Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

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Improving Urban Air Quality in China: Beijing Case

Study

Jiming Hao & Litao Wang

To cite this article: Jiming Hao & Litao Wang (2005) Improving Urban Air Quality in China:
Beijing Case Study, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 55:9, 1298-1305, DOI:
10.1080/10473289.2005.10464726

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 TECHNICAL PAPER
Improving Urban Air Quality in China: Beijing Case Study
Jiming Hao and Litao Wang
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT
China is undergoing rapid urbanization because of un-
precedented economic growth. As a result, many cities
suffer from air pollution. Two-thirds of China’s cities have
not attained the ambient air quality standards applicable
to urban residential areas (Grade II). Particulate matter
(PM), rather than sulfur dioxide (SO2), is the major pol-
lutant reflecting the shift from coal burning to mixed
source pollution. In 2002, 63.2 and 22.4% of the moni-
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tored cities have PM and SO2 concentrations exceeding
the Grade II standard, respectively. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
concentration kept a relatively stable level near the Grade
II standard in the last decade and had an increasing po-
tential in recent years because of the rapid motorization.
In general, the air pollutants emission did not increase as
quickly as the economic growth and energy consump-
tion, and air quality in Chinese cities has improved to
some extent. Beijing, a typical representative of rapidly
developing cities, is an example to illustrate the possible
options for urban air pollution control. Beijing’s case pro-
vides hope that the challenges associated with improving
air quality can be met during a period of explosive devel-
opment and motorization.
INTRODUCTION
A dramatic increase in the rate of urbanization is taking
place throughout the world. In 1975, only a little more
than one-third of the world population lived in cities, but
by 2025 this fraction is estimated to be increased to two-
thirds. The population in cities will double between 1990
IMPLICATIONS
In the last 10 years, air quality problems in Chinese cities
have been transformed from those that associated with
traditional coal burning to mixed source pollution because
of the continuous, rapid increase of energy consumption
and vehicle population. Although urban air quality has
shown recent improvement, integrated air pollution control
is an important issue that city governments must consider
and pursue over a long period of time. The mitigation of air
pollution in Beijing, a typical representative of large Chinese
cities, demonstrates that air quality can be enhanced co-
incident with high-speed urban development.
1298 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
ISSN 1047-3289 J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 55:1298 –1305
Copyright 2005 Air & Waste Management Association
and 2025, and 90% of that increase will be in developing
countries. Every 1% increment of city population in de-
veloped countries equates to about a 3.5% increment in
developing countries.1
China reflects this rapid urbanization. Figure 12 de-
picts the rate of increase of total population and urban-
ization in China from 1978 to 2003. In the 11-yr period of
1990 –2001, the urban population increased 10%, from 26
to 36% of the population. In developed countries, when
the urbanization level reaches 30%, the rate of city
growth will markedly increase.
Urbanization in China accompanies industrialization
and modernization and improves societal development
with benefits to the population. But at the same time, it puts
substantial pressure on public facilities and natural re-
sources. Cities consume natural resources and produce a
large quantity of wastes to be digested within and outside
the cities that results in large-scale environmental problems.
Along with the unprecedented high-speed economic
growth, many cities in China suffer from various environ-
mental problems, such as air-quality degradation, water
pollution and water shortage, excess solid waste, resource
depletion, and so on. Urban air pollution is one of the
major environmental issues. This article gives a brief in-
troduction to the characteristics of urban air pollution
problems in China and presents the challenges and the
possible solutions by using Beijing as a case example.
Air Pollution in Chinese Cities
Current Status. In general, urban air pollution in Chinese
cities is serious. According to the Report on the State of
Environment in China,3 in 2002, of the 343 monitored
cities, only about one third met the Grade II National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (Table 1) for general resi-
dential areas, and 107 cities (31.2%) were heavily polluted
exceeding the Grade III standard (Figure 2). Nearly three-
fourths of China’s urban population was living under
harmful air quality conditions (Figure 3). Air pollution is
one of the important factors that influence people’s
health and welfare in the cities.
Figure 4 shows the air pollution status of Chinese
cities of different sizes. Air pollution in mega- and large
cities is more severe than in medium and small cities,
Volume 55 September 2005
 Hao and Wang

Figure 3. Percent of urban population subject to different air quality

in China in 2002.

Figure 1. Population and urbanization rate increase in China.

especially in large cities with the population between one
and two million. These cities are provincial capitals or
more economically developed cities and often have a
large energy, chemical, or iron and steel industry. They
mostly suffer from coal-combustion pollution and have
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which are the most economically developed in China and
have had a history of serious air pollution. Air pollution
in the megacities began to transform from coal-combus-
tion products to the mixed-source type in recent years.
The medium and small cities still suffer from coal-com-
bustion pollution, and, in general, more population
equates to worse air quality.

less experience, technical support, and economic power Although 30% of the area in China is included in acid
to prevent air pollution compared with the megacities, rain-controlled zones, and 90% of the cities in these areas
recorded acid rains in 2002,3 the major pollutant in Chi-
Table 1. Concentration limits for some pollutants in national ambient air
quality standard. nese cities has switched from SO2, a major constituent of
acid rain, to particulate matter (PM).4 In 2002, 63.2% of
Averaging Grade I Grade II Grade III the monitored cities had PM concentrations exceeding
Pollutants Time (mg/m3) (mg/m3) (mg/m3) the national Grade II ambient standard. PM pollution in
northern cities is more severe than in southern cities,
SO2 Annual 0.02 0.06 0.10 especially in the cities in the north-central, northwest,
Daily 0.05 0.15 0.25 northeast, central plains, and the eastern part of Sichuan
Hourly 0.15 0.50 0.70 Province and Chongqing City. This is partly because
TSP Annual 0.08 0.20 0.30
northern cities have to burn much more coal in the cold
Daily 0.12 0.30 0.50
season for heating, and more fugitive dust exists, leading
PM10 Annual 0.04 0.10 0.15
to PM pollution because of the dryer climate and lower
Daily 0.05 0.15 0.25
NO2 Annual 0.04 0.08 0.08
vegetation coverage. Of all cities, 22.4% had sulfur diox-
Daily 0.08 0.12 0.12 ide (SO2) concentrations above the Grade II standard,
Hourly 0.12 0.24 0.24 mainly in Shanxi, Hebei, Guizhou, Sichuan, Gansu Prov-
CO Daily 4 4 6 inces, and Chongqing City.3
Hourly 10 10 20 The annual average of Air Pollution Index (API),5 a
O3 Hourly 0.16 0.20 0.20 pollutant-integrated indicator of air quality, is another
indicator that air pollution in northern cities was more
Notes: The Grade I standard is for natural reserves, national parks, and other severe than in southern cities. There is a high-level API
protected areas. The Grade II standard is for urban residential, commerce-
traffic-resident mixed, common industrial, and rural areas. The Grade III
standard is for special industrial areas.

Figure 2. Grading of urban air quality in China in 2002. Figure 4. Air pollution in cities of different size in China in 2002.

Volume 55 September 2005 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1299
 Hao and Wang

The air quality in Chinese cities was im-

Figure 5. Air quality comparison of some world cities in 2000.
area in northern China from Urumqi, Xining city in the
west, to Shenyang city in the east, including Xining,
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proved to some extent. Figures 9–11 show the
annual average concentrations of SO2, TSP, and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) in Chinese cities from
1990 to 2002.11–14 In general, air pollution in
northern cities was more severe than in southern
cities. The average SO2 concentration was re-
duced by 44.3% from 93 ␮g/m3 in 1990 to 52
␮g/m3 in 2002, and, after 1998, it reached the
National Grade II ambient standard. This im-
provement was mainly because of the industrial
SO2 emission control and clean energy actions
taken in most Chinese cities.
TSP pollution also showed an apparent mit-
igation with the average concentration decreas-
ing from 387 ␮g/m3 in 1990 to 290 ␮g/m3 in
2002. This represents a TSP reduction of 33.8% in south-
ern cities, which met the national standard in 1998, and

Lanzhou, Xi’an, Taiyuan, Shijiazhuang, Beijing, and Tian- 27% in northern cities. Despite the progress in the control
jin. The lowest API appeared in southern coastal cities.6 of TSP pollution, the traditional control equipment devel-
Figure 5 compares the annual average concentrations oped in this period were not highly effective in removing
of total suspended particulates (TSPs), SO2 and nitrogen fine PM, the control of which needs to be one of the key
dioxide (NO2), of some cities in the world in 2000.7 PM tasks in urban air quality improvement in the future.
pollution in Chinese cities was severe compared with NOx pollution was not as serious as SO2 and TSP
cities in either developed countries or developing coun- in Chinese cities; however, its concentration was not
tries. The concentration of SO2 and NO2 were
also high in China, indicating the appearance of
a mixed pollution pattern in large cities caused
by coal combustion and vehicle emissions. Chi-
nese cities need to substantially improve their
urban air quality to compare favorably with cit-
ies in developed countries.

Trends in Recent Years. In the past 2 decades,

China experienced rapid economic development,
and, since 1996, the annual gross domestic product
has grown between 7 and 10% (Figure 68). This
development was accompanied by the rapid
growth of energy consumption and vehicle popu-
Figure 6. Gross domestic product growth in China from 1990 to 2003.
lation (Figure 79). The total energy consumption in
China increased ⬃50% from 987 million tons of
coal equivalent in 1990 to 1,482 million tons of
coal equivalent in 2003, and the motor vehicle
population growth rate increased by ⬃10% annu-
ally in this period. This rapid development placed a
large burden on the urban atmosphere. Fortu-
nately, apparent progress was achieved in air pol-
lution prevention and control in this period. The
air pollutants did not increase as quickly as the
energy consumption and vehicle population, as
shown in Figure 8.10 The national SO2 emissions
increased ⬃30% from 1991 to 2003, and fly ash
was even reduced by 20%. Figure 7. Energy consumption and vehicle population growth in China.

1300 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 55 September 2005

Figure 8. SO2 and fly ash emission in China. Note: The SO2 and fly ash
emissions of 1991–1994 didn’t include the emissions from Township and Village
Industrial Enterprises (TVIE).
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reduced in these years. Since 1996, NOx concentration in
southern cities slightly increased because of the higher
speed of industrialization and motorization compared
Figure 9. Annual average SO2 concentrations in Chinese cities in
1990 –2002.
Figure 10. Annual average TSP concentrations in Chinese cities in
1990 –2002.
Volume 55 September 2005
Hao and Wang
with elsewhere in China. NOx concentration in
megacities grew from 0.058 mg/m3 to 0.075
mg/m3 from 1990 to 1998.11 One of the major
reasons was the explosive growth of the vehicle
population. Because NOx has multiple impacts
on the atmosphere, such as acid deposition, pho-
tochemical pollution, and secondary particles,
its pollution control will be an important prob-
lem in mega- and large cities.
Figure 12 shows the record of urban air qual-
ity in China from 1998 to 2003.10 An improved
tendency can be seen, because the percentage of
cities reaching the Grade II standard increased
from 27.6% in 1998 to 41.6% in 2003, although,
in general, air pollution status is still serious in
Chinese cities. Regarding the API, northern cities
generally showed improvement (decreasing API),
whereas southern cities had an API increase from
2001 to 2003, although the absolute level of the API in
northern cities was higher than in southern urban cen-
ters.6
Options: The Case of Beijing
Status and Challenges. Beijing has undergone a rapid eco-
nomic growth and motorization in the last several de-
cades. As shown in Figure 13,15,16 the rising gross domes-
tic product kept the vehicle growth rate above 10% for
most years since 1978, and the average rate of increase of
the motor vehicle population was ⬃15% since 1997. In
August 2003, the motor vehicle population in Beijing
exceeded 2 million, and it is estimated that this number
will rise to 3.5 million in 2008 when the 24th Olympic
Games will be held (Figure 13). This rapid development
and motorization put a heavy pressure on the urban at-
mosphere of Beijing. In the1990s, it was listed among the
world’s top 10 most polluted cities and suffers from the
mixed-source air pollution caused by coal combustion,
vehicle exhaust, fugitive dust, and other sources. Beijing’s
case reflects the problems that other rapidly developing
cities in China must face.
Air pollution in Beijing was very severe in the 1990s. In
1998, Beijing began to publish weekly air quality reports
according to which air quality for ⬃85% of the days ex-
ceeded the Grade II standard. The urban average concentra-
tions of TSP, SO2, NOx, and carbon monoxide (CO) in the
heating season were 431, 252, and 201 ␮g/m3, and 4.4
mg/m3, respectively, all of which exceeded the Grade II
standard. NOx and CO pollution in traffic areas were severe
(Table 2). Ozone (O3) concentration in 101 days or 504 hr in
1998 was beyond the standard, and the highest hourly con-
centration was 384 ␮g/m3, 1.4 times the standard.17
As the political, economic, cultural, and educational
center of China, Beijing cannot avoid rapid geographical
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1301
 Hao and Wang

The first 6 stages of controls were mainly

aimed at SO2, NOx, and PM pollution control
from coal burning, industry, vehicle exhaust,
and fugitive dust. The impact of these measures
resulted in lowering the emissions of SO2, NOx,
and PM10 (PM with an aerodynamic diameter
of ⱕ 10 ␮m) by 22.15, 21.42, and 6.27%, respec-
tively, and a reduction in the atmospheric con-
centrations by 36.3, 18.7, and 5.3%, respectively,
by the end of the 4th stage in October 2000.18
The seventh to tenth stages of emergency control
measures from November 2000 to the present
mainly focus on PM pollution, total emission
control, and ecological protection and develop-
ment. In 2003, Euro-II emission standards were
implemented for new vehicles in Beijing, and
Figure 11. Annual average NOx concentrations in Chinese cities in 1990 –2002. Euro-III is scheduled to be implemented in 2005.
Notes: NOx and NO2 concentrations in 2000 are not exact because of the lack of
The changes of annual average concentra-
the data of some cities. The concentration limit for NOx was abolished and
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tions of SO2, NOx/NO2, and TSP/PM10 in Beijing

replaced by that of NO2 in 2000.
expansion and economic growth in the near future. At
the same time, as the most important center in China for
international trade and communications, air quality in
Beijing is very important for the benefit of its inhabitants
for the image of the country. Air pollution has been a
high-profile issue to the local and national government
and to the people living in the city especially, because it
was selected to host the 2008 Olympics. Beijing will face
a considerable challenge to improve its air quality while
its economic development and vehicle population rapidly
increase.
are shown in Figures 15–17. A rapid decline of
44% is evident for SO2 concentration from 120
␮g/m3 in 1998 to 67 ␮g/m3 in 2002. NOx concentration
decreased from 1998 to 2000 but then slightly increased
along with the vehicle population. The concentration of
PM remained high without noticeable change in Beijing.
The trends for O3 air quality standard attainment days
and O3 nonattainment days are shown in Figure 18,

Measures and Effects

To achieve this goal, the Beijing municipal government
has implemented 10 stages of comprehensive emergency
control measures since December 1998 (Figure 14). In
addition, a series of new local emission standards were
promulgated and implemented in this period (Table 3).

Figure 13. Growth of gross domestic product and motor vehicle

population in Beijing. Note: The motor vehicle population after 2003
was projected.

Table 2. Annual average concentrations of NOx and CO in traffic

environment in beijing.17

Inside Second to Third to Outside Grade II

Second Ring Third Ring Fourth Ring Fourth Ring Standard
(mg/m3) (mg/m3) (mg/m3) (mg/m3) (mg/m3)

NOx 0.220 0.219 0.197 0.124 0.100

CO 8.4 7.3 3.6 — 4.00
Figure 12. Grading of urban air quality in China in 1998 –2002.

1302 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 55 September 2005
 Hao and Wang

compares the energy consump-

tion in six Chinese cities. It
shows that Beijing still has an
extensive economic growth
pattern, and energy consump-
tion in the industrial sector is
very high. There is still a long
way to go for Beijing to opti-
mize its economic and energy
structure.
Another key issue is trans-
portation. Table 6 compares
road density in some world cit-
ies indicating the insufficient
traffic infrastructure in China
urban areas. Traffic congestion
has been a severe problem and
one of the key restrictions of
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economic development in
many large cities, such as Bei-
jing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and
Xi’an.19 The serious traffic con-
gestion and an increased vehi-
cle population caused the dete-
rioration of urban air quality.
Approximately 74% of CO and
67% of NOx in the atmosphere
in Beijing came from vehicle
exhaust.20 Vehicle emissions
not only increased the urban
pollutant concentrations but
also induced extremely high
pollutant concentrations in
traffic environments, which is
harmful to public health.
Figure 14. Ten stages of comprehensive emergency control measures in Beijing. A distinction between Chi-
nese cities and those in devel-
which indicates that the O3 air pollution in Beijing was oped countries is that densely populated urban areas were
mitigated since 1998. The comprehensive control mea- already formed before the rapid motorization, especially
sures implemented by Beijing municipal government in Beijing, which has a long history and very congested
were notably effective. old-city area. Chinese cities have much more difficulty in
getting time and space to adapt the traffic infrastructure
Future Considerations to the travel demand. Public transportation needs contin-
Although inspiring progress was achieved to improve air ued emphasis. It is estimated that in the mid 1990s in the
quality, important problems remain. Annual SO2 concen- urban Beijing area, ⬃56% of the road space is occupied by
tration in Beijing approached the Grade II standard, but private vehicles, company cars, and taxis that carry ⬍10%
its levels in the cold season were severe because of coal of the passengers. The remaining 90% of travelers are
combustion for heating (Figure 19). The Beijing govern- moved by buses, which occupy only 25% of the road
ment has put much effort into improving the energy space.21 Public transportation has higher transport effi-
structure, but coal consumption was not obviously re- ciency and lower environmental impact. Many Chinese
duced from 1999 to 2003 because of the rapid growth of cities focus on the construction of a public transportation
energy use (Table 4). Cleaner fuels, such as natural gas, system as a primary strategy to solve future transportation
were mainly used to meet new energy demands. Table 5 problems.

Volume 55 September 2005 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1303
 Hao and Wang

Table 3. Beijing local emission standards.

Implementing
Time Standards

10/01/2003 Emission controls and limits for oil-gas from gas station
10/01/2003 Emission controls and measurement standard for oil-gas from
fuel depot
10/01/2003 Emission controls and measurement standard for oil-gas from
tank truck
04/01/2003 Limits and measurement methods for exhaust pollutants from
nonroad diesel engines
04/01/2003 Limits and measurement methods for exhaust visible pollutants
from nonroad diesel engines
03/01/2003 Limits and measurement methods for exhaust smoke under lug- Figure 16. Annual average NOx/NO2 concentrations in Beijing.
down test from agricultural vehicles Note: The concentration limit for NOx was abolished and replaced by
03/01/2003 Limits and measurement methods for exhaust pollutants from that of NO2 in 2000.
motorcycles and mopeds under steady-state loaded mode
reach the national ambient air quality standards. PM was
03/01/2003 Emission standard for exhaust pollutants from gasoline vehicles
the major pollutant affecting the urban air quality, par-
under steady-state loaded mode
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ticularly in northern cities. Nevertheless, the rapid growth

03/01/2003 Exhaust smoke standard for diesel vehicle under lug-down test
of the economy and energy consumption in Chinese cit-
03/01/2002 Integrated emission standard of boilers pollutants
07/15/2001 Emission standard for smoke at free acceleration from vehicles ies did not bring the same speed increase of air pollutants
with diesel engines emission and air quality degradation. As a whole, air
01/01/2001 Emission standard for exhaust emissions from motorcycles and quality in Chinese cities was improved in recent years,
mopeds especially urban SO2 and TSP concentrations.
01/01/2000 Emission standard for exhaust pollutants from gasoline engines of As the capital city of China and the city responsible for
vehicles the 2008 Olympic games, Beijing has put a lot of effort in air
04/01/1999 Emission standard for pollutants at double idle speed from vehicle
with petrol engine
04/01/1999 Emission standard for smoke at free acceleration from farm
vehicles and tracker with diesel engines
01/01/1999 Emission standard for exhaust pollutants from light-duty vehicles

CONCLUSIONS
Air pollution problems induced by high-speed urbaniza-
tion, rapid economic growth, and explosive motorization
in Chinese cities pose a direct threat to long-term eco-
nomic sustainability and social benefit. Air pollution
problems in Chinese cities are serious, especially in large
cities. About two-thirds of the monitored cities did not Figure 17. Annual average TSP/PM10 concentrations in Beijing.

Figure 18. Air quality attainment days and O3 nonattainment days

Figure 15. Annual average SO2 concentrations in Beijing. in Beijing.

1304 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 55 September 2005
 Hao and Wang

development in other Chinese cities. Additional optimiza-

tion of the economic and energy structure and improve-
ment of the transportation system needed. The control and
mitigation of urban air pollution is a laborious task that
China will have to deal with for a long time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project research is sponsored by National Basic Re-
search Priorities Programme (Project No. G1999045700).

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Beijing 6.8 7.1 4.7

Shanghai 7.6 12.6 5.4 About the Authors
Guangzhou 7 7.7 5.2 Jiming Hao is a professor and dean of the Institute of Envi-
Dalian 12.6 6.46 5.7 ronmental Science and Engineering at Tsinghua University.
Tokyo 18.9 14.9 10.9 Litao Wang is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Environ-
Osaka 18 17.5 14.4 mental Science and Engineering. Address correspondence
London 18.1 24.1 28 to: Litao Wang, Department of Environmental Science and
New York 8 16.6 26.3 Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084 China;
phone: ⫹86-10-6279-4369; fax: ⫹86-10-6277-3650; e-mail:
xianran97@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn.
Note: Reprinted with permission from He, K.B.; Chang, C. Copyright Asia
Development Bank.

Volume 55 September 2005 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1305