11/6

Compaction of Sand Fill at Changi Airport

V. CHOA Executive Engineer, Port of Singapore Authority, Singapore

G.P. KARUNARATNE Lecturer, University of Singapore, Singapore
S.D. RAMASWAMY Senior Lecturer, University of Singapore, Singapore
A. VIJIARATNAM Engineering Consultant, Port of Singapore Authority, Singapore
S.L. LEE Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Singapore, Singapore

SYNOPSIS About 40 million cum of sand was dredged and pumped for the construction of the new International
Airport at Changi. The second runway, taxiway and high speed turnoffs are to be located on the reclaimed sand
fill which had a relative density between 40% and 80%. Despite the care exercised during reclamation, the fill
had entrapped fines especially below the mean sea level. In order to achieve the specified degrees of compaction
of the fill a suitable means of densifying the fill was required. After a careful study of the nature of the
fill and various compaction methods available and after carrying out a pilot test the technique of applying high
energy impacts (Dynamic Consolidation) was chosen as the most appropriate method. A series of tests was then
carried out to investigate the proper choice of the operational parameters of this technique. The results obtain-
ed from these studies enabled a better understanding of the factors involved in densifying hydraulic sand fill
with the application of high impact energy.
INTRODUCTION the runway and taxiways requires a subgrade with a
A major reclamation project was undertaken in 1976, relative density of the order of 90%. In order to
by the Port of Singapore Authority, along the north- minimise the settlement of the runway due to the air
eastern shoreline of the Republic of Singapore for the traffic and associated vibrations a minimum relative
construction of an international airport at Changi. density of 75% is desired for the hydraulic fill. It
A 3.4 km long runway and the terminal buildings are to was, therefore, necessary to compact the 6.5 m thick
be situated on the reclaimed land. The first runway hydraulic fill underlying the runway, and its associa-
and its supporting facilities are located on the main ted turnoffs and taxiways covering an area of about'
land. About 40 million cum of suitable fill material 460,000 sq. m. After carefully considering the various
was dredged from the sea bed 4 km away from the shore- factors involved in compacting a hydraulic fill the
line and pumped through floating pipe lines to the application of high energy impacts, known as Dynamic
reclamation site. Five cutter suction dredges, each Consolidation, was chosen as the most appropriate
with a capacity of 5,000 to 10,000 H.P., were deployed method. This paper reports a field test conducted to
for these operations. Fig. 1 shows the layout plan of study the densification of the hydraulic fill by means
the proposed runway, the shoreline, reclamation site of Dynamic Consolidation.
and the borrow area.
GEOLOGY
Soil investigation and seismic reflection surveys
carried out over the reclamation site and the borrow
areas revealed the existence of a shallow stratum of
loose sand and gravel overlying a cemented sandstone
and shale of the Pleistocene period. Deep buried
channels cut in the sandstone are infilled with bluish
grey marine clay belonging to the marine member of
Kallang Formation deposited during Holocene period.
Marine clay varies in thickness from 2 m to 40 m below
the sea bed and is found to be interbedded with layers
of firm to stiff silty clay and occasional peat layers.
Buried channels of marine clay run through the north
and south ends of the runway and across the middle of
the borrow area. The central portion of the runway
and the southern and northern ends of the borrow area
are covered with loose sand, deposited on sandstone
which is weathered to a depth of about 20m.
Fig. 1 Layout Plan DREDGING AND RECLAMATION
The dredges operated mainly in loose, uncemented sur-
It has been reported that the relative density of face sand and weathered sandstone having a standard
hydraulic fills vary widely between 40% and 80% penetration test value less than 70 blows per foot.
(Whitman, 1970). Tests carried out during reclamation The maximum dredged depth was 22 m below mean sea
confirmed the above findings. The pavement design for level. Dredging was difficult because of the abrasive

137
11/6

characteristics of sand encountered and the need to be

selective in order to avoid as much as possible the 90
silty clay strata and marine clay channels. The sand I

dredged and pumped through the floating pipe line was ~80
0
Envel~pe for
discharged in the reclamation area. Fines accumulated !f 70
..... mate:na.l between
at the toe of the fills whose slopes averaged about ~ 60
6 m "nd 8 m
below ground
1:40. Upto 2 m thick accumulations of silt were Vi te:ve:l
noticed at the merging boundaries of the five dis- lf) 50
charge areas and these were partially removed by
flushing them with water directed from the pipe lines.
11.
w 40
~
. .:'?
Subsequently these areas were also surcharged.
The sequence of reclamation was dictated by the con-
'Z 30
w
a! 20
: \:J ~ ~~~~r.•,
·. ::.::· . .:.·.:/
for
bttw••n Om
struction programme for the airport development. ~ . ........ · / "nd 6m b<low
Areas for the terminal building, next to the existing ·.':.'·,··.',·.. :.'.;;/ ground l<vtl
shoreline, and the runway, about ~ km away from the 0.1 10
shoreline, were therefore reclaimed first followed by
the area in between them. Finally the new beach area
to the east of the runway was reclaimed. During the
last stages of reclamation it was noticed that the
ground water level under the runway had risen up from Fig. 2 Gradation Envelopes of Fill Sand
1.6 m A. C. D. to about 4.5 m A. C. D., just about 1 metre
below the fill surface. The average depth of the fill values as high as 140 kg/cm 2 were observed at 2 m
at the runway stood at 6.5 m. depths but the cone penetration varied widely with the
penetration depth indicating both variation in the
SOIL PROPERTIES OF THE RUNWAY FILL particle size and density.
The hydraulic fill is required to sustain the loading COMPACTION REQUIREMENT OF THE FILL
from the runway, taxiway and high speed turnoffs.
During the dredging operations great care was exercised It has been reported (D'Appolonia, 1970) that granular
to fill this area with good quality material comprising soils are prone to liquefaction or densification as a
sand and gravel. Fig. 2 shows the envelopes of grada- result of vibrations and that for small strains of the
tion curves of all samples tested from the fill. Most order to lo-5 to lo-3 the minimum relative density to
of the material in the fill was sub-round to sub- prevent liquefaction should be about 70% and that fine
angular quartz in the medium to coarse sand region. sand with a relative density less than 50% is subject
The laboratory tests have indicated that the maximum to liquefaction during ground motions with accelera-
and minimum dry densities of the sand determined accor- tions in excess of O.lg. In order to avoid excessive
ding to ASTM were about 1.78 Mg;m3 and 1.54 Mgjm3 fill settlement and to satisfy the requirements·of
respectively. runway pavement design, the degree of compaction speci-
fied was 75% relative density below and 90% above
The insitu properties of the fill were determined by the permanent water level which was assumed to be
the standard penetration test (SPT) and Dutch Cone about 3m to 4 m below the pavement level. The grada-
penetration test (CPT). The results, before and after tion curve of the fill material appears to be similar
treatment, are shown in Fig. 3. Before treatment, an to that of the coarse sand used by Gibbs and Holtz
average N value of 8 to 10 was observed between 1.5 m (1957). Their empirical relationship between relative
and 3m below the fill surface. Values of N as low as density and N value with respect to effective over
3 to 4 were measured below the mean sea level. CPT burden pressure was therefore adopted for the determi-

SPT H "'LUE BLOWS/ FT. CONE PENETRATION (kg/cm2)

100 150 200
6 ~~5~~·or-~'sr-~wr-~~r-~~r-~3rs____
5

~4
0
~
E3

-1

Fig. 3 Improvement in Density by SPT and CPT in Runway Central Zone

138

nation of fill density.
COMPACTION METHODS
Several methods of compacting sand fill such as vibro-
flotation, compaction with heavy vibratory rollers,
sand compaction piles and dynamic consolidation were
considered. Vibroflotation would have been suitable
for compacting the majority of the fill. However the
fines which accumulated at the toe of the fill slopes
and particularly at the junctions where the fill
slopes merged posed a limitation with this method
which cannot economically improve sand with 25% fines
passing 75 ].lm sieve (Bhandari, 1978). Vibratory
rollers were not feasible because of the existence of
high water table. Sand compaction pile method which
consisted of forming sand piles in the fill and the
Dynamic Consolidation method were both considered to
be suitable for densifying the sand fill. The latter
method was, however, selected because it was consi-
dered more efficient in treating the material with
high fine content and the tender price was competitive.
DYNAMIC CONSOLIDATION
The Dynamic Consolidation (D.C.) technique involves
dropping heavy pounders weighing upto 40t (tonnes) on
the surface of fill from a height varying upto about
40 m on a selected grid pattern (Menard and Braise,
1975).
The success of compaction using D.C. has been attri-
buted to the creation of vibrations and local shear
displacements in granular soils. The depth and degree
of improvement are governed by both operational and
geotechnical parameters.
The operational parameters are the weight of the
pounder (W), height of free fall of the pounder (H),
the number of free falls or blows on one particular
spot per phase (B), the number of phases (M), the grid
spacing (G) and the total compactive effort in the
form of potential energy per square metre (E). The
geotechnical parameters include the type of soil to
be compacted, depth of the fill, degree of saturation
and the consistency and type of material underlying
the fill.
FIELD TESTS
Prior to the commencement of the main compaction works
several field tests were conducted, as described below,
in order to determine the best combination of opera-
tional parameters to be adopted. Conventional cranes
were employed to lift the p6unders weighing 8t, llt,
l5t and l8t. A specially designed wheel mounted tripod
with a hydraulic system capable of lifting a 40t poun-
der through a height of about 40 m was also used. The
height of drop used was 20 m, 25 m or 40 m. The number
of blows per phase ranged between 6 and 12. The total
energy varied between 15 tm;m2 and 110 tm;m2 per phase.
Two to four phases were applied in each test area.
Insitu tests were conducted to assess the improvement
achieved. In the beginning the SPT was conducted with
water in the boreholes but towards the latter part of
the study bentonite slurry was used in the boreholes.
Dutch cone with friction sleeves,measured by both
hydraulic pressure gauges and electrical pressure
transducers at the cone, was also used for assessment.
All tests were conducted virtually at the same loca-
tions prior and subsequent to the treatment, so that
the influence of the change in material on the test
results was kept to a minimum. All tests were carried
out at points diagonally equidistant from the prints
11!6
of the pounder.
RESULTS
(1) Heave Test
Heave tests consisting of measuring the ground deforma-
tion at and around the print after each blow of the
falling pounder was carried out for several pounder
sizes and heights of drop. These tests gave the maxi-
mum number of blows that can be given before the ground
heave indicating that any increase in blows beyond this
limit will be inefficient for compaction. The maximum
number of blows made on a single spot depended on
whether the pounder reached the water level in the fill
or whether the sides of the print started collapsing
on the pounder. No significant heaving was however
observed under the above conditions.
(2) Grid Spacing
Commencing with a virgin fill area a series of tests
was conducted to evaluate the effect of grid spacings
on the degree of improvement. The maximum recorded N
values are plotted, in Fig. 4, against the grid
spacings, in square grid patterns, varying from 3m
to 12 m. A single phase of 8 to ll blows with a llt
pounder falling through 20m was used in this test.
The total energy per square metre, E, used and the
depth, d, at which the maximum N was recorded are also
shown. It is clear that the N value has substantially
increased for all locations, but the greatest increase
occurs around 6 m grid spacings.
t;: 24
'-.....
til
~ 20
aj
w 16
:::J
_J
:;:: 12 _d=2 25m
E=70 1 tm/mZ
z I
f-- 8
0..
til
4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SPACING (m)
Fig. 4 Effect of Grid Spacing
(3) Underlying Material
At the end of the first phase, with an energy of 60
tm;m2 to 80 tm;mZ, the maximum improvement is observed
at shallow depths of 2 m to 3 m. As the energy is
increased with more phases the improvement appeared to
increase in depth. Yet, below the water level, the
improvement close to both the hard and soft sea bed
was relatively low and significant only with a minimum
of 3 phases. Fig. 5 illustrates the improvement that
has been achieved, through SPT data, at the end of the
third phase on the hard sea bottom and at the end of
the second phase on the soft sea bed. All SPT curves
plot within the envelopes shown.
Below 6 m depth hard sea bottom is reflected by N
values of the order of 30 to 70. Soft sea bottom
shows values of N as low as l or 2, continuing into
deeper soft clay. Therefore it is seen that the fill
139
11/6

SPT N VALUE BLOWS/ FT (5) Total Energy

Sr--T4--~~--~~2~~~~-w~~24~~2~8__3~2~~~~~~~
- E.~o tmfm2; 3 Pha•s ;Hard Bottom
5 - - Eo102 tm/m2, 2 Phases; Soft Bottom
4 lar fills. Nevertheless, there is a minimum total
0
~ 3
E
- 2
Fig. 5 Effect of Underlying Material
behaves differently when it is underlain by materials
with different energy absorbing properties.
(4) Energy per Blow
Improvement envelopes of N values are shown in Fig. 6
for two areas of fill resting on hard sea bottom. The
full details of operational parameters used are also
shown in Fig. 6.
For the two sets of results shown, the energy per blow,
(W x H), total energy and the number of blows per phase
vary whereas the grid spacings remain identical.
The two envelopes show that the material just above
the hard stratum in the area treated with lower energy
(llt x 20m) per blow has surpassed the improvement
shown by the material in the other area with higher
energy (15.6t x 25m) per blow where the fill
material was more granular. Therefore, if the
total energy is assumed to be of the same order the
improvement of the fill appears to depend on the
applied energy per blow.
SPT N VALUE
6 4 8 12 16 20
5 this paper.
Every phase of D.C. produced increase in fill density.
The rate of improvement was, however, decreasing as
the number of phases increased showing that with D.C.
any desired relative density can be achieved in granu-
energy that should be used to obtain a particular den-
sity economically. Other factors should also be con-
sidered as discussed earlier.
APPLICATION TO MAIN WORKS
Initially the compaction of the fill was carried out
in four phases on a 8.3 m x 8.3 m square grid with an
energy of 38 tm;m2 per phase. Based on the field test
results the mode of treatment was modified to two
phases on 6 m x 6 m square grid with an energy of 62.5
tm;m2 per phase. It was therefore possible to reduce
the total applied energy from 160 tm;mZ to 125 tm;m2
by adopting a more efficient grid pattern.
CONCLUSIONS
Dynamic Consolidation depends on certain operational
parameters such as weight of pounder, height of drop,
number of blows per phase, grid spacings and total
applied energy. Its efficiency also depends on thick-
ness and type of soil to be compacted, water table and
the nature of the underlying stratum. Preliminary
field tests should be carried out to establish the best
combination of these operational parameters for the
site conditions and soil type so that Dynamic Consoli-
dation can be effectively used.
Preliminary field tests at Changi indicated that grid
spacing, total energy and energy per blow were impor-
tant for efficient compaction. The main compaction
work was carried out in two phases with a 6 m x 6 m
square grid using 62.5 tm;m2 per phase. ·
Dynamic Consolidation has been found to be effective
in densifying hydraulic granular fill at Changi despite
the fact that the fines content was up to about 30%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BLOWS/FT The authors wish to thank Messrs Techniques Louis
24 28 32 ~ Menard (S.A. ), the soil improvement contractor, for
providing the field data for the tests described in

4
REFERENCES
Bhandari, R.K.M. (1978), "Deep Compaction of Ground
0u 3 by Vibroflotation", Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 9,
... No.1, pp. 13-27 .
5 2 D'Appolonia, E. (1970), "Dynamic Loading", J.S.M.F.D.,
z A.S.C.E., Vol. 96, No. SMl.
1
2 Gibbs, H.J. and W.G. Holtz (1957), "Research on
J Determining the Density of Sands by Spoon Penetration
...~ 0
Testing", Proc. 4th Int. Conf. S.M.F.E., London,
-1
Vol. 1, pp. 35-39.
:--~-
Menard, L. andY. Braise (1975), "Theoretical and
Practical Aspects of Dynamic Consolidation",
Ptlut W(t) H(m) B (;(m) E(tm/ml)
Geotechnique, Vol. 25, pp. 3-18.
-3
[J1
3
15 6
15-6
15-6
15
15
15
8
8
6
8 l
83
6.0
45.)
45.3
65.0 =155.i;
Whitman, R.V. (1970), "Hydraulic Fills to Support
Structural Loads", J.S.M.F.D., A.S.C.E., Vol. 96,
n.o No. SMl.
D~
10 11 8-l 38-3
n-o 10 11 8-3 38·3
15-6 15 6 6.0 65.0 =141.6

Fig. 6 Influence of Energy per Blow

140