather than at the end.

DSP (Digital Signal Processor)

A specialized semiconductor device which is specialized for performing
conversions between analog and digital signals. DSPs are widely used in
products involved with audio and video, such as sound cards, fax machines,
modems, cellular phones, hard disks, and digital TVs. DSP chips are used on
sound cards for recording and playback as well as speech synthesis.

E
EDA (Electronic Design Automation)
The industry which is involved in developing and supplying highly
specialized software- and hardware-based tools for the automated design of
electronic products of all kinds. EDA products and services are essential for
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the design of electronic products that enable many other high-tech sectors of
the economy, such as computers, communications, consumer, industrial,
military/aerospace, semiconductors, and transportation.

EDIF (Electronic Design Interchange Format)

A textual language designed to enable the transfer of all forms of electronic
design information between different CAD systems. Currently implemented
for netlist and schematic descriptions, although there are still significant
differences between different tool vendor implementations which may impair
portability.

embedded system
An application-specific computing system that is designed into a product so
invisibly it is not apparent to end users that they are using a computer.
Examples are found in automotive anti-lock braking systems, microwave
ovens, and automatic dishwashers. The computing processor inside an
embedded system typically makes use of a real-time operating system which
does not require a waiting period to boot up.

EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility)

Describes how an electronic device will behave in a "real world" setting of
EMI, as defined by the environment and the intended application. Different
EMC/EMI standards and specifications are imposed based on the
classification of an electronic device and its environmental application.

EMI (Electromagnetic Interference)

The electronic noise in an environment that can affect an electronic device, or
is being produced by an electronic device, or both. EMI analysis tools are
used to verify EMC compliance during the design of high-speed PCBs and IC
packages. The traditional EMI remedies involve the addition of extra
components, metal shields, metal plans, or even redesigning the entire
system. Synonym: radio-frequency interference.

emulation
The process by which a device under development and its native software is
prototyped before its manufacture.

emulators
A class of EDA products which includes both specialized computing
hardware and software. Emulators are used to prototype a design and exercise
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its native software prior to its manufacture. Many emulators can also be used
to perform hardware acceleration of simulation runs.

encapsulation
1) The preparation of a tool for integration into design frameworks without
any changes to the source code for the tool. 2) The preparation of a block of
SIP for integration into systems without any changes to the source code for
the SIP.

equivalency checking
A formal verification technique which verifies the integrity of each design
step by proving the functional equivalence between two implementations.

ERC (Electrical Rule Checker)

EDA software tools for checking the electrical integrity of complex digital,
memory and mixed-signal circuitry.

event-driven simulator
An EDA software tool that simulates the behavior of a logic design which
has been described at some level of abstraction (behavioral, RTL, or gate-
level), considers timing information in the simulation process, and thus must
schedule events and evaluate signals between clock cycles.

F
formal verification
Use of various types of formal methods (abstract calculus) to verify the
correctness of IC logic or system interactions. Equivalency checking is the
most common formal verification method, which is used to compare the
design that is being created against a design that is already proven accurate.
Model checking is another method that ascertains the behavior of a specific
signal at a certain time. Semi-formal is a newer method which combines
formal verification and simulation.

framework
A computing architecture for integrating products from multiple vendors
which includes data representation, design data management, methodology
management, a user interface, an extension language, and inter-tool
communication.

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functional modeling
System modeling that specifies input/output behavior without specifying its
timing. See also behavioral modeling.

functional verification tool

An EDA software application that verifies the functional correctness of a
hardware design by employing logic simulation techniques.

G
GDSII
A term often used in a generic sense to refer to graphical IC or PCB layout
data in an interchange format. In the generic sense, the term GDSII is
frequently used even if the source data format is GDSIV or other graphical
format.

H
hardware modeling
The process of defining the functionality of a component using an actual chip
rather than a software description. Often employed in the early life of a chip
when physical prototypes are available, but a software model is not.

hardware/software co-design
Software tools that perform or support hardware/software partitioning,
performance evaluation, and design entry for system-level designs that are
comprised of both hardware and software elements, as in embedded systems.
Includes tools and interfaces that link the design and evaluation steps with
code compilation models.

HDL (Hardware Description Language)

One of several specialized high-level languages used by semiconductor
designers to describe the features and functionality of chips and systems prior
to handoff to the IC layout process. HDL descriptions are used in both the
design implementation and verification flows. Currently, the two standard
HDLs in use worldwide are Verilog HDL and VHDL. Several proprietary
HDLs also exist, mainly for describing logic that is targeted for vendor-
specific programmable logic devices.

hierarchical design
A design methodology where portions of large designs are divided into
manageable sections or sub-blocks that may be created, represented
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symbolically, designed, and then connected together when completed. This
methodology allows different parts of the design to be worked on in parallel.

I
implementation
The result of the design synthesis process, in which an abstract description of
a design entity is converted into gates and the electrical connections between
them (signals). An implementation is rendered using components from the
foundry-specific design library that represents the target semiconductor
process technology. Many of the physical analysis algorithms that were
previously found only in standalone physical analysis tools are now being
integrated into the implementation flow to help drive the synthesis process.

instance
A copy of a library cell or block which has been called into a design and
made specific by naming it and connecting it to other logic in the design.
This process is known as instantiation.

I/O (Input/Output)
An input, output, or bidirectional buffer cell used to connect design interface
signals directly to package pins.

L
layout
For ICs, the process of floorplanning, implementing, and verifying the
location of transistors and their connections within a chip design. For PCBs,
the process of entering, placing, routing, and verifying the location of
physicial components and their connections within a board design.

layout verification
The process of verifying that the layout topology of circuits which have
undergone placement, routing, and compaction does not violate any
fabrication process rules. Includes Design Rule Checkers (DRS), Electrical
Rule Checkers (ERC), and Layout-Versus-Schematic Checkers (LVS).

library
A collection of design objects that are related in some way, such as
simulation models, symbols, or footprints. The objects may be part of a
single design, in which case it would be a design library. The objects could

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be standard-cell elements for IC design, or components for PCB design, in
which case it would be a reference library.

M
mixed-signal simulators
Software tools that simulate the behavior of mixed analog and digital
portions of a design. Includes interface packages for linking analog and
digital signals.

model
A functional representation of a device or system that is delivered in object
code format. This software representation contains the basic structure and
characteristics of a design object which is used to perform design
verification. During the development of an electronic system, models are
exercised along with signals entering from the outside environment (vectors)
to simulate the behavior of the system in software and ensure that it will
operate properly before being manufactured in hardware.

model checking
A formal verification technique which compares the functionality of a design
to a set of user-specified properties or characteristics. Determines whether a
set of conditions or properties hold true or are contained within a given
implementation of a design. Also referred to as property checking.

module generators
Tools used exclusively to generate SIP from regular parameterizable physical
structures that are based on a fixed set of base leaf cells. Includes tools to
create integration views for SIP blocks created by the Module Generator.
Module generators (which are also termed target compilers) produce physical
blocks from a set of design parameters that are based on physical and
electrical design rules.

N
netlist
A textual file representing an ASIC design as a set of library-specific cells
along with their interconnections.

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O
optimization
Use of a computing algorithm to achieve the most efficient design of a
product. Various types of optimization are performed by different tools in the
design flows for chips, boards, and systems.

P
parameter
A means by which an application or user can customize the behavior or
characteristics of a model instance when it is created. A parameter is set to a
constant value during design entry.

parasitic extraction tools

Software tools that translate IC layout data into networks of electrical circuit
elements (transistors, resistors and capacitors) and parasitic elements
(interconnect capacitance and resistance). These tools are used to model the
timing, power, and signal behavior of an IC design. Also included in this
category are network reduction tools and delay calculators.

pattern
An arrangement of services that collectively model a communication path
from sender to receiver. Patterns support the modeling of communication
between software and hardware, hardware and software, software and
software, or hardware and hardware.

PCA (Printed Circuit Assembly)

The manufacturing assembly of printed circuit boards, multichip modules,
and hybrids of these two. Includes printing, pasting, component placement,
reflow, wave soldering, cabling, and test.

PCB (Printed Circuit Board)

An electronic interconnect product which is the foundation of most electronic
systems. PCBs are used to mount and interconnect chips, capacitors,
resistors, and other discrete components required in a piece of electronic
equipment. The base material of a PCB is called a dielectric and is generally
made of rigid fiberglass, rigid paper, or flexible thin plastic laminates. Those
dielectric substrates are then coated with copper and may be fabricated into
rigit single- or double-sided, multilayer, or flexible circuits. Also referred to
as printed wiring board.

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PCB libraries and library tools
Descriptions of design elements used for designing PCBs or larger systems.
Includes component models for simulation or analysis, symbols, component
information systems, library development tools, library management tools,
and design libraries for PCB or system-level design.

performance model
A model that estimates one or more physical or temporal characteristics such
as signal delay, power usage, area, temperature, electromagnetic interference,
etc.

placement & routing

The process of placing and routing the circuitry of an integrated circuit (IC)
or application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) using tools for designing
gate arrays, embedded arrays, standard cells, and irregularly sized macrocell
or mega-cell blocks.

placement rules
User-defined rules which force a special placement group. May be defined
for a given technology library or a specific netlist.

PLD (Programmable Logic Device)

1) A high-level term for all types of programmable semiconductor chips,
including the FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array), CPLD (Complex
Programmable Logic Device), EPLD (Erasable Programmable Logic
Device), simple PLD, and others such as the EPROM and EEPROM. 2) A
simple PLD (archaic).

ports
Objects in design description that allow the model and the application to
interact during simulation. Ports may be of the types Input, Output, or I/O
(bidirectional).

power analysis tools

EDA software tools that analyze, optimize, or diagnose power problems, or
provide automatic power reduction in electronic circuits.

primitive
An instance of a cell at the lowest logic level on a circuit. Multiple instances
of the same cell may exist in a design.
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production test
The process of verifying that a device has been manufactured correctly
before it leaves the manufacturing facility.

product lifecycle tools

Supply chain tools which are used to track the entire lifecycle of a finished
product once it leaves the manufacturing facility. Includes installation,
training, field support, and sales tracking.

property checking
A formal verification technique which verifies that a design does or does not
conform to a specified property under all possible sets of legal input
conditions. See model checking.

Q
quality conformance inspection
Sample tests performed on a periodic basis that determine conformance of
quality and reliability standards and ensure a continuing level of quality for
the device type under test.

R
random logic
Components and signals which exist at a low level of hierarchy, outside of
the major blocks of logic in a design. Sometimes referred to as glue logic
because its function may be to connect the major hierarchical blocks. See
also primitive.

routability
The level of effort required to automatically route the connections (or nets) in
a design based on the available routing resources, such as space between
components, grid width, numbers of layers, etc.

RTOS (Real-Time Operating System)

One of various computer operating systems that are typically used in
embedded systems which do not require a waiting period to start up.

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S
schematic capture
A graphical design entry process used to create gate-level schematics which
represent logic in a design.

signal integrity analysis tools

EDA software tools that analyze electrical signal behavior of wiring networks
on printed circuit boards (PCBs), integrated circuits (ICs), IC packages and
sockets, multi-chip modules (MCMs), and other structures such as hybrids.
May include two-dimensional or three-dimensional field solvers.

simulation
The process of verifying an electronic design using EDA software which
reads in models and input/output vectors, exercises the device under test, and
records the resulting behavior and timing for the purpose of identifying and
debugging any incorrect or unexpected behavior.

SIP (Semiconductor Intellectual Property)

A block of a design or testbench that can be reused. Also known as a virtual
component.

SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis)

An industry-standard analog simulation language which contains models for
most circuit elements and can handle complex nonlinear circuits. Also refers
to a freely distributed simulation tool which simulates circuitry described in
the SPICE language.

symbol
A graphical representation of a component that contains information about
the ports of the component. Each symbol has a corresponding textual
interface file that contains the same information as the graphical
representation. Both the symbol and interface files are views of the
component.

synthesis
An EDA process which reads a high-level electronic design description and
implements it at a lower level of abstraction. Synthesis tools typically include
algorithms for logic optimization and technology retargeting. Legacy
synthesis tools produce a gate-level implementation, at which point the
design netlist is handed off to the IC layout process. More recent
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developments have synthesis becoming more tightly integrated with the IC
layout process in order to better achieve convergence of goals such as timing.

T
technology flow
A specific manufacturing line from design, fabrication, assembly, packaging,
through to test in a given technology.

testbench
A custom model of the system environment used during the verification of a
design to provide simulation inputs and respond to simulated outputs from
the design under test.

timing-driven design
A methodology to achieve circuit performance goals, encompassing tools
across the entire design flow.

tool
In the electronic design automation industry, a shorthand term for an EDA
product. Generally consists of a software application, but in some cases may
include specialized hardware, as in emulation, hardware acceleration, and
rapid prototyping systems.

U
user
A person who uses application software and who is not the system
administrator. In EDA, this person is generally an electronic engineer or a
layout designer.

V
VC (Virtual Component)
A reusable block of semiconductor intellectual property (SIP). VCs may be
soft (synthesizable), firm (parameterizable), or hard (where the layout is
fixed, with only the I/Os visible to the design tools).

verification
The process of verifying the functional and performance requirements of a
design, be it a chip, board, or system. Many different kinds of verification
tools are in use today, including simulation, formal verification, various types
of physical analysis tools, emulation, and rapid prototyping. Most design
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verification strategies employ many or all of these approaches to assure the
reliability of the final product prior to its manufacture.

W
workstation
A desktop computer which has sufficient capabilities to run as a standalone
system, but which is typically connected to a network to gain access to other
computing resources, peripherals, and communications.

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 Educational Edition

Национальный исследовательский
Томский политехнический университет

КОЖЕМЯК Олеся Анатольевна

ОГОРОДНИКОВ Дмитрий Николаевич

АВТОМАТИЗИРОВАННОЕ ПРОЕКТИРОВАНИЕ
ЭЛЕКТРОННЫХ УСТРОЙСТВ
Учебное пособие
Издательство Томского политехнического университета, 2014
На английском языке

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