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-ed in work/ed
-ingin working
-erin taller
The derivational morpheme carries both lexical and grammatical meaning (also called
lexico-grammatical morpheme).
The derivational morpheme is further subdivided, according to their position, into
prefixes, suffixes, and infixes:
Prefixes: un-, im-, dis-
Suffixes: -ness, -ful, -less, -ize
Infix: -n- (in stand), spokesman, statesman, sportsman, fisherman, washerman, doomsday
Based on word structure, words are divided into three types: simple words, derived words and
compound words.
- A simple word is one that only consists of a root morpheme (no derivational
morpheme), e.g. girl, teach, work, white.
- A derived word is one that consists of a root and one or more derivational morphemes:
teacher, worker, impression, modernization.
- A compound word is one that has at least two roots, with or without derivational
morphemes: blackboard, classroom, happy-go-lucky, lady-killer, dining-room, bluebell,
mother-in-law, good-for-nothing.
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Suffixation is the formation of words by means of suffixes. The process changes the meaning
of the root, both lexically and grammatically.
Suffixation transfers words to different parts of speech:
beautiful (adj) à beautifully (adv)
modern (adj) à modernize (v)
1.2.2. Compounding/word composition
Compounding (word-composition) is the building of a new word by joining two or more
words. As a result, a compound word is a word consisting of at least two stems (roots) which
occur in the language as free forms.
e.g. classroom, time-table, bedroom, schoolgirl, passer-by, aircraft-carrier, kind-hearted,
handwash, sunbeam etc.
-The components of a compound may be either simple or derived words or even other
compound words.
A compound word may differ from a free word group phonologically, structurally,
semantically or graphically.
1.2.3. Shortening
Shortening is a productive way of building words in English, especially in colloquial speech
and advertisement.
e.g. ad (advertisement), TV, I.O.U.
Shortening includes abbreviation and blending.
Abbreviation includes acronyms and clipping
Acronyms are words built from the initials of several words.
the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
The UN (United Nations)
The UNO (United Nations Organization)
Clipping is further classified into Initial, Final, Initio-final, Medial, Elliptico-conversional
clipping
+ Initial clipping: the first part of the word is clipped.
Phone (telephone), cute (acute), fend (defend)
+ Final clipping: the last part of a word is clipped
doc (doctor), prof (professor), uni (university).
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+ Initio-final clipping: both the first and the last parts are clipped:
frig/fridge (refrigerator), flu (influenza), tec (detective)
+ Medial clipping: the medial part is clipped.
maths (mathematics), specs (spectacles)
+ Elliptico-conversional: (phrasal clipping): a combination of ellipsis, conversion and
clipping:
e.g. open on (open fire on), finals (final examinations), prelims (preliminary examinations)
Blending is one special type of shortening where parts of words merge into one new word.
Breathalyzer (breath + analyzer)
Broasted (broiled + roasted)
Transistor (transistor +receiver)
Ecotecture (ecological architecture)
1.2.4. Conversion
(functional change/zero derivation)
Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech without adding any
element.
e.g. chair (n) to chair
finger (n) to finger
milk (n) to milk
water (n) to water
Partial conversion: the building of some nouns from verbs:
Have a look / talk / smoke / dance / wash / a chat / a swim
Give a ring / kick / blow
Give a jerk / a jump / a start
Take a ride / a walk / the lead
Make a move / a dive
Substantivation: the formation of nouns from adjectives or the transition into nouns:
private (adj) a private
captive (adj) a captive
conservative a conservative
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criminal a criminal
female a female
+ partialsubstantivation:
the old, the young, the dead, the dying, the living, the unemployed, the wounded, the lower-
paid.
1.2.5. Sound imitation
Sound imitation is the way of forming words by imitating sounds produced by actions, things
etc.
-Words showing animals: crow, cuckoo, humming bird, cricket.
-Words showing sounds made by animals: howl, quack, croak, mew, moo.
Words showing movement of water: flush, splash, babble.
-Words showing actions made by man: giggle, chatter, grumble, murmur,
1.2.6. Back derivation (back formation)
Definition: Back derivation is the building of new words by subtracting a real or supposed
affix from existing words.
to beg from beggar
to burgle from burglar
to cobble from cobbler
to baby-sit from baby-sitter
to force-land from forced-landing
1.2.7. Sound and stress interchange
Sound interchange: New words are built by changing the root vowel or consonant of the old
words.
Eg.food (n) feed (v) (root vowel)
speak (v) speech (n) (root consonant)
life (n) live (v) (both)
Stress interchange: The new word is built by changing the place of the stress on the old one,
eg.
‘export (n) to ex’port (v)
‘conduct (n) to con’duct (v)
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‘contrast (n) to con’trast
‘convict (n) to con’vict
‘digest (n) to di’gest
‘essay (n) to a’ssay
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eg. son - sun air - heir night - knight
Homographs: words of the same spelling, but of different pronunciation.
eg. tear/ti∂/ - tear /te∂/ bow /b∂u/ - bow / bau/
2.3.2 Polysemy refers to the case in which a word has more than one meaning. Most English
words are polysemantic, just few words are monosemantic (mainly scientific terms).
The first meaning of a word is called “the direct or primary” meaning and the other meanings
are called “secondary or derived”
All the meanings of a word form its semantic structure and the more common the word is, the
more meanings it has.
There are two common patterns of polysemic structure, namely radial polysemy and chain
polysemy.
Radial polysemy: all the transferred meanings are formed on the basis of one literal/direct
meaning.
Chain polysemy: the second meaning is formed on the basis of the first, the third on the basis
of the second, and so on.
Polysemy and homonymy are distinguished based on a number of criteria, namely semantic
criterion, derivational criterion, criterion of synonyms and criterion of combination.
2.4. Synonymy
Synonyms are words (two or more) of the same part of speech, similar in their denotational
meaning, but different in their phonetic and graphic forms, connotational meaning and
combinability. There are absolute synonyms, semantic synonyms, stylistic synonyms,
euphemisms, semantic-stylistic synonyms and phraseological synonyms
+ Absolute synonyms: words having the same denotational and connotational meanings.
This is a result of borrowing and territorial synonyms.
eg. Br E - team (in a football match) Am E - squad
luggage baggage
+ Semantic synonyms: words differing in shades of meaning
eg. beautiful, pretty, good-looking, nice, lovely, fair
+ Stylistic synonyms: words belonging to different stylistic layers, differing in emotive value,
expressiveness.
eg. to begin - to commence (lit., official)
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- Euphemisms: words or expressions synonymous to those denoting unpleasant notions or
processes and sounding pleasant or basing on the desire not to hurt other people's feelings.
eg.
corpse - remains poor - underprivileged
crisis -recession, slow-down, depression drunk-merry, intoxicated
+ Semantic-stylistic synonyms: words differing both in shades of meaning and stylistic aspect.
eg. house - shack, slum, pad (sl.)
to dismiss, to sack, to fire, to expel, to lay off, to kick out (sl)
+ Phraseological synonyms: words differing in their combinability.
eg. do exercises make money
2.5. Antonymy
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning.
There are two types of antonyms: antonyms proper and derivational antonyms.
Antonyms proper: words of different forms and having completely opposite meanings.
eg. tall – short, beautiful – ugly, thin – thick
Derivational antonyms: two words of the same root, one of which bearing a negative affix.
eg. lock – unlock, polite – impolite, honest – dishonest, careful – careless
Transference of meaning
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+ similarity of size: midget submarine, elephantine task, jumbo jetplane.
+ similarity of position: foot of the mountain/hill /page, head/ tail of a procession,
bottom of a page.
+ similarity of movement: caterpillar of a tank, to worm, foxtrot
+ similarity of function: head of school/delegation/army, key to the mystery/ a problem
+ similarity of colour: an orange coat, rosycheeks, lips
+ similarity of sound : The room rang. The hall roared with laughter
+ similarity of quality : a lion, a fox, a bee/beaver, a filmstar
+ similarity of behaviour: a snake, crocodile's tears, an angel, a bookworm, a wirepuller,
an Othello, a Cicero.
2. Metonymy (Gr. metonymia-meta(change)+onoma (name)
Metonymy: a figure of speech based on contiguity (proximity) or close relation between two
objects or notions.
Types of relation:
+ Relation between container and the thing contained:
eg. The kettle is boiling.
He drank two glasses.
+ Relation between parts and the whole:
eg. Two heads are better than one.
She has got good ear for music.
I used to live without a roof over my head.
+ Relation between the symbol and its notion:
eg. Grey hair should be respected,
from the cradle to the grave,
the White House, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Fleet Street, Downing Street, the crown
(monarchy).
+ Relation between the place and its inhabitants:
eg. the town, the city, the House of Commons, the House of Lords
The hall burst into applause.
+ Relation between the material and the thing made of it:
eg. an iron, eye glasses, the silver, the brass.
+ Relation between the instrument and its function:
e.g.- to knife, to eye
+ Relation between proper names and common names:
- name of place and name of products made there
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china, champagne, tweed, havana, bikini, morocco
- name of inventor and name of the invention
sandwich, mackintosh, pullman, volt, ampere, ohm, diesel, watt, wellington, victoria.
- name of the author and name of his works
to read Dickens, to possess a complete Shakespeare.
II. Mark the underlined words in each pair of sentences with /P/ if they are polysemantic or
with /H/ if they are homonymous.
1. a. He is a member of the Liberal Party.
b. The hostess gave the guests a lavish dinner party.
2. a. Where can I park my car?
b. Have you ever been to the Cuc Phuong National Park?
3. a. She is good at languages.
b. Is this water good to drink?
4. a. She found it hard to make up her mind.
b. You should try hard to succeed in your business.
5. a. The criminal has got a life sentence for his murder.
b. Combine the sentences below to form a compound one.
6. a. The greater part of what you heard is only rumour.
b. He acted his part very well.
7. a. What country do you know is the biggest on earth?
b. She filled the pot with earth and planted a rose in it.
8. a. Please post this letter for me.
b. She has got a new post as secretary.
9. a. The slow train is pulling up at the station.
b. He is slow to make a decision.
10. a. He is writing a book about Vietnamese culture.
b. Seats on trains should be booked far in advance before Tet.
III. Make compound words (with hyphens if necessary) according to the definitions, using
the word given as the first part of the compound.
Example: one who steals goods while pretending to be a customer. shop….
Answer: shop-lifter
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1. made of material that will not burn fire.........
1. company or group of men that put out fires fire.........
2. person who keeps accounts (e.g. of a business) book.........
2. person devoted to reading book.........
3. printed notice circulated by hand hand.........
3. not made by machine hand.........
4. someone who often goes to the theatre play.........
4. piece of land for children to play on play.........
5. circumstance that brings enlightenment and surprise eye.........
5. one who has himself seen something happen eye.........
VI. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for True and F for
False in the blanks.
………… 1. Set expressions are characterized by the stability of their lexical components and
grammatical structure.
………… 2. Conversion is a way of coining new words in different parts of speech.
………… 3. Semantic motivation can be found in monosemantic words.
………… 4. Prefixes can be classified based on meaning.
………… 5. Antonyms are words of different parts of speech with opposite meanings.
VI. Underline the metaphoric expressions and state what type of similarity they express.
Similarity of
1. a green apple; green with envy. /………………………………./
2. the wings of a bird; the wings of an aeroplane. /………………………………./
3. the root of a tree; the root of the matter. /………………………………./
4. the neck of a girl; the neck of a bottle. /………………………………./
5. He wandered; his thoughts wandered. /………………………………./
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4. The pit loudly applauded. /………………………………./
5. He succeeded to the crown. /………………………………./
6. She was the pride of her school. /………………………………./
7. I like sandwiches. /………………………………./
8. The dog has a good nose. /………………………………./
9. The room roared with laughter. /………………………………./
10. You should sell your brains, not your muscle. /………………………………./
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