4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

Chapter 13 : THERMOCHEMISTRY
• Thermochemistry is the study of changes in heat energy during chemical reaction.
• Two types of chemical reactions :
1. Exothermic reaction
2. Endothermic reaction

13.1 : ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Chemical energy is stored within the chemical bonds. During a chemical reaction, chemical bonds of
the reactants are broken and new bonds in the products are formed.
 When bonds are broken, heat energy is ………………………….
 When bonds are formed, heat energy is ………………………….

2. Energy that is released or absorbed is in the form of ……………… energy.

3. The energy change (the difference between the energy of reactants and the products) in a chemical
reaction is called heat of reaction, ∆H.

4. Heat of reaction, ∆H is the energy change when one mole of reactant reacts or when one mole of
product is formed.

∆H = Total energy content of products – total energy content of reactants

= Hproducts – Hreactants

5. Two types of reactions that occur are :

 Exothermic reaction
 Endothermic reaction

13.1.1 Exothermic Reaction

Example :
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O , ∆H = - 486 kJ

Bonds are broken in the

reactants :
( +1370 kJ heat energy absorbed)
+

New bonds are formed in the

products:
(-1856 kJ heat energy released )
:
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4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

Energy change in the reaction :

Interpretation :
Energy
 The quantity of energy absorbed for bonds breaking between
lower
hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms are ……………….. than
Energy energy released for the formation of bonds between hydrogen
absorbed
and oxygen atoms.
+1370 kJ Weak strong
Energy
2H2 + O2 released  …………. bonds are broken and ………….. bonds are formed.
-1856 kJ  Heat is released to the surrounding  temperature increases.
negative
∆ H = - 486 kJ  The sign of ∆H is …………………….
2H2O  Energy change : Chemical energy → Heat energy
 Total energy content are decreased. Total energy content of the
Energy change : product is lower/less than total energy of the reactants.
∆ H = 1370 - 1856
= - 486 kJ
The value of ∆ H is -486 kJ
The heat released from bond formation is greater than heat absorbed for bond breaking.
A negative sign for ∆ H shows that heat is released.

Energy Level Diagram

 Energy level diagram shows the total energy content of the reactants compared to the products.
 Energy level diagram for exothermic reactions :
Energy
Reactants
t/b

∆H negative (heat is released)

Products

 Total energy content of the products is less than total energy of the reactants.
 Example of exothermic reactions :

Chemical equation

Neutralisation 2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2 H2O

Reaction between acids and metals Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Reaction between acids and carbonate Na2CO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

Combustion of alcohol C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

Dissolving sodium hydroxide in water NaOH(s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

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Adding water to concentrated acid. H2SO4(aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)

13.1.2 Endothermic Reaction

Energy Change in Endothermic Reaction:

Energy Interpretation :
higher
The quantity of energy absorbed for bonds breaking is ……… than
Energy energy released from the formation of bonds.
released Strong weakbonds are formed.
………... bonds are broken and ………...
( -ve)
Energy
absorbed Heat is absorbed from the surrounding  temperature decreases
Products
(+ve) positive
The sign of ∆H is …………………….
∆ H Energy change : Heat energy → Chemical energy
positive
Reactants Total energy content are increased. Total energy content of the
product is more than total energy of the reactants.

Energy Level Diagram

 Energy level diagram shows the total energy content of the reactants compared to the products .
 Energy level diagram for exothermic reactions :

Energy Products
b

∆H positive (heat is absorbed)

Reactants

 Total energy content of the products is greater/more than total energy of the reactants.
 Example of endothermic reactions :

Chemical equation
Decomposition of nitrate and carbonate salt
when heated CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Decomposition of hydrated salt to CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

anhydrous salt and water when heated (blue) ∆ (white)

Dissolving ammonium salts/nitrate salts in H2O

water NH4Cl(s) NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

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Activity 1:-

1 Complete the following table to compare and contrast between Exothermic and Endothermic reactions.

Exothermic Endothermic

Absorb /release heat Release heat Absorb heat

Temperature of
Increase Decrease
surrounding change

Total energy content Reactants > products Products > reactants

Energy level diagram

Energy Energy

Reactants Products
∆H = ∆H =

Value of ∆H Negative
Products Positive
Reactants

2 Construct energy level diagram for the following thermochemical equations :

(i) HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O ∆ H = -57 kJ

(ii) NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3 -(aq) ∆ H = +26 kJ

Energy
Energy

HCl + NaOH NH4+ + NO3-

∆H = + 26 kJ mol-
∆H = - 57 kJ mol-1

NaCl + H2O NH4NO3

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4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

13.2 : APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE OF EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC

REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

(a) Hot packs

• Contain chemicals that released heat [exothermic reaction]
• It is a plastic bag containing separate compartments of water and anhydrous calcium
chloride.
• The anhydrous calcium chloride dissolve in water to release heat; the temperature
increase.
H2O
CaCl2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) ∆H = - 83 kJ

• Other substances that can be used in a hot pack are anhydrous magnesium sulphate,
anhydrous copper(II) sulphate and calcium oxide.
• A reusable hot pack uses supersaturated solution of sodium ethanoate crystallization
and resolution.

(b) Cold packs

• Contain chemicals that absorbed heat [endothermic reaction]
• It is a plastic bag containing separate compartments of water and solid ammonium
nitrate.
• The solid ammonium nitrate dissolve in water and absorbed heat from surrounding;the
temperature decrease.

H2O
NH4NO3(s) NH4+(aq) + NO3 - (aq) ∆H = + 83 kJ

• Other substances that can be used in a cold pack are ammonium chloride, potassium
nitrate and sodium thiosulphate.

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4.3 : DETERMIINE THE HEAT OF REACTION (∆H)

1. Heat of Reaction, ∆H
 the energy change when one mole of reactant reacts
or
 the energy change when one mole of product is formed.

2. Four types of heat of reaction discussed in this chapter are :

Heat of
Definition Example
reaction

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq),

∆H = -50.4 kJ
Heat change/ Heat energy released
Ionic equation :
Heat of when 1 mol of precipitate is
1 Pb2+ + SO42- → PbSO4
Precipitation formed.
 50.4 kJ heat energy is released when 1 mol of
lead(II) ions reacted with 1 mol of sulphate ions to
form 1 mol of lead (II) sulphate.

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s), ∆H = -217 kJ

Heat change/ Heat energy released Ionic equation :

Heat of
2 when 1 mol of metal is displaced Cu2+ + Zn → Zn2+ + Cu
Displacement
from its salt solution.
 217 kJ heat energy is released when 1 mol of copper
is displaced from copper(II) sulphate solution by zinc.

KOH(aq) + HNO3 (aq)→ KNO3(aq) + H2O(l), ∆H = -57 kJ

Heat change / Heat energy released Ionic equation :
Heat of when 1 mol of water is formed
3 Neutralisatio from neutralisation of acid with an H+ + OH- → H2O
n alkali.  57 kJ heat energy is released when 1 mol of water
formed from neutralization of potassium hydroxide
with nitric acid.

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4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O, ∆H = -1366 kJ

Heat change / Heat energy released
Heat of when 1 mol of fuel is burnt
4  1366 kJ heat energy is released when 1 mol of ethanol
Combustion completely in excess oxygen.
is burnt completely in excess oxygen.

3. Method of calculating ∆H

 Quantity of heat change in a substance depends on :

 Mass of substance, m (g)

 Specific heat capacity of a substance, c ( J g-1 oC-1 ) Heat change, H = mcθ

(J)
 Temperature change, θ (oC)

 As the chemical reaction occurs in an aqueous solution, these assumptions are made during
the calculation of heat of reaction :
• Density of aqueous solution = Density of water = 1 g cm-3

 1 cm3 of aqueous solution has a mass of 1 g

 250 cm3 of aqueous solution has a mass of 250 g

 x cm3 of aqueous solution has a mass of x g

• Specific heat capacity of solution, c = Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g-1
o
C-1
• No heat lost to the surroundings during reaction, all heat released in an exothermic reaction
is absorbed into the reaction mixture.

 Heat change, H
 The heat change in a reaction can be calculated the following formula :

m = mass of the solution in gram

Heat change = mcθ
c = specific heat capacity of solution in J g-1o C-1
θ = temperature change in ºC
 Heat of reaction , ∆H

 Heat of reaction ( ∆H) is the energy change when

 one mole of reactant reacts

or
 one mole of product is formed.
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Calculation :
If n mol of reactant/product absorbs/releases H J of heat energy,

1 mol of reactant/product absorbs/releases H J mol -1

n

∆H (heat of reaction) = +/- H J x = number of moles of reactant/product

n
Note :
i. The sign of ∆H is negative for exothermic reaction ( temperature increases)
ii. The sign of ∆H is positive for endothermic reaction (temperature decreases)
iii. The unit for heat of reaction is kJ mol-1.
iv. When the amount of heat is presented in ∆H, it is written ∆H = +/- ……kJ mol-1.
Example 1 : (Heat of Precipitation)
60 cm3 of 0.025 mol dm-3 silver nitrate solution reacts with 60 cm3 of 0.025 mol dm -3 potassium bromide
solution at a temperature of 29 oC. A yellow precipitate was formed and the highest temperature reached
is 32 oC. Determine the heat of reaction, ∆H and draw the energy level diagram for this reaction.
Solution :

Steps Calculation

S1: Determine the mass of the solution, m Mass of the solution, m = ( 60 cm3 + 60 cm3 ) × 1 g cm-3
(Density of aqueous solution = 1 g cm-3) m = 120 g

Temperature change, θ = 32 – 29
S2 : Determine the temperature change, θ
= 3 oC
S3 : Determine the energy change/ heat
Heat released, H = mcθ
released, H
= 120 × 4.2 × 3
(Specific heat capacity of solution
= 1512 J
= 4.2 J g-1 oC-1)

S4 : Determine the number of moles of silver 60

Number of moles of Ag+ = 0.025 ×
bromide precipitated, n 1000

= 0.0015 mol

60
Number of moles of Br- = 0.025 ×
1000

= 0.0015 mol

AgNO3 + KBr → AgBr + KNO3

or
Ag+ + Br- → AgBr

From the ionic equation :

1 mol of Ag+ ions reacts with 1 mol of Br- ions to form 1 mol of AgBr
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0.0015 mol of Ag+ ions reacts with 0.0015 mol Br- ions to form
0.0015 mol of AgBr.

Number of mole of AgBr, n = 0.0015 mol

S5 : Determine the heat of reaction, ∆H ∆H = - H

n ∆H is negative because
= - 1512 temperature increased / heat is
0.0015 released to the surrounding
= - 100800 J mol-1 (Exothermic reaction).

= - 1008 kJ mol-1

Energy Level Diagram :

From chemical equation

Energy

AgNO3 + KBr

∆H = - 100.8 kJ mol-1

AgBr + KNO3

or

From ionic equation

Energy

Ag+ + Br-

∆H = - 100.8 kJ mol-1

AgBr

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4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

Example 2 : (Heat of Displacement)

Excess zinc, Zn powder is added to 50 cm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3 copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 solution. The
temperature of the reaction mixture rises by 2.62 oC. Calculate the heat of displacement, ∆H of copper, Cu
from its salt solution and draw the energy level diagram for this reaction.

Solution :

Steps Calculation

S1: Determine the mass of the solution, m Mass of the solution, m = 50 cm3 × 1 g cm-3
(Density of aqueous solution = 1 g cm-3) m = 50 g

S2 : Determine the temperature change, θ Temperature change, θ = 2.62 oC

S3 : Determine the heat released, H Heat released, H = mcθ

(Specific heat capacity of solution = 50 × 4.2 × 2.62
= 4.2 J g-1 oC-1) = 550.2 J

S4 : Determine the number of moles of 50

Num. of moles of Cu(NO3)2 / Cu2+ = 0.05 ×
copper(II) nitrate, n 1000

= 0.0025 mol

Cu(NO3)2 + Zn → Cu + Zn(NO3)2

From the equation :

1 mol of Cu(NO3)2 form 1 mol of Cu
0.0025 mol of Cu(NO3)2 form 0.0025 mol of Cu

Number of mole of Cu displaced, n = 0.0025 mol

S5 : Determine the heat of reaction, ∆H ∆H = - H

n ∆H is negative because
550.2 temperature increased/rised.
Chapter 13 0.0025 Thermochemistry
Heat is released to the
surrounding (Exothermic
reaction)
4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

= -

= - 220080 J mol-1
= - 220.08 kJ mol-1

Energy Level Diagram :

From chemical equation

Energy

Cu(NO3)2 +

∆H = - 220.08 kJ mol-1

Cu + Zn(NO3)2

or

From ionic equation

Energy

Cu2+ + Zn

∆H = - 220.08 kJ mol-1

Cu + Zn2+

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Example 3 : (Heat of Combustion)

Diagram below shows the set-up of apparatus for an experiment to determine the heat of combustion of
butanol.

Thermometer
Wind shield
Copper can

250 cm3 of water

Butanol

Wooden block

Result :
Volume of water in copper can, m = 250 cm3
Initial temperature of water, T1 = 28.0 0C
The highest temperature of water, T2 = 59.5 0C
Initial mass of spirit lamp contains butanol = 175.20 g
Final mass of spirit lamp = 174.10 g

Calculate the heat of combustion, ∆H of butanol, C4H9OH and draw the energy level diagram for this
reaction.
Solution :

Steps Calculation

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4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

S1: Determine the mass of the water, m Mass of the solution, m = 250 cm3 × 1 g cm-3
(Density of aqueous solution = 1 g cm-3) m = 250 g

Temperature change, θ = 59.5 – 28.0

S2 : Determine the temperature change, θ
= 11.5 oC

S3 : Determine the heat released, H Heat released, H = mcθ

(Specific heat capacity of solution = 250 × 4.2 × 11.5
= 4.2 J g-1 oC-1) = 12075 J

S4 : Determine the number of moles of butanol Mass of C4H9OH = 175.20 – 174.10

is burnt, n = 1.10 g

1.10
Mr of C4H9OH = 4(12) + 10(1) +16 Num. of moles of C4H9OH =
74
= 74
= 0.015 mol

S5 : Determine the heat of reaction, ∆H ∆H = - H

n ∆H is negative because
= - 12075 temperature increased/rised.
0.015 Heat is released to the
= - 805000 J mol-1 surrounding (Exothermic
reaction)
= - 805 kJ mol-1

Chemical equation :

C4H9OH + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O

Energy Level Diagram :

Energy

C4H9OH + 6O2

∆H = - 805 kJ

4CO2 + 5H2O

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Chapter 13 Thermochemistry
4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

13.4 ACTIVITY / EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE HEAT OF REACTION

Heat of
Procedure m c θ n
Reaction
Set up of apparatus :

Thermometer
Metal powder
Polystyrene
cup
Salt solution Specific Number of moles of metal
heat displaced
Heat of Procedure : Volume of
displacement salt solution
capacit θ = T2 – T1 [calculated from balanced
1. Measure the volume of salt* solution using a y of equation of displacement
measuring cylinder. water reaction]
2. Pour the salt solution into a polystyrene cup.
3. Determine the initial temperature (T1).
4. Quickly and carefully, excess metal** powder is
added into the solution.
5. The mixture is stirred with a thermometer and the
highest temperature reached is recorded (T2).

Heat of Set up of apparatus : Total volume Specific Number of moles of water

neutralisation of acid and heat formed.
alkali capacit [calculated from balanced
Acid y of T1 = Ta + Tb equation of neutralisation
water 2 reaction]
Acid Alkali Alkali

Procedure : θ = T2 – T1
1. Measure the volume of acid* and alkali** using
measuring cylinders.
2. Pour the solutions into different polystyrene cups.
3. Record the initial temperature of acid & alkali (Ta and
Tb).
4. Quickly and carefully, acid is poured into the alkali.
5. The mixture is stirred with a thermometer and the
Chapter 13 Thermochemistry
4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

highest temperature reached is recorded (T2).

Set up of apparatus :

Specific
Total volume Number of moles of
heat
Heat of Solution B of both precipitate
capacit θ = T2 – T1
precipitation aqueous salt [calculated from balanced
Solution A y of
solutions equation of reaction]
water
Procedure :
[Use two aqueous solutions that contain the cation and the
anion of the insoluble salt]. Procedure is the same as above.
Heat of Volume of Specific θ = T2 – T1 m1 –m2
Set up of apparatus :
combustion water in the heat RMM of fuel
Thermometer
copper can capacit
y of
Copper can water
Water

Chapter 13 Fuel /alcohol Thermochemistry

4541 CHEMISTRY Chapter 13

Procedure :
1. Determine the mass of fuel used by measuring the weight
of the lamp with the fuel before burning, m1 and after
burning, m2.
2. The heat released during burning is used to raise the
temperature of water in the copper can [determine the
initial temperature of water, T1 and the highest
temperature, T2]

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13.4.1 Comparison of Heat of Neutralisation

(a) Strong acid and strong alkali :

• All neutralisation process can be represented by the following equation :

H+ + OH- → H2O, ∆H = - 57 kJ mol–1

• 1 mol of hydrogen ions react with 1 mol of hydroxide ions to form 1mol of
water to release 57 kJ of heat energy.

• Heat of neutralisation for KOH/ NaOH with HCl and HNO3 is the same because all
these reactions form 1 mol of H2O.
HCl + KOH → KCl + H2O
H+ + OH- → H2O
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
HNO3 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O
HNO3 + NaOH → NaNO3 + H2O ∆H = - 57 kJ mol-1

• Neutralisation of NaOH with H2SO4 (diprotic acid)

2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

 2 mol of OH- reacts with 2 mol of H+ to form 2 mol of H2O.

 Heat released is 2 × 57 kJ, that is, 114 kJ, not 57 kJ.

 Heat of neutralisation of sulphuric acid with sodium hydroxide remains

at -57 kJ mol-1 because the definition for heat of neutralisation is in terms of
formation of 1 mol of water, not 2 mol of water.

(b) Weak acid and strong alkali :

• Magnitude of heat of neutralisation for a weak acid with a strong alkali is less than
57 kJ mol-1.
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O, ∆H = -55 kJ mol-1
ethanoic acid

NaOH + HCN → NaCN + H2O, ∆H = -12 kJ mol-1

hydrocyanic acid

Explanation :
 Weak acids ionise partially in water to produce hydrogen ions
in low concentration.
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
 Some of the acid particles still remain in the form of molecules.
 Heat energy is absorbed to break the bonds in the molecules of
the weak acid that have not been ionised, so that they ionise completely.

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 4541 CHEMISTRY 19 Chapter 13

 Part of the heat that is released is used to break the bonds in the
molecules of the weak acid that has not been ionised.
Calculation guide :
(i) If the experiment is repeated by changing the volume without changing
the concentration, change in temperature is the same.

(ii) If the experiment is repeated by changing the concentration of the

solution by x times without changing the volume, the temperature change is
x times.
Example 1 :

Experiment Reactants Temperature change

50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid is
I added to 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 potassium rises by 13 oC
hydroxide solution.
300 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm -3 hydrochloric is
II added to 300 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm -3 potassium
hydroxide solution.

What is the temperature change in Experiment II?

☺ Solution :
Experiment I :
Heat released, H = mcθ
= (50 + 50) × 4.2 × 13
= 5460 J
KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O
Number of mole of HCl / H+ = MV
Number of mole of HCl = Number of mole of KOH
1000
Number of mole of HCl = Number of mole of H+ Number of mole of H2O = Number of mole of HCl
= 2.0 × 50
Number of mole of KOH = Number of mole of OH- Number of mole of H2O = Number of mole of KOH
1000
= 0.1 mol

5460
Heat of neutralisation, ∆H =
0.1
= 54600 J

Heat of neutralisation, ∆H for Exp. I = Heat of neutralisation, ∆H for Exp. II

Experiment II :
Heat of neutralisation, ∆H = 54600 J

Number of mole of HCl / H+ = MV

1000
= 2.0 × 300
1000
= 0.6 mol

Heat released, H = 54600 × 0.6

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4541 CHEMISTRY 20 Chapter 13

= 32760 J

Heat released, H = mcθ

mcθ = 32760
(300 + 300) × 4.2 × θ = 32760
32760
θ =
2520
= 13 0C

Example 2 :

Experiment Reactants Temperature change

50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate
P solution is added to 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 rises by 2.4 oC
sodium carbonate solution.
50 cm3 of 0.6 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate
Q solution is added to 50 cm3 of 0.6 mol dm-3
sodium carbonate solution.

What is the temperature change in Experiment Q?

Solution : ∆H = Heat of precipitation of lead(II) carbonate

∆H = H H = Heat change = mcθ
n n = Number of moles of lead(II) carbonate

Ionic equation for both experiments :

Pb2+ + CO32- → PbCO3

Experiment P :
∆H = 100 × 4.2 × 2.4
0.01
= 100800 J

Experiment Q :
100800 = 100 × 4.2 × θ
0.03
θ = 7.2 oC
 [ The temperature changes 3 times more than Exp. P! ]

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13.4.2 Comparison between Heat of Combustion of Various Fuel

1. The higher the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms per molecule, the higher
the heat energy released by the combustion of 1 mol of fuel.

Heat of combustion of alcohol (kJ mol -1 )

4000

3000

2000

1000
Number of carbon atoms per molecule
1 2 3 4 5

 The heat of combustion of alcohols increase with the increasing of number of

carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms in the molecules.
 More heat released when more carbon atoms become carbon dioxide molecules
and hydrogen atoms become water molecules.

Example :

Diagram below shows the set-up of apparatus for an experiment to compare the heat of
combustion of methanol and ethanol. 200 cm3 of water is poured into copper container in
this experiment.

Thermometer

Wind shield

Copper container

Water

Tripod stand

Spirit lamp
Alcohol*
Wooden block

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Table below shows the results obtained from Experiment I; to determine the heat of
combustion of methanol and Experiment II; to determine the heat of combustion of
ethanol.

Experiment I Experiment II

25 25

20 20

15 15

Initial temperature of water : …………………… Initial temperature of water : .........................

65 65

60 60

55 55

Highest temperature of water : ........................... Highest temperature of water : ..........................

Experiment I Experiment II

150.50 151.35

Initial mass of spirit lamp and methanol : ......... g Initial mass of spirit lamp and ethanol : …......... g

149.37 150.50

Final mass of spirit lamp and methanol : ……... g Final mass of spirit lamp and ethanol : .............. g

Chapter 13 Thermochemistry
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(a) Write the readings of the temperature and the mass of spirit lamp and alcohol in the
spaces provided.

(b) Based on the experiment above, complete the table below.

Name of variables Action to be taken

(i) Manipulated variable : (i)

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

(ii) Responding variable : (ii) What to observe in the responding variable :

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

(iii) Fixed variable : (iii) The way to maintain the controlled variable :

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

………………..........…………………….. ………………..........……………………..

(c) (i) Calculate the energy change, H in the Experiment I and II.
[ Energy change = mcθ , specific heat capacity of water, c = 4.2 J g-1 oC-1 ]

Experiment I Experiment II

(ii) Calculate the number of moles of methanol and ethanol burnt in this experiment.
[ Molar mass of methanol = 32 g mol-1 ; Molar mass of ethanol = 46 g mol-1 ]

Methanol Ethanol

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4541 CHEMISTRY 24 Chapter 13

(iii) Calculate the heat of combustion of methanol in this experiment.

Heat of combustion of methanol Heat of combustion of ethanol

(d) Compare to the heat combustion of methanol and ethanol. Explain why.

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Fuel Value
 Fuel value is the amount of heat released when 1 g of fuel burns completely,
the unit is kJ g-1
 A fuel with high fuel value can supply more energy.

Example :

Type of Fuel Fuel Value / kJ g-1

Methanol 23
Charcoal 35
Crude oil 45
Kerosene 37
Petrol 34
Natural gas 50

 Aspects to be considered when choosing a fuel in industry :

(a) Fuel value of the fuel.
(b) Cost of energy / cost of fuel.
(c) Availability and sources of the fuel.
(d) Effect of the fuel to the environment.

4.4 OTHER SOURCES OF ENERGY

 World’s major sources of energy are fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and
natural gas are non-renewable source of energy, eventually they will be used up.

Chapter 13 Thermochemistry
4541 CHEMISTRY 25 Chapter 13

 Other sources of energy are the sun, biomass, water and radioactive
substances.

END OF CHAPTER 4

Chapter 13 Thermochemistry