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BACKGROUND
The basic principle of vibroseis, transmitting modest power for a long duration is
developed from the principle of pulse- compressive echo-ranging system and pulse
compression in radar applications. To get good resolution, radar engineers needed a short
pulse and to get long range, they needed high pulse energy. But increasing the power levels
results in electrical flashover to occur in the equipment. They needed a method that could
increase the energy without increasing the power. The solution was the long signal with
modest power and with subsequent compression to a short pulse. The sonar engineers
faced a similar problem. There is pressure level from a sonar transmitter that cannot be
exceeded to avoid creation of cavities in the water on the face of the transmitter. Therefore,
they also needed to increase the energy of their search pulse without increasing its power.
The problem of a surface seismic source able to work on the roads is the same problem. We
need to transmit the large packet of energy necessary to get a deep reflection, but without
exceeding the modest power level that will damage the road.
The problem was solved in the research department of Continental Oil Company (Conoco),
in Ponca City, Oklahoma. Mr. Bill Doty, a research geophysicist with Conoco, attended a
seminar at MIT on echo-ranging system on 2nd August 1952 and learnt that it was not
essential to transmit a sharp impulse. An equivalent result could be obtained by
transmitting a very long signal and then compressing it to a short pulse after reception. His
supervisor Mr. John Crawford had got the solution applicable to seismic industry in swept-
frequency signal, which is basically a sinusoid frequency that sweeps slowly from the
limiting frequency to another. Vibroseis system took shape in the inventor’s minds. Instead
of exploding dynamite, they would shake the surface of the earth with a long vibrating
signal of swept –frequency form. This would be received with the normal spread of
geophones and then will be compressed to a short pulse.
By late 1960, the engineering problems had been solved to the point where Vibroseis could
be described as a workable system. Conoco decided to license the system to the industry
and Seismograph Service Corporation (SSC) was selected for the first license. The weak
point of the system was the device used for compressing the long signal (the correlator).

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The magnetic correlator (and later on digital) had made the Vibroseis system practical.
Although the early results obtained were seldom as crisp as those obtained with the
dynamite, the convenience of a surface source working on the road was a powerful
consideration. By the late 1970s, improved engineering of the equipment brought Vibroseis
results to general parity with dynamite, and made the system much more reliable.

VIBROSEIS WAVELET:
Vibroseis input signal (sweep) is typically a swept frequency sinusoid that lasts about 10 to
12 sec. which is many times larger than the expected interval time between the reflectors.
Hence individual reflectors cannot be distinguished in a geophone output trace. A process
is therefore required to compress the signal to a relatively narrow wavelet. The procedure
used for compressing the Vibroseis signal is called cross-correlation. The characteristics of
the wavelet depend upon the input signal. The output, short symmetrical wavelet of the
processed cross-correlation is comparable to a wavelet of explosive seismic source. The
cross correlated wavelet has a shape similar to the Ricker wavelet but with comparatively
greater side lobes.
Input Sweep
The input signal is a swept frequency sinusoid of wavelength T. The different parameters of
input signal are:
            - length of the sweep    : T  sec
            - beginning frequency  : f1  Hz
            - ending frequency       : f2  Hz
The frequency of the centre of the signal (f0) is the average of beginning and end frequency:
f0 = (f1+ f2 )/2
The ends of the signal are tapered to avoid superimposition of beginning and end frequency
on the side lobes of the correlogram.
Bandwidth of the input sweep
Bandwidth of the input sweep  depends on the ratio f1/ f2 expressed in octaves. Also some
authors express bandwidth(∆) as the difference between f1  & f2.
Octave  : Consider the frequencies f1 and f2 .   Express their ratio as
f1/ f2 =  2n      
n =[ log   (f1/ f2)]/ log 2
n represents the number of octaves between the frequencies f1 and   f2
n =1 if   f1 / f2  = 2

Dispersion
The dispersion D depends on product of sweep length and bandwidth
D = ∆T 

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Dispersion represents correlation power in a collapsed signal.

The theoretical auto-correlation of the linear swept frequency signal is called Klauder wavelet.
The shape of the Klauder wavelet depends upon input sweep frequencies.
The band width of the input sweep determines the sharpness of the peak.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION (KLAUDER WAVELET):

Three factors define the autocorrelation function (Figure :1)
Amplitude: This represents energy in the sweep i.e. sweep power times its duration.
The more power the better and the longer the sweep the better.
Envelope:  Envelope to the Klauder wavelet has a maximum value at zero lag, comes
down to zero, bounces up again, back to zero and up again, and eventually dies
away. The time to the first zero, and between subsequent zeros, is the reciprocal of the
bandwidth of the sweep.
Cosine wave: This has a peak at zero lag and a frequency that is the center frequency
of sweep but its amplitude stays within the envelope.

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TYPES OF SWEEPS:

The input sweep may be:

-Linear sweep
-Non-linear sweep

1. Linear sweep:
Linear sweep is a sinusoidal signal with a constant rate of change of frequency and with
constant amplitude. The amplitude spectrum is flat(Figure 4).
2. Non-linear sweep:
The instantaneous frequency in the input sweep is a non-linear function of time. The sweep
rate is no longer constant. The basic concept of non-linear sweep is that the vibrator sweeps
slowly to the frequencies that are needed to be strengthened and quickly to those frequencies
whose strength is already sufficient (Figure 5).

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MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF VIBRATOR:

Base plate and accessories: A rectangular rigid plate so that vibration is delivered
into the ground. It is also desirable that the base plate be light relative to the mass of
the earth that is going to move with it.

A means by which the base plate can be raised and lowered. To prevent the base
plate from jumping off the ground, the full weight of the truck is required on the
plate while vibrating. Springs between the base plate and hold-down frame are

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necessary so that the vibrator does not directly shake the truck. A vertical drive shaft
anchored very securely to the center of the base plate for vibrations(Figure 6a, b, c)
2.   Reaction Mass: This is heavy weight (solid metal weighting 2-3 tonnes) we push
against. This reaction mass is free to slide on the shaft.
3.   Hydraulic system (Torque motor, pumps and servo valve):  pumps/evacuates
hydraulic oil into /from pistons and servo valve regulate the oil flow.
4.   Vibrator truck and engines

There are several separate functions within the vibrator electronics(Figure 7)

Sweep generator: The drive for the torque motor comes from sweep generator

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(control sweep).
The phase compensator: The velocity of base plate is detected by a geophone (actually
an integrated accelerometer) coupled to the baseplate, and its phase is compared to
that of the control sweep. The phase comparison is done and any phase error drives
the phase shifter.
Phase Shifter: The phase shifter changes the phase of the drive to the vibrator to keep
the baseplate velocity in phase with the control sweep.
Control of the baseplate lift system
Control of the mid-position of the piston
Reception of the start –sweep command from recording truck
Various test facilities
A drive control
A radio carrier system providing transmission of the sweep and baseplate signals to
the recording truck.

The field experimentation for optimizing parameters for Vibroseis CDP surveys is as follows:

- Low End frequency test

- High End frequency test
- Sweep Length test
- Taper Length test
- Up Sweep / Down Sweep test
- Composites / No. of sweeps test
- Drive test
- Transposed wave test / Opposed wave test
- Vibro pattern test
- Receiver Array test

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- Sweep types
o Linear sweep test
o Non-linear sweep test
o User defined sweep test
o Pseudo-Random sweep test
o Sweeps with variable amplitude programmes

1. Low End frequency test:

Purpose: To optimize the lower end frequency of the sweep signal.

Field parameters are:
Spread: Regular
No. of vibartors:  4
Sweep type: linear
High End frequency: 80 Hz
Sweep length: 12 sec
No. of sweeps: 4
Drive: 70 %.

While conducting the test, the only variable parameters will be the low end frequency.
Records may be taken for various values of low end frequencies varying from 6 to 16 Hz in
steps of 2Hz. The output record is to be analyzed concentrating the objective level for,

-     Continuity of the event

-     Signal to source generated noise
-     Signal strength

2. High End frequency test:

Purpose: To study the penetration of the high frequency component of the input sweep at the 
out-put level.
The parameters for the test are as above except,
Low-end frequency:  As decided from the Low-end frequency test.
High-end frequency: 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 Hz.(in steps)
The out put record is to be studied with respect to the objective level for,
- Resolution
- Signal to noise ratio
- Continuity and strength of reflection at the deeper level.

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3. Sweep length test:

Purpose: To determine the duration of the sweep in order to enhance the amplitude spectrum
at the out put level.

The field parameters are:

Low-end frequency: as decided above.
High-end frequency: as decided above.
Sweep length; 6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,24 secs
The remaining parameters are to be kept same as mentioned under Low-end frequency test.
The out put record is to be analyzed with respect to the deepest objective level for,

- Deepest reflection continuity & strength

- Signal to noise ratio

4. Taper length test:

Purpose: To reduce the superimposed end frequencies in the side lobes of the auto-correlation
function and to reduce the correlation noise with enhancement of resolution.

Low-end frequency:  as decided above.

High-end frequency:  as decided above.
Sweep length:  as decided above.
Taper length: 0 to 500 msec with regular steps or above 50 msec.
The taper is to be applied at both ends of the sweep, preferably a cosine taper.
The field records and the auto correlation function are to be studied to optimize for taper
length. Taper should be as short as possible.

5. Up sweep / Down sweep test:

Purpose: To study the interference of correlation ghosts with the reflected signal time of
interest.
With already decided parameters for low end frequency, high end frequency, sweep length,
taper length, records are to be taken with up sweep & down sweep.
The out put is to be studied for appearance of correlation ghosts.

6. Composites / No. of sweeps test:

Purpose: To optimize the number of sweeps required to cover each point.

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The parameters decided earlier are kept constant with number of sweeps as a variable.
No. of sweeps; 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16 per vibrator.
The out put records are to be analyzed for:
- Signal to noise ratio
- Improvement of weak reflection near the vicinity of objective level.
7. Drive test:

The input drive force is proportional to the signal strength provided decoupling of vibrator
base plate and ground do not occur.

Drive force: 50 to 80% in steps of 10%        

The maximum value of drive force for which the amplitude of the recorded out put from the
base plate reaches a saturation level, is to be taken as the optimum drive force.
The out put records are to be studied for,

- Continuity and strength of weak reflection events at objective level.

- Strength of the source generated noise.

8. Transposed wave test:

In vibroseis, the noise characteristics are not simple as in case of dynamite. Since source is at
the surface, different types of noise characters are to be studied.

Purpose: To study the different types of noises affecting the data.

Parameters:
            Spread: 96 channels
            Geophone interval: 5 mts
            Input sweep : as decided from the earlier experimentation.

Vibro-positions are to be moved in steps of the noise profile length till regular spread length is
achieved.
The output records are to be studied for the following noise trains.

            -    Air wave

            -     Shear / Head wave
            -     Rayleigh wave

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The noise parameters are to be used to design source & receiver patterns.

9. Opposed- wave test:

Purpose: To study the interference of noise in regular spread.

A regular spread of half of the spread length with bunched geophones is laid maintaining the
required group interval. The predetermined input sweep is utilized. Different records will be
taken with vibro  points shifting equal to the group interval. The correlogram is to be studied
for the interference of the noise with the signal and the study will be useful in designing the
array parameters of source and receiver.

10. Vibro-pattern test:

After identifying the total noise wave field, various wave characteristics of each type of noise
wave are to be studied. From the noise parameters, the dominant wavelength of the head
wave and wavelengths of the ground roll are to be utilized in designing the vibro-pattern.

The maximum length of the vibro-pattern is to be put equal to the highest wavelength of the
shear head wave. The move-up distance of the vibrators should be equal to the lowest
wavelength λmin . The correlograms are to be analysed for,

- Signal to noise ratio enhancement

- The attenuation shear head wave & Air wave.
- Preservation of signal strength and resolution at the shallowest level of interest.

11. Receiver array test:

The receiver arrays are mainly used to cancel the ground-roll having high frequency, low
wavelength noises. Arrays are to be designed keeping in view of the different trends and pre-
estimated array-response curves. It is a normal practice to test at least 3 to 4 arrays. Longer
base length arrays are unwarranted as they attenuate high frequency component of the signal.

In vibroseis exploration, the combined response of source & receiver arrays is to be studied.

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Present days high dynamic range acquisition systems will enable to register weak signals too
in the presence of ground roll, bunching of receivers will have an advantage of retaining high
frequencies.

12. Non-linear sweep test:

The test is to be conducted with different types of non-linear sweeps having different degrees
of frequency boost.
The output records are to be studied,
-Auto correction function of the input-sweep
- Signal to source generated noise.
- Development of high frequency signals
- Continuity & strength of reflections.
Amplitude spectrum of different non-linear sweep under test are to be analyzed for the
improvement in high frequency components of the output signal.

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