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Michael Steinzig*
Gregory J. Hayman*
Michael B. Prime*
Published in Residual Stress Measurement and General Nondestructive Evaluation, PVP-Vol 429, The
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference; Atlanta, GA July 23-26, 2001. Ed. Don Bray.
Zoom Observation Direction
LASER Framegrabber
PZT PC
Monitor
)( )( )( )
illumination head collimates the light arriving from the laser unit
(
(4)
' ' ' '
I 2 − I 4 I1 − I 3 − I1 − I 3 I 2 − I 4 and is used to illuminate the test specimen’s surface. The video
head images the test surface and the reference beam onto a CCD
This result must be passed through a phase unwrapping algorithm camera. The PC is used to control the phase shifting of the
to remove the modulo 2π effect caused by the arctangent function. reference beam, acquire video images from the CCD, save this data
Published in Residual Stress Measurement and General Nondestructive Evaluation, PVP-Vol 429, The
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference; Atlanta, GA July 23-26, 2001. Ed. Don Bray.
to the hard drive, and then analyze the data to obtain a residual to a solution heat treatment, cold working to improve strength,
stress measurement. followed by natural aging to ensure stable properties. The T351
designation refers to plate that has been stress relieved after
Stress Analysis processing by uniaxial stretching to 1.5-3.0% strain. After this
The stress analysis algorithms are based on the work of stretching, residual stresses on the order of 1-2 ksi (6.8-13.6 MPa)
(Nelson, et al., 1997), but have been adapted to work well with an are expected to exist in the material (Prime, et al., 1999). The
ESPI system. A set of interferograms are acquired and saved to modulus used for this material was E=73.08 GPa, Poisson’s Ratio
memory. Then, the drill is placed in front of the test specimen and ν=0.33, and yield strength of 290 MPa.
a small hole is drilled to a given depth. Next the drill is removed
The specimen was nominally a 4” (101.6 mm) diameter ring,
and more interferograms are acquired. These interferograms
with a 2” (50.8 mm) diameter hole in the center and a
provide the change in the illumination beam’s path length, ∆P, corresponding 2” plug. The ring/plug diametrical interference was
which corresponds to the surface displacements caused by the approximately 0.005” (0.127 mm). The components were 0.5”
stress relaxation. This path length change is related to the residual (12.7 mm) thick.
stress through the following equation,
For assembly, the plug was cooled to liquid nitrogen
∆P1 C11 C12 C13 σ xx temperature (-160 °C) leaving approximately 0.0038” (0.0965 mm)
∆P 2 = C 21 C 22 C 23 σ yy (6) clearance with the room temperature (20 °C) ring. Grease was used
∆P 3 C to lubricate the interface and minimize any friction between the
C 32 C 33 τ xy
31 surfaces. Prior to assembly, eight strain gages were mounted on the
ring and used to precisely determine the stress state after the
in which Cij contain constitutive properties, geometric properties, assembly. Figure 2 shows the locations of the gages, six of which
holographic sensitivity factors, and finite element derived measured the radial strain component and two of which measured
coefficients, and hoop strains. The gages were placed on the ring near the plug
interface where the strains are the highest. One gage would be
∆Pi = ∆P (ri , θ i ) − ∆P (ri , θ i + π ) (7) sufficient to uniquely determine the stress state, however, using
multiple gages allow one to confirm that the stress state is
in which ∆Pi is the phase (path length) difference between two axisymmetric, and to establish uncertainty bounds on the stresses.
surface points which are diametrically opposed to one another but
at the same radial location from the hole center.
Therefore, three holographic pairs of data are sufficient to
determine the plane-stress state of the material being drilled into.
strain
However, in ESPI, the CCD typically consists of 256,000 pixel gages
elements. Therefore, thousands of data points around the hole are
available to determine the stress state. Currently the software
samples thousands of phase change triads, with each triad
providing an independent stress calculation. The individual results
are averaged to provide the reported stress value.
Aluminum 2024-T351 was chosen as the material for the ring which is taken as positive, and δ is the radial interference between
and plug. The 2024 alloy is readily available, well characterized, the ring and plug. In the plug the stress is equal to the pressure in
and has good yield strength characteristics. The T3 temper refers the radial and angular directions. In the ring, the stress is:
Published in Residual Stress Measurement and General Nondestructive Evaluation, PVP-Vol 429, The
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference; Atlanta, GA July 23-26, 2001. Ed. Don Bray.
pRi2 2 was added to the pressure calculated from the strain gage readings
σr = 1 − R o to give the “known” pressure of 9.52 ksi, (65.64 MPa) and
Ro2 − Ri2 r 2 calculate the residual stresses plotted in Figure 4.
(9)
pR 2 R2
σ θ = 2 i 2 1 + 2o
Ro − Ri r EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
For these tests, a 3-foot by 2-foot granite table was used as the
Equation 10 can be combined with the usual elastic relations to workspace. The video head, illumination head, ring and plug
give ε (p,r), which can be inverted to give p(ε,r) and thus the strain specimen, and drill assembly were each secured to a 2-foot by 2-
gages applied to the surface of the sample can be used to calculate foot optical breadboard, which in turn was placed onto the granite
the pressure. The eight measured strains gave an average value for table. The laser unit was placed directly behind the optical
the interference pressure of p=8.27±0.45 ksi (57.0 MPa ± 3.1). The breadboard, as shown in Figure 3. The optical breadboard allowed
measured strains also confirmed that the stresses were for easy alignment of the video head and drilling assembly relative
axisymmetric to within the precision of the measurements. Further to the ring and plug specimen. The drilling axis and the video head
confirmation of the accuracy of the strain gage readings is provided were placed perpendicular to the surface of the test specimen. The
by the measured interference between the ring and the plug before illumination head was oriented such that the angle between the test
assembly of 0.0023” ± 0.0003” (0.058 mm ± .0076 mm), which surface and the illumination beam was 25.5°.
gives a calculated value of p=9.19 ksi ± 1.16 (63.4 Mpa ± 8.0).
Also, the change in outer diameter of the ring after assembly was The drilling assembly consists of a small air-driven turbine
measured as 0.0019" ± 0.0006" (0.048 mm ± 0.015 mm), which drill that is mounted to a translator table. The drill operates
gives a calculated value of p=7.47 ksi ±2 (51.5 Mpa ±13.8). A between 30,000 and 40,000 rpm. Such drills have been shown to
pressure of 8.27 ksi was used for comparison to the holography drill a hole without introducing significant stresses (Flaman and
system measurements, since that value is expected to be more Herring, 1985). The drilling depth is manually controlled via a
accurate than the dimensional measurements. micrometer screw that has a resolution of 0.01 mm per increment.
The bit used was a 1/16” (1.59 mm) diameter square-edged end
Several measurements of the as-received 2024-T351 plate mill with 2 flutes. Holes were spaced at least five hole diameters
using the holography system indicated that the residual stresses apart, which means that neighboring holes would change the stress
near the surface of the plate were 1.25 ± 0.42 ksi (8.6 Mpa ± 2.9), distribution by less than 1%. Holes were drilled variously to depths
consistent with the reported values for residual stress in 2024-T351 of 0.5 and 1.2 times the hole diameter to confirm that different hole
aluminum, as reported by ALCOA. The initial stress of 1.25 ksi depths did not produce different results.
Illumination Head
Drill
Video Head
Published in Residual Stress Measurement and General Nondestructive Evaluation, PVP-Vol 429, The
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference; Atlanta, GA July 23-26, 2001. Ed. Don Bray.
There are several other possibilities for errors in this setup.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Two ratios of hole depth to diameter were used, 0.5 and 1.2. Since
the end mill had a nominal diameter of 0.0625” (1.588 mm), this
In order to test the holographic system’s ability to measure means the hole depths were nominally 0.03125” and 0.075” (.79
various residual stress states, holes were drilled in many locations and 1.91 mm) deep. In practice, it is difficult to achieve this depth
on the surface of the ring and plug. The results of the exactly, and so each depth was measured. It was found that in most
measurements with the holographic system and the strain gage cases the holes were within 0.001” (0.0254 mm) of the desired
results are plotted in Figure 4. The plug is in a state of equal- depth, with a few holes being as far as 0.003” from the expected
biaxial compression, shown by the horizontal line from a distance depth. In addition, the hole diameters were measured, and found to
of 0 to 1” (0-25.4 mm). The ring has opposed biaxial stress, be consistently larger than the nominal diameter by about 0.008”
compressive in the radial direction and tensile in the hoop direction. (.212 mm). This difference between nominal and actual
It should be noted that the radial stress must go to zero at the outer measurements can have a significant impact on the results, but
edge of the ring, and therefore the initial 1.25 ksi stress added to the since the software is “hard wired” for only specific h/D ratios, the
calculated pressure was reduced exponentially to zero as a function results in Figure 4 are based on the nominal h/D values The larger
of radius. Although no error bars have been shown in Figure 4, we than nominal hole sizes may indicate an eccentric alignment of the
can see that the values measured with the holography system span bit head with the drilling axis, or that the drilling axis is not exactly
the expected value fairly well. The worst discrepancy seems to perpendicular to the axis of the ring and plug. Either of these
occur near the ring/plug interface, especially in the hoop stresses. situations will contribute to errors. It might be expected that the
We speculate that this is caused by the gradient of stress as a error would be completely fixed, but in practice these two
function of radial position. The original equations are developed parameters (the eccentricity and perpendicularity) would probably
for a stress state with no gradient, and have not been adjusted to change every time the drill bit or the part position was changed.
account for this. Qualitatively, it makes sense that this would have The issue of the drill being not perpendicular to the part may have
the largest effect on the hoop stresses in the ring near the interface, error significance of its own, since the original equations were
since both the gradient and the magnitude are largest there. derived assuming complete perpendicularity.
20.0
18.0
8.0 Plug
Stress [ksi]
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Published in Residual Stress Measurement and General Nondestructive Evaluation, PVP-Vol 429, The
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference; Atlanta, GA July 23-26, 2001. Ed. Don Bray.
Flaman, M. T., and Herring, J. A., 1985, “Comparison of Four
CONCLUSIONS Hole-Producing Techniques for the Center-Hole Residual Stress
Measurement Method,” Experimental Techniques, Vol. 9, pp. 30-
In general, residual stress measurement with any technique 32.
available today can be expected to have uncertainties of at least ± Gnaupel-Herold, T., Prask, H.J., Clark, A.V., Hehman, C.S.,
2-3 ksi (6.9-20.7 MPa). (Lu, 1996) The data from the holographic Nuygen, T.N., 2000, “A comparison of neutron and ultrasonic
instrument described here certainly seems to be within that range, determinations of residual stress”, Measurement Science and
and actually seems better than that, although the “known” stress Technology, Vol. 11, pp. 436-444.
used in this validation also has an uncertainty of at least ±0.5 ksi Jones, R., and Wykes C., 1989, Holographic and Speckle
(3.4 Mpa), making quantification of the accuracy of the Interferometry: A discussion of the theory, practice and application
holographic method difficult. of the techniques, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
We have manually adjusted the analysis to account for the Lin S.T., Hsieh C.T., and Hu, C.P., 1994, “Two holographic
actual h/D values for 4 different holes (drilled in the ring near the blind-hole methods for measuring residual stresses”, Experimenal
interface) and found that in each case both the hoop and radial Mechanics, Vol. 34, pp. 141-147.
stresses dropped by about 10%. In future work, the software will Hung YY, and Hovanesian JD, 1990, “Fast detection of residual
be modified to allow the actual h/D diameter as an input, to account stresses in an industrial environment by thermoplastic-base
for variations in hole depth and diameter. The effect of stress shearography”, Proceedings of the SEM Spring Conference on
gradient and non-perpendicular holes will also be investigated. In Experimental Mechanics, Albuquerque, NM, pp. 769-775.
particular, it should be possible to utilize the holographic Lu, J., 1996, Handbook of Measurement of Residual Stresses,
displacement information to back-calculate a value for the stress Fairmont Press, Lilburn, GA.
gradient. McDonach, A., McKelvie, J., MacKenzie, P.M., and Walker,
C.A., 1983, “Improved moiré interferometry and applications in
Direct comparisons with other methods of stress measurement, fracture mechanics, residual stress and damaged composites”,
(x-ray diffraction and neutron scattering) are also planned for future Experimental Techniques, Vol. 7, pp. 20-24.
studies. Nelson, D. V., and McCrickerd, J. T., 1986, “Residual-stress
determination through combined use of holographic interferometry
and blind hole drilling”, Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 26, pp. 371-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 378.
We would like to thank Professor Drew Nelson for his input during Nelson, D. V., Makino, A., and Fuchs, E. A., 1997, “The
the software development. Jack Hanlon contributed to the optical Holographic-hole drilling method for residual stress
development of the PRISM system during the time this project was determination”, Optics and Lasers in Engineering, Vol. 27, pp. 3-
a Co-operative Research and Development Agreement with Los 23.
Alamos National Laboratory. Prime, M.B., Jacobson, L., Pacheco, M. 1999, “Residual Stresses
Measured Before and After Stress Relief in Rolled Aluminum
Plate,” Book of Abstracts, 1999 ASME Mechanics and Materials
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Published in Residual Stress Measurement and General Nondestructive Evaluation, PVP-Vol 429, The
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference; Atlanta, GA July 23-26, 2001. Ed. Don Bray.