Investigation of Practical Problems for Digital Fault
Location Algorithms Based on EMTP Simulation
T. Kawady and J. Stenzel
Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract-Although most digital fault location algorithms are
advantageous with a high percentage of precision during
simulation tests, all of them are encountered with errors during
experimental testing. This is mainly due to the considered
simplified assumptions during the development of these
algorithms as well as the differences between the models which
are employed in the simulations and actual circumstances in real
fields. I n this paper, the simulation of different factors that
effectively influence the performance of fault location algorithms
in real systems is examined employing ATP-EMTP simulation
including mutual coupling, parameter distribution, line
configuration, parameter variations, hardware errors and fault
resistance. Also, the behavior of fault location algorithms i s
evaluated under theses factors. Moreover, the impacts of some
simplified assumptions on the accuracy of their relevant
algorithms are discussed. This work is accomplished by
employing most of published digital fault location algorithms
including one and two terminals data algorithms. It presents a
full comprehensive study of the performance of these algorithms.
Index Term- ATP, digital protection, fault location, mutual
coupling, transmission line.
I. INTRODUCTION
he increased complexity of modem power transmission
T systems raise the great importance of fault location tech-
niques which is considered one of the most interesting
research topics in recent years. That is due to the great
benefits provided with detecting the fault position, which
consequently reduces the maintenance and restoration times.
As described in Fig. I , fault location techniques are classi-
fied into two categories depending on their basic essence.
Using travelling waves propagation in protection was first
proposed by Dommel and Michels in 1978 to detect transmis-
sion line faults [I]. Then other papers were published to
employ this technique for fault location purposes [2-41. The
basic idea of these schemes based on determining the needed
time for the injected wave to travel between the sending point
and the fault point. Another way has been introduced by
capturing and analyzing the transient waves generated into the
voltages or currents during the fault [5,6].
Although, travelling wave based schemes provide a fast
tool for fault detection and present a solution for the fault
location problem, some shortcomings arise in these schemes.
The propagation can be remarkably affected by the system
parameters and the network configuration. Another difficulty
arises for faults near to the busses or for those faults occurring
at near zero voltage inception angle. The difficulties are also
due to the complexity of their simulation, especially when
considering the frequency dependency of system parame-
ters. [4,7].
0-7803-7525-4/02/$17.00 0 2002 IEEE.
&==A
Traveling wave
Fault location techniques
Impedance measurement
based techniques based on phasor estimatii
injection
Fig. 1 Fault location techniques classification
The second category of fault location methods has the ad-
vantage that it depends only on the available information via
normal installed measuring transducers. Also, the ease of
implementation and simulation, and consequently evaluation,
is another advantage. Many papers have been published in-
cluding algorithms based on data measured at one terminal
[8-151, and other algorithms based on data measured at both
terminals of the transmission line [16-221. However, it has
been found that remarkable differences exist between accura-
cies that resulted via simulation studies and those resulted in
real fields. Gale et al. have found that a higher percentage of
errors (up to 23%) has been recorded for these algorithms in
real fields [4]. Some factors participate into these errors in-
cluding simulation simplifications and those assumptions
associated with source impedance, fault impedance and fault
currents. Also, the variations of system parameters strongly
affect these accuracies. Thus the need to investigate these
situations is obvious. In this paper these factors that remarka-
bly affect the accuracy of fault location algorithms are tested
and the behavior of the algorithms under these conditions are
evaluated depending on the ATP-EMTP simulation. The next
section illustrates the strategy of the testing method, then the
following sections explain the applied tests.
11. TESTING STRATEGY AND SELECTED
ALGORITHMS
Fig. 2 shows the structure of the used simulation process.
All test cases are prepared using the ATP-EMTP program
including different situations and network circumstances. For
each test case, the samples of voltage and current at each end
are extracted and then fed to MATLAB software. A sampling
rate of 32 samples per cycle is chosen which is sufficient for
the required phasor calculations. MATLAB is employed for
building the required algorithms for signal processing (via
recursive Discrete Fourier Transform, DFT) as well as fault
location.
118
 The sequence of testing is as follows. For every network
i ATP-EMTP. configuration, each algorithm is examined to find out the
algorithm accuracy. This accuracy depends on the maximum
estimation error along with the entire range of the line with all
end
possible fault types. This error E is expressed as:
E = !CL. * 1ooo/o (1)
1,
_ MATLAB. \
with
1, estimated fault location
10 actual fault location
Phasor estimation using recursive DFT
111. ELECTRICAL NETWORK IMPACT
As the line is embedded into a large interconnected net-
I
1
Selected fault location algorithm I
I
work, the network circumstances including loading, configu-
ration and network parameters vary by time. Therefore it has
been expected that a remarkable influence on the algorithms
behavior will be encountered during these situations. This
Fig. 2 Simulation process block diagram
section deals with the impact of those errors.
More than 1200 simulation runnings are performed cov-
a. System lnfeed and Line Loading
ering varieties of the line configurations and system condi-
tions. Different types of the transmission line model including
The algorithms A1-A6 depend only on the data obtained
lumped parameter model, with and without mutual coupling,
from one end. The system loading and double infeed may
and distributed parameter model are adopted. These test cases
remarkably affect the behavior of these algorithms. However,
are selected covering the entire range of the line with different
algorithms A5 and A6 propose a method of compensation in
possibilities of line loading, fault type and fault resistance. A
order to eliminate these effects as explained in [13, 141. Thus
transmission system of single and double circuit, 220 kV, 200
it is more convenient to evaluate all selected algorithms under
km, is selected as a test system. The system parameters as
these conditions. For this purpose, four situations are
well as conductor configurations are listed in Appendix A.
considered, single infeed (with and without loading) and
The required codes are prepared using ATP-EMTP consider-
double infeed (with and without loading). For every situation
ing transposed and untransposed lines. The associated codes
each algorithm accuracy is checked. Table 2 summarizes
for the untransposed line are prepared employing routine
these results.
JMARTI model [ 2 3 ] .
For the purpose of testing, 13 fault location algorithms are
selected. These algorithms are classified into two types, one
terminal data algorithms, AI to A6, and two terminals data
algorithms, B1 to B7. Table 1 summarizes the selected
algorithms in addition to the information including authors,
method of solution and relevant references. For each
algorithm the associated source code is built via MATLAB
and then tested via prepared test cases.

Analyzing the results in the Table 2, the performance of

compensation as applied in algorithms A5 and A6 can be
revealed. Also, a stable response of algorithm AI has been
found in spite of depending on one terminal data. However,
other one terminal data algorithms are increasingly affected
by infeed doubling and loading. On the other hand this test
has insignificant effects on two end data algorithms.
However, remarkably increased errors E are found for
algorithms B 1 and B4.

119
b. Transmission System Parameter Variations. E. Mutual Effects and Line Model

For all fault location algorithms, the locator setting is ad-
justed off-line with the precalculated parameters of the sys-
tem. However, these parameters significantly change during
the on-line operation and consequently a measurable amount
of errors can be added to the measured values. There may be
different reasons for this problem: miscalibration, tab
changing, conductor height variations, ground resistance and
inaccurate manufacturing data. Therefore it can be considered
as one of the most challenging problems that all algorithms
can face. Thus it is important to evaluate the behavior of all
selected algorithms under these conditions. For this purpose
test cases have been prepared by varying the parameter in a
certain range (A=O ...20%). This variation leads to an
additional error €,. Fig. 3a shows the error Ep against the
percentage of parameter deviation for selected one terminal
data algorithms, A 1 -A6. These errors are added to the normal
errors resulted from the algorithm itself. Also Fig. 3b shows
those results for two terminals data algorithms, B 1 -B7.
% 16
One of the most serious problems for all fault location
algorithms is the line configuration including mutual coupling
and line model. The effect of mutual coupling is effectively
measurable in all multi-phase systems, in which the total line
impedance significantly changes resulting from the added
impedances reflected mutually from other phases. Thus, it can
be interpreted through the perspective of the line parameter
errors problem.
Long transmission lines require more sophisticated line
models. Short transmission lines can be simulated by lumped
parameters. However, the distributed parameter line model
provides the best candidate which is more close to those
circumstances that are encountered in real fields. Thus
analyzing the behavior of each algorithm under different line
models presents a better understanding of the behavior of this
algorithm as well as the impact of the considered assumptions
in the stage of algorithm developing.
For this purpose, each algorithm is examined via prepared
test cases covering lumped and distributed parameters models
considering a double circuit configuration. Also the
distributed parameter model includes transposed and

12-l
1 /
/"'
untransposed configuration. Table 3 summarizes the results of
the total error for each algorithm as shown below.
Table 3 Line model variation evaluation

A,3

0 l ' l ' l ' l ' l

0 4 a 12 16 20 Yo
A

From the above results it can be concluded, that the

increasing errors result from the mutual coupling. These
results reveal also that algorithms B2, A5, A6 have lower
errors than others. Algorithms B2 and B7 are advantageous
with insignificant changes in distributed manner of the line.
On the other hand, it has been found that neglecting
transposition leads only to a small amount of added errors as
compared with those errors resulting from coupling.

IV. FAULT RESISTANCE IMPACT

o-8
0
,
4
I ,
8
,
12
, I ,
16
, I
20 %
Involving a resistance in the fault loop during line and
double line to ground faults is a practical situation in typical
A fault conditions. This resistance is not only caused by the arc
Fig. 3 Parameter errors effect on selected algorithms resistance between the fault point and the ground, but also by
a. One terminal data algorithms, A I -A6 some other reasons like the resistance of any path to ground
b. Two terminals data algorithms, B 1-87 or errors in the ground resistivity modeling [24]. The

120
existence of this resistance during the fault has a remarkable
impact on all algorithms. However, this impact differs from
one algorithm to another related to the assumptions
considered in each one. Moreover, as far as the added
resistance value varies, the resulted estimation error varies.
Thus it is worth to investigate the behavior of fault location
algorithms during the existence of these resistances along
with the entire range of the line. At each fault resistance value
the accuracy of each algorithm is checked. This test has been
accomplished through a wide range of fault resistances Rf up
to 10 kQ. Fig. 4a and b show the variation of the extra added
error E, against fault resistance for one and two end
algorithms respectively.
% 401
30
10
0
0 1 10 100
Rf
bl
T ‘ ’ “““I ‘ “1““I ’ ’ “““I
0 1 10 100
R,.
Fig. 4 Fault resistance effect on selected algorithnis
a. One terminal data algorithms, AI-A6
b. Two terminals data algorithms. BI-B7
Fig. 4a and b reveal that all selected algorithms are
remarkably affected by fault resistance, especially by large
resistances. This effect is reflected in a significantly increase
of the added error E,. It has been also found that one terminal
data algorithms A5, A6 have relatively lower errors. This
resulted from canceling the fault resistance value from the
algorithms equations. However, these values significantly
increase with the higher values of fault resistances.
IV. SYSTEM HARDWARE ERRORS
Although, most of the published papers consider ideal
hardware equipment including transducers, A/D converters
and digital filtering, significant errors appear due to the errors
associated with the accuracy of these equipment itself. In this
section, the impact of two main sources of errors on the
algorithms behavior is examined. The first one is due to the
errors concerned with the accuracy of these equipments. The
other one concerns the effect of the timing errors between the
data extracted from both terminals.
a. Hardware Components Accuracies.
lnspite of the continuos improvement in manufacturing
technology, all used transducers and digital equipment suffer
from some resulted small errors. These errors, when they are
summed, become measurable and consequently they may
affect the algorithms accuracies. To investigate the effect of
these errors, the input signals of each terminal including
voltages and currents are deviated over the values which were
extracted from simulations with 2% and 5% respectively.
Then the accuracy of each algorithm is tested under the
subject of these cases. Three different situations are adopted
considering changing current only, changing voltage only,
and changing both voltage and current. Table 4 illustrates the
results as shown below.
1000 10000 Q
‘ ‘“‘7
1000 10000 Q
b. Two Terminals Timing Errors.
All above applied tests for two terminals algorithms
considered perfect synchronization of both terminals data.
This ideal situation may actually be changed in real field due
to some reasons such as clock oscillator drifts and
communication errors. Thus it is more convenient to evaluate
the selected two end algorithms under these situation. To
achieve this test, extracted data samples at the remote end are
lagged about the other end with 1, 3 and 5 samples
respectively. Then the accuracy of the algorithms, BI to B7,
are checked through these cases. Fig. 5 shows the resulted
errors for each algorithm for every delay case. The figure
shows that most of these algorithms have surprisingly
121
insignificant increases of estimation errors during this test. algorithms including synchronization and communication
However algorithms B1 and B4 are remarkably affected. But between both ends.
there is nearly no impact to algorithm B6. That is resulted As described before, the effects of most practical
from the ability of this algorithm to estimate the phase shifts considerations that remarkably influence fault location
errors for both voltages and currents during running. algorithms are explained. On the other hand the individual
response of each algorithm varies from one algorithm to
YO
i
another depending on the essence of the algorithm itself. Thus
the considered simplification assumptions for each one have a
12
basic rule. The first assumption concerned with the selected
10 line model considering simple lumped reactances, neglecting
, line losses and charging currents. Thus, an increasingly level
8
E , of errors has been arised for relatively long lines even with
6
two terminals algorithms (BI, B3, B5, B6). However,
4
considering long line equations (B2, B7) can provide lower
2 errors from this viewpoint. Another assumption concerned
n with the remote infeed considering the same angle for both
81 82 83 84 85 86 87
fault and sending end currents (A I , A3) or considering a real
distribution factor for fault currents (A2, A4). This situation
Algorithm error E in case of two terminlas timin errors resulted in remarkable errors in double infeed systems during
one sample error three samples error five samples error the applied tests. A better behavior has been remarked
employing compensation methods for this situation (A5, A6).
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS However, algorithm A5 have the disadvantage of requiring
the source impedance value through calculation. This
As explained before, more than 1200 simulation runnings consequently affects the algorithm efficiency strongly. The
have been employed based on ATP in this study. These cases values of source impedances are not practically available for
cover different possible conditions that fault location algo- all situations. A last point that must be kept in mind is that
rithms can face. Thus it is more worthy to employ these cases each considered situation has been tested individually in this
into a general evaluation from the viewpoint of dependability. work. Actually in reality a combination of different situations
For a protection scheme dependability D can be declared: can happen and so higher levels of errors may occur.

VII. CONCLUSIONS
with
N, Number of cases with correct response In this paper, most of the practical considerations that can
N, Total number of cases strongly affect the behavior of fault location algorithms are
considered. For this study 13 fault location algorithms
One problem arises how each response can be evaluated as covering most of the published algorithms have been selected.
correct or non-correct. In this study it has been considered EMTP-ATP has been employed for developing the test set
that each response that has an error of the estimated fault including more than 1200 simulation cases. As a general
location less than 5% of the total line length is classified as conclusion the better performance of two terminals
correct. The results are summarized in Fig. 6. algorithms in comparison to one terminal algorithms has been
emphasized. On the other hand, one terminal algorithms
Yo 100 applying current compensation provide an acceptable
90
performance which is close to that presented by two terminals
80
70
ones. Also, they are advantageous because they do not need
60 any communication with the other terminals. It has been
D 50 found surprisingly that insignificantly amounts of resulted
40 errors have been added for most of two terminals algorithms
30 during timing errors cases. The absolute values are more
20
10
important to provide an acceptable fault location estimation
0 rather than the phasor quantities. All applied tests show the
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 remarkable effects on performance of all selected algorithms
Fig. 6 Dependability evaluation of selected algorithms. during considered practical situations. Thus revealing the
superiority of one algorithm to other ones is difficult.
These results show the relative increase of the
dependability for most of two terminals algorithms. However, VIII. REFERENCES
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