Chapter Two

Air standard cycles

2.1 Introduction

An accurate analysis of internal combustion engine cycle is a difficult problem

1
because of the chemical reaction take place and because of the heat interchanges
between the working gases and the cylinder walls enclosing them. To simplify the
following conditions are set for the theoretical cycles:

1. the heat developed during combustion is considered simply as heat added from
an outside source.
2.the heat carried away with the escaping exhaust gases is considered as though
it were taken away from the working substance. Which remains unchanged
throughout the cycle.
3.since no chemical reaction is taken into account the working substance is
considered as air alone.
4. the specific heats of air are considered as constant. Which gives also cp/cv=
γ =const
5. no heat exchange taken place between the working substance and the engine
walls during compression and expansion. These lines being adiabatic curves.

2.2 Thermodynamic efficiency

The efficiency of a theoretical cycle is called ''thermodynamic efficiency''. The increase

of specific heat with temperature results in decrease of their ratio ɣ: the chemical
combustion of the gases and the reaction during combustion gives considerable lower
values of the efficiencies of various cycles than air-standard cycle efficiencies.

2.3 Air standard cycles

Three of the air standard cycles are particularly relevant to the reciprocating internal
combustion engine and a fourth to a combination of engine and turbine. The four cycles
are illustrat ed in Fig. 11; they are:

1. The constant volume (Otto) cycle.

2. The constant pressure combustion (Diesel) cycle.
3. The combination of the two cycles or the dual combustion cycles.
 4. The modified Atkinson cycle.

The constant volume and constant pressure cycles can be considered special cases of
the more general combination cycle; therefore, the latter will be analyzing first.

2.3.1 Dual cycle

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Fig. 12 let heat added during the first combustion as Q23 and during the second
combustion as Q34, and the heat rejected at the end of the cycle Q51, the efficiency (ɳ)
can be written as:

𝑄23 + 𝑄34 − 𝑄51

ɳ= (1)
𝑄23 + 𝑄34

Q23= Cv (T3-T2) (2)

Q34 = Cp(T4-T3) (3)

Q51= Cv (T5-T1) (4)

Expressing all temperature in terms of temperature T1 at the beginning of compression

gives

𝑣
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑣1 )𝛾−1 (5)
2

𝑃 𝑣 𝑃
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 (𝑃3 ) = 𝑇1 (𝑣1 )𝛾−1 (𝑃3 ) (6)
2 2 2

𝑣 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 (𝑣4 ) = 𝑇1 (𝑣1 )𝛾−1 (𝑃3 ) (𝑣4 ) (7)
3 2 2 3

𝑣 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣 𝑣
𝑇5 = 𝑇4 (𝑣4 )𝛾−1 = 𝑇1 (𝑣1 )𝛾−1 (𝑃3 ) (𝑣4 ) (𝑣4 )𝛾−1
1 2 2 3 1

𝑣4 𝛾 𝑃3
𝑇5 = 𝑇1 (𝑣 ) (𝑃 ) (8)
2 2
 To simply the final expression the following designation are used

1. For v1/v2 the compressor ratio r

2. For the increase of pressure during the first combustion (pressure ratio)

P3/P2=β (9)
3

3. For the increase of volume during the second combustion (cutoff ratio)

v4/v3 = T4/T3 = ρ (10)

Using the above expressions, then expression (1) for the efficiency become after all
cancellations

𝜌𝛾 𝛽−1
ɳ=1− (11)
𝑟 𝛾−1 [(𝛽−1)+ 𝛾𝛽(𝜌−1)]

the expression contains three variable factors: r, β and ρ, and shows first of all that the
efficiency increases with the increase of compression ratio. The influence of increase
of pressure β can be seen if both the numerator and denominator are divide by β, which
gives:

𝜌𝛾 −1/𝛽
ɳ=1− (12)
𝑟 𝛾−1 [ 𝛾(𝜌−1)+ 1−1/𝛽]

expression (12) shows that with increase of β, the value of efficiency Increases. The
opposite is true about ρ. The greater the second heat, the lower efficiency i.e. the
efficiency decrease with the increase of the load on the engine.

As should be expected from equation (12), the effect of compression ratio (r) is the
strongest one, and next comes the adverse influence of the relative admission (ρ). The
effect of increase the pressure during the first part of combustion is comparatively small
especially when the value of β is above 2.

* Mean indicated pressure can be expressed, using Fig. 12 as

𝑝 𝑣 −𝑝 𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 −𝑝 𝑣
𝑃3 (𝑣4−𝑣3)+ 4 4 5 5 − 2 2 1 1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑖_𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 = (13)
𝑣1−𝑣2
 Expressing P2,P3 and P5 in terms of P1 by means of :

𝑃 𝑣
(𝑃3 ) = (𝑣1 )𝑛 with n= ɣ and using equations (9) and (10) also r=v1/v2,
2 2

equation (13) becomes:

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𝑃1 [𝛽 (𝜌𝛾𝑟 𝛾−1 −𝛾𝑟 𝛾−1 + 𝑟 𝛾−1 −𝜌𝛾 )−𝑟 𝛾−1 +1]
𝑃𝑖_𝐷𝑢𝑎𝑙 = (𝑟−1)(𝛾−1)
(14)

Equation (14) shows the mean indicated pressure increase with the increase of all three
factors, compression ratio r, pressure rise β and relative admission ρ.

2.3.2 Constant volume(Otto) cycle

the expression for the efficiency of this cycle can be deduced as a special case of the
expression (12) for the combination (dual) cycle. The absence of the constant pressure
combustion means that in Fig. (12) v4=v3=v2 and ρ=1. In this case the expression (12)
becomes:

ɳ𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 − 𝑟1−𝛾 (15)

Expression (14) for the mean indicated pressure with ρ=1 becomes:

𝑃1 𝑟 (𝛽−1)(𝑟 𝛾−1 −1)

𝑃𝑖_𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = (𝑟−1)(𝛾−1)
(16)

2.3.3 Constant pressure (Diesel) cycle

the expression for the efficiency of this cycle can be derived from equation (12) by
omitting the constant volume combustion. This gives P3=P2 and β=1 and equ. (12)
becomes:

𝜌𝛾 −1
ɳ𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 − (17)
𝑟 𝛾−1 𝛾(𝜌−1)

𝑃1 𝑟 [𝛾 𝑟 𝛾−1 (𝜌−1)−𝜌𝛾 +1]

𝑃𝑖_𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑙 = (𝑟−1)(𝛾−1)
(18)

In other word can be expressed Pi:

 𝑝3 𝑣3 −𝑝4 𝑣4 𝑝2 𝑣2 −𝑝1 𝑣1
−
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑖𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = and
𝑣𝑠

𝑝 𝑣 −𝑝 𝑣 𝑝 𝑣 −𝑝 𝑣
𝑃2 (𝑣3 −𝑣2 )+ 3 3 4 4 − 2 2 1 1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 =
5
𝑣𝑠

Where vs=v1-v2

2.4 Comparison of Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles.

The thermal efficiency of each cycle can be written as:

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡
ɳ𝑡ℎ. = 1 − (19)
𝑞𝑖𝑛

For the same inlet conditions and the same compression ratioa it can be observed that:

ɳ𝑡ℎ._𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 > ɳ𝑡ℎ._𝐷𝑢𝑎𝑙 > ɳ𝑡ℎ._𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 (20)

Fig. (13) shows the three cycles on T-s diagram. the area under the process lines on T-
s coordinates is equal to the heat transfer. For each cycle, qout is the same (process 4-1)
and qin of each cycle is different.

However, this is not the best way to compare these their cycles, because they do
not operate on the same compression ratio. Compression ignition engine that operate
on diesel or dual cycle have much higher compression ratio than a spark ignition engine
operating on Otto cycle. A more realistic way to compare these three cycles would be
to have the sane peak pressure. this is done in Fig. (14). When this Fig. is compared
with equ. (19). It is found:

ɳ𝑡ℎ._𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 > ɳ𝑡ℎ._𝐷𝑢𝑎𝑙 > ɳ𝑡ℎ._𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜

(21)

2.5 Atkinson Cycle

In Otto and Diesel cycles, when the exhaust valve is opened near the end of the
expansion stroke, pressure in the cylinder still on the order of three to five atmosphere.
 A potential for doing additional work during the power stroke is therefore lost when the
exhaust valve is opened and pressure reduced to atmosphere. If the exhaust valve is not
opened until the gas in the cylinder is allowed to expand to atmospheric pressure a
greater amount of work would be obtained in the expansion stroke, with an increased
in engine thermal efficiency. Such in air standard cycle which is called an Atkinson
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cycle. Over expand cycle (or complete expansion cycle) and is shown in Fig. (15).

Starting in 1885 a number of crank and valve mechanism were tried to achieve this
cycle., which has longer expansion stroke then compression stroke. Fig. (15) is shown
a large increase in volume required to reduce the pressure to P1. The work could have
obtained in a gas turbine coupled directly to the internal combustion reciprocating
engine but at the usual rather low value of pressure P; this turbine is used to drive a
compressor, so modifying the cycle further. The modified Atkinson cycle efficiency is
given by;

1
1 𝛼 𝛾 𝛽 −1
ɳ𝐴𝑡𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 1 − 𝑟 𝛾−1 [ (𝛼−1)+ 𝛾𝛼(𝛽−1)] (22)
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Fig. 11 Air standard cycles

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Fig. 12 Combination cycle or Dual Cycle (Limited Pressure Cycle)

Fig.13 Comparison of air-standard Otto cycle, Dual cycle and Diesel cycle. All engines
have the same cylinder input condition and same compression ratio.
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Fig.14 Comparison of air-standard Otto cycle, Dual cycle and Diesel cycle. All engines
have the same cylinder input condition and same maximumtemperature and pressure.

Fig.15 Complete expansion in an explosion cycle