1959 PROCEEDINGS OF T'HE IRE 1325

The Radiansphere Around a Small Antenna *

HAROLD A. WHEELERt, FELLOW, IRE

Summary-The "radiansphere" is the boundary between the and loss resistance, hence the radiationi efficieiicy. The
near field and the far field of a small antenna. Its radius is one mutual impedance between small dipoles is simple anid
radianlength (X/2Xr), at which distance the three terms of the field are useful but seldom stated; here it is analyzed illto the
equal in magnitude. A "small"antenna is one somewhat smaller than
the radiansphere, but it has a "sphere of influence" occupying the three kinds of impedance components (C, R, L), anid
radiansphere. The power that theoretically can be intercepted by a is formulated directly in terms of the mean radiation
hypothetical isotropic antenna is that which flows through the radian- resistance of the sending and receiving antennas.
sphere or its cross section, the "radiancircle." After a list of symbols, the presentationl will start
From a small electric dipole, the far field of radiation is identified with a brief reference to each prinicipal conicept, stated
as a retarded magnetic field. Between two such dipoles, the far
mutual impedance is that of mutual inductance, expressed in terms in the terminology to be used here.
of space properties and the radiansphere.
A small coil wound on a perfect spherical magnetic core is con- SYMBOLS
ceived as an ideal small antenna. Its radiation power factor is equal (MKS units: meters, seconds, watts, volts, amnperes,
to the ratio of its volume over that of the radiansphere. A fraction of ohms, henries, farads.)
this ratio is obtainable in various forms of small antennas (C or L)
occupying a comparable amount of space. I=length of small dipole (1K<X/2r)(1<<r)
A radiation shield, in the form of a conducting shell the size of the r =radial distance (r>>l)
radiansphere, enables separate measurement of radiation resistance h -height above plane
and loss resistance.
a= radius of sphere (inductor)
A =area of small loop
INTRODUCTION A = interception area of antennia
HE subject of small antennas deals with the V=volume (of sphere)
problems of effective radiation and interception 'X - wavelength
by structures whose dimensions are much less X/27r - radianlength
than onie wavelength. This assumption of small size re- f =cycle frequency
w = 27rf =radian frequency
duces to simplest terms the antenna properties and the
resulting limitations in practical applications. The con-
Z =impedance (complex)
cepts and rules to be presented are readily appreciated R -resistance (radiation)
and easily retained for future reference. L = in-ductance
The scope of this paper is limited to some principles C = capacitance
and viewpoints that are elementary but have not pre- I = current
viously been integrated and clearly presented. They V = voltage
come from various sources and have been assembled by
E =electric field
the writer in the course of occasional studies and design II= magnetic field
experience for widely diversified purposes over the past Pi =power radiated from sending antenina
15 years or so. P2= power available from receiving antenna
Several concepts appear to have been original with Ro= 377 -wave resistance of square area of plane
the writer, although based on well-known principles, wave in free space
The "radiansphere" is developed to describe the bound- p-omagnetivity in free space
ary of the transition between near field and far field,
C-=electrivity in free space
and is given significance as the "sphere of influence." km magnetic ratio (in core of inductor)
The "radiancirele" is the interception area of the hypo- n = number of turns (in coil of inductor)
thetical isotropic radiator. The "radiationi power fac- p R/wL = power factor (radiation)
tor," previously introduced by the writer, is formulated g power ratio of directivity
for an idealized spherical antenna much smaller than sub-a = inductor sphere
the radianisphere. The "radiation shield," a spherical sub-r =radian sphere
conductor located at the radian sphere, is presented to sub- 1 , 2 = sending, receiving (antennas)
enable separate determinationi of radiation resistance sub-1 2 =mutual (between antennas)
==subject to retardation by distance angle
*
Original manuiscript received by the IRE, December 23, 1958; BASIC CONCEPTS
revised man-uscript received, April 14, 1959. This topic has been pre- Radiansphere
senited to meetings of graduate seminars in electrical engineering at
Johns Hopkinis Uniiv., Baltinmore, Md.; December 2, 1954; anid at
Polytech. Injst of Brooklyni, Brooklyh N. Y.; October 12, 1956.
The radiansphere is a hypothetical sphere havinig a
radius of on-e radianlength from the center of an antenna
,

t WVheeler Labs., Great Neck, N. Y.

1326 PROCEEDINGS OF TIIL IRE A. ugust

much smaller than the sphere. Physically, it marks the

transition between the "near field"' inside and the "far
field" outside. While sending, the radiation field com-
send
II t
2 2 r2ceive
prises stored energy and radiating power, the former II 212 1
predominating in the near field and the latter in the far = r -------P

field. The radiansphere is a measure of the "sphere of

influence" of the antenna. It is a convenient reference I1z12 = v2 t2E2 - V2
for all radial distances. Fig. IDefinuition of mutual impedance between
two small electric dipoles.
Radiancircle
The radiancircle is the projection of the radiansphere the power iniput to the first (P2/P1). For present pur-
and, conceived as such, is the interception area of the poses, the associated corinectioni circuits are assunied to
hypothetical isotropic radiator (to be defined) [21. be free of dissipationi. The second antenna delivers the
available power if its resistance is matched to a load ie
Radianlength sistaiice while tuning out the reactance of both. If tie
The radianlength is 1/2r wavelength (denoted X/2r) anteninas are separated far enough to give low efficiency,
which appears in mnany formulas for antennias and the efficiency may be expresscd simriply in ternms of the
waves. Its principal significance is its role as the radius radiatiotn resistance of both anten.nas and the m:aagnitude
of the radiansphere and radiaiicircle. Any leingth dimenw of niiutual immpedance therebetweet (Ri, R2, It], IZ12)
siotn (1) may be eppressed in terms of its ratio over the [2], [4].
radianlength (2X1/X)*
Isotrope
Wave Resistance The isotropic radiator or isotrope is onie which is con
The wave resistance of free space (R=-120w 377 ceived to radiate the same in all directions over the
ohms) is the apparent resistance (V/I or E£II) of a sphere in space. It is physically realizable in longitudiinal
square area of a plane wave in free space. It may be in- waves (sulch as sound) but iiot iii transverse waves (such
cluded in any impedance formula to provide the re- as radio). In any case, it is a helpful concept as a ref
quired dimension (ohms) in a significant and convenient erence for evaluating directivity [ 2, [4].
form. For example, the reactance of an inductor usually
iclutdes the factor yAo, for which may be substituted Directivity
Ro(2mr/X); the latter more directly provides the samine The usual antennas concentrate their radiated power
dimensions, ohms per meter [51. in soi-ie part of the sphere in space. In the direction of
greatest concentration, the power ratio of directivity (g)
Small Antenna has its maximum value (greate- than unity). Inversely,
A "small" antenna is one which is much smaller than we may say that effectively llg of the sphere is filled
the radiansphere. Conversely, it is one operatiiig at a with radiation. The doughnut pattern of a small dipole
frequency so low that its sphere of influence is much fills 2/3 of the sphere, so g 3/2 [2] [4]
greater than its size. It is characterized by a small
power factor of radiation, meaning that its radiation re Electric Dipole
sistance is much less than the principal componen-t of its The electric dipole is one that radiates by virtue of a
self-reactance. A small antenna is usually a simple elec- current flowing in a length of conductor anid returiirng
tric or magnetic dipole. The near field depends oii which through the capacitance in the surrounding space. By
kind of dipole, while the far field is the same for either reciprocity, when exposed to an electric field, it receives
kind. The electric dipole is a current element physically an induced voltage propoirtional to its length. It is the
realizable, while the magnietic dipole is a flux elenen.t simplest type of radiator for theoretical analysis.
simulated by a current loop [51, [6]
Magnetic Dipole
Mutual Impedance The magnetic dipole is one that radiates by virtue of
Fig. 1 shows the defilnition of the complex mutual iun magnetic flux from the dipole returning through the
pedance (Z12) between two electric dipoles (as examples surrounding space. It is realized by curient in a coil of
of small antennas). It includes the attenuation of ampli- conductor having a certain total area of coaxial turns.
tude and the retardation of angle with the distance It is distinguishedl from the electric dipole in that the
from sendinrg antenna to receiving atntenna [2], [31 current returns in the coiductor and riot in the space
capacitance. Its radiatiorl may be computed by regard
Efficiency ing each small element of conduc tor as an electric
This is here defined as the maximum efficiency of dipole. Some, but not all of the general properties to be
transmission from a first antenna to a second. It is equal stated for the electric dipoie are valid also for the mag-
to the ratio of the power available from the second over netic dipole.
1959 Wheeler: Radiansphere Around a Small Antenna 1327
FAR COMPONENT OF MUTUAL IMPEDANCE In this formula, the length of the dipole is expressed as
At radial distances much greater than the radian- a fraction of the radianlength (2wrl/X).
length, the dominant component of mutual impedance Four such small dipoles may form the basis for com-
is the one caused by the far field of radiation. Its magni- puting the radiation resistance of a small square loop
tude may be computed from the mutual inductance (of area A1-112). In a direction parallel to onie pair of
between current elements. In doing this, we consider sides, only the other pair radiate and they nearly canicel
only the magnetic field, ignoring the electric field. The each other. The residual far field is 2W7rl/ X of that of onie
only deficiency is the absence of the retardation caused side because this is the angle of the difference of their
by the interaction of both fields. distance and retardation. The directive pattern is that
Referring to Fig. 1, the mutual inductance between of a small magnetic dipole which, like the small electric
the two short current elements is given by the Neumann dipole, fills 2 of the sphere in space. Therefore the radia-
formula (Ramo-Whinnery), [91: tioni resistance of the loop is that of one side, multiplied
by the power ratio (2wli/ X)2.
1112
LI2 =- 80-
4wr (1) 2 R0 /2l7r 4\4 2 14
R= 20
3 47r\ X
From this is computed the mutual impedance, expressed
in terms of wave quantities: A, - 2
= 20
(X/27r) 2 (6)
Ro 1112 1112 1112
Z121 = wL12 =
4r r(X/2ir)
Ro-= 60r
2rX rX
(2)
The strength of the equivalent magnetic dipole is pro-
The 4r in the denominator appears when formulating portional to the area (Al). If there are several parallel
a spherical problem in terms of rationalized (cylindrical) turns carrying the same current (II), the effective area
units. It is notable that all length dimensions appear in is the total area of all turns.
ratios, while the impedance dimension is provided by
Ro. EFFICIENCY IN TERMS OF INTERCEPTION AREA
The phase angle of inductive reactance and the re- The available-power efficiency (if small) is simply
tardation by distance are easily added to this forrmula, formulated fromi the radiation quanitities:
as will be shown below in a complete formula.
In radial directions different from Fig. 1, the mag- P2 Z12 2
netic-field coupling is opposed in some degree by elec- P1 --*
4R]R2 ~~~~~~~(7)
tric-field coupling to give the characteristic doughnut
pattern. Substitutinig for these quantities in termis of lenigth di-
menisions, and generalizinig each R by chaniging from 1
RADIATION RESISTANCE to 1 g:
Since the radiation resistance is determined by the PS 1 / X\2 r(X/27r)2
radiated power in the far field, it can be computed from - glg292 = glg2
the simple formula for mutual impedance. We use also Pi 4 \2wr/ 47rr2
the concept that the doughnut pattern fills only 3 of area of radian circle
the sphere. The radiation field is = glg2 (8)
area of distance sphere
.

V2 Z1211 Ro 11
The last two forms were discovered by the writer [2];
12 12 4w r(X/27x) * (3)
the first form was published by Friis [4].
The radiated power, which determines the radiation re- Fig. 2 illustrates this rule for the basic simple case of
sistance (R1), is computed as the product of 3 the two isotropes, while Fig. 3 does the same for the more
area of the distance sphere times the power density of genieral case, exemplified by two small dipoles.
radiation outward througlh this sphere. Since sending and receiving are reciprocal functions,
it is niatural to identify the interception area of each onie.
2 This is diagramed in Fig. 3, showing the area each pre-
Pi = R I, 12 =-3 (4wrr2) E2 2/Ro senits to the other. Letting this area be A =gw(X/27r)2 =g
radiancircles, for each antenna, the efficiency becomes
2 R0 2irlm 2
[2], [4]:
3 4w ;x)hI 4
P2 A1A2 A1A2
The radiation resistance is therefore Pi (4wrr2)r(-X/2r) 2 r2X2
2 Ro /2w71\2 /2wli\2 (sending area) (receiving area)
R-=- -- = 20V-. (5) (9)
3 47w\X/' (distance sphere) (radiancircle)
138 PROCEEDINGS OF TfE IRE A utguSt

2~~~~~~~
h ~~~I-
Fig. 49Intermeldiate area of interception for two
antenriias over plane ground.
Fig. 2 Area of interception for two isotropes.
If the area is covered by mainy dipoles pitched 2 wavve
lenigth in a rectangular array, the power ratio of direc
tivity is seenL to be wr tiunes the num-riber of dipoles.
Two anitennas may be located above the ground at
heights so low that there is near-cancellation of dire t
a-id reflected waves. Fig. 4 shows the geomietry of suclI
g x a-rea of rad-Janc rcl.e a case. It is assumed that the path difference is less than
(g = 3/<2) onie radianilength (h1h2<r_X/4r) aind that the ground is
Fig. 3-Area of in-terception-i for two small dipoles. a flat surface with a reflectioni coefficienit of inin-ius onet
(which is typical of ii-nperfect conductors near girazinig
iincidernce). ft can be showni that
By the simple formulas, twio isotropes at a distanxce of
one radianlength have a coupling efficiency of '. This 2 h l2 --_ P2 /11h1 2
is approximately valid, being in the transition between IZ 21//2
r2
V\Iglg2RR2R 1 Agl g2 (I

high and low efficiency. In general, this occurs at a

distanice of V/g1g2 radianlengths, by (8). At lesser dis- Taking the partial distances as showni
tanices, the interaction- complicates the formula for
efficicCy. hi1. h
The mutual impedance may be expressed in terms of
el = r -2
1 + /2
1'r
1I1+ I
(I
the values of radiation resistance by rearranging (7)
ainid (8). The iiiterniiediate height (h1) is that of the direct liue
over the poilit of refiecrtloll
Z12 |= 2VRV\P2RP1 -
27rr VgigiRrR (10) 2/1112
11 + 1A
//l + //2
/h ==
-I(t 'hi + -1 k). (14)
This is a corollary to the theoretn of ir-terceptiori area
[2]. It was inidependently discovered by Huintoon at This is taken as the radius of an intermediate circular
NBS during the war while studying the problem of area. It is found that the transmissioni efficienicy is the
proximity fuzes [3]. product of two values, one computed by (9) from the
The receiving antenna ieradiates an amount of power first antenna to the intermediate circle, an-d the other
equal to the available power it delivers to the matched from this circle to the secoind antenna. The proxii ity
load. If instead the an-tenna is tunied without addinig any of the ground has the effect of ani initetrmediate aperture
resistance, the received current is doubled. The second as shown.
anteinna then reradiates four times its available power.
This rule is limited to a small anitenna. ALL COMPONENTS OF Mti\ITUAIl IMPEDIL)NCE
A large flat array with a reflector can be designed to
intercept all the power incident on its area. Its power In Fig. 13 the complex mutual impedance of two small
ratio of directivity, by comparison with the isotope, is dipoles has three ter-iis at distances muuch greater tha'i
theni the ditension of the dipoles but not niecessarily greater
than the radiatilength. These componetnts are readily
area 47r(area) area
derived fron-m the formula foi the transverse electric,
7r(X/2-x) I X2 radiancircle field giveni in textbooks

Ro j27r1i j27irl2 - / 2 \3 x 2 x j2rr(_

Z12=2__ +
4r x j27rr
__
\j2irr
+
\2
__
rr/i
exp ~~~~~~~~(15)
(ohms) (length (C) (R) (L) (retard)
(sphere) angles) (distance angle)
1959 Wheeler: Radiansphere Around a Small Antenna 1329

The coefficient in front of the brackets [ ] is equal to

- 1YVR1R2, in terms of radiation resistance. In Ramo- 1/J< 1:/jue12+c
Whinnery [9] is found an expression which emphasizes
the significance of the three components (C, R, L); this R1 1
12 | 2

expression is revised as follows to give the three com- RoLl J RL12 j2vrr'
ponents the dimensions of impedance:
1112
Z12 (l/joEor + Ro + jcowor) exp - j2-xr/X. (16)
47rr2
21 212
This form is instructive and is also useful for evaluating
the equivalent circuit elements (C, R, L). The preceding Fig. 5-Network equiivalent to two small electric dipoles.
form (15) is the ultimate in dimensional simplicity.
Fig. 5 shows the network equivalent to two small 21221 relativveto value
dipoles, giving a breakdown of the three components of at one raadianlength
mutual impedance, and their variation with distance
(r). They are marked (*) to denote that they are subject
to retardation with distance.
Fig. 6 shows the variation of the three components
with distance. At a distance of one radianlength, the near field
three componients are equal in magnitude, so that first
and third cancel, leaving only the resistance. At lesser 2Tr
distances, the capacitive coupling predominates; at
greater distances, the inductive coupling predominates,
as derived above for the far field. (logarithmic scale s)
In any other direction, these components are modi-
fied. The far componenit disappears if either dipole is in
line with the radial distance.

SPHERICAL SMALL ANTENNA

Fig. 6-Variation of com--ponents of mutual impedance.
In relation to a spherical wave and the radiansphere,
the ideal shape of a small antenna might be spherical. Therefore the radiation power factor is
There is one such antenna that is significant. It is a
"magnetic dipole" simulated by a spherical inductor 27rv 3 1
P RlwL =( ) 1 + 2 /km
[10], [12].
=

Fig. 7 shows such an inductor. Its winding is pitched

uniformly in the axial direction. Its core may be filled volume of inductor sphere 1
volume of radiansphere 1 + 21kmzb
(20)
with magnetic material (kin).
If the length of wire is much less than the resonant This relation reaches the ultimiate simplicity for the
length, the magnetic field inside is uniform, and outside ideal case of a perfect magnetic core (km= c) so that
has the same pattern as that of a small magnetic dipole. there is no stored eniergy inside the coil. This limiltilg
(Such an inductor is men-tioned by Maxwell but is case is represenited in Fig. 8.
seldom found in the more recent literature; the writer The radiansphere may be regarded as a hypothetical
made use of this concept about 1941.) inductor whose internal energy is the stored energy of
The inductance of this sphere is the magnetic field, and whose external eniergy is the
21r 1 radiating power. The small antennia radiates by virtue
L =- owan2 (17) of its coefficient of coupling with the radiansphere; the
3 1 + 2/km
above ratio (20) is proportional to the square of this
Its radiation resistance is coefficienit of coupling.
2r /2wa 4/ 1 \ 2 PRACTICAL SMALL ANTENNAS
R =-Ro2 (I \1+2 ) (18) In a previous paper, the writer has treated the topic
3 I ikm
of practical small antennas [5]. Special emphasis was
Its in-ductive reactance is placed on the role of the volume occupied by the ani-
tenna in determining its radiation power factor. A
2r 27ra 1
cylindrical volume was taken as a basis for comparing
wL= R0n2 (19)
3 x 1 + 2/kmn electric dipoles with magnetic dipoles (air-core coils).
1330 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE A ugust

core, while the former caanot be increased by any

ktnown materials.
The coinparisoii with air coi-es brings out a basic dif
feretnce between the tx kiinds. The exterinal (useful)
2a (n turnns)
inlside: WL = k ML0
stored energy of the capacitor is about -'2 Of the total.
while that of the inductor is about 3-. This is because the
outsi de: .'IO iiiside and outside flux paths differ in impedance ii a
ratio of about two to one, these paths are in parallel for
the capacitor and. in series for the inductor. Decreasitug
7- -Spherical imnductor the effective length of intertnal flux path by inseiting
some material has the effect Of lincreasi ig the stored
energy in the capacitor but decreasing it in the inductor.
The lattei is advantageous.
/1 If a small antenna is restricted in its maximum di
I27r mension but not in its occupied volume, the radiation
power factor is icncreased by utilizing as much as possible
I Va/Vr of the volume of a sphere whose diameter is equal to
p

km - oo
= -,

va this dimrlension. The cylinder discussed above is a good

practical coripromise. The practical limitations of
capacitor and inductor are onlly slightly differeiit, so the
choice may be determined by other con-sideratioiis (such
as wave polarization, loss power factory associated cir-
Fig. 8-Spherical iiiductor in radiauisphere. cuits, coinstruction, aiid environment).
A special case is a small antenna operating uiider-
ground or underwater. These mriediums are dissipative
Some of the most commoni forms of small ainteninas toward a electric field but not a magnetic field. There
are of such shape that the occupied volume is no longer fore the loop antenna is much to be preferred for effi
siglnificant. This is true of an electric dipole made of a cieiicy of radiation in either of these e(ivironments |t I
straight wire or rod or tower. It is also true of a magnetic
dipole made of a thin loop of wire. Either of these would RADIATION SIETLLD
require a certain size of sphere contain it. Sinice this
to For purposes of nieasurement, it may be desired to
volume is only partially utilized, it is presumptive that remove the radiation resistance of a smnall antenna while
the anteinna would have a radiation power factor niiuch retaining its other properties (loss resistance, capaci
less thain the theoretical upper limit for this size of tance, inductance) This can be accomplished to a close
sphere. approximation by enclosing the antenna in a radiatior
The opposite extreme is a flat capacitor with air- shield which ideally is a perfectly conducting spherical
dielectric or a long inductor with air core. In these shell whose inner surface is located at the radiansphere.
cases, the radiation power factor approaches a lower (See Fig. 8, for example.) This prevents the radiatioi
limit of 2/9 the value for an ideal sphere (with perfect while causing little disturbance of the near hield. In
magnetic core) of the same volume. practice, the size, shape, and material are not critical.
It is interesting to compare two small antennas of op A cylinder with one or both ends opei may suffice.
posite kinids occupying the same circular-cylindrical The vriter devised this test for a very small loop
space, niamely the disk capacitor (C) aind the solenoid antenna operating at a frequency such that the radian
inductor (L), each having an air core. The shape chosen sphere had a convenient size; the loop was in an oscil-
is a cylinder of equal diameter and height. As compared latinig circuit so the radiation shield caused ai iinc rease
wxxith an ideal sphere of the same volume (haxving no iii the amplitude of oscillatior.. The increase in ampli
eniergy stored inside), each kind has a power facrtor less tude was a measure of the radiation efficieiicy. Ii
thaii the ideal by the followinig factors: genieral, the radiation shield enables the separate deter
mination of loss resistance and radiationi resistance.
8 2
C: .57
r 9 CONCLUTSION
T'he radiansphere around a small antenr a is logically
4 2 regarded as the boundary between the near field of
L. 1 +-1-- =.32/
37r 9 stored energy and the far field of radiating power. There
is not a definite boundary but rather a transition, sinice
In this rating, the power factor of the capacitor is about the terms associated with the near field predominate in
twice that of the inductor. However, the latter caii be side and those associated with the far field predominate
increased by a factor of two or miore by inserting an iron outside. The interception area definied for the hypo
1959 Chown, et al.: Voltage Breakdown Characteristics of Microwave Antenna
thetical isotropic ainteina is the area of the radiancircle,
a projection of the radiansphere, so the latter is logically
regarded as the sphere of influence of such an antenna.
An idealized small spherical antenna is found to have a
radiationi power factor equal to the ratio of its volume
over that of the radiansphere. A radiation shield is de-
scribed whose ideal location is at the radiansphere. All
of these concepts are helpful in visualizing and remem-
bering the rules governing small antennas, especially
their near field and far field.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[11 C. R. Burrows, A. Decino, and L. E. Hunt, "Ultra-short-wave
propagation over land," PROC. IRE, vol. 23, Pp. 1507-1535;
December, 1935. (Early expression of transmission- efficiency in
terms of available power and over groun-d.)
121 H. A. Wheeler, "Radio Wave Propagation Formulas,," Hazeltine
Rep. 1301WR, June, 1945; revision of 1301W; May 11, 1942.
(Tranlsmission efficiency, radiancircle, mutual impedance, simple
formulas.)
[31 R. D. Huntoon, NBS report relating to proximity fuze, about
1945. (Mutual impedance between two small antennas in terms
of their mean radiation resistance.)
14] H. T. Friis, "A note on a simple transmission formula, " PROC.
133X1
IRE, vol. 34, pp. 254-256; May, 1946. (Transmission efficielny
between two antennas in terms of their effective areas.)
[5] H. A. Wheeler, "Fundamental limitations of small antennas,"
PROC. IRE, Vol. 35, pp. 1479-1484; December, 1947. (Anteninas
smaller than the radiansphere, radiation power factor.)
[61 H. A. Wheeler, "A helical anteinna for circular polarization,'
PROC. IRE, vol. 35, pp. 1484-1488; December, 1947. (Small an-
tenna having equal electric and magnatic radiation.)
[71 L. J. Chu, "Physical Limitationis of Omnidirectional Antennlas,"
MIT Res. Lab. of Electronics, Tech. Rep. 64; May 1, 1948.
(Radiation Q of ideal spherical radiators, small anid large, flat
doughnut patterns.)
[81 H. A. Wheeler, "Universal skin-effect chart for conductinig mla-
terials," Electronics, vol. 25, pp. 152-154; November, 1952.
(Includinig sea water.)
[91 S. Ramo, and J. R. Whinnery, "Fields and Waves," 2nd ed.,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y.; 1953. (Neuimanni
formula for mutual inductance, p. 221. Field of small electric
dipole, p. 498.) (lst ed. was 1944.)
[101 H. A. Wheeler, "The Radian Sphere Around a Small Antenniia,"
Wheeler Labs. Rep. 670; March 8, 1955. (The suibject of the
present paper.)
[11] H. A. Wheeler, 'Funidamental Limitations of a Small VLF An-
tenna for Submarines," Rep. 312; November 27, 1955. IRE
TRANS. ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, vol. AP-6, pp. 123-
125; January, 1958. (Spherical coil in spherical radome suib-
merged in sea water.)
[12] H. A. Wheeler, "The Spherical Coil as an Inductor, Shield or
Antenna," Wheeler Labs. Rep. 734; November 6, 1957. Pwoc.
IRE, vol. 46, pp. 1595-1602; September, 1958. (Radiation power
factor, radiation shield, iron core.)

Voltage Breakdown Characteristics of

MIicrowave Antennas*
J. B. CHOWNt, ASSOCIATE MEMBER, W. E. SCHARFMANt, ASSOCIATE M¢EMBER, AND
T. MORITAt, SENIOR MEMBER

Summary-The problem of voltage breakdown and its effects is is fourfold: the input impedance is altered; the pulse
discussed for a pulse antenna system. Voltage breakdown occurs at
shape is modified; the total radiated power is decreased;
power levels when the pressure is reduced. The minimum breakdown
and the radiation pattern is changed.
potential occurs approximately at the pressure where the frequency
of collision between electrons and gas atoms is equal to the fre- Any evaluation of a system that is to perform at high
altitude must consider the voltage breakdown effect.
quency of the applied field. Experiments were made to determine the
Therefore, an experimental in-vestigation of antennia
power levels required to produce breakdown and the effect of break-
down on the VSWR, pulse shape, radiation pattern, and radiated breakdown and the problems associated with it was
power. It is shown that all four of the quantities vary with pulse
initiated. A brief description of the voltage breakdown
width and peak power.
problem is presented here, followed by a report on a
INTRODUCTION series of measurements made on a particular antenina
type to determine its electrical characteristics under
AT low pressures, antennas are susceptible to voltage breakdown conditionis.
breakdown. In the case of antennas on high-
altitude vehicles, there are indications that very
low power is sufficient to initiate and maintain break- VOLTAGE BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA
down.'-' When voltage breakdown occurs, the effect The theory of high-frequency gas-discharge break-
down has been well covered in the literature for non-
*
Original manuscript received by the IRE, October 16, 1958; radiating structures.4 6 It has been shown that primary
revised manuscript received, March 23, 1959.
t Stanford Research Inst., Menlo Park, Calif. 4 S. C. Brown, "High frequency gas-discharge breakdown,"
E. White and K. Richer, "Received Signal from High-Altitude
Rockets," Ballistics Res. Labs., Tech. Note 70; 1949. PROC. IRE, vol. 39, pp. 1493-1501; December, 1951.
2 R. A. Paska, "VHF Breakdown of Air at Low Pressures," 5 L. Gould and L. W. Roberts, "Breakdown of air at microwave
Ballistics Res. Labs., Rept. No. 944; August, 1955. frequencies," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 27, pp. 1162-1170; October, 1956.
3 F. Worth, "A Study of Voltage Breakdown in the Cavity Fed 6 G. K. Hart, F. R. Stevenson, and M. S. Tanenbaum, "High
Slot Antenna," Missile Systems Div. MSD 2030, Lockheed Aircraft power breakdown of microwave structures," 1956 NATIONAL IRE
Corp.; January, 1957. CONVENTION RECORD, Pt. 5, pp. 100-203.