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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. v

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ vii

STUDY UNIT ONE - Introduction to Islamic education ……………………. 1

• Concept of Knowledge in Islam ………………………………………………………. 1

• Different Stages of Development of Knowledge …………………………… 2

• Classes and Methodology …………………………………………………………….… 9

• Modern Education and its Influence on Muslim Education

to the 1970's .............................................................…………… 11

STUDY UNIT TWO - Islamic ethics ………………………………………………………... 16

• Meaning of Ethics ……………………………………………………………………………….. 16

• Ethics in Classical Period ………………………………………………………………….... 17

• Concept of Morality in Islam ……………………………………………………………... 19

• Moral Values in the Islamic Social System ……………………………………….. 21

• Practical Aspects of Ethics ………………………………………………………………... 21

• Good Character …………………………………………………………………………………. 22

• Vices ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23

• Virtues ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 25

• Functions of Devotional Acts in Ethics …………………………………………….. 28

• Duties ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 30

STUDY UNIT THREE - Socio-cultural aspect of Islam ………………………. 46

• Definition of Social and Culture ……………………………………………………….. 46

• Islamic Culture ………………………………………………………………………………….. 47

• Social System of Islam ……………………………………………………………………… 51

• Additional Reading on Education in Islam…………………………………………. 57

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PREFACE
Welcome to this introductory module on An Introduction to Islamic Socio-cultural, Ethics and
Education.

It has been mainly prepared for students who are not familiar with the different dimensions of
Islam. Though some of the material will hopefully be challenging and stimulating even for
those enjoying greater prior knowledge about it.

The study material is sequentially divided into the following three units:

- Unit One discusses Islamic Education and its development.

- Unit Two discusses the concept of Islamic Ethics with the theoretical and practical
aspect.

- Unit Three discusses the socio-cultural life of the Muslims.

To enhance further research we have also provided a bibliography of recommended material at

the end of each section of this tutorial letter. These books are available at Unisa's main library.
Some of them might be found at better stocked Islamic libraries in various cities.

We believe that an enlightened knowledge of Islam in general and Muslims is crucial for people
engaged in teaching or studying religions and cultures as well as for those dealing with Muslim
societies all over the world; be they diplomats, lawyers, politicians, business entrepreneurs,
economists, health and social workers, medical practitioners, media workers, journalists or
advertisers. In this way, meaningful interaction with Muslims can occur; free from prejudice
and stereotyping. Islam, with over a billion adherents throughout the world, has to be
considered a serious factor in both national and international events.

This module attempts to achieve the following:

- Encourage learners to engage in critical thinking and action
- Eliminate simple stereotypes of Islam and Muslims
- Motivate learners to have constructive rapport with this field

Finally, we need to provide a brief explanation about the general approach that has been
employed. Since this discipline is offered at a university, the approach has to be academic.
This means that the primary purpose is to provide information and understanding rather than
aiming to convert. Our approach is largely descriptive and empathetic. By descriptive is meant
that we try to accurately describe and interpret religious features without preaching about
their truth, and abstaining from declaring the falsehood of comparable phenomena in other
faiths. By empathetic is implied the attempt to enter the world of the believers and experience
it through their vision. Briefly, an account is given of how Muslims experience their faith and
world. Such an approach could be called phenomenological.
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We have tried to satisfy your diverse needs as learners. We will be pleased to receive any
feedback from you, both positive and negative, so that we may constantly improve the quality
of our presentation. We hope to be facilitators of a very meaningful academic journey for you.

You may contact us at any time during the year. You will find our various contact addresses in
Tutorial Letter 101.

Ismail Ebrahim Jaffer/Mohammed Auwais Rafudeen

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INTRODUCTION
HOW TO BEGIN YOUR STUDIES

Before going further with the studies you should carefully read the on how to prepare your
assignment. This will assist you in producing a well researched, systematic and presentable
essay.

HOW TO PREPARE AN ASSIGNMENT

To submit a good assignment does not mean that you can sit down and start writing. Much
preparation goes into collecting, organising and summarising the material and planning the
assignment before you start writing.

The following aspects should be taken into account:

* Make sure that you understand the question

* Do a careful selection of the relevant information

* Plan the presentation of the assignment carefully

* Ensure that you acknowledge your sources.

1 UNDERSTAND THE QUESTION

It is essential to read the question carefully, and to understand its requirements. If you have
difficulty in comprehending it, then read the question several times. This will assist you in
focusing your attention on the main aspect to be discussed. It is vital to deduce the key words
in the question, as it will determine the topic of discussion.

Then look at the instruction. Does it cover a specific aspect or a general one? Does it have to
be an essay or merely a page or paragraph?

Students sometimes spend a great deal of time on a question that requires only a one page
answer.

2 SELECTING OF INFORMATION

After determining the subject/topic under discussion, you can now begin to gather your
information.

The starting point for collecting your material should be your Module. Read the relevant Unit(s)
from the guide carefully, making notes of salient points and headings, so that you can obtain a
good overview of the material under discussion. This will guide you to important aspects of
your topic and also refer you to the prescribed books. Remember that along with the module it
is essential that you should refer to the relevant prescribed books as they supplement the
information obtained from the module. The module is only a guide which gives a brief overview
of the material in the course. The module does NOT present sufficient material to write a good
assignment!
 viii

Additional reading material (i.e. material beside the module and prescribed books) is listed in
the Tutorial Letter 101, as well as at the end of each unit. Students, who desire a greater
insight into the subject, are encouraged to refer to these books and to make use of them when
doing the assignments.

Note that you should not take all the details given in any source, but try to extract only that
which is related and relevant to the topic, i.e. it is essential that you summarise the pertinent
details from your sources.

While making notes from various sources ensure that you write down the bibliographical
details, i.e. the author, date, title, place of publication, publisher and page numbers.

If you quote directly from your source, please indicate so by using quotation marks and giving
the reference. Failure to do so leads to plagiarism. Direct quotes should be kept to a minimum.
Never copy word for word from either a module or the prescribed books or recommended
reading: we have also read them and we don't want the opinion of other authors on the
subject - we want to read your interpretation of the subject.

Students often phone and ask if they will be penalised for difference of opinion. We would like
to remind you that you do not necessarily have to confine yourself to an opinion found in the
module - in scholarly discussion we would like to encourage students to explore the material to
the fullest and come up with divergent opinions. However, learn to be critical when
approaching your sources and substantiate your view with references to the sources you have
consulted.

3 PRESENTING THE ASSIGNMENT

Firstly plan the essay carefully before you start.

The essay will consist of three basic sections, namely: an introduction, a body and a
conclusion.

* Introduction

Briefly state your point of view about the problem or the relevant topic.

* Body

Then carefully arrange the gathered information, so that it presents a clear and logical order,
using headings and sub-headings.

* Conclusion

In the end summarise the salient points that are mentioned in the essay.

When presenting the assignment for marking, we would appreciate it if you could follow the
following format.
1 Table of Contents
2 Introduction
3 Heading
3.1 Sub-heading 1
3.2 Sub-heading 2
4 Heading
4.1 Sub-heading 1 (etc.)
5 Conclusion
6 Bibliography
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The number of headings and sub-headings in the body of the text is determined by the
context; additional sub-headings could also appear in the introduction and conclusion. Foot-
notes should be used to give additional information where appropriate, but should not contain
solely bibliographical information.

4 REFERENCING

We would like students to use the shortened Harvard method when referring to sources. This
implies the following:

* In the text of the assignment (i.e. the introduction, body, conclusions and in
foot-notes) supply only the name of the author, the year of publication and the
relevant page numbers, e.g. Wilkinson 1977:52-5. This information is usually
placed in brackets. When you refer to the author himself/herself (and not the
book), the brackets are placed around the date and page numbers, e.g. "Hitti
(1972:65) mentions that ...”

* In the bibliography at the end of your assignment, full bibliographical details are
given. In the case of books, use the following order: Author, initials date. Title.
Series. Place of publication: publisher. In the case of articles, use the following
order: Author, initials date. Title of article, Name of Journal volume: page
numbers. (N.B.: Please note the punctuation!)

Examples:

Khurshid, A. (ed.) 1980. Islam: its meaning and message. London: The Islamic Foundation.

Ansari, A.H. 1989. Islamic ethics, The Islamic Journal of Social Sciences 6/1:81-92.

This method of referencing is also used in the module. For more information on referencing
techniques, you could consult:

Van Schoor, W.A., Mill, E.M., & Van der Merwe, D. (1995). Effective study. Pretoria: Unisa
Press.
 1 ICS2604/1

UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC EDUCATION
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

Explain the concept of Knowledge in Islam

Identify and analyse the different stages of Development of Knowledge in
Islam
Differentiate between the Classes and Methodology in Islam
Evaluate how modern education influences Muslim education

1 INTRODUCTION

This is an introductory study of education in Islam. We hope this will instill an interest in
students to undertake further research in this field. Here we will briefly discuss the concept of
knowledge of Islam, the different stages of development of knowledge, two famous institutions
and methodology, and modern education and its influence on Muslim Education.

2 CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE IN ISLAM

Islam has laid great stress on the importance of education. The Holy Qur’an is the only Divine
Scripture that exhorts its adherents and readers to read and write, as well as urge them to
utilise their faculties of reasoning and intellect to comprehend the absolute Truth. There are
numerous verses in the Holy Qur’an that pertain to the excellence of or refer to learning and
writing during the Meccan period and the early revelations.

The first Divine command revealed to the unlettered Prophet (peace be upon him) was:

“Read in the name of your Lord Who created; created man from a clot of blood. Read! And
your Lord is Most Generous Who taught man what he did not know.” (Q96:1-5)

There are numerous other verses that refer to knowledge. For instance:

“Say (Muhammad), ‘Are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?’ It is those
who are endued with understanding that receive admonition.” (Q39:9)

“Those truly fear Allah among His servants, who have knowledge.” (Q35:28)

“By the Pen and that which they write (therewith).” (Q68:1)

“Allah will raise in rank those of you who believe as well as those who are given knowledge.”
(Q58:12)

“But it is a clear sign in the hearts of those whom the knowledge had reached.” (Q29:48)

These are but a few verses quoted above on knowledge and its excellence. In addition there
are numerous Prophetic Traditions that relate to the excellence of knowledge, only a few will
be mentioned here. If we add all the verses and Prophetic Traditions related to knowledge, we
would assume that the main purpose of our life is the seeking of knowledge. This is not far
from the truth, as it is “useful knowledge” that provides security and stability in all stages of
one's life and is the source of self enlightenment.
 2

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said:

“One whom Allah loves, he gives him knowledge of Religion and guides him to the straight
path.” (Bukhari, Ilm: 4)

“Wisdom adds honour to the noble and exalts the servant until he attains the level of the
kings.”

“The best of men is the learned believer who, if he is required, he will be useful, and if
dispensed with, he will be self sufficient.”

“The superior status the learned man holds in relation to the worshipper, is like the superior
rank I hold in relation to the least of men.” (Masabih, Vol. I: 4)

It is significant to note that the emphasis laid by the Holy Qur’an and Prophetic Traditions led
the Muslims to a strong desire for reading and writing, which was evident throughout the
Islamic world. Thus, the Muslim scholars were engaged in knowledge in a wide range of
disciplines.

3 DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE

(a) Education during days of the Prophet

It is difficult to determine the educational measures and training given by the Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him) in Mecca before the Hijrah. There seems to be neither formal
school nor regular appointed teachers during this period, except a few early companions of the
Prophet (peace be upon him) who taught the verses of the Holy Qur’an on authority of the
Prophet (peace be upon him).

Arabic was only a spoken language for a long duration. Writing began in Makkah in the days of
Harb, the father of Sufyan. The Prophet (peace be upon him) was a young man. The elders of
Makkah observed for the first time in their lives a written Arabic script. This explains the
reason for the limited number of scribes of the Holy Qur’an in the early stages.

It is reported by historians that a resident of Hirah in Iraq came to Makkah where he married a
daughter of Harb. He once disclosed to Harb that important facts which one tends to forget
could be recorded in writing and he suggested that he should learn to do so. Thus reading and
writing was introduced in Makkah a little before the Prophetic revelation. According to the
historian Baladhuri, who mentions in his Futuh al-Buldan that there were no more than
seventeen literate persons at the commencement of the Prophetic mission. The statement of
Baladhuri may be an exaggeration or it may relate to a specific period after which more
persons learned the skills of writing and the literacy rate improved. Included among them were
eve women who learnt the art of reading and writing before Islam. However, it is an
established fact that literacy was recent tradition before the Prophetic period. Therefore the
Holy Qur’an is said to be the first written book in Arabic. Prior to this, was the writing of poems
like the
Saba’ Mu’allaqat, which were hung on the Ka'bah as a mark of honour and a few treaties
which were also committed to writing. Thus, there were a few of the early Muslims who knew
the art of writing were scribes of the Prophet (peace be upon him).

The Prophet (peace be upon him) made great effort and laid emphasis to the spread of
Education, which provided the guiding light to the development of the Islamic Educational
system. In the early stages he was devoted to the propagation of the Islamic belief and
practices through word and action.

In Medina, the Prophet (peace be upon him) founded the school of al-Suffah at his mosque, to
teach the Muslims to read and write. This became the first residential university, as the
students were taught there during the day and by night some that had no shelter would sleep
there. Their residential facility was subsidised by the state as well as by private individuals.
 3 ICS2604/1

The Ansars would each contribute a bunch of dates when the crop was ready. These dates
were hung on a high place and as they ripened and fell down, the poor students ate of it.
Mu’adh ibn Jabl, a generous and eminent companion of the Prophet (peace be upon him), was
assigned the duty to keep guard of the dates and see its distribution. There were two types of
students in al-Suffah. There were those that were day scholars and others that were obliged to
stay there as they possessed no shelter. Their numbers fluctuated, but we learn that there
were about eighty students at al-Suffah.

The education imparted in al-Suffah was very elementary and dealt with the primary aspects
of Islam. Different aspects of learning were entrusted to the teachers accordingly. Teachers
were responsible for the teaching of the art of reading and writing. Whilst others who had
learnt the skills of reading and writing would teach others the verses of the Holy Qur'an as was
revealed and dictated to them. Others were engaged in discussions of jurisprudence, the
Sunnah or activities of the Prophet (peace be upon him), prayers, acts of worship, etc. There
were special arrangements made to teach new converts to Islam, who came often to Medina to
learn more about their new faith. The Prophet (peace be upon him) ensured that they learnt as
well as given the best accommodation and hospitality. The Prophet (peace be upon him)
himself conducted a lecture or two despite his busy schedule. Whenever he had the
opportunity, he made it his duty to teach the students in al-Suffah, where many others also
attended.

It is reported that the Prophet (peace is upon him) came to the mosque from his private
quarters. He saw two groups of people, the one engaged with rosaries and learning about
religion. The Prophet (peace be upon him) commented that even though both were engaged in
good acts but the group engaged in learning was better. He then joined the group of learning.
Thus, he emphasised the superiority of seeking knowledge.

There were about nine mosques built during the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him). The
Prophet (peace be upon him) ordered the people to learn in their local mosques from those in
their neighbourhood and not to go to the central mosque, for fear of overcrowding and the
inadequate number of teachers to accommodate all the students in and around Medina, as well
as, eliminating the problem of transport and communication.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) also sent teachers to other areas outside Medina, where
there was a need to teach the increasing number of new converts and give instructions about
their new faith. This practice can be traced to the period just prior to the migration to Medina.
He would be sent a teacher along with those who took the oath of allegiance at al-'Aqabah.
The governor-designate of Yemen, Mu'adh ibn Jabal, was instructed to make arrangements for
education in various districts and to visit them personally to see its implementation. The duty
of governor was to provide suitable educational facilities to people within their jurisdiction.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) did not only emphasize the importance of learning, but also
gave incentives for the acquisition of knowledge. Furthermore, he ensured that the
administrative arrangements were made to facilitate the seekers of knowledge. After the Battle
of Badr, he did not take ransom from the literate unbelieving prisoners, but instead asked each
one of them to teach the art of reading and writing to ten Muslim children. This act of the
Prophet (peace be upon him) did not only show his keenness for knowledge but also that non-
Muslims were entrusted the task of educating Muslim children.

During one of the debates with the Jews, a person read from the Torah and omitted the
relevant verse which prescribed the punishment of stoning by death. 'Abd-Allah ibn Salam, a
new convert from the Jews, drew the attention of the Prophet (peace be upon him) to the
omission. Whereupon the Prophet (peace be upon him) instructed his scribe, Zayd ibn Thabit
to learn Hebrew and assist him in his correspondence with the Jews. Thus, he encouraged the
learning and teaching of foreign languages. Zayd ibn Thabit went on to learn the Coptic as well
as Persian language, to assist in communicating with the delegates from different places.
 4

The Prophet (peace be upon him) was fully aware of the importance of the various branches of
knowledge and wanted the Muslims to learn all of them. The prescribed text book used at al-
Suffah was the Holy Qur’an as it was comprehensive and did not only deal with religious, moral
and legal instructions but encompassed the history of previous people and various sciences.
The subjects taught at al-Suffah were the Qur'an, Tajwid (recitation of Holy Qur'an) and other
Islamic sciences, besides the art of reading and writing. It was the desire of the Prophet
(peace be upon him) that every Muslim should receive a compulsory basic education.

(b) Early development

The initiative of the Prophet (peace be upon him) in establishing institutions of learning in
Medina was continued earnestly by Muslims during the first four centuries of Hijrah. Schools or
Maktabs were established either within the mosques or adjacent to them. This assisted the
schools in maintaining their spiritual base, as well as, emphasized those ideals and philosophy
which were to shape the educational process for centuries.

During this stage the concept of knowledge was not confined to the theological and mystical
aspects, but other branches of knowledge were also explored. The Arabic language was one of
the first fields to be studied. The Arabs loved their language and always took delight of its
copious vocabulary, richness, its ability to indicate fine shades of meaning, elegance and
expression. As early as this stage, special attention was paid to the science of grammar, which
was also undertaken for the better understanding of words and expressions found in the Holy
Qur'an. The early development of the science of Arabic grammar is obscure and we learn of
them through the works of the grammarian, Khalil and his student Sibuwaih (d.786). Their
work on grammar is considered classical and was explained by later scholars as the product of
many scholars working in collaboration.

This was the conclusion of the first stage, which ends with the Umayyad period (132 AH/715
CE). During the ‘Abbasid period, institutions of higher learning were established separately
from the mosques and in great halls and own building structures, in the various cities of the
‘Abbasid Empire. These institutions also provided prayer facilities and hall, but then the
mosque was attached or housed within the institution and not vice versa. This physical shift of
the building structure led to an emphasis shift from the spiritual to the intellectual, without
losing sight of the importance of the spiritual aspect and character building. This assisted
Muslims making great strides in the field of natural and social sciences, achieving it within a
few centuries what took other people a thousand years to attain.

The scholars of the ‘Abbasid period initially adopted the standard of the pious caliphs by taking
theology and Kalam as offshoot of Fiqh. But later scholars treated theology or Kalam and Fiqh
(jurisprudence) as separate fields of study. During this stage of development the following
were achieved:

(i) Great emphasis was laid upon the study of the Holy Qur'an, its Tajwid (recitation),
meaning, memorization, classification of ayats (verses)into Muhkamat (explicit),
Mutashabihat (allegorical) and qisas (stories of previous nations).

(ii) The Science of Hadith was scientifically formulated and evolved, establishing the criteria
for the authenticity and unauthenticated of Hadith. The authentic collections of Hadith
were collated and research in Hadith sciences encouraged.

(iii) The basis for 'Ilm al-fiqh and usul al-Fiqh were formulated. The science of the principles
of jurisprudence of Islam and its application in daily life was comprehensively
researched and formulated.

(iv) The science of Mysticism (Sufism) was developed. It is a science dealing with self
purification and self-discipline, realization of Allah by means of the realization of the
self, training in total submission to Allah based on Shari'ah.
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Other branches of knowledge like Medicine, astronomy and military, etc were also
developed. The other sciences of knowledge were not ignored but were in the process
of development and more firmly established at later stages.

The growth and spread of Islamic education were the result of the Muslims love and devotion
for Islam and the motivation for enhancing their knowledge was the message of the Holy
Qur'an and Prophetic Traditions.

The Muslim educational system was divided into two types: the maktab and higher education.
Both these institutions had their own curricula, teaching hours and method of imparting
knowledge, and were independent of any governmental supervision and interference. This
enabled the institutions to develop the moral character of students’
and inculcate the inner discipline based on Islam, rather than a discipline based on fear of
examination and external regulations. Thus, these schools greatly emphasized the importance
of moral training and character building.

The Mosque-schools existed in almost all villages. A student attending the school/maktab
cannot leave his school without the permission of the teacher. Thus, the literacy rate was high
during this period.

Higher education in the early stages meant the study of Fiqh, based on the Qur'an and Hadith
(Prophetic Tradition). In this stage, the studies of many allied fields were taught like logic,
mathematics, theological science and the Arabic language. There were also Great Mosques,
known as Jami'ah or Darul-'ulum, which became great centres of learning and exist to this day
in Muslim societies. The desire for higher learning gave impetus to the critical study of all
existing fields of study and led to the inception of many new sciences.

During this period the institutions opened their doors to non-affiliated students, which provided
opportunities for the public to benefit from these institutions on a part-time basis. This
encouraged students to undertake great travels from one centre of learning to another in
search of knowledge. Notable examples during this period were the scholars of Hadith and
Fiqh.

A characteristic of this period was the ability of the student to memorise, retain and repeat a
Prophetic Tradition without the slightest modification after merely listening to it once. The
Scholars of Hadith (Muhaddith) were known for their ability to memorise thousands of
Prophetic Tradition with its narrators. This gave rise to the system of memorization in many
institutions.

The institutions introduced the system of granting authority and permission to a student after
spending a certain time studying at that institution. The student was granted the license to
teach others. This system of certification is prevalent in all institutions and universities to this
day, as they confer upon their students’ certificates and degrees.

The method of instruction of higher learning was unique. The teacher would present his
lecture, which was loudly repeated by a student or teaching assistant. Then the teacher would
have a discussion with the students sitting close to him and this circle of discussion would
expand. The teacher would then go around and listen to their discussions to see if they
comprehended his lectures. There were said to be approximately a thousand students
attending a lecture. The teaching did not terminate with the lecture, as the students continued
to remain with the teacher to benefit from his company, taking inspiration from his example.

(c) Philosophical, scientific and historical stage

With the ‘Abbasid period, began a new era for the development of Islamic culture and learning.
There was shift in emphasis from the spiritual and higher learning to the philosophical and
natural sciences. This led to the broadening of the concept of knowledge in Islam. With the
spread of Islam to various parts of the world, Islam came into contact with other civilizations.
 6

When the capital was transferred from Damascus to Baghdad in 763 CE, the Muslims came
into closer contact with the Persians and were influenced by its thought and culture.

Baghdad became the centre of scientific and intellectual activities. The ‘Abbasids’ established
the Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), an institute responsible for the translation of Greek
philosophy and heritage. An excellent library was also established. These translations from
Greek thought presented new challenges to Muslims as well as new dimensions of knowledge.

The result is the emergence of great philosophers, theologians and scientists who began
unveiling the truth, capturing its beauty, amazed by its glitter and at times confused and
misled by when trying to appreciate the truth. It must be recorded that this stage of Muslim
intellectual development, was the age of realization of knowledge and the application of the
intellect and reasoning in the search for true knowledge.

This new concept of knowledge brought rational trends in theological thought, which was not
necessarily based on Qur'anic concepts and Islamic spirit. This new concept led to sectarian
intolerances and theological conflicts during the ’Abbasid era. The Mu'tazilites were greatly
favoured by the ‘Abbasids. The theologians who were learned in Qur’an, Hadith and
jurisprudence engaged themselves in debates and exposing the arguments of these groups.
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal played a prominent role and suffered prosecution from the Caliph
Ma'mun for his views on the existence of the Qur'an. This led to the broadening of the
conceptual dimension of theological knowledge.

The field of learning that had greatly developed during this period was the philosophical and
rational. The Muslims explored and developed various disciplines learnt from Greek thought
like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, physical science and geography. The most important
was the development of philosophy, as the Muslim scholars studied the various allied sciences
to have greater insight into the field. The works of Plato and Aristotle were studied with great
interest. Philosophy dealt with the concepts of formulating and classifying knowledge. The
Muslims produced great scholars like al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazzali, Ibn Rushd and
Ibn Khaldun. These scholars mastered various sciences, contributed to Islamization of these
sciences and clarifying basic concepts.

Scientific experiments and theories also contributed to the expansion of the concept of
knowledge. Scholars were involved in the cultivation of the physical sciences, chemistry,
botany, geology and natural history. It was during this period (8th-13th CE) that the science of
medicine, surgery and pharmacy were developed to its greatest extent. Muslims contributed
and produced great scholars in the field of geography and travel. In exact sciences, al-Kindi
contributed more than two hundred books, covering from medicine to astronomy. He was
followed by many reputable scholars in these sciences.

Besides these sciences, the Muslims contributed to the fields of literature, poetry, industry,
architecture and discoveries in art and the expansive concept of knowledge.

At the beginning of the fifth century (11th century CE), the educational institution (Madrassah)
was separated from the mosque and free education was stopped and replaced by a nominal
fee. This was the medieval period of Muslim education. This was a period when many
madrassahs and colleges were established. This was done so that the teachers could make a
decent living through the provision of sufficient stipends.

It is uncertain as to who was the founder of the first madrassah, as there existed centres of
learning before Nizam al-Mulks’ institution, known as Madrassah Al-Nizamiyah. It is reported
that the first institute which deserves to be called a madrassah was established in Baghdad in
383 AH (993 CE), followed by another at Nishapur about 400 years later. The Al-Azhar
established by the Fatimids can be claimed to be the oldest university in the world.
 7 ICS2604/1

(d) Education in Spain

During the latter part of the 4th and the 5th century there were a large number of Academic
institutions and colleges in Spain. There was great rivalry between the rulers of Granada and
Cordova in their patronage of the arts and various sciences.

Granada gave birth to and produced distinguished scholars and poets, as well as, outstanding
soldiers in the military. The rulers encouraged literature, philosophy, history, the natural and
exact sciences, medicine and music. These sciences were cultivated with great enthusiasm and
zeal.

The management of each academic institution was headed by a rector, who was selected from
among the most distinguished scholars without any religious distinction between the different
religious denominations. Academic achievement and true learning were of greater value in the
estimation of the ruling Arabs, than mere religious views of the mediocre scholar. The liberal
and accommodating attitude of the Arabs proved to be destructive unparalleled in history. The
Muslim civilization in Spain was completely destroyed and only its architectural structures and
relics remain to remind us of its glorious past.

Spain also produced eminent women scholars of high learning. Notable among them was
Walladah, the daughter of al-Mustafa of Cordova in the field of poetry and rhetoric and 'Aishah,
the daughter of Prince Ahmad of Cordova, a genius whose orations were often presented in the
Royal Academy of Cordova.

The universities of Muslim Spain held annual functions and periodical meetings to which the
general public was invited. In these functions, poetry was recited and orations of distinguished
scholars were presented. In this manner the culture and civilization were not exclusively
confined to the elitist, but included the participation of the common people.

It was the legacy of Muslim Spain with its flourishing sciences, thought and industrialization
which broke the sceptre of the church, which led to the intellectual revival of Europe. Muslim
rule in Spain came to an end in 1570 with the massacre and destruction of thousands of
Muslims in the villages and later forcibly removed from Europe. Thus, this was the end of an
enlightened and progressive Muslim society in Spain.

(e) Islamic education from the eleventh to the nineteenth centuries

This period was marked by by the development of great institutions of Islamic learning in
Egypt, Syria, Central Asia, the Ottoman Empire, the Mughal Empire and Africa. These
institutions typically took the form of madrasas, or of charitable complexes (waqfs) of which
such a madrasa was a part. These madrasas helped institutionalize the teacher to student
learning pattern, leading to a greater uniformity of the texts that were studied and the grades
that needed to be accomplished before a student could be considered a “scholar”.

In 1092, the Saljuq vizier, Nizam ul Mulk, founded the famous Nizamiyyah madrasa in
Baghdad, at which the famous Imam Ghazali taught. This eventually gave rise to a further 23
madrasas in Baghdad by the end of the 12th century. The concept of the madrasa also spread
to Damascus, where by 1251 there were 53 such institutions, as well as to Cairo, Mecca, Delhi
and Tunis. By the 13th century the madrasa had become a characteristic aspect of the Near
East urban landscape.

Madrasas were also often part of ‘educational-charitable’ complexes called waqf. These waqf
endowments could also consist of a mosque, hospital, pharmacy, mental institution, Sufi
convent, orphanage, observatory and traveller’s lodge alongside the madrasa. Such complexes
were particularly popular in Central Asia. Madrasas became even more hierarchically organized
and standardized within the Ottoman empire. Students had to pass through various graded
 8

levels, progressing out of the madrasa into governmental positions within the larger imperial
system.

In Mughal India and in Africa, great scholarly dynasties ensured the continuing transmission of
Islamic learning. Such scholarly dynasties were epitomized by the family associated with
Farangi Mahall in India, who were instrumental in formulating and spreading the famed Dars
Nizami Islamic syllabus throughout India. In West Africa, scholars were engaged in both
writing new texts and in building massive libraries, in addition to their teaching function.
Timbuktu emerged as a prominent university city, housing both a considerable number of
libraries, while also functioning as an international scholarly hub, being linked to North Africa
as well as to Egypt and Arabia. South East Asia (Malayasia and Indonesia), where Islam
arrived relatively late, drank copiously from the Islamic traditions of India and Arabia and
produced various excellent scholars of their own. Two such scholars, Shaykh Yusuf of Makassar
in Sulawesi and Tuan Guru Abdullah ibn Qadi Abdus Salaam of Tidore in the Ternate Islands,
were exiled by the Dutch to the South in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively.

Quite often, the teaching of Sufism was an important aspect in this transmission of knowledge.
A student’s teacher in the traditional Islamic sciences might also be his or her spiritual guide
(murshid). In addition, Sufi orders such as the Qadiri and Naqshbandi, spread not only Sufism
but simultaneously engaged in the transmission of Islamic knowledge. To put in in different,
Sufism was an essential aspect of the Shariah sciences (Quran, Hadith, Fiqh and Aqidah) and
the Shariah in turn was an essential aspect of Sufism.

Another aspect of education in this period it that incorporated all social classes, including
slaves, as well as women and children. A number of women in this period, such as Nana’a
Asma’u (d. 1865) who was associated with the Sokoto Caliphate of Nigeria, were prominent in
the cultivation and spread of Islamic knowledge in their regions.

In general, this period was important for the continued preservation and perpetuationof
Islamic knowledge, which largely enabled Muslims to withstand the many ravages of
colonialism without undermining their faith in the process. (Robinson, 497-531).

This situation in the field of Muslim education continued to the end of the nineteenth century.
However during the nineteenth century there was awareness among some Muslims that they
should pursue the new fields of knowledge and educational systems. For example, although
Turkey was conscious of the existence of many new sciences but it still confined itself to
knowledge needed for military advancement. After Napoleon= s conquest, the Egyptians
became aware of the new sciences and advancement in Europe but their progress was very
slow due to Muslim reaction towards colonialism and adopted anti foreign approach. The
Muslim countries preferred to continue and promote knowledge confined primarily to religious
education.

(f) Islamic education in the twentieth century

Greater awareness of the limitations of knowledge in Muslim countries was observed in the
early twentieth century. The Muslim Ummah and various governments realized that they
should expand from the limited range of knowledge, as imposed by the existing educational
system. This led to the introduction of new sciences and learning in these areas. This raised
the issue of antagonism and anti-western debates among Muslim scholars especially the
religious affiliation. To avoid any further conflict and antagonism, it was decided that a
separate system of education is introduced. This system came to be known as modern
education and adopted the western secular system divorced from religious studies.

Some Muslim scholars made attempts to reconcile and assimilate the two systems, but the
challenge of change to secular thought could not be met. Thus, there were two parallel
systems of education in Muslim society to meet their need for advancement. The two systems
 9 ICS2604/1

of education, Islamic and Secular, were moving in two completely separate channels and there
were obvious conflicts in their approaches, attitudes, assumptions and presuppositions. A
requisite of Islamic education is the inclusion in the learning of faith and all that pertains to the
basics of Islamic knowledge, whereas the western system considered the teaching of religious
knowledge as secondary in modern schools and institutions. Further ethics is considered as
integrally connected to the Islamic concept of man and his ultimate destination, whereas ethics
in modern education is taken as a system evolved by man and relative to social evolution and
separated from religious training. The two philosophies of education seemed to be contrary
and often at loggerheads with each other. Thus, these institutions continued to operate
separately in Muslim societies.

4 CLASSES AND METHODOLOGY

Now let us look at two famous institutions that were influential in the Muslim world and gave
lead to other higher institutes of Islamic learning. These institutions will provide us with the
vision of the Islamic concept and contribution to the evolving of the systems of education.

AL-AZHAR PROGRAMME

Al-Azhar is the oldest Islamic university of the world and had profound influence in Egypt for a
thousand years. It was built by the Fatimid general Jawhar. During this period it produced
great leaders, politicians, philosophers and Islamic scholars who were recognised for their
academic achievements, integrity and character.

The university like other Muslim institutions is part of the mosque. The purpose for building the
mosque was to compete with the Caliphate of Baghdad to make it the centre of Muslim
learning and leadership of the Muslim world. The mosque was named after the beloved
daughter of the Prophet (peace be upon him). It became a famous and held a unique place in
the Muslim world and this to date.

During its long history the Al-Azhar University experienced many vicissitudes due to change of
leadership in Egypt. The Ayyubids prevented Al-Azhar from the privilege of conducting the
Friday Khutbah. Furthermore they withdrew the endowments granted previously by the Caliphs
Al-'Aziz (976-995 CE) and Al-Hakim (996-1020 CE). During the Mamluk period the conducting
of Friday Khutbah was reintroduced. This was the beginning of the elevation and prosperity of
Al-Azhar as a central mosque and educational institute of great repute. The Mamluks vied with
each other in offering favours and benefits to Al-Azhar. Like their predecessors they continued
building more schools and colleges, which were placed under the control of Al-Azhar. The
scope of study at Al-Azhar was broadened by introducing subjects like philosophy, medicine
and astronomy in addition to the study of the Holy Qur'an, Hadith and Fiqh.

It was while the Mamluks ruled in Egypt, that the Mongols ravaged the eastern parts of the
Muslim world and the western regions began declining. Thus, many scholars from both these
regions came to Egypt and Al-Azhar gained prominence as the centre of learning. This was the
Golden era in the history of the Al-Azhar University. In 1382 CE, Ibn Khaldun visited Al-Azhar
and gave lectures over there. He later mentions that after the Ayyubids, the Mamluks built
many institutions and granted them endowments, which attracted many students from Iraq
and North Africa.

The Mamluks were defeated and Egypt was destroyed. The Ottomans killed thousands of
people, burnt buildings and thousands of people taken away to Istanbul. Despite the situation,
Al-Azhar gained further prominence and it became famous throughout the Muslim world. The
Ottomans built many beautiful buildings and added attractive gardens to Al-Azhar. By the end
of the eighteenth century CE, Al-Azhar University became a unique institution.
 10

The Al-Azhar enjoyed the services of about forty to fifty Professors. It was an honour to teach
at Al-Azhar and therefore many learned scholars from all over the world would come to teach
without even seeking any remuneration. The students were given daily allowances and food
provided by endowments of the riwaqs (hostels for foreigners) to which they were attached.
These places had their own libraries and lecture halls where the professors conducted their
lectures.

In 1798 CE Al-Azhar faced closure for a year and a major setback, when the French troops
attacked Cairo, entered the premises and destroyed the entire building. Teachers also began
playing an important role in the politics and developments in Cairo. They assisted Muhammad
‘Ali in his opposition of the viceroy of Egypt, Khurshid Pasha. In 1805 CE, Muhammad ‘Ali
became the viceroy and took great interest in the welfare of Al-Azhar. He granted favours to
the teachers and followed the council. He introduced a school of medicine and law, but there
was great opposition from the public when he desired to include Western Sciences. Later
Khadive Isma'il also attempted to restructure Al-Azhar and introduce these foreign sciences.
He made improvements to the existing curriculum of the colleges. The public opposed his
attempts at reforming the university. Al-Azhar became a great centre of Islamic learning for all
the four Sunni sects.

An important feature of Al-Azhar from its recognition as college in the tenth century CE until
the nineteenth century CE, the teachers did not receive a salary. Their object for acquiring and
imparting knowledge was for its own sake and not to earn an income. Some of the teachers
lived on their own incomes from properties and others obtained part-time work. It was only in
the early twentieth century, when Al-Azhar was given recognition as a university, that teachers
received salaries of six pounds per month.

Another feature before the restructuring in the twentieth century was its curriculum. The
subjects taught were the Recitation of the Holy Qur'an, Grammatical inflexion, Syntax,
Rhetoric, Versification, Logic, Theology, Exegesis of the Holy Qur'an, Prophetic Traditions,
Science of Jurisprudence, Arithmetic and Algebra. Students from different sects were able to
consult their own books on any aspect. There were no tuition fees. The students after
graduating became Qadis, Muftis, Imams of Mosques, Professors, school teachers and
professional businessmen. There were some that spent their entire lives studying at Al-Azhar.

(a) Types of classes

There were three types of classes held at Al-Azhar:

i. A class for a group of persons that came there to listen to the recitation of the Holy
Qur'an and its elegies.

ii. The students of the Al-Azhar university who attended lectures, asked the teacher
questions and benefit by learning the answers.
iii. Formal lectures were often delivered by the chief scholar, known as Majlis al-hikam
(Sessions of wisdom). The general public attended these lectures every Monday and for
the selected few students on Thursdays.

There were special sessions held for the women at Al-Azhar.

(b) Programme
The students had a very busy schedule. He would begin his day at about half past three in the
morning, after the Fajr (morning) prayers attend classes in theology. These lessons would
continue until noon with break for meals. After lunch there would be other classes and after
Maghrib (after sunset) prayers, the students will be engaged in discussions. The number of
students was so great that Al-Azhar could not accommodate them all. They had to attend
classes at other mosques situated around Al-Azhar.
 11 ICS2604/1

MADRASAH NIZAMIYAH

Like Al-Azhar in Cairo another famous institution for the study of orthodox Islam was built in
Baghdad known as Madrassah Nizamiyah. After the decline of the 'Abbasid Caliphate, the
Seljuk vizier Nizamul-Mulch established this institution which was named after its founder.
Nizamul-Mulk himself presided over deliberations and provided large endowments to the
college. He ensured that the teachers were well paid and students received food, clothing and
lodging. The purpose for establishing this college was to provide students with knowledge of
Islam according to the Sunni school of thought and prevent the influence and propaganda of
Shi’ism. Madrasah Nizamiyah gained prominence and the Professors were highly regarded in
Society. They were often requested to go on diplomatic missions.

The Head of Madrassah Nizamiyah was a high official and he was responsible for admissions.
The institution constituted of a large number of Professors known as Al-Ustadh or Al-Mudarris,
who had an assistant called Al-Mu'id, whose task was to repeat word for word the lectures of
the professors. Then the institution had administrative clerks, servants, librarians, Imam for
congregational prayers and the Registrar. The institution had its own well-equipped library and
a mosque.

(a) Method of teaching and curriculum

The official opening of the classes was often attended by high ranking officials. The professors
would then continue conducting their classes. The professor would present his lectures in a
clear and distinct manner and the assistant would repeat his words aloud so that the students
could take down the notes. There was no regular schedule for students, they could as long as
they desired or when the teacher suggested otherwise. Time was not an important factor.

5 MODERN EDUCATION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON MUSLIM EDUCATION TO THE

1970’s

Modern education came to Muslim countries through both cultural and political domination.
With the establishment of modern western education in all stages of education, from the
primary level to the university, it relegated the Islamic traditional system education to the
background. The various governments thought that adopting the modern western system,
their countries could make progress in the modern world. The Madrassahs and Darul-‘ulums
based on the Islamic Traditional educational system, were mainly left in the control of private
enterprises. These institutions remained attached either to the mosques or on private
premises. The government assistance was minimal and allowed these institutions barely
existed. The governments instead established schools, colleges and universities in beautiful
structures, healthy environments and with great enthusiasm and pomp.

Despite the lack of interest from governments, many devoted groups of Muslims in various
countries undertook to save these traditional institutions. Here we can look briefly at some
advanced Muslim countries; Egypt, Turkey and Pakistan..

(a) Egypt
Modern education came to Egypt in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of Napoleon.
It was not well received in Egypt and was strongly resisted by the 'Ulama. It was later with
British rule in Egypt that new developments took place, and they established a National
University in 1908 and in 1925 became a State University.

There existed three systems of Education in Egypt, namely:

(a) Islamic System
(b) Civil System
(c) Foreign System
 12

The civil and foreign systems were both based on a similar modern secular approach. They
became a unified system and thus there remained a dual system of education in Egypt.

In the 1960's, President Jamal 'Abd al-Nasser decided to modernize the Al-Azhar University,
instead of Islamizing the modern sciences. He then added the college of engineering and a
college of medicine to Al-Azhar and also new faculties introduced to the system. This did not
transform Islamic education courses, but instead increased the study load of students from the
primary level to university. It also failed to harmonize the two systems and approaches to
knowledge. Thus, we have the duality of systems which are maintained by dual approaches,
and no co-ordination and harmony was achieved.

(b) Turkey

During the period, 1910 to 1922, the reformative Madrassah movement took place in Turkey.
They closed all traditional religious educational institutions and replaced by new religious
institutions called 'Imam-Khatib Schools'. Initially there were 29 such institutions established
in various cities in Turkey. By 1926 it was reduced to 20 schools, in 1927 to merely two
schools, which were also closed by 1930.

In 1900, the first faculty of Theology was introduced in the university. It developed in various
forms, alongside Madrassahs, until the reform of the University in 1919 whereupon it was
closed. It was reopened in 1924, but again disappeared in 1933 during the course of
reorganising the Istanbul University. Between 1924 and 1949, was the age of religious
ignorance in Turkey.

Religious classes were revived in 1949, from the primary to secondary level on a voluntary
extra-curricular basis. A theological faculty was introduced at university level in Ankara. In
1973, another was established in Erzurum with a religious curriculum and from then seven
more have been established in various cities. Students from Imam-Khatib Schools good
register at these institutions. After graduation they could become school teachers, Muftis,
Khatibs (preachers) or Imams.

For a large part of the twentieth century, the modern secular system of education is the
dominant educational system, whereas Islamic education was of secondary importance.
Islamic education was not officially a system but merely a religious subject.

(c) Indo-subcontinent

In the Indo-subcontinent the effects of British imposition of colonialism is very evident. The
British have been directly or indirectly involved in the motivation of modern secular education
for reasons of expediency. The 'Ulema became suspicious of them, as the Islamic subjects and
tradition were completely ignored. To save Islam from extinction in the Indo Sub-Continent
and sustaining it, the 'Ulema undertook to establish Madrassahs for preserving their religious
faith and practices. These institutions were supported by the private contributions of Muslims,
which imparted knowledge in Traditional Islamic disciplines. At the same time, new colleges
and universities were built all over the land to provide staff for the British Colonial
Administration. This led to duality in education, dividing the Muslim community into two
distinct segments, educationally and culturally.

From the beginning, there were several attempts made to harmonize the two systems of
education. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan established the college at Aligarh, which he based on the
modern secular system with a course in Islamic studies, to give students some Islamic outlook.
 13 ICS2604/1

It did not attempt to Islamize the modern system and could not synthesize the two systems. It
prepared the Muslims to political revival and to face the new challenges of the west.

At the beginning of the 20th century, to realise the synthesis between the two systems, the
'ulema campaigned to establish a big Madrassah; the Nadwah in Lucknow. The syllabi reduced
the classical Islamic system and added a course in English, thereby intending to have a system
between Aligarh and Deoband. However, this movement did not receive the desired support to
sustain its goals.

In Pakistan some endeavors were made to popularise the integration of the two systems, but
the results are not encouraging. The desired level of integration between Islamic educational
values and modern are still lacking. The gulf between religious and modern institutions
continues to persist. A need arose to establish an Islamic university, which could specializes in
Islamic studies and serve as laboratory for the integration of the Islamic and modern systems.
For this purpose, Pakistan took the initiative to establish a first-ever Islamic University (at
Bahawalpur) in 1963. It had a syllabus of Islamic subjects and modern subjects like English,
Sociology and Economics. It further established a secondary school and a Board of Secondary
Education. Unfortunately it did not receive much support and patronage from the government
at that time.

From the 1970’s to the present day

The 1970’s and 1980’s witnessed an Islamic revival in the Muslim world, and with it the revival
of Islamic education. This led to a new resurgence in enrolments at Islamic institutions. But,
meven more significantly, these Islamic institutions ( schools, madrasas and universities)
made a concerted effort to incorporate ‘secular’ subjects such as maths, science etc. into their
curricula. In turn, ‘secular’ states such as Turkey, Egypt and Indonesia have been forced to
take this Islamic renewal into consideration and have reintroduced Islamic instruction back into
schools. The gap between the “Islamic” and the “secular” was now rapidly narrowing.

These developments also meant that Islamic knowledge became more “mass-based” as
distinct from being passed purely from teacher to student as in the classical Islamic
educational model. Via textbooks, Islamic knowledge was now being made available to all state
school going children, and so to society at large.

The Islamic revival in such and other countries also employed the instruments of mass media
to extend its reach, including newspapers, pamphlets, television, radio and now websites.
This has meant that Islamic knowledge has become more dispersed and available and the
topics it deals with have become subjects of broader public discussion. In using these avenues,
the architects of this revival have ensured that Islam’s role in the education of society
continues to be of central importance.

The revival also played a key role in a movenmt known as the ‘Islamization’ of knowledge. This
movement, spearheaded by thinkers such as Naquib al Attas and Ismail Faruqi, sought to
evaluate “secular knowledge” through Islamic lenses, in other words, dealing with secular
knowledge on Islamic terms. This movement in turn helped give birth to prominent Islamic
universities in Malaysia and Pakistan.

Other movements have simply sought to ensure that an Islamic ethos remains central to any
approach to education, without feeling the need to Islamasize knowledge. And so, in Turkey for
example,there has been a revival of Islamic education in Turkey since the 1980’s. This has co-
incided with the general revival of Islam in that country. Many new schools and universities
have emerged whose establishment has been inspired by a commitment to Islam. These
schools and universities have been established by new social and educational initiatives, such
as the “Gulen Movement” led by the noted Turkish Islamic scholar, Fethullah Gulen.
 14

But accompanying this revival, there have also been dangers. Some Islamic seminaries
(madrasahs), such as those associated with the Taliban, have been accused as “hotbeds” of
terrorism. As Hefner points out, such accusations are unwarranted because the problems
experienced in Afghanistan have little to do with the education curriculum at such madrasahs
and more to do with social and political crisis experienced by that country. (Hefner, 2010,
516) Nevertheless, it does tell us that the increasing prominence of Islamic education
worldwide cannot be looked at in isolation, but always in conjunction with the social and
political contexts of Muslim communities.

ACTIVITY

You have now read a few other books on Islamic Education. Before reading further, you should
make sure that you can answer the following questions:

?
Describe the concept of knowledge of Islam.
Give the different stages of development of Knowledge.
Discuss the two educational institutions and their methodology.
Write on the influence of modern education on Muslim Education.
 15 ICS2604/1

ADDITIONAL READING ON EDUCATION IN ISLAM

Below is a list of books that will be useful reading to give you further information
into Islamic Education. Please note, you are not obliged to read them but its perusal
will be beneficial.

Bilgrami, H.H. 1981. Call from the Minaret: Islamic Values and Education. Jeddah: King
Abdulaziz University.

Dobers, H., Erl, W., Khoury, A. Th & Fassi-Fihri, M. 1987. Education and Value Systems.
Kempten: Konrad-Adenauer- Stiftung.

Hefner, R.W. 2010. Islamic knowledge and education in the modern age, in The new
Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 6, Edited by Robert W. hefner. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Husain, S.S. & Ashraf, S.A. 1979. Crisis in Muslim Education. Jeddah: King Abdulaziz
University.

Khan, M.W. 1981. Education and Society in the Muslim World. Jeddah: King Abdulaziz
University.

Makdisi, G. 1981. The Rise of Colleges-Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Robinson, F. 2010. Education. in The new Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 4, Edited by
Robert Irwin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 16

UNIT TWO
ISLAMIC ETHICS
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

Explain the meaning of Ethics

Analyse ethics in Classical Period
Explain the concept of Morality in Islam
Analyse the importancve of morals and values in Islamic System
Apply the practical aspects of ethics
Evaluate the development of Good Character; Vices, Virtues and Duties

Explain the Function of Devotional acts in ethics

1 INTRODUCTION

One of the great problems that man has confronted from time immemorial is the ethical or
moral issue. The other problems like the social, economic, political, etc. are only aspects of this
greater problem - the moral. Whatever the facet of life or situation may be, man is always
faced with the question of what are right and wrong, good and evil. The individual has been
granted a certain degree of freedom, which he primarily utilises to discern and endeavour to
discover the right course in life. Men have during the course of human history been recorded
to have always searched for solutions to his ethical and moral problems. They have resolved
them according to their experience of circumstances in life.

In this module we will undertake an introductory study of Islamic Ethics. What is the concept
of morality or ethics in Islam? What are the sources of the moral values in Islam? How does
Islam resolve to assist in the promotion of moral and ethical values in society?

2 MEANING OF ETHICS
Ethics, in common with Sociology and Psychology, deals with the numerous problems of
human conduct, but its relation to the subject is distinct in certain respects from these fields.
Psychology deals with human behaviour in conjunction with the accompanying mental process,
while Sociology studies it with relevance to physical and social environment within which an
individual is placed.

Ethics is not related to the study of human conduct as it is, but of certain basic ideals and
norms, but an expression of certain fundamental presuppositions which the individual and
society accept as valid. It is due to this that Ethics is often referred to as a normative science
as distinct from the positive sciences such as Sociology and Psychology. Ethics or Morality is an
important but incomplete aspect of Philosophy, and it is sometimes called moral philosophy.

Many moral philosophers assume it to be the task of Ethics to clarify current moral conceptions
and unfold the ultimate presuppositions involved in them. But promoters of scientific Ethics are
inclined to consider the study of these basic presuppositions with disfavour and rather try to
confine the field of Ethics to the following four aspects:
(a) What is the highest good of human conduct?
(b) The sources of our knowledge of what is right and wrong, good and evil.
(c) The sanctions of moral conduct
(d) The motives which drives an individual to perform certain acts.
 17 ICS2604/1

It is difficult to comprehend how an ideal of conduct is formulated without first determining the
ultimate standard or source according to which we can discern the good from the bad in a
particular context. Therefore we may not achieve any fruitful results in the field of morality so
long as we begin from the wrong end. It is virtually impossible to determine whether it is
happiness, perfection or duty which is the highest good without first taking into consideration
the nature of relation in which an individual stands within a social organism in which he is
raised and the ultimate presuppositions which he entertains about the purpose of his life on
earth. If we desire to remove confusion about the highest ideal, we must decide upon which
fundamental presuppositions the science of Ethics must start. Every human activity whether it
is religious or scientific, begins with certain metaphysical presumptions.

The presupposition with which Islamic or theistic Ethics begins with God/Allah as the Ultimate
Unity. The nature of this Unity is purposive and personal, and adopts the Abrahamic
presupposition, who was steadfast in his faith in One God/Allah and unconditionally submits
himself to God/Allah's commandments. The peculiarity of Islamic Ethics is the granting of
religious basis to morality. In Islamic Ethics the basic assumption is faith in a personal One
Allah and morality is the goal of every individual Muslim as well as society to approach Him
ultimately.

The highest ideal of the Islamic Ethics is 'Imbibe within you the Attributes of Allah’ and from it
emanates all the ideals of moral conduct.

3 ETHICS IN CLASSICAL PERIOD

I will provide a simplified classification of the different types of ethical writings in classical
Islam.

There are generally two levels of ethical thinking, normative and analytical, as well as two
traditions of ethical thinking, religious and secular. Thus we have four different schemes of
ethical writings:
(a) Normative religious ethics
(b) Normative secular ethics
(c) Analytical ethics based on Tradition
(d) Analytical ethics by philosophers

The starting point for normative religious ethics is the adoption of the primary sources of
Islam, the Holy Qur'an and the Prophetic Traditions, which is the basis for the prescription of
rules of law and ethics for men. The Holy Qur'an contains answers to some general issues of
ethics, but cannot be taken as a complete book on moral philosophy, and these issues are at
times ambiguous. The Prophetic Tradition presents more extensively the same kind of
material. Then the books on Islamic Law (furu'), combining the basic sources in systematizing
and classifying the laws prescribed. Then we have books by Muslim scholars on moral religious
literature known as Makarim al-Akhlaq (noble qualities of character), which are concerned with
religious virtues. Then we have the Sufi literature that not only deal with meditation and
manuals of instructions in spiritual exercises but include a moral and normative sense of
ethics. These normative religious books contained material for analytical ethics, without
undertaking to analyse ethical terms.

The Normative secular ethics has been found in the Persian tradition, where thinkers gave
advice to the sultans and ministers about government and politics. Included in this form of
literature is the works of Greek thought by Plato and wisdom literature containing proverbs
and poetry. The books of Muslim philosophers like Miskawayh and others on moral character,
listing acts of virtues and vices should also be placed in this group.

In the 8th and 9th centuries CE, when the jurists' debated on sources of law that the study of
ethical principles was introduced. It was due to these controversial debates that the basis for
analytical treatment of the concepts of justice and obligation, as they are the theoretical basis
 18

of the formation of law. From this emerged two trends of thought, the rational opinion and the
other based on Scripture, Prophetic Traditions and Analogy (qiyas). The Rationalist held that in
presenting issues on Islamic and moral law, the judges and lawyers could employ their own
rational opinions and judgments independent of the Scripture in cases when the Scripture does
not give ant specific ruling. On the other hand, the Traditionalist as mentioned strictly adhered
to the basic sources of Islam. An exponent of this trend was Shafi'i, who undertook a
systematic critique of legal methods and presented a theory of a positive law, based solely on
Scripture and Prophetic Traditions.

The Theologians had debates about the basic sources on the same line as jurists, also dividing
them into Rationalist and Traditionalist, though emphasising more on principles. The
rationalists, Mu’tazilites have some historical relation to Greek thought and partisans of opinion
in law. Not much of their rationalistic ethical theories are known, as only an outline of their
views can be found in the books of their opponents. The Traditionist theologians’ reaction
towards rationalistic ethics was due to their fears of the application of reason. The main
objection of the Muslim scholars against rationalistic ethics was the independent human
rational opinion which implied the limiting of the power of Allah. It was assumed that if man
could decide what was right and wrong then he could overrule what Allah has prescribed in the
Scripture, this would amount to blasphemy and presumptuous. They argued that personal
judgment was arbitrary, could be bias, contradictory and elevated above the Scripture and
render it useless. The Traditionalist theologians like their counterparts in jurisprudence, held
that good and right actions are what was prescribed by Allah.

The Muslim Traditional scholars’ criticism was continued in the 10th and 11th century CE, the
Mu'tazilites then engaged themselves in answering to these objections and elaborating their
theory. Their viewpoint is found in great detail in the work of a later Mu'tazilite, 'Abd al-Jabbar
(935-1025 CE). He wrote the Mughni in about twenty volumes, which contained the most
extensive discussion of ethical principles in Islamic ethical literature. This work is not entirely
the original contribution of 'Abd al-Jabbar in this field, but rather a collection of the
development of the Mu'tazilite ethical thought for a century from Abu Hashim (d. 932 CE) and
his father Jubba'i (d. 915 CE). This work gives an elaborate theory of ethics according to the
rational school of thought, the limitless power of Allah, the position of revelation as an
indispensable supplement for reason.

The Traditionalists were strongly opposed to rationalist theory and formulated their theology to
present their views on the various aspects. Famous theologians like Ibn Hazm, al-Ghazalli and
Shahrastani presented works in opposition to them and promoting the Traditionalist view. They
continued to argue firmly upon the concept on the omnipotence of Allah, the power of Allah
and His limitless power to command man what is right and wrong. They objected to the
suggestion that the Holy Qur'an was supplementary and reaffirmed that it is the basic source
of knowledge for ethical values and other issues. According to Ibn Hazm reason is only a
means to understanding the Holy Qur'an and be utilised to a certain level to expand on
prescriptions of the revelation by certain legitimate methods. They provided proves of the
arguments by quoting from the Holy Qur'an to substantiate the Traditionalist theory.

These were two trends of Islamic thought on ethical theory and they employed methods based
on their basic theological arguments. The two methods are: Revelation, based entirely on
information derived from the Holy Qur'an, and philosophical based on natural knowledge and
not referring to the Scripture for essentials. The difference in basic principles and methods
between the two trends often produces arguments at cross purposes. These juristic and
theological debates and counter arguments developed the ethical value system in classical
Islam and an important place in the general history of philosophy.

The fourth group of normative secular ethics was found in the mainstream of Islamic ethical
philosophy. It is more commonly known as Akhlaq, ‘character’ rather than ‘ethics’. The
exponents of this trend are Miskawayh, Nasir ad-din Tusi and Tawwani whose works follow the
tradition of Hellenistic philosophy. It deals with the perfection and ends of the soul, virtues as
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means and vices as extremes and also contains interest with the social history of morals,
manners and society. The philosophical framework for this trend is taken from Aristotle and
Neoplatonism, and cannot be included into any analytical method of ethical philosophy. These
scholars did not get involve into theological controversies about the concepts of right and
wrong, good and evil, but confined it to character. We find that Ibn Rushd when discussing
ethics, criticised the 'Asharite theology and its theistic subjectivism. He compares their
subjectivism to the ethics of sophists and preferred the objectivism of Plato and Aristotle.

In this introductory study of Islamic ethics, we would not want to engage into very great
discussions on the method and ethical philosophy of these different trends

4 CONCEPT OF MORALITY IN ISLAM

The concept of morality in Islam takes is basically centered on certain basic beliefs and
principles. Among the basic are the following:
(a) Allah is the Creator and from emanates all goodness, truth and beauty.

(b) Man as a vice-regent of Allah is a responsible, dignified and honourable.

(c) Everything in the heavens and earth is made subservient to him by Allah.

(d) Allah by His Mercy and Wisdom, does not impose nor expect the impossible from man
or hold him accountable to that which is beyond his capabilities.

(e) The guarantee of high integrity and sound morality are moderation,
practicality and balance in life.

(f) In principle all things are permissible except that which is stated as obligatory and must
be observed, and what is forbidden must be avoided.

(g) The ultimate responsibility of men is to Allah and his highest goal is to attain the
pleasure of Allah. (Abdalati, H. 1977:40)

The dimensions of morality are very comprehensive and enormous. The Islamic morals deal
with the relationship between:

(a) Man and Allah

The relationship of the Muslim with Allah is based on love and obedience, total trust, peace and
appreciation, steadfastness, total dedication and submission. This highest degree of morality
will nourish and reinforce morality at the basic human level

(b) Man and his fellow human being

The Muslim must show kindness towards his kin and display good neighbourliness. He must
respect the elderly and show compassion for the young, take care of the sick and welfare of
the needy, sympathise with the grieved, express joy with the fortunate and comfort the
depressed. He should be patient with those misguided, tolerant towards the ignorant and
forgive the weak and helpless. He must respect the legitimate rights of his fellow being just as
he does of his own.

(c) Man and other creatures and elements existing in the universe
The Muslim should take care of his environment and be kind to all animals and creatures that
exist in the world. Nature and the creation are subservient to him; therefore he should explore
and enjoy the benefits of the world. He must utilise their elements for his pleasure but should
not be excessive or wasteful. He is asked to marvel and ponder the beauty and great signs, as
well as ponder and discover the secrets of nature.
 20

(d) Man and his innermost self

The Muslim must occupy his mind with constructive ideas and pursue his goals with great zeal
and enthusiasm. His heart must be filled with compassion, feelings and good will towards
others. There must emanate from his soul the radiance of peace and serenity. He must be
sincere, just and courteous in his counseling.

The Muslim has to be cautious and guard his external behaviour and manifested actions, his
words and thoughts, his feelings and intentions. The role of a Muslim in general is to uphold
what is right and fight against the wrong, seek the truth and abandon the false, cherish the
beautiful and wholesome and discard the indecent. Truth and virtue are the main goal.
Humbleness, simplicity, courtesy and compassion are his second nature. On the other hand to
him, arrogance, vanity, harshness and indifference are offensive, distasteful and displeasing in
the sight of Allah.

It is the moral obligation of the Muslim to be a role model and example by displaying the good
qualities expounded in the teachings of Islam. In all facets of life he should adhere to the
moral value system of Islam whether it is the spiritual and physical, individual or collective
level.

We can divide men into three principal groups:

(a) A good person by nature, who cannot be corrupted under all circumstances and
temptations, whose very instinct, suggests the good and commendable acts.

(b) A bad character person, who cannot be reformed and guided aright.

(c) A person from the intermediary group, who when guided and supervised behave in a
suitable manner, but who would otherwise lead a life of carelessness and injustice
towards others.

The first group of persons does not need any guidance or control. The noble person is selfless
and willing to sacrifice and do charitable deeds. He is far-sighted and will always take into
consideration the consequences of an act despite its immediate gain but evil end.

The second group of persons must be put under control and prevented from evil activities. The
bad character person cannot be deterred by any form of reaction and retaliation by the victim
or society. He will persist with his criminal activity, fighting all oppositions until the society or
law has to be applied to rid itself of this nuisance value, by imprisonment and severe
punishment.

The third group of persons comprise of the majority of the people, who need great attention
and be given constant supervision. These persons at times resemble the animal, they are calm
and content with what they possess as long as they unaware of others better possessions or
suspect the mischief of others. This evil propensity in conditions of temptations becomes the
object of preoccupation of these persons and society in general. The person does not willingly
consent the spirit of sacrifice, but in fact allows himself to thrive at the expense of others,
unless there be a fear of violence and immediate reaction from the victim, society or the law.
All philosophies, law and religion have endeavored to persuade the general masses or in
particular the intermediary group, to behave in the best manner, to be selfless and to
contribute for the needs of society.
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5 MORAL VALUES IN THE ISLAMIC SOCIAL SYSTEM

The social system in Islam covers a comprehensive and encompassing range of mutual
relations and the promotion of good based on Islamic law. The principle of promotion of the
good and suppressing of evil ensures a peaceful co-existence of society.

The economic system of Islam is based on the Holy Qur'an and Prophetic Tradition, unlike
other economic systems based on human experience and thought. This system desires to
achieve the highest standard of morality by regulating the needs of society, means of
livelihood and the means of earning and spending.

Islam sanctions the earning of wealth but at the same time makes a condition that the person
be mindful of his fellow human being. Therefore the Islamic systems demand an equitable
distribution of wealth. The basic principle the individual has to note is that Allah is the Creator
of all one possesses and wealth intrinsically belongs to Him. The expertise and scope of
activities of the person for the production of wealth is attributed to the favour of Allah.
Therefore Allah claims a portion of what they earn by commanding them to give His portion to
the needy. Furthermore, the Scripture requests the rich to give from their surplus wealth, in
addition to Zakat (poor-due), to the poor and needy (Q2:219). The purpose of wealth is its
utility and not its accumulation by a few individuals. Thus it ensures the sharing and
distribution of wealth.

The social ethic of Islam is the Prophet's conception of mankind as an Ummah and the
responsibility and accountability of every individual from the head of the family, head of a
congregation, society and nation. Under such a concept there can be no exploitation,
selfishness nor hording in society. An economic system based on such ideals must be humane
and progressive.

Politics deals with the form, organisation and administration of the state. The Islamic state has
to conform to the spirit of Islam as enshrined in the Scripture and Prophetic Tradition. The
application and enforcement of Divine law is the obligation of the ideal Islamic State. The head
of the Islamic state is the Representative (Khalifa) of Allah and has limited powers within the
framework of Divine law. He therefore cannot be autocratic and he has to obey Divine law.

Islamic politics includes both religion and state. Other religions confined themselves to the
spiritual aspect whereas Islam dealt with both the relations between Allah and man and
between man and his fellowmen. The purpose of the Islamic State is to ensure the
maintenance of righteousness and mutual consultation (Q42:38). It is also an individual and
collective duty to ensure the promotion of good and prohibition of the wrong and evil. In this
way the state will look after the welfare of its citizens.

Islam as a universal religion encourages the peaceful co-existence with other nations. It
exhorts the respect for and faithfully fulfilling of treaties, covenants and agreements with other
nations and religions. (Q5:1) Likewise the non-Muslim minorities are ensured the security of
life, property and religious freedom within the Islamic State. At times of sanctioning a war,
Islam has defined its purpose as the suppression of tyranny and the guaranteeing of freedom
of belief. (Q22:29, 40). Fighting is permissible in self-defence and to protect the individual and
the places of worship. Even under these circumstances Islam considered the humanitarian
aspect and discouraged the killing of the innocent, weak and religious persons.

6 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF ETHICS

We have thus concerned ourselves more with the background and theoretical aspect of Islamic
Ethics, now we can in brief look at the practical aspect. As this is an introductory study of
Islamic ethics, we desire not to deal in great detail with this subject.
 22

7 GOOD CHARACTER

What do we mean by good character? Character does not mean being aware or having
knowledge of good or evil. Good character in Islam rather means an established state of the
inner-self from which proceeds actions; the acquisitions of the good qualities of the soul and at
the same time the removal of evil qualities.

According to al-Ghazzali:
Character means an established state (of the soul) from which actions proceeds easily, without
any need for reflection and deliberation. If this state is such that good actions - i.e. those which
are praised by reason and the Shari'a - proceed from it, it is called good character. If the
actions which proceed from the state are evil, the state from which they derive, is called bad
character." (Quasar, M.A. 1975:79; from Hay 'Alum ad-Din of al-Hazily, Vol. III: 46)

From al-Gazzali’s definition it is evident character or state of the soul must fulfill two
requirements. The first is stability and the next is easy and spontaneous proceeding of action
from the state of the soul. For example, a generous person is one who gives away wealth
easily without hesitation, and not a person who gives rarely due to certain circumstances. The
word character may be used for both a virtue or vice, as both these traits are found within a
person. He could either be of 'good character' or 'bad character.'

He further states that good character refers to man’s inward form, i.e. the soul, which must be
sound, moderate and harmonious with the utilization of four faculties of the soul. The four
faculties are: the faculty of desire, the faculty of anger, the faculty of knowledge and the
faculty of justice. If the four faculties are sound, then the four virtues of wisdom, courage,
temperance and justice will exist within a person. But if they are opposite to the extreme, then
vices will appear. These virtues and vices may be divided and further sub-categorised as
follows:

(a) WISDOM - soundness of management, excellence in mind, deep insight, correct

opinions, awareness of subtle actions and hidden evils of the inner-self. Its
opposites are:

STUPIDITY - folly, inexperience in affairs despite power of imagination, and

insanity. A foolish person pursues a right goal in a wrong manner, but an insane
persons' goal and method are both wrong.

WICKEDNESS - Shrewdness, deceit, trickery and cunning.

(b) COURAGE - liberality, intrepidity, manliness, self-control, endurance, forbearance,

fortitude, repression of anger, dignity, amiability, etc. Its opposites are:

RASHNESS - arrogance, haughtiness, fury, pride and conceit.

COWARDICE - abjection, lack of self-respect, impatience, baseness, small-

mindedness, and aversion from receiving rights.

(c) TEMPERANCE - generosity, modesty, patience, remission, contentment, piety,

kindness, helpfulness, wit, and lack of covetousness. Its opposites are:

GREED AND UNCONTROLLED DESIRE - cupidity, greed, shamelessness, impurity,

extravagance, miserliness, ostentation, tendency to defame the character of others,
boldness, preoccupation with useless activities, flattery, envy, rejoicing in others'
misfortune, self-humiliation before the rich and despising the poor, etc.

(d) JUSTICE: Assigning things to their proper order. Its opposite is INJUSTICE. (See
Quasem, M.A. 1975:82)
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Al-Ghazzali defines the above virtues and vices and its sub-ordinates in the 2nd and the 3rd
book of part three of Ihya Ulum ul-Din. These four virtues need to be acquired by every
individual, for they are useful to the attainment of happiness. The four root virtues improve the
individual soul and self-training in root virtues should begin with devotional acts and
abstention of evil actions. A person who has achieved perfection in acquiring these four root
virtues can only be a prophet and should be a role model. To the contrary, if a person is
deprived of the root virtues should be expelled from society, as he resembles the devil. The
majority of people fall between the two extreme groups.

The people of the intermediary group who can better themselves and change their character
through appropriate moral training and guidance. The person can undertake character building
through Divine guidance, self-training and discipline, by knowledge which indicates what is
beneficial or harmful. In this manner the individual can move progressively towards developing
his entire personality. Islam exhorts that the training of children in good character is mainly
the responsibility of the parents. The Qur'an states: "O believers, save yourselves and your
families from the Fire whose fuel is men and stones." (Q66:6)

8 VICES
Here we would not mention all vices that exist but rather the root vices from which other
wrongs and evil stem. Some of the root evil which require self-training and discipline are:

Gluttony: The desire for food is natural in man and is a means to ensure a healthy body and
happiness. A moderate satisfaction of this desire is useful to the person, but excessive and
deficiency may both be harmful. Therefore the person should train himself to eat moderately,
to keep in mind the quantity and the time lapse between meals.

Excessive desire for sex: Excess desire for sexual intercourse is another destructive quality
in a person. Sexual desire is implanted in a person for procreation of human species. Sex is
not reprehensible but it’s excessive or deficiency may be so. Excessive sexual urge may lead to
adultery and other mortal sins; it becomes a social crime and affects the spiritual side. Where
as controlled and moderate sex is free from all social, moral, physical and spiritual harm.

Excessive Speech: It is a harmful act of the tongue from which emanates many destructive
acts. Using of vile speech and lying tarnishes the soul and also gives pain to and breaks human
relations. The evil of the tongue are enumerated as twenty by al-Ghazzali. These range from
speaking about what does not concern one, superfluous talk, cursing, false promise, lying,
slander and backbiting. All these and many others should be avoided to bring about a better
individual and society.

Strong Anger: Extremity in anger is a disease of the inner-self which lead to many vices and
evil acts, and therefore regarded as the more serious of spiritual diseases. The extremities in
anger are harmful as they both have evil consequences. A deficient anger leads to lack of
disapproval of evil acts and toleration of injustice and humiliation, which is impeding for self-
training and opposing evil desires. On the other hand excessive anger may go beyond the limit
of reason and law, and the individual become reckless and doing wrong. Moderation in anger is
commendable as it may be appeased or excited in different situations, as stipulated by reason
and Islamic Law.

Rancour: Rancour is the state of mind in which enmity of the angry person cleaves
persistently to the inner-self. This may lead to many vices and be self-destructive, like envy of
another’s good and joy at his misfortune, persist in enmity against the other person; cease to
be just, assist in need, support, associate and encourage him to do good. This reduces the
individual’s level of virtue. The person should be forbearing and forgive the individual to
suppress the rancour and persistent enmity.
 24

Envy: Envy is a great vice and worse than rancour. It is both destructive in itself and also the
root of other evil dispositions. Envy emanates from rancour and anger. It is a state of mind in
which a person is hurt at the success and good of others and desires that the good be removed
from him though he himself will not gain benefit from its removal. This leads to the vice of
pleasure at another's misfortune. Envy should be distinguished from emulation and
competition, where the person does not desire the deprivation of good for others but rather a
similar good himself. The way to alleviate the vice of envy is by educating the person of the
disadvantages for the envious and its benefits to the envied in both worlds. Then the person
should rid himself of the causes like pride, conceit, enmity, love of influence and greed of
wealth. Removal of its causes will end the vice of envy.

Love of the world: Love of the world is not only a great vice, but the vice which emanates all
other vices. Love and pleasure of the world are of three kinds, two required for the benefit of
the hereafter and one is detrimental. The first kind are those worldly acts which accompany a
person after death, like knowledge and good deeds, provided they are not for the mundane
purpose. Although these acts give pleasure to a person and is not reprehensible. The second
type is those activities which give pleasure in this world but detrimental and harmful for the
hereafter. It consists of sinful acts and excessive pleasure beyond limits prescribed. The third
type consists of all that gives pleasure but is attached to knowledge and action. They are food,
clothing, shelter and legal sexual relation which are sought as necessities of life. The remedy
for the vice of love of the world is to have knowledge of the persons’ aim in life and the
purpose of Allah's creation, and the realization of the evils of this vice and the deceptive
nature of the world.

Love of wealth: Love of wealth is one of the greatest obstacles for spiritual development and
the path of closeness to Allah, and its removal from the soul through mortification is needed.
Islam does not condemn the earning of wealth but the accumulation of superfluous wealth,
which may be a hindrance to his moral and spiritual development. Wealth may be categorised
as virtue and vice depending on its utility. Acts such as generosity, lack of covetousness and
contentment are virtues, while greed, extravagance, neglect obligations incurred by wealth,
dislike for the poor and abasement of the rich are considered vices. All these characteristic-
traits are attributed to the love of wealth, be it excess, deficient or moderate. The person can
utilise his wealth for the benefit of the individual and society and the promoting of good. At the
same time avoid using wealth for this-worldly things which are detrimental to his entire human
personality. Satisfaction with sufficient wealth is the virtue of contentment, as desire for more
than essentials negates contentment and defiles the soul with greed.

Miserliness: Miserliness is the keeping of wealth when it should be spent. The contrary to
miserliness is extravagance. A moderate form of keeping and spending of wealth should be
observed. Islam prescribes the spending of wealth by paying Zakat (Divine-tax), maintaining
wife and children, feeding the poor, etc. The vice of miserliness can be remedied if knowledge
of the causes of miserliness and its evils and the benefits of wealth-sharing and generosity are
taught to them.

Love of Influence: Love of influence is a vice that causes more evils and has its basis on love
of reputation, which is bad. It means the establishment of a person’s status in the perception
of others so that they magnify him, obeys his orders and be submissive to such an extent that
he can exploit them for his own benefit. People become so blind that they believe in his
superior status and perfection, despite his erroneous belief and wrongful activities. The
outcomes of such influence are praise, assistance in his activities, great respect in salutations
and preference, etc. Love of influence is natural as it means power and control over others. A
person should avoid superfluous influence which causes evils and vice. If influence is used for
the promotion of good and serving Allah then it is commendable.

Ostentation: Ostentation is regarded as a vice worse than love of influence and wealth. In
ostentation a person seeks to establish himself in the perception of others’ through his
devotional acts, whereas in love of influence he uses the non-devotional acts. Devotion to Allah
 25 ICS2604/1

and piety is generally expressed through ones’ demeanor, style of dress, speech, action and
pious friends and visitors. The basic motive is to derive great pleasure, by displaying a form of
power and perfection in piety, though contrary to the reality. There are different forms of
ostentation and can be removed by ridding himself of the causes like love of praise, fear of
blame and greed for wealth.

Pride: Pride is when a person supposes himself superior to another. There are different forms
of pride. It may be in religious qualities, like knowledge and action, or materially related such
as family status, physical beauty and strength, wealth, friends, relatives and sub-ordinates,
etc. Display of pride in these takes many forms and can be self-destructive. The individual
should endeavour to get rid of pride. Firstly, he must realise his position as a creation of Allah
and he should perform his prayer in humility. Then he should habitually perform humble acts
to destroy the fibres of pride of the inner-self.

Conceit: Conceit is different from pride yet similar. Pride requires a second person while
conceit does not need another person, though it agrees in real or supposed perfection of which
a person is conceited. Conceit is a high evaluation of an attribute; hope its continuity and
forgetfulness of the real bestower of favours. Conceit is more common in good deeds than in
other qualities of perfection such as physical appearance, etc. The person should reflect on his
existence and favours bestowed by Allah and will realize his insignificance, which will make him
humble. (Quasem, M.A. 1975:105-141)

9 VIRTUES
After the struggle and pain to rid oneself of the vices, the individual can adopt the good
qualities. The person will have to look at the means of spiritual growth and character-building.
The qualities are repentance, patience, gratitude, hope, fear, poverty, asceticism, unity, trust,
love, yearning, intimacy, satisfaction, intention, sincerity, truthfulness, vigilance, self-
examination and meditation. The acquisition of these virtues, after the accomplishment of self-
purification, leads to prosperity of the inner-self and enlightenment of the soul.

Repentance: Repentance is the first step for closeness towards Allah. For the common
person, repentance is for sins committed physically and apparent. The novice looks at the
roots of these sins in the inner-self/soul. This meant the destructive vices such as envy, pride,
ostentation and heedlessness in remembering and devotion to Allah are regarded as
imperfection and repentance is needed. When a person experiences pain from any wrong or
neglect it is known as regret. When regret dominates the person’s conscience, he resolves to
abandon sinful acts, repent and do good deeds and devote himself to Allah.

Patience: Patience is restraint of the demands of carnal desires and anger which is known as
mental patience. It is regarded as more perfect than bodily patience, which is the endurance of
physical pain felt in the performance of devotional and non-devotional acts, and in disease,
illness and injury. Mental patience involves restrain from excessive desire for food and sex, in
misfortune abstaining from violent outbursts of passions in the form of crying and grieving,
restraining from greed of wealth, restraining of anger in war or against oppositions and
enemies, in concealing the secrets of others and abandoning superfluous activities. Patience is
required throughout life in different life situations and degrees. The motive of religion gets
strength from the practice of patience.

Gratitude: Gratitude to another involves the appreciation on receiving favours and kindness
from the other person. The highest form of gratitude is the appreciating and expressing of
gratitude to Allah. A person on receiving any gift or favour should express gratitude to Allah,
as other humans are intermediary causes appointed as means to present gifts and favours.
Islam exhorts people to express gratitude to those who assist or bestows some favour, which
is tantamount to showing gratitude to the ultimate Giver. For if a person is not grateful to
man, cannot be grateful to Allah. The gratitude is often an expression by the tongue towards
the Benefactor through phrases such as ‘All praise is to Allah’ (al-hamdu-lillah). Gratitude of
 26

members consists of using Allah's favour for the right purposes and to do otherwise is
ingratitude. Gratitude at all times also leads to contentment and self-development.

Hope: Hope refers to the joy of the mind which results from its anticipation of anything that it
esteems desirable. It is a means to many virtues other than itself. It should be distinguished
from anticipation of a thing despite defective and disorderly fulfillment of the means, which is
called delusion and stupidity and not hope. The real hope is when an individual has firm faith,
performs the devotional acts, purifies the soul from all forms of vices and then expects Allah to
empower him with good conduct until death and a good end which results in forgiveness. This
hope will cause him to persevere in good actions to the end of his life. The real hope of mercy
from Allah should not be excessive or deficient, as excess hope leads to lethargy and sloth and
if deficient it borders on despair. These extremities may lead the person to abandon devotional
acts and repentance of sins, others become so engrossed that they harm themselves and their
families. Hope should be stimulated in them by reflecting on the bounteous gifts of Allah
bestowed on him, he will realize the kindness of Allah and have hope in His mercy. This leads
to optimism, hope and a positive attitude in life.

Fear: Fear is the soul's experience of pain and anticipation of something harmful. The painful
feeling is aroused in the persons’ conscience when he anticipates that a harmful thing will
overtake. The higher form of fear as a virtue refers to the ' Fear of Allah’. The person fears and
knows that Allah is Majestic, Powerful and has the power to destroy the entire universe and
none can destroy Him, and in the punishment for all his sins and defects in fulfilling his duties.
The fear of Allah is strengthened by his knowledge and his strengthening of his conscience.
The effect of fear will lead to lack of desire of worldly enjoyment and abandonment of sin;
modesty, humility and devotion to Allah; and to discard the evil tendencies of pride, rancor,
etc. The lowest form of fear is the abstinence from what is unlawful. At a higher level of fear,
the person restrains from what is doubtful. The highest level of fear is abstinence of what is
not unlawful, but fears lest he may fall into what is unlawful. This person is cautious in his
daily activities lest it exceeds his natural desire. The person may have fear for Hell-fire or
causes that lead to it. A person fears death before repentance, lack of enthusiasm in
devotional acts, deviation from the truth, dominance of desire and indulgence in sin, exposure
to disgrace and shame on the Day of Resurrection, etc. These fears are only commendable
when it becomes a means to seeking knowledge and good actions.

Poverty: Poverty is the lack of wealth which is essential. The mystics preferred poverty to
riches as excess wealth often leads a person to evil or distracts the individual to other than
Allah. In poverty, the existence and non-existence of wealth is the same, as it does not
produce pain or joy to him. This instills the firm belief in Allah as the provider and contentment
of all that he possess, that rids him of greed for wealth and other vices.

Intention, sincerity and truthfulness: Intention, sincerity and truthfulness are three
means-virtues which are inseparably related to each other. The relation between them in that
intention is the basic requirement of devotional acts, as without it action loses its value and
has no effect on the individuals’ soul; Intention without sincerity does produce an effect, but
the effect is harmful to the soul; Sincerity without truthfulness is obviously in vain. Action with
truly sincere intention is useful and effective. According to tradition, intention is that on which
the worth of action is dependent and good intention by itself is good though the action does
not materialize. Good intention creates an inclination to Allah and the hereafter, and distant
from love of the world, and strengthened the action. Action depends upon intention is
applicable to good actions and not bad deeds, for bad deeds remain bad even though they are
done with good intention. At times good actions may become evil, if performed with evil
motives. Therefore every devotional and non-devotional act will have effect if the person
intends good.

A devotional act performed with a single motive and nothing but attaining closeness to Allah,
this state is called sincerity. If an act is performed to primarily gain closeness to Allah and
mingles it with selfish motive, then it is not sincerity. For example, if a person gives alms to
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the poor for the sake of pleasing Allah it is sincere, but should he give only to get rid of him or
for show, it is not regarded as sincere.

Truthfulness in speech is the opposite of falsehood. Truthfulness in resolution means firmness

and strength in resolving to undertake a good deed when ever possible. If a person resolves to
undertake a task or good should fulfill it with out hesitation and complete. His internal and
external self should conform to each other when performing an act, to be truthful in action.

Vigilance and self-examination: These two means-virtues have the task of subduing the
carnal self, the faculties of desire and anger. The carnal self is rebellious by nature and hostile
to all good, specifically the devotional acts. The carnal soul can be reconciled with good, if it is
subdued and held under the control of reason. Reason has to impose certain orders and
conditions, ensure its implementation, be vigilant and have self-examination of the soul. If it
does any wrong, the carnal soul should be punished, reproached and compelled to struggle
against evil. Every morning the individual should impose conditions of discipline and utilising
time for the promotion of good and guard against evil. Then in the evening, he should have a
detailed self-examination to see if the condition imposed in the morning has been fulfilled. If
he lacks in any duty or does any wrong, he should be punished in a manner that the carnal self
will not neglect its duty and do wrong. This will ensure the progress and development of the
soul.

Meditation: Knowledge of Allah can be gained by learning from others and through insight of
the path, and the mental process of meditation (known as Tafakkur). Meditation is the means
of acquiring knowledge in addition to the fixation in the soul of the object. Meditation is a
virtue that should be made on four aspects leading to the right path, i.e. actions, qualities of
the soul, the essence, attributes and names of Allah and His works. In this manner, the person
will have a better understanding of the majesty of Allah, His beautiful creation and the
discerning of good and evil.

Trust: Trust in Allah is a virtue of the end-group; it is a high station in the path to Allah. The
basis of trust is the belief in Divine unity, His power, generosity and wisdom. The knowledge
and belief of Allah and His attributes, strengthens his faith, confidence, dependence and
conviction in the mercy, generosity and wisdom of Allah. There are different grades of trust
from being aware of it but with great effort and difficulty, to dependence and invoking favours
only from Allah and none besides Him. The highest form of trust is the abandoning of
invocation to Allah, as the person thinks that Allah knows his needs and gives him more if he
does not pray for it.

Love: Love of Allah is the highest of mystical virtues. Every believer has the basic love of
Allah, but a novice extends his love to such an extent that it overtakes his entire self, and
leads to what we may call perfect love, and constitutes the highest perfection of the human
personality. Islamic sources exhort the love of Allah and make it an obligation on the believer.
Everything what gives pleasure to a person becomes beloved to him. The intensity of love
varies in degrees according to the pleasure it gives the person. Starting of love for oneself, his
love for his existence, possessions, his children, friends, relatives, etc. he loves them because
they are means for his perfection and continuity of his existence, thus his self-love is also
projected in those things or persons around him.

Yearning, Intimacy and Satisfaction: After love we look at the products of it, namely,
yearning, intimacy and satisfaction. These qualities come naturally when love of Allah is
dominant in it, and dependent qualities.

Yearning is a natural consequence of love of Allah. Yearning for an object is completely

perceived or completely unperceived, thus it can only be yearning when it is apprehended in
some way and unapprehended in another. A person's yearning for it means that his mind
desires it to be physically present so that he sees it, thereby is apprehension of it may become
perfect, as perfect apprehension comes by witnessing with the eyes. Similarly, the person
 28

yearns for Allah, though his divine beauty is very vivid, yet it is not perfectly clear. Therefore
the lover will continue in his yearning for Allah, as his mind becomes restless to know what is
not perceivable at all. This yearning of Allah will not be satisfied, for Allah’s Beauty, attributes
are infinite and some aspects will still remain unknown.

Intimacy with Allah is the feeling of joy in the nearness to Allah, as his Beloved; there is also
joy in contemplation of His presence and the limited perception of His divine beauty. The
rejoicing of his soul resulting from his knowledge of the divine beauty implies intimacy with
Allah. The state of intimacy becomes so dominant that the person begins to love solitude,
takes pleasure in remembering Allah, but his contact with others does not distract him from
that yearning and intimacy.

Another virtue is satisfaction with the decree of Allah, which is a result of love of Allah.
Satisfaction with aspects of Allah's decree that are acceptable to a person is easy, but to be
satisfied with what is against his passion and desires, more so afflictions that befall the
individual, becomes easy and acceptable to the true believer and lover of Allah. The person is
satisfied with all that he possesses and even expresses satisfaction at his losses and affliction,
as he believes in everything coming from Allah, the Creator and Cherisher.

In this section, we dealt with the means and ends of mystical virtues, which the believer and
human being would endeavour to, inculcate and imbibe these virtues, in order to make him a
true believer and develop his character. (Quasem, M.A. 1975:147-189)

10 FUNCTIONS OF DEVOTIONAL ACTS IN ETHICS

In the previous section, we discussed the two primary means, knowledge and action, related to
the inward self of the person. Now we will attempt to study the outward aspects of the human
self. The need for knowledge and development of both aspects of the human personality
cannot be neglected. The simultaneous nurturing and growth of both, inwards and outwards,
are essential for the completeness of the human personality.

The spiritual training of an individual begins with the outward action, after successful training
in this aspect; it is followed by the training of the inward actions. The outward actions of the
individual may be divided into that which pertains to his relation towards Allah and the other
relation towards his fellow being. We can divide the devotional acts to obligatory and
supererogatory.

(a) Obligatory Devotional Acts are:

(i) Ritual Prayer (Salah)
(ii) Divine-Tax (Zakah)
(iii) Fasting (Siyam)
(iv) Pilgrimage (Haj)

(b) Supererogatory Devotional Acts are:

(i) Qur'anic Recitation (Tilawat)
(ii) Praise of Allah (Zikrullah)
(iii) Invocation (Du’ah)

Every devotional act has two aspects, internal and external, and its complete performance
depends on the fulfillment of both aspects. If the internal aspect is not performed, the act is
merely a physical motion and unable to produce the desired effect on the soul. The neglect of
the physical or spiritual will make the persons defective. The function of devotional acts is the
purification of the soul from vices and beautifying of virtues. These acts lead to love of Allah
and nearness to Him, and develop the human personality.
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Ritual Prayer (Salah): Ritual Prayer (Salah) is the highest grade of all obligatory devotional
acts. A precondition of ritual prayer is purification which has three dimensions, i.e. the
cleanliness of the body and clothing, purification of the soul from vices, and its purification of
the self from other than Allah. The ritual prayer is a means of exercise for the development of
the physical and the soul, which brings the devotee closer to attaining his goal.

Divine-Tax (Zakah): Divine-Tax (Zakah) is a second obligatory devotional acts. There are
different types and rates of tax levied on the more affluent persons among the Muslims to give
the poor. The lowest grade of spiritual progress in the person is the payment of only that
which is prescribed. At a higher level, there are those who give away more than is prescribed;
and they accumulate wealth not for enjoyment but to merely meet their needs, to help the
poor and contributing where the needed. The highest level for the devotee is the giving away
all of their wealth, which is not an obligation but indicates the selfless attitude of the person.
The aim of prescribing payment of divine tax is the helping of the poor, purifying his soul from
the evil quality of miserliness, beautifying the quality of gratitude to Allah, express their
obedience and love to Allah. This helps develop the spirit and instills a greater yearning for
Allah.

Fasting (Siyam): Fasting (Siyam) is the third obligatory devotional act. Fasting during the
lunar month of Ramadhan is obligatory and fasting on other important days is supererogatory.
The lowest level is abstinence from food, drink and sexual gratification, from dawn till sunset.
This is the fasting of Muslims in general. A higher level is keeping away from what is
disapproved by Allah and is undertaken by the pious. They restrain their eyes from looking at
the disapproved, the tongue from lying, slandering, quarrelling and backbiting; and the ears
avoiding listening to evil; abstaining from all other forms of evil and suppressing of carnal
desires. The highest level is the fasting of the entire self, where the mind refrains from all
worldly thoughts and activities and engrossed in Allah and the hereafter. This type of fasting is
undertaken by prophets and devout saints. Fasting at first weakens the carnal desires and
increases the desire of good acts, and brings the person closer to Allah and development of the
soul.

Pilgrimage (Had): Pilgrimage (Had) is obligatory once in a lifetime for an adult Muslim who is
able to do so. The person should be physically healthy, financially sufficient for the journey and
the family at home and safe passage to Mecca. This is undertaken during Dhil-Haj, the tenth
lunar month. There are external obligatory and supererogatory acts. The fulfilling of the ritual
acts during pilgrimage enables the individual to perfect obedience of Allah. At the same time, it
enhances mutual love and brotherhood of Muslims worldwide.

Qur'anic Recitation (Tilawat): The purpose of revelation is the guidance of mankind to the
right path. However the recitation of the Holy Qur'an is a supererogatory devotional act, which
influences on the soul, is great. The person on reading the words of Allah leads to
remembrance and love of Allah. This is achieved even though the person does not understand
the meaning of the Holy Qur'an. This act will bring him closer to Allah through perseverance
and endeavouring to comprehend more of the Message in the Holy Qur'an.

Praise of Allah (Zikrullah): The second supererogatory devotional act is the Praise of Allah
(Zikrullah). This is one of the most useful act of worship provided it is performed with total
devotion, if performed half-heartedly and carelessly it is not beneficial to the soul. There are
four forms of praises of Allah; Assertion of Allah’s greatness (Tahlil), glorifying Him (Tasbih),
praising Him (Tahmid) and seeking His forgiveness (Istighfar). The best form is the assertion
of Allah's greatness (Tahlil). There are different grades of Zikr; from mere uttering by the
tongue, to effort and strive in Zikr, to absorption in Zikr that it cannot be deflected, and the
highest form where Allah (Madhkur) takes possession of the individual soul that he becomes
unaware of his state of Zikr. The Zikr is a manifestation of the inter-relationship of the physical
and spiritual. This leads to love, constant remembrance and awareness of Allah’s existence.
 30

Invocation (Du’ah): The last of the supererogatory devotional acts is invocation of Allah.
When invoking to Allah, the believer is in a frame of mind of self-abasement and helplessness,
and perceiving the Greatness and Majesty of Allah. A person may invoke in different ways, but
the most preferable is that which was transmitted in the Prophetic Tradition. If a person
invokes Allah it instills within the virtuous qualities of submission and humility to Allah.
(Quasem, M.A. 1975:194-206)

11 DUTIES
(a) General principles
For the realization of the Qur'anic moral ideal, the action of the external and internal self,
forms a means to that end. Since morality emanates in the attitude of man towards the
personality in his own being or others. The moral duties can be classified basically as: (i)
Duties to the self, and (ii) Duties to others. The person nearest to the moral agent is his own
person; Duties to self should comes first and thereafter duties to others.

Duties to the self consists of devotional acts and the development of the entire personality; the
moral, physical, spiritual, rational and aesthetical aspects. The Duties to others is the
fulfillment of all rights that have with respect to an individual in society. A person is required to
live as part of a family unit and society. Love, unity and co-operation should exist among
people, in order to prepare for the good in this life and the hereafter.

The Qur'anic moral code is based on the emphasis on ‘obligation’ or ‘duty’, in contrast to the
emphasis on ‘right’. The implications of these duty and rights are; Right is a right against
someone, Duty is a duty towards someone. Right means that someone else owes something to
us and therefore a person has to perform a duty to us. On the contrary, others have a right
against us. The performance of duty creates harmony in social life, because if every individual
fulfils his duty to others there will be no need to fight for ones ‘rights’. These days there are
many people and organisations demanding their rights, but none speak of fulfilling their duties
to others. For example, a child has a right to education, and it is the duty of the parents to
educate him. Thus, rights and duties are related to each other.

For the proper development and enrichment of the human personality, there should be a
fulfillment of the different forms of duties to the self. The duties can be categorised into the
following:

(1) Duties as Spiritual Being:

(A) Duties with reference to Allah
This comprises two duties:
(1) Respect for Allah
(2) Love for Allah

The aim of these duties is to maintain a constant attitude of love and respect to Allah in
order to secure Allah’s pleasure and love. (Quran 48: 29; 5:57) In carrying out these duties,
the believer cultivates purity of will as well as and enthusiasm in the pursuit of the moral
struggle (Quran 44:11; 2:256)

(2) The duty of Respect:

(a) Duties of Commission
A Muslim cultivates respect towards Allah by seeking to instill the following
directives:
- To cultivate genuine and complete faith in Allah and to realize this in one’s inward self
(Quran 4:36)
- To be absolutely loyal to Allah (Quran 6:102; 22:34)
- To maintain an attitude of humble respect to Allah (Quran 11:23)
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- To cultivate the fear of Allah’s displeasure and of one’s final accountability to Him
(Quran 3:102; 3:175; 2:150; 79:40, 41)
- To cultivate obedience to Allah (Quran 8:24; 2:238; 39:54; 2:21)
- To cultivate trust Allah’s goodness, mercy and help (Quran 39:9; 2:218; 5:26)
- To affirm one’s dependence on Him through prayer and supplication (Quran 40:60;
7:55; 7:56)
- To continuously seek Allah’s help and grace (Quran 7:128; 4:32; 48:29)
- To seek His guidance (Quran 1:6)
- To follow the divine Guidance (Quran 7:3)
- To show respect to Him by believing in all the Messengers and divine scriptures sent by
Him (Quran 2:4)

(b) Duties of Omission

A Muslim also cultivates respect towards Allah by avoiding the following:
- Attributing blasphemous and non-sacred qualities to Allah (Quran 7:180)
- Associating partners with Allah and limiting His uniqueness and supremacy in any
manner (Quran 28:88)
- To say anything regarding Allah that has no authority in Revelation (Quran 7:33)
- Being disobedient and arrogant in respect to Him (Quran 32:15; 92:8-10; 33:36)
- To despair of Allah’s mercy (Quran 12:87; 39:53)
- Believing in superstitions and seeking help from superstitious objects (and thus
indirectly insulting Allah) (Quran 5:93; 5:106)
- To engage in magic, which is an activity opposed to godliness (Quran 2:102)

The duty to love Allah

(a) Duties of Commission

A Muslim seeks to cultivate love for Allah by striving to fulfill the following acts:
- To seek the pleasure of Allah in every act he or she does (Quran 2:207; 92:19-20)
- To cultivate gratefulness to Allah (Quran 2:172; 16:114)
- To cultivate an attitude of sincere devotion to Allah (Quran 39:2)
- To be steadfast in one’s devotion to Allah (Quran 22:78; 41:2; 46:13)
- To seek nearness to Allah by: turning penitently to Him (Quran 39:54); through
seeking a means of approach to Him (5:38); to detach one’s self from preoccupation
with worldly things and to engage in His remembrance (dhikr) (Quran 78:8, 9; 2:152;
33:41, 42; 25:58; 7:205; 20:14; 4:103; 32:15, 16; 25:64)
- To cultivate the love of Allah (Quran 5:7; 19:96; 2:165)

(b) Duties of Omission

A Muslim also seeks to cultivate this love by avoiding the following:
- Following the lusts of one’s heart as it leads to His displeasure (Quran 38:26)
- Ungratefulness to Allah (Quran 2:152)
- Disloyalty to Allah (Quran 8;27) (Disloyalty is the opposite of sincere devotion)
- Worshipping false gods (including the gods with one’s self) (Quran 16:36)
- Fickle-mindedness in believing in Allah’s goodness (Quran 22:11)
- Preoccupation with worldly things (Quran 63:9; 4:142)
- Befriending forces of evil (Quran 4:119)
- Loving anything more than Allah (Quran 9:24)

(B) Duties with reference to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon us)
This comprises two duties:
(1) Respect for the Holy Prophet (SAW)
(2) Love for the Holy Prophet (SAW)
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The aim of these duties is to maintain an attitude of obedience and loyalty to the
Prophet (SAW) by cultivating a profound love and respect for him (SAW). This love and respect
also generates an enthusiastic adherence to his (SAW) Sunnah, or Prophetic Example.
Following the Sunnah in this way is in turn a manifestation of one’s love for Allah (Quran
3:31).

The Duty of respect

(a) Duties of Commission

A Muslim cultivates respect for the Holy Prophet (SAW) by instilling the following:
- Cultivating positive respect for the Holy Prophet (SAW) by honouring him (Quran
7:157)
- Obeying the Holy Prophet without hesitation (Quran 4:59; 24:51)

(b) Duties of Omission

(c) A Muslim also cultivates respect for the Holy Prophet (SAW) by avoiding the
following:
- Insulting or disrespecting him, directly or indirectly (Quran 33:53; 49:1-3)
- Disobeying him in any manner (Quran 33:36; 4:115)

The Duty of Love

(a) Duties of commission
A Muslim cultivates love for the Holy Prophet (SAW) by instilling the following:
- Maintaining an attitude of positive love for the Holy Prophet (SAW), more than that
which is to be given to any other created being (Quran 33:6; 33:56)
- Being absolutely loyal to him (SAW), that is, not finding any resistance in one’s heart
to his decisions (Quran 4:65; 33:36)
(b) Duties of omission
A Muslim also cultivates love for the Holy Prophet (SAW) by avoiding the following:
- Disloyalty and treachery towards him (SAW) (Quran 8:27)

(C) Duties with reference to the Angels

It is a Muslim’s duty to respect and love the angels since they are honoured and noble
beings who love and pray for the believers (Quran 21:26-27; Quran 16:49, 50; 33:43; 42:5).
Fulfilling this duty makes Muslims more aware of the purity and holiness to be found in
creation. It also reminds them that the world is a moral order, with angels having certain
functions in this order.

(3) Duties as Physical Being:

Self-preservation on the part of human beings is a natural attitude and the
Quran in fact commands Muslims to preserve themselves (Quran 2:195).

(a) Duties of omission

In following this rule, Muslims are required to avoid the following:
- all things which harm physical health (Quran 2:168)
- Gluttony and intoxication (Quran 5:90; 7:31; 20:81; 5:93)
- Making lawful pleasure illegitimate (Quran 5:90)
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- abusing or damaging any limb of on’es body (Quran 8:27 - this verse
probits defrauding one’s trusts and since the one’s body really belongs to
Allah, one simply has it as a trust).
- Committing suicide (Quran 4:29)

(b)Duties of commission
Muslims are also required to do the following in order to promote their
happiness through physical well-being:
- Satisfy the natural appetites of hunger and thirst, sex through marriage
and sleep (Quran 7:31; 5:5; 24:32; 30:21; 28:73).
- Keep physically clean (Quran 5:7; 8:11; 2:222; 9:108)
- To develop themselves physically (Quran 8:60)

(4) Duties as Rational Being:

Muslims are commanded to give reason its due so as to ensure a balanced, healthy
approach to knowledge. The proper employment of reason also ensures a correct
and comprehensive understanding of divine guidance.

(a) Duties of Commission

In order to ensure that reason is given its due, Muslims are required to approach
the question of knowledge on the following principles:

- To recognize the sublimity of knowledge and unavoidable necessity (Quran 2:31 - this
verse indicates that knowledge is an essential part of being human)
- To seek spiritual achievement through knowledge (35:28)
- To seek greatness in the sight of Allah through the pursuit of knowledge (Quran 58:11)
- To employ reason in the pursuit of knowledge: reason is not inconsistent with revelation
nor is faith incompatible with knowledge (Quran 3:7; 8:42; 6:148, 149; 4:82; 47:24;
29:43)
- To pursue observation and research (Quran 34:46; 67:3, 4)
- To pursue knowledge at ever higher levels, that is, not to be satisfied with one’s level of
knowledge (Quran 20:114)
- To be objective in the pursuit of knowledge. This is an objectivity based on an
unflinching faith in Allah, Who is the Source of reality (Quran 3:18; 3:190, 191)
- To pursue knowledge comprehensively, that is, knowledge of the self, society and
nature and not just “religious” knowledge (Quran 51:20, 21)
- To seek wisdom through the acquisition of knowledge (Quran 2:269)
- To pursue the correct technique in pursuing knowledge, namely, firstly basic and
general education, then secondly, spiritual and moral purification, and thirdly, pursuing
knowledge at a higher level where direct conviction is obtained through personal
observation and insight. (Quran 72:2)

(b) Duty of omission

A Muslim must avoid being subjective, narrow and close-minded in their pursuit of
knowledge (Quran 45:23; 43:28; 12:105, 106; 7:179).

(5) Duties as Aesthetical Being:

Aesthetics can be described as the pursuit of beauty. By nature human beings seek
beauty. In the Quran the concept of beauty is wedded to godliness and spirituality.
Seen from this perspective, beauty should pervade a Muslim’s entire life: physical,
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intellectual, moral and social. Piety, purity, harmony, balance, order and perfection
are all seen as components of beauty and the more “beautiful” a person is, the more
such components will manifest themselves in his or her life.

In the Islamic scheme of things, Allah is Beautiful (“Allah is beautiful and he loves
Beauty” says an authentic hadith) and He created all things in the frame of beauty:
the human being, the universe - its plant and animal life, its heavenly bodies - and
heaven in the next life has been created in this frame as well. (Quran 95:4; 40:64;
91:7; 24:35; 32:7; 18:7; 15:19; 10:24; 16:5, 6; 16:8; 15:16; 37:6; 25:76; 38:25;
32:17; 76:11; 75:22, 23).

Because the human has by nature been created beautiful, they need to cultivate their
inherent beauty by seeking to follow these Quranic directives:
- Beautifying their faith and their actions through surrendering their whole self to
Allah, doing good and seeking forgiveness from Allah (Quran 4:125; 11:3; 10:26;
42:23; 27:11)
- Being beautiful in speech (Quran 2:83)
- Being beautiful in the behavior towards one’s parents (Quran 29:8)
- Being beautiful in preaching and argument (Quran 16:125)
- To beautify one’s physical life in line with Quranic norms and standards (Quran
7:132)
- To be beautiful in one’s dress as dress is the beautification of one’s personality
(Quran 7:36; 7:31)

The Quranic teaching on beauty has been neatly summed up in the following hadith:
“Indeed Allah has ordered the employment of beauty in everything.” (Sahih Muslim)

(6) Duties as Moral Being:

This consists of two sets of duities: (a) Duties of Ommission (b) Duties of Comission
(Ansari, M.F.R. 1973: xi)

(a) Duties of Ommission

One ‘omits’ morally blameworthy acts in order to preserve one’s self as a moral human
being. The acts that need to be avoided or omitted are the following:
- Lying (Quran 22:30; 39:3; 26:221, 222)
- Mixing truth with falsehood (Quran 2:42)
- Concealing the truth (Quran 2:42)
- Concealing evidence (Quran 2:283)
- To have hatred of the truth (Quran 43:78)
- Assisting falsehood (fraud) and giving false evidence (Quran 25:72)
- Hypocrisy (Quran 2:8-10)
- Not practicing what one says (Quran 61:2, 3)
- Duplicity (Quran 2:14-16)
- Making a show of one’s good deeds (Quran 107:4-7)
- Oath mongering (Quran 68:10)
- Following the lusts of one’s heart (Quran 4:135)
- Desiring false appreciation and being pleased when one is flattered (Quran 3:188)
- Flattering people (Quran 33:70, 71)
- Love of pomp and show (Quran 8:47)
- Conceit (Quran 9:25)
- To take pride in one’s achievements (Quran 3:188)
- To take even unconscious pride in one’s piety (Quran 53:32)
- Pride and haughtiness (Quran 16:23; 16:29; 31:18-19; 17:37)
- Obstinacy and self-righteousness (Quran 3:135)
- Quarrelsomeness (Quran 19:97; 35:63; 7:199)
- To be overcome by anger (Quran 3:134)
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- To be overly happy because of the worldly good one has been given (Quran 57:23)
- Pessimism (Quran 57:23; 12:87)
- Being overpowered by fear (Quran 2:256; 10:62-64)
- Cowardice on the battlefield (Quran 2:177; Quran 8:15, 16)
- To fear opponents of truth and justice (Quran 5:57)
- To be sad and anxious over worldly matters and events (Quran 40:44)
- Misgiving and suspicion, indulging in delusions and fancies divorced from the realities of
life, and harbouring evil thoughts. These ideas are all conveyed by the word “waswas”
in the (Quran 114:4)
- Perversion which means not only straying from the right path but also leading others
into evil (Quran 7:175; 26:91)
- Indulging in vain, useless matters (Quran 23:3; 25:72)
- Idle talk in general (Quran 31:6)
- Recklessness (Quran 7:31)
- Speaking or offering an opinion on something of which one has no adequate knowledge
(Quran 17:36)
- Idleness in general (Quran 3:200)
- Earning one’s livelihood through begging, false pretences (especially under the guise of
false religious practices) and gambling (Quran 2:273; 9:34; 5:93)
- Loving wealth for its own sake (Quran 89:20; 100:8; 102:1-2; 104:1-4)
- Greed (and greed can also lead to another vice, namely jealousy) (Quran 59:9; 64:16;
4:32)
- Miserliness (Quran 27:29; 25:67; 9:34-35; 3:180; 4:36-37)
- Squandering, that is, spending one’s wealth vainly (Quran 17:26-27)
- Insincerity in one’s charity (Quran 4:36-38)
- Impatience (Quran 49:5)
- Ungratefulness (Quran 22:38)
- Indecency in thought, word and deed (Quran 6:151; 16:90)
- Sexual immodesty (Quran 17:32 - in this verse the directive not to come near adultery
implies avoiding all immodest situations that lead to this act )
- Illicit sexual gratification (Quran 24:30, 31)
- Being indifferent to self-reform (Quran 2:44)

(b) Duties of Commission

One has to cultivate the following qualities in striving to build the moral self:
- Comprehensive Truthfulness in thought, word and deed (Quran 9:119; 33:70, 71)
- Guarding one’s oaths (Quran 5:92)
- Being sincere (freedom from pretense) and upright (freedom from fraud) (Quran 6:152)
- Steadfastness in all things true and good (Quran 3:200; 8:45; 14:27)
- Inward and outward modesty (Quran 7:26, 27)
- Marriage as a means of moral fortification (Quran 24:32; 4:24)
- Chastity (purity in thought, word and deed) (Quran 24:33; 24:60)
- Labouring in order to earn one’s livelihood (Quran 62:10)
- Earning one’s livelihood honestly (Quran 62:10)
- Benefiting only from that which has been lawfully acquired (Quran 2:168; 2:267)
- Industriousness (Quran 53:39-40; 6:132)
- Pursuing progress in life through planned and purposeful activity (Quran 59:18)
- Optimism (an attitude of unflinching hope) (Quran 39:9)
- A spirit of generosity (Quran 2:274)
- Constancy (Quran 70:23)
- Punctuality and regularity (Quran 4:103 - by stating the prayers to be performed at
their due times the Quran thereby trains and accustoms Muslims to practice punctuality
in all spheres of their life; Quran 51:20, 21; 3:190)
- Moderation and balance (Quran 2:143; 17:110; 25:67; 31:19)
- Observance and maintenance of discipline (Quran 9:112; 2:229; 65:1)
 36

- Moral courage (Quran 5:57)

- Being in constant battle with evil (Quran 35:6)
- Bravery (Quran 2:177; 8:45; 8:15)
- Observance of self-respect, magnanimity and sobriety (Quran 3:110; 63:8; 24:72)
- Self-defence against wrong (Quran 42:39)
- Observing the spirit of contentment (Quran 39:36; 4:32)
- Selflessness (Quran 2:264; 76:9)
- Soft-heartedness, gentleness and kindness (Quran 33:35; 90:17. Moreover, the
Prophet (SAW) whose lifestyle Muslims are urged to emulate is described as a Mercy to
all creation (21:107) as well as being kind and soft-hearted (3:159; 9:128)
- Patience and steadfastness (Quran 2:153; 2:155-157; 2:177; 3:146; 33:35; 13:22;
3:200)
- Humility and modesty (33:35; 25:63; 31:18-19)
- The spirit of thankfulness (Quran 7:144; 16:114
- To strive to achieve the utmost spiritual growth through self-examination and self-
purification. This involves communion with Allah through practices such as dhikr
(remembrance of Allah), prayer (salah), fasting and charity. One also has to discharge
all one’s duty fully and rigorously. (Quran 25:74; 35:32; 23:4; 59:18; 35:6; 22:78;
33:41-42; 2:110; 2:183; 2:110; 2:267; 2:208).

The Holy Qur'an has explicitly prescribed certain duties concerning the transcendental
dimension of his personality, termed as spirituo-moral or ethico-religious duties. The verse
below gives an overview of the spiritou-moral duties of the self, as well as, the duties to
others. It states:
"Virtue does not consist in turning your faces towards the east and the west, but virtue is of
him who believes in Allah, and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Books, and the Prophets;
and gives of his wealth, for love of Him (from the purest selfless motive), unto kindred, and
orphans, needy and wayfarer, and those who ask, and for the emancipation of slaves, and
establishes Prayer, and pays the Poor-tax (zakah), and is of those who perform their
covenants when they have covenanted; and is of the patient in adversity and affliction and
time of violence. Such are those who have proved themselves true (in their faith). Such are
the Allah-conscious.” (Q2:177)

In this module, we will not be able to discuss the different forms of duties that the individual
and society has to fulfill, due to the vast information available and the need to confine the
module to a certain amount of pages. We will now give you the different types of duties as
mentioned by Dr. Muhammad Fazl-ur-Rahman Ansari in his book, volume II, of 'The Qur'anic
Foundations and Structure of Muslim Society'. In a brief view:

DUTIES TO OTHERS:
(A) FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES TO ALL HUMAN BEINGS

(i) Duties relating to the happiness of others

These consists of (a) Duties of omission (b) Duties of commission

(a) Duties of omission
One has to avoid ill-will and ill-doing to any other human being by abstaining from:
- Wronging others in general, even if they are your enemies (Quran 7:85; 13:25; 7:56,
7:9; 11:113)
- Violating another’s right to life (Quran 6:151; 17:33; 5:35; 6:137; 17:31)
- Violating another’s right to property, inheritance, goods and wealth in general (Quran
7:85; 4:29; 2:205; 7:86; 60:12; 89:19; 3:161; 26:181; 11:84; 83:1-3; 8:27; 4:105;
70:18 (this verse refers to hoarding - here one defrauds another’s wealth indirectly by
creating artificial scarcity) 2:275-276; 3:130 (these verses refer to usury which is
another indirect way of defrauding another’s wealth).
 37 ICS2604/1

- Corrupting others through bribery and gambling (Quran 2:188; 5:93)

- A lack of helpfulness and charity towards others whether by hoarding (Quran 9:34-35),
or by miserliness (Quran 17:29), or by refusing small acts of kindness (Quran 107:4-7)
or indeed assisting but with an ulterior motive in mind (Quran 30:39) or by putting an
obligation on the one whom one is assisting (Quran 2:264)
- A lack of goodwill towards others whether by breaking promises (Quran 13:19-20),
giving false evidence (25:72), concealing evidence (2:283), or by showing treachery or
by being ungrateful to them (Quran 22:38)
- Showing contempt for and oppressing others (Quran 31:18; 40:35; 28:83)
- Damaging the honour of others through defamation, even if the defamatory remarks
are true (49:11; 4:148-149). (Although in certain cases, such as in a court of law, one
may have to speak of another’s faults to defend one’s own honour. This is allowed.)
- Fabricating lies against others (Quran 45:7)
- Spreading scandal about others (Quran 104:1; 68:10-11)
- Transferring one’s guilt to others (Quran 4:112)
- Attacking the honour of chaste women (Quran 24-23-25)
- Backbiting others (Quran 49:12)
- Using obscene language against anyone (Quran 16:90)
- Harbouring rancour towards others, even if they are one’s enemies (Quran 8:61)
- Being jealous and covetous of what is with other people (Quran 4:32)
- Acting duplicitly and so hiding your true self, motives and intentions from others (Quran
2:14-16)
- Being overly suspicious of others (Quran 49:12)
- Spying on others (Quran 49:12)
- Deriding and ridiculing others (Quran 49:11)
- Giving offensive nicknames to others (Quran 49:11)
- Corrupting others through flattery (Quran 3:188 - here the Quran condemns those who
love to be flattered. It stands to reason that those who do the flattering are also
engaging in sinful activity.)

(b) Duties of Commission

One has to cultivate well-wishing and well-doing to all human beings by acting on the
following:
- Doing good to others in general (Quran 22:77)
- Protecting and preserving human life (Quran 5:35; 2:178)
- Active sympathy with others for the amelioration and removal of their suffering (Quran
90:17). Among the practical ways in which one does this is by visiting the sick.
- Using only lawfully acquired wealth (Quran 2:168-169)
- Protecting the wealth of others that has been entrusted into one’s custody (Quran 4:58)
- Being completely honest in all commercial transactions (Quran 17:35; 6:152)
- Being charitable and generous towards others (Quran 9:111)
- Being charitable purely for the sake of God (Quran 2:177; 92:18-21; 23:60-61)
- Being charitable to one’s debtor (Quran 2:280)
- To assist all according to one’s capacity using the talents and possessions one has been
given (Quran 2:254)
- Giving gifts to cultivate generosity and enhance mutual love (Quran 2:237)
- Showing complete justice even if it is at the cost of one’s self and one’s near ones, and
even if it is to Islam’s worst enemy (Quran 16:90; 4:135; 5:9)
- To bear witness without fear or favour (Quran 70:33)
- Fulfilling all promises and agreements (Quran 17:34; 5:1)
- To be sincere and straightforward in trelation to others (Quran 6:153)
- Cultivating compassionate kindness towards others (Quran 90:17)
- Being graceful and generous in dealing with others (Quran 2:237)
- Making a positive effort for the creation and maintenance of harmony and peace among
human beings (Quran 4:114; 2:224; 7:170)
- To judge other people’s motives in the best light, unless there is clear evidence to
indicate otherwise (Quran 49:12)
 38

- To speak good of others while maintaining truth and justice (Quran 17:53)
- Speaking politely and courteously to others (Quran 2:83)
- To be grateful to others for any good one has received from them (Quran 55:60;
3:145)
- To repeal any wrong done to one only according to its degree. But forgiveness and
patience is the better course of action where possible (Quran 16:126; 42:40-43)
- Evil should ideally be repelled with goodness (Quran 41:34-36; 15:85; 24:22; 2:109)
- Treating all human beings with respect in the very fact that they are human beings
(Quran 17:70)
- Respecting the life, honour and property of all human beings, respecting all human
beings as equal, respecting the basic right to freedom for all human beings as well as
the basic right of human beings to enjoy the fellowship of one another. (Quran 4:1;
49:13)
- To be humble, forbearing and peaceful (Quran 25:63; 33:35; 31:19)

(ii) Duties of the moral perfection of others

One must also strive for the moral perfection of others. Again, this involves (a) Duties
of omission (b) Duties of Commission

(a) Duties of Omission

This involves abstaining from all activity that will directly or indirectly create
conditions of immorality. In this regard, a person abstains from the following:
- Creating conditions of moral corruption (Quran 7:56)
- Obstructing the path of morality and goodness (Quran 8:47; 50:24-25; 68:10-12)
- Co-operating with others in sin and transgression (Quran 5:3)
- Spreading indecency in any form, and so enticing others to indecent acts (Quran 7:33;
16:90)
- Adultery and fornication (Quran 17:32; 25:68; 60:12)
- Homosexuality (Quran 7:80, 81, 84)
- Prostitution (Quran 24:33)

(b) Duties of Commission

This involves creating an atmosphere conducive to morality and moral awakening

among one’s fellow human beings. In this regard one has to cultivate the following:
- Actively struggling for the fullest establishment of morality (Quran 3:110)
- While it is the duty of every Muslim to engage in this struggle according to his or her
capacity, it is also the duty of the Muslim community as a whole to ensure that there is
a group among them who are specifically devoted to this struggle (Quran 3:104)
- This struggle takes the form of propagating the Divine Teachings in the most sublime,
wise and beautiful manner (Quran 16:125)
- Where Muslims have authority, it is also the duty of the state to ensure the creation of
the appropriate moral conditions (Quran 22:40-41)
- Secret activity is in general condemned but if secret activity is necessary for the
promotion of virtue, then it is permitted (Quran 4:114)
- Marriage is necessary for the promotion of the moral health of society (Quran 24:32-
33)

(B) DUTIES OF CONDITION TOWARDS OTHER INDIVIDUALS

The duties that were outlined above are duties that Muslims owe to all human beings
in their capacity as human beings. In other words, these are the fundamental human
rights (from an Islamic perspective) that are due to others. But there is also another
set of duties that are owed to others in consideration of their specific relation to us,
that is, as parents, children, neighbours etc. This second set of duties is now
discussed.
 39 ICS2604/1

(i) Duties to relatives and non-relatives belonging to one's home

(a) Duties towards parents

As is clear from the Quran 17:23-25, 46:15-16, 31:14-15, and 29:8, the following duties are
owed to one’s parents:
- to do good to one’s parents in every way, even if they are non-Muslim
- obeying them without complaint in all that is good and which is not in conflict with Islamic
principles
- behaving respectfully towards them,
- maintaining an attitude of thankfulness towards them
- caring for them with mercy

(b) Duties towards one’s offspring

The following are the duties in respect of one’s children:
- To preserve a child’s life (Quran 6:140; 17:31; 16:58-59; 81:8-9; 6:137 - these
Quranic verses were revealed against the backdrop of infanticide practiced by the
pagan Arabs)
- To look after their needs until he or she is mature (Quran 17:24)
- To raise children who are healthy and strong physically, intellectually, morally,
spiritually and economically. This can be derived from a full understanding of the
Quranic verses 46:15, 25:74 and 66:6 since, for instance, one can only be granted
‘good’ children if one has sufficiently trained them to become good. This is turn means
establishing an atmosphere of love and understanding for the child’s proper growth,
guarding against neglect and cruelty, providing adequate nutrition, housing, recreation
and medical service, providing opportunities for the child’s balanced development,
providing the best available formal education, and providing above constant moral and
spiritual training to the child.

(c) Respective duties of husband and wife

Duties of the husband:
A husband is required to:
- Protect and maintain his wife (Quran 4:34)
- Treat his wife with kindness and equity (Quran 4:19)
- Tolerate any of her shortcomings and faults (Quran 4:19)
- Be sensitive and maintain God - consciousness in physical intimacy with his wife
(Quran 2:223)
- Be concerned for the welfare of his wife in all respects - physical, mental,
economic, moral and spiritual (Quran 25:74; 66:6)
- Not falsely accuse his wife (Quran 24:4)

Duties of the wife:

As derived from the Quran 4:34, a wife is required to:
- Show dignified obedience to her husband
- Guard her chastity
- Guard the property and prestige of her husband

(d) Duties towards relatives in general

On the basis of the Quran 4:1, 4:36, 2:177, 30:38, 16:90 and 2:26, 27 a Muslim’s duties
towards his or her relatives are as follows:
- Maintaining cordial relationships with them and cultivating love for them
- Giving them economic assistance where necessary
- Doing good to them in every way
- Not damaging the ties of relationship to them
 40

(e) Duties towards domestic servants

(f) Moulana Ansari writes: “The Quranic doctrine of love for God and man is so thorough
and comprehensive in its scope that it transforms the formal, and often temporary,
relationship of “give and take” between the employer and the servant into a
relationship of liberality and love, giving to the domestic servant virtually the role of a
part and parcel of the family. In any case, the Holy Quran has made it a duty for every
Muslim to do good to all those who are under his control … including the domestic
servants, - and to treat it as one of his basic duties:
“And do good to parents … and those whom your right hands possess (i.e. those who are
subject to your authority) …” (p217)

(ii) Duties in respect of age and rank

In brief, one must show respect to those who are senior in age or superior to one in
talents and accomplishments or who one’s employers. One should be compassionately
kind to those who are junior to one in age or inferior in talents or accomplishments or
who are one’s employees. These social divisions are a natural part of society and their
purpose is to test one’s moral behavior in such situations (Quran 6:165).

(iii) Duties to particular categories of non-relatives

(a) Duties towards neighbours
- The Quran commands Muslims to good to their neighbours, both those that are
near and those that are distant. “nearness” and “farness” means not only
physical distance, but also affinity in terms of family and religion. (Quran 4:36)

(b) Duties towards friends and associates

- To do good to one’s friends and associates, such as co-workers. These are the
meanings that are included when the Quran speaks of doing good to “com-
panions by your side.” (Quran 4:36)
(c) Duties towards orphans
One should:
- Not to be harsh to orphans and in fact strive to do good to them (Quran 107:1-
2, 4:36)
- Spend one’s wealth on them (Quran 2:177)
- Feed them during times of distress (Quran 90:12-16)
- Set aside part of one’s wealth for orphans when inheritance is divided (Quran
4:8)
- Make the orphans beneficiaries in property and land acquired through war
(Quran 8:41; 59:7)
- Not interfere or who come near the orphan’s property except when it becomes
necessary for the orphan’s own welfare (Quran 17:34, Quran 4:10)
- Not misappropriate the orphan’s property in any way (Quran 4:2)
- Not marry orphan-girls with a view to exploiting their property (Quran 4:3)
- Not wastefully spend of the orphan’s property
- carefully safeguard the orphan’s property (Quran 4:50)
- Speak words of comfort to them (Quran 4:9-10)
- Stand firmly for justice to orphan’s (Quran 4:172)

(d) Duties towards widows

On the basis of the Quran 2:234, 4:11, 4:12, 24:32 and 4:19, Islam:
- permits a period of consolation and readjustment to the widow
- strengthens the widow financially through inheritance
- encourages the widow to re-enjoy fullness of life through remarriage if she wishes
- does not damage her personality or human dignity by treating her as a possession
to be passed to someone else as was common in some other cultures.
 41 ICS2604/1

(e) Duties towards the needy and the destitute

Muslims should:
- Feed the indigent (extremely poor) (Quran 76:8-9; 90:12-16)
- Feed the economically distressed in general (Quran 30:38; 51:19)
- Provide economic assistance even if one was angered by the person to whom
one is giving that assistance (Quran 24:22)
- treat the needy person kindly even if one cannot offer them assistance (Quran
17:28)
- also collectively provide for the needs of the economically distressed through
the institution of alms-tax (Quran 9:60)
- to generally do good to the needy in all respects (Quran 4:36)
- To recommend and plead the needy’s case with those in a position to help them
(Quran 4:85)

It should be noted that not feeding the poverty stricken is a very grave sin
(Quran 107:1-3; 49:33-35; 74:43-44). One is also not allowed to scold the one
who seeks help (Quran 93:10).

(f) Duties towards guests and wayfarers

Duties towards guests can be derived from the way the prophets Abraham and
Lot (peace be upon them) treated their guests as described in the Quran (Quran
51:24-28; 15:67-69). These duties are as follows:
- the host should wish peace to his guests even if they are strangers
- he should generously and lovingly see to their comfort
- He should defend and prtect them against all wrong

(In turn the guet should wish peace to his or her host, demonstrate goodwill to the host as
well as behave considerately).

The wayfarer is the stranded stranger. The Quran has prescribed economic assistance to the
wayfarer at both the individual and collective level (Quran 30:38; 2:215; 9:60). It has also in
general ordered the doing of good to the wayfarer (Quran 4:36).

(iv) Duties towards Muslims as Muslims

A Muslim has a duty to promote the happiness and moral perfection of fellow-Muslims.
This involves:
- Respecting the sanctity, life, honour and property of other Muslims (Quran 49:10 - the
“brotherhood” mentioned in this verse can only be maintained by respecting the
sanctity, honour, life and property of another Muslim)
- Being merciful towards fellow Muslims (Quran 48:29)
- Being humble and respectful with regard to other believers (Quran 5:57)
- Safeguarding the trusts of a fellow Muslim (Quran 2:283)
- Keep straight the relations between Muslims (Quran 8:1)
- Promoting peace and justice among Muslims by seeking to resolve disputes but also
ensuring that the wronged party is assisted (Quran 49:9)
- Ensuring that disputes are settled on the basis of the Quran and Sunnah (Quran 4:59)
- Willingly sacrificing one’s own comforts and interests for the sake of fellow Muslims
(Quran 59:9)
- Showing goodwill to all fellow - Muslims (Quran 59:10)
- Ensuring and promoting the spiritual and moral welfare of fellow Muslims. This means
commanding the right, forbidding the wrong, exhorting one another to truth and
perserverance in the way of truth as well as exhorting the practice of compassion.
(Quran 3:110; 103:3; 90:17). [Note: “commanding the right and forbidding the wrong”
can only take place if one is absolutely certain that something is “right” or “wrong”. And
so intensive knowledge of Islam is generally a precondition for those who engage in this
activity.]
 42

- Not killing, nor damaging the honour, nor slandering fellow Muslims (Quran 4:92-93;
49:11-12; 33:58)
- Not stoking disputes with fellow Muslims (Quran 8:46; 59:10)
- Not damaging the just interests of fellow Muslims (Quran 4:29, 2:183)
- Not damaging the moral fabric of Muslim society (Quran 24:19)

(v) Duties towards non-Muslims as non-Muslims

(i) Duties towards all non-Muslims irrespective of their being friendly or

inimical.
Muslims should show justice in their relation with non-Muslims as well as co-
operate in acts of goodness. They should also show active symapthy with non-
Muslims in addressing spiritual and moral evils. This involves:
- Showing justice under all all circumstances (Quran 5:9)
- Fulfiling of all contracts, pacts and agreements (Quran 5:1)
- Forgiving personal injuries done to one by non-Muslims (Quran 45:14)
- To grant protection and asylum to non-Muslims if they so wish (Quran 9:6)
- Giving the message of Islam to non-Muslims in the most beautiful manner by those who
are suitably qualified for this purpose (Quran 41:33; 3:104; 16:125; 22:78)
- Co-operating with non-Muslims in acts of goodness (Quran 5:3)
- Not persecuting non-Muslims nor converting them by force (Quran 2:256)
- Not hurting their religious feelings through any hurtful language (Quran 6:108)

(ii) Particular attitude towards those non-Muslims who are either friendly or
neutral.
- Social interaction and benevolence with friendly/ neutral non-Muslims permitted (Quran
60:8)
- Marriage permitted with women who follow a revealed religion other than Islam (Quran 5:6)
- The food of the people who follow a divinely revealed religion is also permitted to Muslims
(Quran 5:6)
- (A Muslim is not allowed to marry polytheists and idolaters and Muslim women are not
allowed to marry non-Muslims, even those who follow a revealed scripture Quran 2:221)

iii) Particular attitude towards those non-Muslims who are active enemies of
Islam and Muslims.
In order to preserve Islam and Muslims, there are certain attitudes to be
adopted towards non-Muslims hostile towards Islam:
- Not to befriend active enemies who are devoted to the destruction of Islam and
Muslims, even if they are near relatives (Quran 3:28; 3:118-120; 4:89; 4:140; 5:54;
5:60; 6:68; 9:5; 9:23; 58:22; 60-1-3; 60:9. It must be emphasized that these verses
are only directed against those of other faiths or disbelievers who are actively hostile
towards Islam.)
- To be firm against the enemies of Islam (Quran 48:29)
- To act mightily against the enemies of Islam (Quran 5:57)
- To militarily build up against the enemies of Islam to the furthest extent possible
(Quran 8:60)
- To fight with the fullest enthusiasm and to the finish when in a state of war with
enemies of Islam (Quran 8:65; 22:39-40)
- To be ready to make peace with the enemies of Islam in the interests of human welfare
(Quran 8:61, 62)
- Observing full justice in all respects in all dealings with the enemies of Islam (Quran
5:9; 31:15)
 43 ICS2604/1

There are also duties relating to manners, both religious and social, which relate to the
individual details of life. The proper exhibiting of such manners is a mark of a refined Muslim
individual. The details relating to these manners can be found in a number of Islamic books.

There are also duties that the individual has to Muslim society as a whole, as well as duties
that Muslim society has to an individual. Some of these duties will be covered in the next unit.
 44

ACTIVITY

You have now read a few other books on Islamic Ethics. Before reading further, you should
make sure that you can answer the following questions:

(1) What is the meaning of ethics?

(2) Give a classification of the different types of ethical writings.
(3) Discuss the basic concept of Morality in Islam.

?
(4) Write on Moral values systems in the Islamic social system.
(5) After learning of the theoretical aspect, you can now discuss the practical
aspects of Islamic ethics.
(6) Discuss the vices that are detrimental to the development of the soul and
virtues that may lead to progress and development of the human
personality.
(7) Write on the functions of devotional acts in Islamic ethics.
(8) There are different forms of duties in Islam from duties to the self and
duties to others. Briefly numerate these duties.
(9) For proper enrichment and development of the human personality; the
most important aspect is duties to the self. Elaborate and give the duties
to the different dimensions of the personality.

ADDITIONAL READING ON ETHICS IN ISLAM

Below is a list of books that will be useful reading to give you further information
about Islamic Ethics. Please note, you are not obliged to read them but its perusal
will be beneficial.
Alghazali, M. undated. Muslim’s Character. Delhi: Kutub Khana Ishayat-ul-Islam.

Ali, S.A. 1970. The Ethics of Islam. Karachi: Umma Publishing House.

Ansari, M.F.R. 1973. The Qur'anic Foundations and Structure of Muslim Society. Karachi: The
World federation of Islamic Missions.

(Note that extensive information on duties is available in Volume II. It is worthwhile to have a
copy and refer to it for Qur'anic verses on duties to the self and duties to others.)

Bilgrami, H.H. 1981. Call from the Minaret: Islamic Values and Education. Jeddah: King
Abdulaziz University.

Dar, B.A. 1969. Qur'anic Ethics. Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture.

Hakim, A.K. 1974. Islamic Ideology. Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture.

Kelsay, J.E. 1985. Religion and Morality in Islam: A proposal concerning Ethics in the
formative period. University of Virginia (Ph.D).

Kelsay, J. 1993. Islam and War- A Study in Comparative Ethics. Kentucky: Westminister/John
Knox Press.

Ma’sumi, M.S.H. 1985. Imam Razi's - 'Ilm al-Akhlaq. Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute.

McDonough, S. 1984. Muslim Ethics and Modernity. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.

Maududi, S.A.A. 1968. Ethical viewpoint of Islam. Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd.
 45 ICS2604/1

Muslehuddin, M. 1984. Morality its concept and role in Islamic Order. Lahore: Islamic
Publications Ltd.

Quasem, M.A. 1975. The Ethics of Al-Ghazzali. Malaysia: M.A. Quasem.

'Umaruddin, M. 1977. The Ethical philosophy of Al-Ghazzali. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf.

Rafi-ud-din, M. 1970. Ideology of the Future. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf.

 46

UNIT THREE
SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF ISLAM
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

Identify and explain Socio-Culture

Explain ISLAMIC CULTURE within the context, scope and depth of:
Ideals of the Islamic Culture
Attitude of Islamic Culture
Development of Islamic Culture
Analyse the basic SOCIAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM within the context, scope and
depth of:
Islamic Society
Economics in Muslim Society
Politics in Muslim Society
Status of Women in Muslim Society
Status of Non-Muslim in Muslim Society

1 INTRODUCTION

Very often the question is raised as to what are Muslim or Islamic culture and the evidence of
its existence. There was a time when such a question was inconceivable. Attempts from
various quarters are made to indicate the insignificance of Muslim culture and contribution to
the present state of modern civilization. It has caused uneasiness among Muslim intellectuals,
that the existence of Muslim culture in any dynamic form is now doubted and challenged.

The above question could be answered in a simple straight-forward manner from an

intellectual perspective, but it is found that the questions are not dictated by intellectual
inquisition. They are rather motivated by a check system, to test the Muslim’s desire to protect
the interests of his culture. We should remember that culture is like a living organism, which
evolves and often passes from one stage to another and from one nation to another.

In this section we will briefly try to understand the meaning of culture and the components of
the Islamic society.

2 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL AND CULTURE

The word ‘social’ may be defined when applied to humankind, to any behaviour and attitude
which is influenced by the experiences and behaviour of individuals within a society. The
society evolves and develops according to conditions and experiences prevalent.

The word ‘culture’ has acquired various definitions, some have emphasised on certain
components of culture and neglected other aspects. Others have confused the term ‘Culture’
and ‘Civilization’. Many would be simply astounded if they were asked the meaning, the
definition or to explain what they understood by the word culture. The terms ‘Culture’ and
‘Civilization’ are often used vaguely and indifferently, as synonymous with each other. Here we
will try to firstly understand the meaning of these two terms.

The etymological sense of the word is the cultivation of the human mind or its development by
training. Thus culture, in this sense, implies the intellectual development of the individual and
its manifestation in all aspects of life with which it is concerned. The mind and intellect is thus
the mainspring of culture, and it may be safely stated that what the condition of the mind is,
so will the outcome, mode and form of culture that it generates be expressed. Culture in this
manner becomes closely associated with life as a whole, whether it is on an individual or group
level. At a community or group level, it has a distinct attitude which is common to that
community and manifests itself in their language and literature, art and philosophy, its
 47 ICS2604/1

customs, etiquettes, rules and regulations and religious belief and rituals. It is these distinct
attitudes, from which flow the peculiarities and characteristics of the various nations on earth.

The basis of culture is an attitude of mind or a living idea, which inspires and moulds the life of
various people and nations. In reality it is an organism; it lives, evolves, decays or dies
according to the vitality which is inherent in the mind. The scope and duration of the culture
for good or bad depends on its vitality. We learn from the history of mankind, the rise and fall
of numerous cultures due to insufficient resistance power and the lack of a basis for an abiding
value system to human existence and life. There are some cultures that possess a greater
resistance power and therefore able to exist longer than others. It may be observed that most
of them operated on a religious or partial religious force. This may have been a legacy of
tradition, mythological, philosophical or based on Divine Revelation. It is these basic ideas
which inspire the activity of its adherents and form of culture.

Very often the term culture is confused with refinement. In this popular sense, culture is
understood as the trend and fashion of the day. It basically refers to the external and outward
expression of life; like dressing, in social mannerisms, material amenities of our daily lives,
luxuries and other outward signs of polished living conditions. These are mere outward states
of show and decoration but cannot necessarily be attributed to a refined state of mind.

The word ‘civilization’ has also a plethora of definitions presented by protagonists of various
civilizations. The etymological sense of ‘civilization’ should mean ‘the perfecting of civil life or
the inter-personal relations of a nation’. Civilisations are assigned positions of inferiority and
superiority according to their quality of perfection. The quality is determined by the
representation of organized social relations in civil life and the production of means that
happiness and strength in society on an equitable distribution amongst individuals in society.
Another condition of civilization is the process of perfection in the individual; his faculties, his
sentiments, his ideas making organized civil life humane and glorifies human nature.
Civilization ensures the progress of society and the progress of humanity. A society may be
perfected and developed and its distribution within itself equitable; but it may be a menace to
humanity as a whole. Therefore the society has to contribute to the progress of the individual
society as well as humanity at large.

3 ISLAMIC CULTURE

We come back to the question mentioned in the introduction of what are Muslim or Islamic
culture and its whereabouts. Islamic culture differs from other cultures that existed in that its
aim and object cannot be confined to the cultivation and evolvement of the individual. It has
been clearly stated that its aim is the cultivation of both the individual and the entire
humankind. Mere art works, literature and expansion of the Muslim world cannot be claimed to
be all that Islamic culture has achieved. Islam in the end aims for the cultivation and
establishment of a universal brotherhood of mankind.

(a) Basis of Islamic culture

The basis and essence of Islamic culture is the concept of 'Unity' or 'Tauhid'. This doctrine and
concept has been interpreted by many as the unity of Allah, unity of life and unity of life. The
idea of the belief in one Allah or monotheism is very prominently emphasized in the Qur'an
which repudiates any form and suggestion of duality or multiplicity of Godhead. That Allah and
Allah alone is the object of worship and submission is a major precept in all major monotheistic
Religions. Total submission and dedication to Allah and recognition of His Authority and
Sovereignty, is a means of freeing the individual and humanity from submission and dedication
to all forms of Authority and other objects; like kings, emperors or rulers, the gods of wealth
and power as well as influence. Thus the Unity of Allah plays an important role in the culture of
Muslims.
 48

Likewise, the Qur'an emphasises upon the essential unity of humankind. ‘Mankind was a single
nation, and Allah sent messengers with glad tidings; and with them sent down the Book in
truth, to judge between people in matters wherein they differed’ (Q11:23). Thus the Muslim
believes in the unity of mankind with regard to the source of creation, the single and original
parentage and the final destiny of mankind. The common parentage of all mankind is Adam
and Eve (Hawa) and every human being belongs and emanate from this single source.

Finally, all believe in the final destiny and return of all mankind is to Allah, the Creator and
Lord of the universe. Furthermore, the Muslim beliefs basically in the unity of all religions of
Allah, implying that Allah does not confine His special favours and message to any particular
nation, race or age. Thus there can be no basic contradiction and fundamental differences in
the Religion of Allah; which leaves no ground for pretentious supremacy or presumptive
exclusivity. These basic concepts provide society with a clear concept and basis of the
establishment of a unified community.

According to some Islamic Culture is not a name of any culture, but it denotes the name of
certain principles, formulas and rules as expounded by the Holy Qur'an, the Sunnah of the
Holy Prophet (peace be upon him), the interpretation of the jurists into different legal systems
and capable of assimilation and flexibility with the times and climes. The holders of this opinion
confine Islam to a specific life which has been prevalent in the past and hence any form of
change can upset Islamic culture and its value system. Whereas others view Islam as a
comprehensive religion embracing all facets of human life, capable of sustaining cultural
varieties in different times and climes, as Islam primarily has certain values and therefore
cannot be limited to any specific form of life. This does not mean that any norm and value can
be Islamic because is condition is that it fulfils the constitution of expressing the true Islamic
values.

(b) Salient features of Islamic culture

There are some distinctive features of the Islamic culture which is unique and enabled it to
play a creative and vital and decisive role in the history of human civilization. The salient
features:

(i) The Unity of The basic principle of Islam of the unity of Allah (Tauhid), as well
Allah: as, the unity, dignity and equality of mankind forms the basis of
Islamic culture.

(ii) Firm and Islam emphasizes and promotes the idea of a firm and everlasting
Lasting peace: peace to pervade the world. It also advocates scientific basis for
the advancement and achievement of peace at an individual,
societal and universal level.

(iii) Creative and This presupposes freedom from all forms of prejudices, ensures
reflective creative and reflective thinking. It also advocates a critical,
thinking: responsible and a fair and balanced approach in dealing with
different aspects of life and its multifarious issues and problems.

(iv) Critical It encourages critical research and observation of the phenomena

observation of of Nature, as well as, discovering and appreciating the Laws
Nature: governing Nature.

(v) Whole Nature It further encompasses the entire sphere of Nature and humanity
and Entire at large.
Humanity:

(vi) Liberation and Islam is liberal and dynamic in spirit, encompassing and embracing
Dynamism: the progressive and creative elements of all preceding cultures. At
the same time, it’s providing scope for further developments in
different aspects and facets of life.
 49 ICS2604/1

(c) Ideals of the Islamic culture

Islamic culture is an embodiment of ideals in the political, social, intellectual and moral
aspects. Briefly these ideals are surmised as:

(i) The Political The political ideal is the creation and organisation of a healthy
Ideal: community, which is guided by clearly defined laws and
institutions.

(ii) The Social The social ideal of Islam encourages and ensures the development
Ideal: of a certain pattern of life and social order wherein there is no
recognition of distinctions of creed, colour, financial status and
whatever other social grading in society, national or international.
In Islam supreme consideration is accorded to moral virtues and
the comprehensive and qualitative traits of character and
personality of the individual.

(iii) The Islam greatly emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge and wisdom
Intellectual and makes it incumbent upon every Muslim. It instills within them
Level: an ardent love of knowledge and its promotion, to such an extent
that it is considered more sacred than 'martyrdom'. The Holy
Qur'an and Tradition of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him)
encourage and emphasize the importance and status of learned
persons.

(iv) The Moral In the ethics of Islam the promotion of virtuous acts occupy a
Ideal: central position. Priority is accorded to the development of the
character and conduct and consideration for universal moral values.

The history of civilization bears testimony to the fact that

adherence, development and implementation of these ideals,
played a decisive role in the evolution of modern human civilization
and culture. Islam has also been responsible for the change to the
entire course of history. These ideals have a great influence on
25% of the entire world population and to many others indirectly.
The contribution and role of Islamic culture cannot be doubted.
 50

(d) Attitude of Islamic culture

A characteristic of Islamic culture is its sense of moderation. It is mentioned in the Holy

Qur'an: ‘Thus you have We made of you an Ummat justly balanced’. Q2:143) Islam
inculcates a sense of moderation in every aspect of the individual’s life. It warns Muslims
against extremes in attitudes; against all rigidities and radicalism as well as extravagance and
excessive even in matters of religion. The Qur’an says: ‘O People of Book! Commit no excesses
in your religion’ (Q 4: 171). The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) emphasized the
adoption of a middle course in approaching different facets of life.

Islam accommodates and reconciles different aspects of life. Many cultures of the world
emphasize only on a certain aspect of life at the expense of the others. On the other hand,
Islam harmonizes the mundane and material with the spiritual aspects of the human
personality and endeavours to reconcile the apparent conflicting demands of the ideal and
reality. The Islamic culture cannot be labelled as modern or ancient, Eastern or Western, or
any ism prevalent. It does not advocate renunciation of this world nor total engrossment in
worldly life, where one or the other is neglected.

This harmonization takes place at both the individual and collective level. It regulates the life
of neither the individual in such a way that neither the personality of the individual is corroded
and diminished in society nor the individual allowed to exceed the bounds to such an extent as
to be detrimental to the society. The purpose of life, at the individual and collective, is the
same, namely, the enforcement and execution of Divine Law and seeking the pleasure of Allah
in all activities. This form of assimilation has played an unprecedented role in the history of
human civilization.

(e) Development of Islamic culture

Islamic culture began from the time of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) in the early 7th
Century C.E. It began basically as a socio-moral movement based on the early revelations. The
early Qur'anic revelations started with the unity of Allah and the unity of mankind, nurturing
this basis to realise this basic institution of Islam. It gradually incorporated various basic
principles of socio-economic justice by granting and encouraging equal opportunity to all
Muslims. Later in the life of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him), the revelations and the
Traditions expanded to create further institutions which had both a spiritual, socio-moral-
economic purpose and function. The implementation of the institutions of prayer, Zakah and
Hajj (pilgrimage) not only led to the cohesive unity of Muslims but also evolved further social
and administrative institutions. It did not obliterate all Arab cultural traits but rather
incorporated certain elements that were within the principles of the Islamic value system.

The Muslims expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula and built a vast empire and naturally
they encountered new and diverse cultures of the more developed cultures of Persia and
Byzantine. The Persians contributed fresh elements to the development of Islamic culture; as
they embraced Islam in large numbers and became the intellectual hub of the new expansive
Muslim Empire, contributing to the administrative, social and spiritual. The Persians constituted
the intellectual elite of the new Muslim society and formed part of the administrative class of
the Muslim government. The advisors and government workers were mostly comprised of the
Persians known as Mawalis (clients), who exerted a great influence on the formative religio-
moral development of Islam. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries after Hiram, the famous scholars,
Qur’an reciters and ascetics were mostly prominent in the Persian sector. The Persians were
attracted to Islam by its egalitarianism and simplicity, which freed them from the oppressive
tyranny of the aristocratic rule of the Persian Emperors. They therefore left a permanent
impression of uncompromised anti-aristocratism and the ultra-frugality concept on Islam. They
were also able to assert the importance of the Persian language and gradually establish it as
lingua-franca and language of literary expression.
 51 ICS2604/1

This indicates the versatility, adaptability, compatibility and the expansiveness of the Islamic
culture. Thus we find the Persians were able to remain culturally autonomous and still remain
good Muslims.

What was amazing about this cultural development is that various cultures were able to
integrate without disturbing each others cultural elements but rather enriching each other. This
pattern of cultural development continued throughout the Muslim history but at the same time
it weakened the Arab impulse in due course and in the further outlying areas of the Muslim
world. As the Muslim rule expanded, the original basis of Islam made less impact on the
masses as these norms were now received via second and third hand value systems. It is a
fact that Islam expanded to the Indian sub-continent, Central Asia and Africa through the
efforts of the Sufis rather than the ‘Ulema and political rulers. Islam thus spread more through
its social order and political hegemony than by conquest.

Islamic culture encompasses and covers a panorama of life and effectively remains Islamic and
yet accommodates for all the diversity. This can be true only if we may understand Islam to be
a way of responding and adapting to norms and values according to situations. The varying
environments and conditions in different parts of the world should essentially be different but
at the same time exhibit a moral value which is inherent in Islam. The form may differ but the
essence will remain identical with the Islamic value system. Islam essentially desires the
promotion of a healthy, progressive social order under transcendental norms and values. If any
society does not promote such an order, it cannot be called an Islamic society in the true
sense.

The study of exact sciences like Medicine, Chemistry and so forth; was begun by the Muslims
in the Umayyad rule. These sciences were extent and developed by previous nations like the
Greeks, Persians and Indians before the advent of Islam. Therefore the Muslims had to first
acquire the existing knowledge available by translating them into Arabic and then proceed to
undertake further research in these fields. The Firdausul-Hikmat of Al-Tabari (810-890) and
the al-Hawi of Al-Razi (d. 925) give a comparative study of Greek and Indian systems of
medicine, as well as, the writer’s personal opinions and criticism of the principles applied in
these systems.

Later the various Islamic sciences were translated into Latin and studied by the people in
Europe. Along with other Islamic Sciences, Muslim Law was also studied by the people in
Spain, Naples and Sicily and terms modified to Latin. Hence the resemblance between Muslim
Law and Roman law, misleading many orientalists to claim that the former was affected by the
Roman Law, whereas the reverse is the fact. They further introduced Astronomy, Mathematics,
Philosophy, Medicine, surgery, geography and other sciences.

Besides their role in the various sciences, Islam played an important part in changing the
modes of living, social rites and rituals, as well as, religious doctrines of the people in the East.
To this day, the influence and impact of Islamic culture is evident in many Muslim countries,
Africa, Eastern countries, India and certain parts of Europe.

4 SOCIAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM

(a) Concept of society in Islam

Society in Islam is an organisation formed according to Divine Law, for the purpose of
harmonious and peaceful coexistence. It is a synthesis of the spiritual and material life where
the Unity of Allah is being expressed in the Unity of mankind. Thus the Islamic social order is
based on Divine revelation contained in the Qur'an, received by the Prophet (peace be upon
him) which lays the foundation for world-unity in the principle of Tauhid (Unity of Allah).

Societal life could be considered as an organic whole, as all aspects of life are taken as
component parts of a body, therefore what afflicts a portion thereof afflicts the entire society
 52

(body). The Divine Law precedes other laws in Muslim society and keeps it in control. It is
unlike many societies, where law is formulated to subserves the interest of its members and
changes according to change in society.

The family is the basic social unit from which arises and form into societies, tribes and nations.
Whereas the Islamic society does not arise a family and kinship group but originates in the
immutable Divine Law which is devised for the wholesome life of the individual and society.
Thus every individual in Islam, is a social unit as he himself becomes a centre of social activity
and relations; where his relationship depends on him, on his actions and personal qualities and
this also affects his activities and modifies his personal traits and characteristics.

Islam primarily protects and cares for the individual and ensures the full development of his
personality to enable him to contribute to the welfare of society. It lays emphasis on character-
building through the teachings and code of life as stipulated in Islam.

In Islam, humanity is treated as a single family, descended from Adam (upon whom be peace)
and Hawa (Eve), a single pair of a male and female. The individual has the freedom of thought
and action and is respected as a distinct person. These individuals form society and a part of
the universal nation. The distinction of tribes, races and nations are mere convenient labels to
recognise different characteristics, (Q 49:13) but not as a means to assert their superiority
over others. The standard for superiority is righteousness and good character. Thus
righteousness is the standard of greatness in the Holy Qur'an, exhorting to ‘co-operate and
assist one another in righteousness piety and not in sin and rancour’. Such a co-operation is
part of the basis of a healthy Islamic society.

The Islamic society is a justly balanced and free from any form of extremity on side, virtue or
sin. The Holy Qur'an says: ‘Thus we moulded you into a justly balanced society, that you may
be witnesses against mankind and the messenger may be a witness against you.’ (Q2:143)
The importance of the new Islamic society in the Arab world cannot be exaggerated. It was
able to rid Arab society of the root of evils prevalent; where the brotherhood of mankind was
forgotten, justice and peace had no place in society. In fact the world then was in a state of
chaos and corruption.

There was a need felt for a universal social system based on the concept of Tauhid (Unity of
Allah), and to form a single brotherhood based on a moral society according to Divine Law. The
task of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was to deliver a universal message and
for all times. It professed to provide a political and legal system as well as a spiritual and social
concept, which combined the total personality and facets of life, denying the separation of the
temporal and spiritual aspects.

The role of the Prophet (peace be upon him) was to guide humanity to the right path, the path
of virtue which leads to noble and peaceful life in this world and bliss in the Hereafter. When in
the third year of his Prophet hood, the Prophet (peace be upon him) was commanded to warn
and preach to his people on the Unity of Allah and against idolatry, his own people opposed
and subjected him to cruel persecution, ostracized and even planned to assassinate him. This
led to his migration to Yathrib (Medina) and the beginning of a new era in Muslim and
universal history.

Thus dawned a new era which was filled with wars and victories, the establishment and
nurturing of a new state and world order over a period of ten years. He purged the society of
the evils, destroyed idolatry, gave women a higher status in society, restored to man his
dignity and individuality, prohibited the state of drunkenness and immorality and at the same
time established a universal human brotherhood. Never was there was an opportunity for
mankind to come closer together and form themselves into a single family, everyone a brother
unto every other and responsible for the welfare of the whole.
 53 ICS2604/1

(b) Meaning of “social”

The word “social” in the strict sense refers to mutual relations of people within a specific
society. When dealing with the social system of Islam, we have to take into consideration
firstly the main characteristics of an Islamic society; that is dependent on the outcome of the
Divine Islamic Law which governs the entire sphere of Islamic life- the social, economic,
political, gender and other aspects of life. Islamic society is reflected in an image of Islam
which regulates the inter-relation of men on the basis of piety and goodwill.

The Islamic social system encompasses a whole range of inter-connected social relations and
the success of such a system depends upon the law which controls the interaction and dealings
within a society. Islamic Law is Divine endowment of Allah that stands for the integration of
society and ensures justice and fair dealings in all spheres of activity. The entire Law is
permeated by religious and ethical considerations; each institution, activity, transaction, or
obligation is judged by religious standards and moral rules and regulations. For example, there
was concern for equality, justice and fairly, honest dealings in business; the prohibition of
interest, in state policy and human relations with parents, kindred and needy; abstinence form
immoral activities such as adultery, deceit, false promise, etc.

Thus Islam is a world order and whoever adopts Islam becomes an integral part of its society.
It is reckoned a world force adapted to changing conditions of every age. It does not imply
that Islam changes with the changing conditions but rather accommodates the changing needs
of society according to broad principles of Islam. It is accommodative to all spheres of life; the
economic, political and others according to the varying needs of society and impresses upon it
a universal character. (Q7:158) The Holy Qur'an addresses mankind as a whole, without
distinction of race, religion and creed and at the same time gives guidance in all spheres of
life-spiritual, temporal, individual and collective.

Our lives and the problems that we encounter these days seem to all centres around the
economic and political situation prevalent in our societies. Here we would not go into detail
regarding these two aspects, as there is a study module (ICS2036) which deals with them in
greater detail. However as part of the Islamic Social System we would add a few notes.

(c) Economic in Muslim society

The Economic system of Islam has a philosophy which is neither Capitalism, nor Communism,
nor Socialism but rather a harmonious blend of the spiritual and material. Islam unlike pre-
Islamic religions regulates the needs of society, means of livelihood, their ways of earning and
spending. Islam discards any form of extremeness and adopts the mean route based upon the
best basic principles of morality

Islam instills within individuals the feeling of fraternity and love for others, which result in him
taking pleasure in good deeds and adopt an attitude of selflessness, and rids society of
economic ills, selfishness and crime. Therefore an Islamic State or society is primarily
concerned with the basic needs, comfort and welfare of others. The affluent are reminded to
be mindful of their needy fellow men, not to hoard wealth but to circulate for the development
of trade and economics.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his companions have presented their
solution to economic problems through self-sacrifice and adhering to socio-moral principles.
The example of self-sacrifice is displayed by the brotherly ties between the Ansars (helpers) of
Medina and the Muhajirs (Migrants) of Mecca, as witnessed in the early Islamic society. The
Islamic economic system is based on Divine Law and the teachings and practice of the Prophet
(peace be upon him).

Islam demands an equitable distribution of wealth among all members of society. This is based
on the principle that Allah is the provider of everything and intrinsically wealth belongs to Him
 54

and the talent and acumen of an individual in the production of wealth is an Allah-given gift.
Hence Allah claims a share in his wealth and enjoins that he should share it with those in need
and the welfare of the society.

(i) Principles of Islamic economics

The principle of economics as emanate from the Holy Qur'an:

a) Allah is the provider of wealth to man and is thus the Owner of all things an individual
possesses.

b) The Muslim to seek a place in Paradise in the Hereafter by means of wealth. He must
spend his wealth in charity and good deeds to earn for the individual a place in
Paradise.

c) He should not discard his portion in this world. He should work hard to earn a living and
enrich himself by honest and lawful means.

d) He should do good to others as Allah has been favourable to him. He should fulfill his
obligations to the entire society, by abstaining from hoarding wealth, help and promote
his Muslim brothers in need.

e) At the same time he should avoid unlawful activities in his acquisition of wealth and
spread mischief (fitna) in the world. He has to abstain from sinful actions which include
unjustified and unlawful means of enrichment (riba), unfair transactions, fraud,
falsehood and all other forms of illegal scams.

(ii) Doctrine of economic trust

The Holy Qur'an reminds the wealthy persons that they are mere trustees of Allah for the poor
(Q 5 7 : 7 ) , for in their wealth is a right of the needy and deprived persons ( Q 5 1 : 1 9 ) .
Therefore those who continue to hoard wealth and disregard these rights are warned of a
severe punishment (Q 9 : 3 4 ), while they are assured of great rewards from Allah, if they are
generous and spend of their wealth in charity (Q 2 : 2 7 4 ) . Islam encourages charity and highly
rewards those who are charitable.

Since the wealthy are trustees of the Allah-given wealth, the state is empowered to ensure
that this Divine trust is properly and honestly administered and to impose taxes upon the
wealthy to supplement their finances for the welfare of society.

Islam emphasizes moderation and a justly balanced attitude in all facets of our life. High moral
standards are prescribed for the pursuit of wealth. The Prophet (peace be upon him) advised
that a person should moderate in his pursuit of wealth, by taking what is lawful to us and avoid
the unlawful. Islam stresses honest living and has laid rules and regulations for earning and
spending of wealth in moderation. The Muslim bears in mind that all things in this world and
heaven belongs to Allah (Q16:52). Therefore, men as a trustee for His creation, the needy
and poor is called upon to spend from his excess wealth and give others their rightful share (Q
51:19). This is what we mean by “Economic Trust”, the promise by Allah to provide
sustenance to all, directly or indirectly through these agents (Trustees).

(iii) Justice and honesty

Justice and honesty are also basic principles of all transactions and it is sinful and immoral to
obtain wealth by fraudulent means, dishonesty and other evil - business practices. The idea of a
single brotherhood in itself negates the exploitation of one another. The person is not allowed
to squander his wealth for personal enjoyment, but be utilised for increasing wealth by
economic use (of trade and circulation).
 55 ICS2604/1

(d) Politics in Muslim society

Politics is a science which deals with the structure, organization and administration of the
state. The Islamic state has to conform to the spirit of the Islamic way of life. Its chief concern
should be the promotion of righteous living and its ideal be the enforcement of Divine Law. The
leader or head of the state is a vicegerent of Allah (Khalifah) and has delegated powers and
cannot be autocratic nor beyond the law. He has to obey Divine Law and is accountable.

Islam does not separate the state from religious activity. It does not concern only our relations
with Allah but also relations with others in society and nation. It is obvious that Islam does not
present details about the structures of government, election and other administrative issues,
as these are appropriately decided according to time and place within the broad principles of
Islam.

Allah is the Sovereign of Islamic state (Q57:7). The task of the Caliph or Head of the state is
to simply to enforce the Divine law and to adhere to it himself as a member of the state. His
purpose is not to only rule but to serve the community at large, and is accountable to Allah for
the welfare of the people.

The purpose of Islamic state is to endow humanity with a good life. Righteous life is living in
conformity with Divine Laws. The Holy Qur'an is the code of right conduct which enables men
to establish the Will of Allah on earth and lead mankind to its final noble destiny. Righteous life
cannot be achieved unless society is purged of evils and virtue prevails.

The Holy Qur'an contains directives for the State policy, as revealed towards the end of the
Meccan period and a new era was to be ushered in the early Medinite period. (Q17:23-39) The
moral law expounded in these verses lays the foundation for a healthy good society and
nation. It takes into consideration all aspects of life and all groups of people.

(e) Women in Muslim society

In Islam, women are considered equal with men in their rights to own property and dispose of
it as they wish, and enter into contracts. They enjoy economic independence and enjoy equal
human status with men.

The fundamental principle, to be applied regarding women, is that they must be held in
honour, the mother that bore us must be forever revered, and the wife as the best companion
should be well treated. The Holy Qur'an appeals to the solidarity of mankind, the rights of
women pertaining to marriage, property and inheritance. Gender distinction which is a natural
physical distinction, does not apply to spiritual matters. The reward for both sexes for their
good actions is similar, whether male or female. In fact the position of woman as mother is
highly exalted by the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him): ‘Paradise lies underneath the feet of
mothers’. There are many other traditions which relate to the position of women and the good
attitude to adopt towards them. The Holy Qur'an enjoins to be kind to his parents and
particularly to the mother who bore him in pain and pain did she give him birth. (Q46:15).

(N.B. For more details on this aspect you are encouraged to study ICS3029 on Gender
studies in Muslim society)

(f) Non-Muslims in Muslim society

If we refer to the early Medinite society, the constitution of the state of Medina was a
confederacy as it comprised of Muslims and non-Muslims; in which beliefs of non-Muslims and
their freedom to propagate their religion was safeguarded. It was a covenant between Muslims
and Jews and even pagans were included in the pact. It was a pact for defence of Medina and
eventually paved the way for a world order and laid the basis for the formation of an
 56

international organisation to establish peace. We have to note that prior to this pact, there was
a period of persecution and oppression towards Islam.

Later the Muslims were granted permission of Allah to fight against the aggressors. In the wars
necessitating military service for the newly established Medinite State, the non-Muslims were
exempted from participation in it on payment of a small tax (jizyah) and their life and property
was guaranteed. Thus we find the non-Muslim minorities were assured the security of life and
property, and freedom of religion in the Muslim states.

ACTIVITY
You have now read a few other books on Islamic Socio-Cultural aspect. Before reading further,
you should make sure that you can answer the following questions:

?
(1) Definition of 'social' and 'culture'.
(2) Give the basis, ideals and salient features of Islamic Culture.
(3) Discuss the development of Islamic Culture.
(4) Write on the concept of society in Islam.
(5) Discuss the economic, political, gender in Muslim Society.
 57 ICS2604/1

ADDITIONAL READING ON EDUCATION IN ISLAM

Below is a list of books that will be useful reading to give you further information
into Islamic Education. Please note, you are not obliged to read them but its perusal
will be beneficial.

Al-Faruqi, I.R. 1986. Cultural Atlas of Islam. New York: Macmillan; London: Collier Macmillan.

Bannerman, J.P. 1988. Islam in perspective: a guide to Islamic society, politics and Law. New
York: Routledge.

Bhatia, H.S. 1989. Studies in Islamic law, religion and societ . New Delhi: Deep & Deep
Publications.

Cambridge History of Islam. 1977. Cambridge U.P. London: Longmans.

Charnay, J.P. 1971. Islamic culture and socio-economic change. Leiden: Brill.

Fluehr-Lobban, C. 1994. Islamic society in Practice. Gainesville, Fla.: University Press of

Florida.

Islamic Congress. 1964. Islamic Culture: A few angles. Karachi: Umma Publishing House.

Islamic Council of Europe. 1982. Islam and contemporary society. London; New York:
Longman.

Lambton A.K.S. (et al) 1970. The Further Islamic lands, Islamic society and civilization.
London: Cambridge University Press.

Lambton A.K.S. (et al) 1977. Islamic society and civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Nasr, S.H. 1967. Islamic studies: essays on law and society, the sciences, and philosophy and
Sufism. Beirut: Librairie du Liban.

Pickthall, M.W. 1961. The Cultural Side of Islam. Lahore: Ashraf

'Umari, A.D. 1991. Madinan society at the time of the Prophet . Herndon, VA: International
Institute of Islamic Thought.