The Dance of Siva: Keligion, A N and Poetry in South India

The dance of Siva
Keligion, a n and poetry in South India

CAMBRIDGE S T U D I E S IN R E L I G I O U S T R A D I T I O N S 7
THE DANCE OF
CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN R E L I G I O U S T R A D I T I O N S
Edited by John Clayton (University of Lancaster), Steven Collins

(University of Chicago) and Nicholas de Lange (University o f Cambridge)
1. Religion and the individual: A Jewish perspective

Louis Jacobs
2. The boefy divine: The symbol ofthe body in the works ofTriUiard de Chardin andRmanuja
Anne-Hunt Overzee
3. The feminine principle in the Sikh vision of the Transcendent
Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh
4. The religious culture of India: Power, love and wisdom
Friedhelm Hardy
5. Women under the Bo tree: Buddhist nuns in Sri Lanka
Tessa Bartholomeusz
6. Evil and suffering in Jewish philosophy
Oliver Leaman
7. The dance of $iva: Religion, art and poetiy in South India
David Smith
T H E D A N C E O F ÎVA
Religion, art and poetry in South India
DAVID SMITH
Department of Religious Studies, Lancaster University
CAMBRIDGE
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First published 1996

First paperback edition 2002
A catalogue recordfor ihis book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Smith, David James, 1 9 4 4 -
T h e D a n c e o f Siva: Religion, art and poetry in South India / David Smith,
p. cm. - ( C a m b r i d g e studies in religious traditions; 7)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I S B N 0 521 48234 8 (hardback)
I. Siva (Hindu deity) 2. Umapati Civacariyar, 14th cent.
3. N a t a r a j a T e m p l e . I. Title. II. Series.
BL1218.S62 1996
294.5'513'095482-dc20 95-35644 CIP
I S B N 0 521 48234 8 hardback

I S B N 0 521 52865 8 paperback
namo gurubhyah
For my parents
Contents
List of illustrations page x

Acknowledgments xii
Introduction i
1 T h e Nataraja bronze lO
2 T h e Cidambaram myth • 31
3 Temple, priests, and ritual 46
4 T h e Hall of Consciousness, the Heart of the Universe 80
5 Saiva Siddhanta and Vedanta 103
6 T h e Goddess 135
7 Bhiksa^na 161
8 Bhairava the Terrible and other forms of îva 186
9 Saints, dancing girls, and Apasmara 207
10 Last words 228
Mtes 240
Bibliography 287
Index and glossary 295
IX
Illustrations
PLATES
1. Nauiraja in the Cit Sabha. Detail from painting by
G. Paramesvara Diksita. <i:ourtesy: G . Paramesvara Diksita. 11
2. Detail of Na^raja. Vedaranyam, c. 1200. Tanjavur Art
Gallery. 13
3. Natoraja. Vikrama Kulottunga period, c. 1150: From the
Cidambaram hoard. Courtesy: D r R . Nagaswamy. 16
4. Kail dancing near Nataraja's feet (Bhrtgin partly visible
to left). Brhadisvara temple, Gangaikondacolapuram,
c. 1025. 25
5. Urdhvatandavamurti. West gopura and East gopura,
Cidambaram. 26
6. Natoraja. Vedaranyam, c. 1200. Tanjavur Art Gallery. 27
7. Siva dancing on Apasmara with a cobra bending its hood
beneath his raised foot. Pillar in the western entrance of the
Sivaganga tank, Cidambaram. Seventeenth century or later. 29
8. Patafijali. East gopura, Cidambaram. 34
9. Vyaghrapada with son and wife, milk tank to the left,
Mulanatha Shrine to the right. Ceiling painting,
Sivakamasundari mandapa, Cidambaram. Seventeenth
century. 42
10. Roofs of the K a n a k a Sabha (on the left) and Cit Sabha
(on the right) viewed from the top of the East gopura,
Cidambaram. 47
11. Plan of Sabhanayaka temple. Madras 1867 edition of Kîl
Puranam. 49
12. Dance stage. Wall painting, Narumpunathar temple,
Tirupudaimarudur, Tirunelveli Dist, ^.1700. 86
13. T h e Cit and Kanaka Sabhas as visualized by Vyaghrapada,
adjoining the Mulanatha shrine. Ceiling painting in
Illustrations xi
îvakamasundan mandapa, Cidambaram. Seventeenth

century. 88
14. Natoraja in the Cit Sabha. Painting by G . Paramesvara
Diksita. Courtesy: G . Paramesvara Diksita. 90
15. Sivakamasundari. Parantaka I period, c. 950. From the
Cidambaram hoard. Courtesy: Dr R. Nagaswamy. 137
16. GaAgadharzimiirti. South gopura, Cidambaram. 142
17. (a). BhadrsâU. West gopura, Cidambaram. Courtesy:
Dr James C . Harle.
(b). BhadrakalT. South gopura, Cidambaram. 149
18. Bhiksatana. East gopura, Cidambaram. 162
19. Bhiksatana. Melamparamballam, Valampuranathar temple.
Courtesy: French Institute of Pondicherry/£cole Frangaise
d'Extreme-Orient 165
20. Kankalamurti from Darasuram. c. 1170. Tanjavur Art
Gallery. 167
21. Wives of the ^ i s . Ceiling painting, ^ i v a k ^ a s u n d a i i
mandapa, Cidambaram. Seventeenth century. 172
22. Visnu as MohinT. Ceiling painting, îvakamasundan
mandapa, Cidambaram. Seventeenth century. 176
23. Apasmara produced from the ^ i s - sacrificial fire.. Ceiling
painting, portico of Cit Sabha, Cidambaram. Nineteenth
to twentieth century. 178
24. Combined assault of the products of the Rsis' sacrificial
fire. Ceiling painting, Sivakamasundan mandapa,
Cidambaram. Seventeenth century. 179
25. Nataraja. Vedaranyam, c. 1200. Tanjavur Art Gallery. 184
26. Sarabhamurti. Airavatesvara temple, Darasuram, c. 1170.
Courtesy: French Institute of Pondicherry/£cole Frangaise
d'Extreme-Orient . 194
27. Kalantakamurti. East gopura, Cidambaram. 202
28. Som^kanda. East gopura, Cidambaram. 204
29. Siva placing a wreath on Candesvara. BrhadTsvara temple,
Gangaikondacolapuram, c. 1025. 208
30. K^T, Apasmara, Karaikal Ammaiyar and garias.
BrhadTsvara temple, Gangaikondacolapuram, c. 1025. 221
FIGURE
I. Plan of Sabhanayaka temple, Cidambaram. Principal
features.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Steve Collins, Friedhelm Hardy, D o n Heald, Franôise

L'Hemault, Alexis Sanderson, and David Shulman for reading part or
all of the book, and for their valuable comments (the errors that remain
being entirely my own); to the Lancaster University Research Committee
for two grants for research trips to Cidambaram; to my colleagues in the
Department of Religious Studies and the Centre for the Study of
Cultural Values at Lancaster for stimulating environments; to my
students at Lancaster for their enthusiasm; to John Loud, for permission
to quote from his unpublished translation of the Kîl Puramm, and for
sending otherwise unobtainable texts; to Vivek Nanda, for many
enjoyable discussions about Cidambaram; to S. R. Balasubramania
Chethiar for the gift of books and encouragement; to C . N. Singaravelu
for an illuminating discussion on the T a m i l Saiva Siddhanta; to S.
Srinavasa Sarma for transcription of texts; to R. Nagaswamy for
permission to use his photographs; to the French Institute of Pon-
dicherry/£cole Franâise d'Extreme-Orient for permission to use
photographs from its collection; to James Harle for permission to use his
photograph' of Bhadrakali on the West gopura, an image currendy
guarded by a large cobra; to Anna Dzdlapiccola for the loan of journals;
to Hermann Kulke for sending me a transcript of part of the Daksa
Khanda\ to Paul and Anna-Marie Heelas for hospitality in Madras; to
Friedhelm Hardy for translating passages from the Tamil, and for many
years of encouragement; to several learned Diksitas in Cidambaram, for
advice, gifts of books, and inspiration.
Xll
Introduction
N A T A R A J A , THE KING OF DANCERS
Dancing Siva is the form of the Hindu god Siva best knovm in the West,
and indeed seems to be the most popular visual representation of
Hinduism for the modem v^rorld. Although there is a wide variety of
Dancing Sivas, dating back to at least the fifth century AD, VK^hat has
become so familiar to us is one particular form, known as Nataraja,
'King of Dancers'. This image achieved canonical form in C51a bronzes
of the tenth century AD and then continued to be reproduced in metal,
stone, and other substances up to the present. T h e C5ia N a ^ r a j a is often .
said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art.
Napiraja dances, his right foot supported by a crouchingfigure, his left
foot elegantly raised. O f his four arms, one swings downwards, pointing
to the raised foot; another with pzdm held up signals, 'Do not fear!' In his
other hands he holds ziloft a drum and a flame. T h e river Ganga sits in
his hair. A cobra Uncoils from his lower right forearm, and the crescent
moon and a skull are on his crest. He dances within an arch of flames.
This dance is called the Dance of Bliss ifinandatmdavd)?
This dance is said to have been first performed in Cidambaram, 244
km south of Madras, on the east coast of India. Historically, Cidambaram
has been a centre for the worship of Dancing Siva since the seventh
century, and for the worship of the Dance of Bliss since its origination
300 years later. For worshippers of Siva {$aivas) the Dance of Bliss is
eternal, having neither beginning nor end; and for many of them the
Cidambaram temple is the most important of all Siva temples. For
Southern Saivas, it is simply kdyil - the temple. All other Siva temples
have a Nataraja shrine, or at least a Nataraja image, beside the main linga
shrine.
The theology of Nataraja is as follows. Na^raja is Lord of the
Universe. His dance expresses the state of bliss which he enjoys and
2 The Dance of îva
embodies. He dwells in the heart of every person, and though he is to be

found throughout the universe his complete form is uniquely present in
Cidambaram. Cidambaram is the heart of the world. Nataraja is always
accompanied by his consort, whose name in Cidambaram is Sivakamasun-
darT. She herself is his knowledge, his desire, his action. She embodies the
compassion he feels for the world. Nataraja's left foot is raised in dance so
that worshippers may bow down before it. He grants all wishes. T h e
sight of Nataraja in Cidambaram is a great blessing, and worship of him
frees one from rebirth.
Natoraja, Siva as the king of dancers, did not become known in the
West until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1912 this form of
Siva received detailed treatment in an eloquent essay by A. K .
Coomaraswamy entitled T h e Dance of Siva'. T h e essay has been
constantly cited, often in its entirety, in treatments of the Dance of Siva.
Its conclusion is quoted most frequendy:
How supremely great in power and grace this dancing image must appear to all
those who have striven in plastic forms to give expression to their intuition of
L i f e ! . . . No artist of today, however great, could more exactly or more wisely
create an image of that Energy which science must postulate behind all
phenomena . . . Nature is inert, and cannot dance until Siva wills it. He rises
from His rapture, and dancing sends through inert matter pulsing waves of
awakening sound, and lo! matter also dances appearing as a glory round about
Him. Dancing, He sustains its manifold phenomena. In the fullness of time, still
dancing, he destroys all forms and names by fire and gives new rest. This is
p)oetry; but none the less, science."
Coomaraswamy's training as a scientist along with his scholarly attainments
enabled him to make a statement that has reverberated through the
twentieth century. In 1976 Fritjof C a p r a in a popular combination of
modem physics and Eastern mysticism gave a boost to Coomaraswamy's
view.
The dance of Siva is the dancing universe, the ceaseless flow of energy going
through an infinite variety of patterns that melt into one another.
Modern physics has . . . revealed that every subatomic particle not only
jjerforms an energy dance but also is an energy dance; a pulsating process of
creation and destruction . . . For the modem physicists, then, Siva's dance is the
dance of subatomic matter. As in Hindu mythology, it is a continual dance of
creation and destruction involving the whole cosmos; the basis of all existence
and of all natural phenomena. Hundreds of years ago, Indian artists created
visual images of dancing Sivas in a beautiful series of bronzes. In our time,
physicists have used the most advanced technology to portray the patterns of the
cosmic dance. The bubble-chamber photographs of interacting particles, which
bear testimony to the continual rhythm of creation and destruction in the
Introduction 3
universe, are visual images of the dance of Siva equaUing those of the Indian
artists in beauty and profound significance.
The metaphor of the cosmic dance thus unifies ancient mythology, religious
art, and modem physics.'
While Nataraja appeals to the modern world through the dynamic
harmony of his image, he is at the same time redolent of an elementtd
primitivism with his skull, snake, and the tigerskin that is usually draped
around his waist. T h e Sanskrit scholar Ingalls remarked,
More than one element of Siva's iconography shows traces of a primitive and
probably non-Aryan origin. The matted... hair,... the ornaments of skulls and
snakes, as also the wild dance in which the god is often pictured, recall the
costume and practice of a tribal shaman.-^
O n e notable writer on dance, Beryl de Zoete, felt unable to explain
this transformation of Siva. In her study of dance in South India, The
Other Mind, she wrote.
How and when Siva, the pre-Aryan deity who is associated with such savage
rites and sacrifices among the primitive tribes and devil-fearing castes of South
India, became the mystic dancer, the ultimate embodiment of rhythm in the
visible universe of created things and in the invisible universe of the human soul,
we have no means of knowing.5
T h e present book deals neither with possible scientific connotations
for Nataraja, nor with the early development of the image,.though these
topics are each worthy of a book in their own right. With regard to
origins, however, it is surely true that the final image gains power from
the obvious presence of primitive elements. T h e wild shaman dressed in
skins goes back a very long way in human history. In Nataraja the state of
possession enjoyed by such figures is transmuted into the inwardly
concentrated, enstatic, bliss of the Upanisads, though the creature
beneath his feet often writhes like a subhuman ecstatic.® Again, in
Nataraja the uncoordinated prancing of the possessed shaman is
transmuted into the perfect mastery of movement formulated in classical
dance over a long period, and defined in a very extensive literature.
For hundreds of years prior to the Cola bronzes Siva was famous as a
dancer, referred to as such in the Mahdbhdrata', and a wide variety of
images so portrayed him. No attempt will be made here to chart the line
of development of sculpture that led up to Namraja, for those experimental
variants were not continued once the perfect form had been achieved.
The history of the literature of Dancing Siva is more significant, in that
the Tamil poets who worshipped earlier forms of dancing Siva remain of
great importance, their songs available today all over Tamilnadu on
16 The Dance of îva
audio cassettes, and sung daily in the temples of $iva. T h e y will be

referred to, but are not the substance of this study.
O u r subject is Nataraja's Dance of Bliss in Cidambaram, and this
comprises three elements, which all appear in place at the same time: the
Naairaja bronze, the Ananda Tandava, and the historical buildings of
the Cidambaram temple. T h e earlier Tamil poets just mentioned often
sang of îva dancing in Cidambaram, but this was an eight-armed Siva
dancing in the burning ground. N o buildings in Cidambaram are earlier
than the tenth or eleventh centuries; nor are there any pre-Cola
inscriptions. T h e Dance of Bliss, the Ananda Tandava, is not mentioned
before the Cidambara Mdhatmya.
What follows is an attempt to present the essentials of that D a n c e by
concentrating on the perspective of one uniquely placed individual,
Umapati Sivacarya of Cidambaram, who flourished at the beginning of
the fourteenth century. Umapati wrote a poem in Sanskrit dedicated to
the foot that Dancing Siva lifts up for the adoration of his devotees. T h i s
poem describes the temple of Cidambaram, and gives a picture of the
Saiva universe, of the Nataraja universe. Umapati was both a priest in
the temple and a major figure in the history of Saiva Siddhanta. T h e
poetic idiom he uses is difficult for the modern reader, and requires
explanation; but at the same time it is a natural, if not the natural,
language for Hinduism. T h e use of this very rich and important poem,
virtually unknown outside Cidambaram, provides authenticity for the
present study. In addition, constant reference is made both to other
relevant texts, Sanskrit and Tamil, and to sculpture and painting, all
from roughly the same period. While centring on Umapati's poem in a
manner that is analogous to Umapati's centring on Nataraja's raised
foot, each chapter considers a different angle of the topic, often using
new and unpublished material.
Chapter i of this book discusses the Nataraja bronze itself, and the
following chapter analyses the myths and legends of Cidambaram. O f
key importance is the great temple of Cidambaram. It is in this temple
that the bronze image of Natoraja takes pride of place, displacing from
central importance the lihga that is the holy of holies in every other Siva
temple. Here in the Hall of Consciousness, the Cit Sabha, is installed the
holiest of Natarajas.
T h e temple of the Lord of the Hall, Sabhanayaka temple, which is its
official title, covers a vast area, some 16 hectares, where three rectangular
courtyards within a walled garden area, one inside the other, surround
the centre. Four mighty gateways, gopuras, guard the outer entrances.
Introduction 5
Although the temple was referred to and visited by the saint-singers of

the seventh to the ninth centuries, no building in the temple goes back
beyond the eleventh century. T h e gopuras belong to the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries.
T h e Cidambaram temple is discussed in detail in chapters 3 and 4, but
it would be helpful for its basic structure to be grasped from the outset. In
the innermost courtyard stands the Cit Sabha {'Hall of Consciousness')
where Nataraja is housed. Immediately in front of this hall is another
hall, the Kanaka Sabha ('Golden Hall'), where rituals of worship are
performed. A shrine to Visnu is also present in this courtyard. This
innermost courtyard is contained within another, where is found the
temple's lifiga shrine. T h e third courtyard within which this second one is
placed is gigantic, and has the immenseôûros as its gateways; it contains
a variety of shrines and halls, and the temple tank. All this area is within a
yet larger walled area taken up by gardens. T h e four roads beyond the
temple are called C a r Streets, North C a r Street, East C a r Street, and so
on, their tide coming from the fact that the festival cars progress through
them. In the subsequent chapter on the Hall of Consciousness, the Cit
Sabha, central in the book just as it is in the temple, there is given what
perhaps is the most detailed account yet published of this shrine.
T h e priests of Cidambaram, members of a hereditary group, devote
themselves to the service of Nataraja and act as intermediaries between
the God and his worshippers. Claiming a Northern origin, and different
in feature from Tamilians, the priests in their gleaming white dhotis and
long hair swept to one side are prominent in the centre of the city. Their
historical role is discussed in chapter 3 and also in chapter 5, where
Umapati's career is considered.
Just as the inherent coherence of the image of Nataraja later led
Coomaraswamy to attribute a scientific comprehension to its creators, so
too it had earlier led the philosophers of the Saiva Siddhanta school to
connect their thought with it. T h e five actions {pancahpa) of Siva
discerned by this system - creation, preservation, destruction, concealment,
and grace - all came in time to be seen as expressed by Namraja. Much
work has been done on this school of philosophy briefly referred to by
Coomarziswamy in his essay on the Dance of Siva, though there remains
a gulf between scholars working on Tamil texts, and those working on
Sanskrit sources. It is now clear that the Saiva Siddhanta school, often
assumed by South Indians to be entirely South Indian in origin, was
prevalent throughout much oflndia in the eighth to the tenth centuries,
was refined and developed in Kashmir during the same period; and was
N o r t h gopura
Thousand-pillared Hail
S i v a g a n g a tank
SivakamasundarT Shrine
Hundred-pillared Hall
E a s t gopura
Mulasthana
(Original linga Shrine)
Deva Sabha
Cit Sabha
(Hall of Consciousness) |
Kanaka Sabha -f—
W e s t gopura
Visnu Shrine '
Nrtta Sabha - '
S o u t h gopura
-•t
Fig. I. Plan o f S a b h a n a y a k a t e m p l e , C i d a m b a r a m . P r i n c i p a l features.
preserved and then altered in Tamilnadu. Chapter 5 considers the

connections of Saiva Siddhanta with the Dance, and also the -growing
influence of Vedanta.
Perhaps now outweighing Natoraja in the current Western appreciation
of Hinduism is the Goddess, widely known in the form of Kali. Both the
mild and the fierce forms of the Goddess are of great importance in the
worship of Nataraja in Cidambaram. ParvatT, or, as she is called in
Cidambaram, SivakamasundarT, 'Siva's lovely beloved', stands beside
Siva as a bronze image in the Hall of Consciousness; she also has her own
shrine within the temple precincts. As KalT, she has her temple on the
northern outskirts of the town, where pilgrims to Cidambaram complete
their visit by worshipping her. Every Nataraja bronze should be
Introduction 7
complemented by a S i v a k ^ a s u n d a n , and each pair is usuaUy made by

the same craftsman. Chapter 6 is devoted to the Goddess.
While Nataraja is, in the words of Coomaraswamy *the clearest
representation in any religion of the activity of G o d ' , he is of course only
one aspect of the history of Mahadeva, the great G o d Siva. Closely
related to Nataraja are two other forms of Siva, Siva the wandering
beggar, and Siva the Terrible, Bhairava. Appreciation of these two
forms is vital to a proper understanding of Nataraja. In the Southern
version of Saiva myth, it is the handsome wandering beggar who turns
into the dancer, while in the North the terrifying Bhairava performs the
dance, which is there always destructive. T h e other great Hindu God,
Visnu, is a kingly figure, modelled on a human king. T h e manifold
nature of this G o d is expressed by his avatdras, themselves each essentially
royal. This is true even of the cowherd Krena. In contrast to Visnu, Siva
achieves multiplicity by the variety of roles he undertakes while
maintaining the appearance of a wandering holy man.
While Hinduism now has to do without the king who is called for in so
much of its ritucil, the wandering ascetic remains a striking feature of the
landscape, and scantily clad or naked figures with only a begging bowl
and a staffer trident to their name are to be found in their thousands
attending major religious events. Some men continue to make their
home in the burning grounds, and maintain the tantric rituals which
often verge on black magic. All the varieties of homeless wanderers have
their apotheosis in Siva, who always bears the long matted locks that are
the badge of the free spirit. What must be stressed is the power of the
wandering religious specialist to inspire fear and even terror, qualities to
be found in the highest degree in his exemplar, Siva. A characteristic of
C5ia art, however, is its modification of the wandering beggar to bring .
out a compassionate beauty in this form of Siva. Chapters 7 and 8 deal
with Siva as the Beggar and the Terrible.
There remains the human element. T h e Saiva saints cannot be
omitted: several are associated with Cidambaram, and the worship of all
their images forms an integral part of the life of every Siva temple in
Tamilnadu. The most prominent human figures in the. iconography of
Cidambaram, as in many temples, are the stone carvings of dancing
girls, who until this century were in the flesh key figures in the worship of
the deity. The role of the male dancer seems to have been that of teacher
of the dancing girls, and it might be thought that there is something
essentially feminine about the dance for Hinduism. After all, another
major form of Siva is that of the half man, half woman, ArdhanarTsvara.
8 The Dance of
Siva is inherently ambiguous. Half human, half divine are theânas w h o

accompany Siva and often dance with him. Chapter 9 concludes with a
consideration of Apasmara and trance.
T h e final chapter considers the form of Umapati's poem and his own
understanding of that form. T h e reading of Saivism that is made in this
book is centred on Umapati's view of Siva, and the last words are
Umapati's.
PRINCIPAL TEXTUAL SOURCES
T h e primary source is The Hymn of Praise to [Na^raja's] Curved Foot, the

Kuncitahghristava of Umapati Sivacarya. Written around 1300 AD, this
Sanskrit poem of 313 verses is particularly wide ranging. T h e poem was
known only to the priests of Cidambaram until it was printed for the first
time in 1958. It was edited with a Tamil translation and notes by K . M .
Rajaganesa Diksita. I am preparing for publication an edition of the text,
with English translation and notes. T h e present study includes everything
from the poem relevant to the Dance of Siva.
Centred on Napiraja's upraised foot that grants salvation, the poem is
an amalgam of philosophy, mythology, art, architecture, and ritual from
a Saiva viewpoint. Embedded in a particular place, Cidambaram in
South India, and time, the fourteenth century, the poem describes the
eternal dance in the heart of the world.
T h e best analogy for the form of Umapati's poem is the necklace, for
each verse is an individual jewel, designedly separate from those on
either side. T h e deliberate avoidance of logical order makes the poem
difficult to read for those not versed in its subject-matter.
T h e refrain of the poem, the conclusion to each verse, is
kuncitanghrim bhqje
I worship Him Whose foot is curved.
T h e word kuncita, 'curved' is a technical term for the dance step wherein
the heel is raised, the toes bent down, and the middle of the foot curved.7
T h e oldest sources for the life of Umapati are the two Sanskrit texts
published in the preface to his Bhayîa on the Pauskaragama. O n e is the
Parthavana Mdhatmya, in 240 slokas, which claims to be the fortieth
conversation between a certain Brahmananda and his pupil Saiikara, in
a work otherwise unknown called the Cidambarasara. T h e site of
Umapati's dsrama was where Siva, satisfied by Arjuna's penance, is said
to have given him the Pasupata weapon - the grove of Partha, Partha
Introduction 9
being a patronym of Aijuna. T h e other work is the Ryendrapura

Mahdtmya, by Sivândanatha Diksita, in 108 verses. Rajendrapura,
'Emperor T o w n ' , is another name for the site of Umapati's asrama, so
called presumably because Vira Cola built a m a ^ there.®
T h e earliest Sanskrit text to refer to the dance of Siva in Cidambaram
is the tenth-century Suta Samhitd, but the first and fullest account of the
Dance of Bliss is given in the twelfth-century Cidambara Alahafyma, the
subject of a detailed study by Hermann Kulke.9
Clearly later than the Cidambara Mahatmya, but otherwise indeterminate
in date, are four other Sanskrit sthalapurarias: Vyaghrapura Mahatrrâ,
Hemasabhanaiha Mahatrrya, Tilvavana Mahatrrâ, and Pimdarikapura Mahairrâ.
O f these, only the Purtdankapura Mahatmya has been published. Much of
the Vyaghrapura Mâtmya derives from the Suta Sarnhita, but it also devotes
a chapter to the dance competition between Siva and KalT.
A Tamil version of the Cidambara Mahatmya, the Kîl Purmam, is
attributed to Umapati Sivacarya. Apart from omissions, it foUows the
Sanskrit very closely. It has been translated into English by John Loud.
T w o other Sanskrit texts are often referred to in this book. These are
the priests' manual for daily worship, the Patanjalipujdsutra, and their
Festival Ritual manual, the CitsabhesvarotsavasOtra; both these texts are
attributed to Patanjali.
CHAPTER I
The Matardja bronze
T h e metal image, the D a n c i n g G o d defined in iconography and

expressed in bronze, is at the heart of the poem. T h e image in the temple
was seen every day by the poet and his readers, and was meditated on
every day by them in their homes. N o t only does the bronze illustrate the
iconography, it is the visual and literal embodiment of the highest divinity.
T h e essential feature of bronze and other metal images in the Hindu
temple is that they are mobile images, m a d e specifically as processional
images. T h e base of such an image has holes for passing through
carrying poles, or lugs so that restraining ropes can be attached. Y e t most
of the time a mobile image is stationary, waiting near or beside the fixed
stone images in the sanctum, the garbhagrha. O n l y in C i d a m b a r a m is the
mulamurti, the holy of holies, mobile, carried out in festivals, and m o v e d
from one part of the sanctum to another, from the Git S a b h a to the
Kanaka Sabha. Within the poem this image is constantly present, for
Natoraja's upraised foot is referred to in every verse. Each verse refers
also to Nataraja or other forms of Siva, or other gods in relation to Siva,
so that each verse enshrines images, is a shrine, the reader moving from
shrine to shrine as verse follows verse. T h e reader proceeds through the
temple of the poem, and Nataraja is present at every step.
Nataraja imaged in bronze and housed in the Git Sabha in Gidambaram
was the centre of the world of Umapati the poet. Its holiness forbids it
being photographed. Plate i is from a painting of the Git S a b h a by one of
the Diksitas. According to the late Douglas Barrett, the foremost
Western expert on G5ia bronzes, the present bronze is, 'to judge from
available information, not earlier than the thirteenth century AD'.' T h e
present bronze was taken by Sivaramamurti as the representative of a
type, 'the Ghidambaram', wherein only two or three locks are slighdy
raised above the shoulders; the remainder still hanging down, since the
dance is in its earlier stages.
Valuable information concerning this bronze's predecessor is provided
ID
The Na^raja bronze II
N a ^ r a j a in t h e C i t S a b h a . D e t a i l f r o m p a i n t i n g b y G . P a r a m e s v a r a Dllcsita.
C o u r t e s y : G . P a r a m e s v a r a DTlcsita.
by the Cola paintings in the circumambulatory of the garbhagrha in the

great temple of Rajaresvara at Tanjavur. O n e painting shows the C51a
emperor worshipping at the Cit Sabha.'' Barrett distinguishes three basic
types of Natoraja, and takes the view that the type shown in the Cola
painting is different from that of the present bronze:
the one piece of evidence which might be expected to establish the type of the
image in the early eleventh century AD, the paintings in the Rajarajesvara
temple at Tanjavur showing the Nauiraja in the Kanakasabha [the Cit Sabha] -
seems to depict an image closer to Type II [with outward-streaming locks] than
Typ)e III [with the gende undulation of one to four fairly short braids on or
alxjve the shoulders], with very long locks flying high above the shoulders.3
Photographs of the painting, however, do not seem to fit Barrett's
description: two strands rise above each shoulder, but the majority of
strands are lower, with three or four visible beneath the upper arms.4
There is no direct and unique connection between the N a U r a j a of the
poem and the Nataraja (or type of Natoraja) now in the Cit Sabha other
than the presence of two musicians on the bronze and the number of
flames on the encircling arch, the prabhavali - twenty-one.5 T h e
references to the form alone of Natoraja are relatively few; seen several
times a day'by the poet and the readers he wrote for, and meditated upon
by them, the form was more than sufficiently vivid for them.
Let us begin our examination of Umapati's presentation with this
most striking aspect, the streaming matted locks.
When He playfully began His dance

there proceeded from His twisted locks of hair
as they beat against each other with increasing speed
the water of the Heavenly River breaking into spray;
wherever the spray drops fell
became an eminent place of pilgrimage
and they turned into selfborn lihgas',
that God who is surrounded
by NandikeM and other Pramathas and Ganas,
Whose foot is bent, I worship. (ni)6
Centring on the dance of Lord Siva, the poet divagates widely, his
imagination flying out in many directions like the strands of Siva's hair.
T h e structure of the poem itself is analogous to the scene. As is weU
expressed in this verse, Nataraja is the centre and cause of all other
religious phenomena as far as the whole poem is concerned. Siva is at the
centre of a universe modulated by and around Nataraja, and the poetry

moves discursively from theme to theme, pivoting on the foot with which
each verse concludes.
At all other Siva temples the lihga, is the central shrine.7 T h e Nataraja
image in the Cit Sabha is unique in its centrality. T h e r e are many linga&,
and for the Saiva the map of India is a map of lingas. T h o s e that occur
naturally are called 'selfbom' {svqyambhS).
Each drop of water when it lands becomes a linga. .Thus are explained
the multiplicity of lingas and their divine origin, but above all the
centrality and priority of Nataraja are established.
A watery origin for lingas is less surprising than might be thought. Not
all lingas in temples are of stone. Umapati refers elsewhere to the famous
five liâs in each of the five elements, a group which goes back at least to
the Siita Sanîta; and of these one is said to be formed of water, that at the
Jambukesvara temple outside Trichy.®
There is considerable variation in the portrayal of Nataraja's hair in
the case of bronzes, for this most noticeable feature is where the
individual artist is most free to improvise. Barrett's basic threefold
division of.types could be greatly extended. But within the creative
profusion of hairstyles, a certain order is always maintained. In art, the
strands of hair are invariably separated, and the divisions often marked
and maintained by flowers. T h e frenzy of the human dancer, the
gyrations which throw the hair first to one side of the face and then to the
other, are entirely avoided. T h e rhythmic order of the hair forms frozen
waves which are a safe haven for Gaiiga, w h o is usually a mermaid on
Siva's right, gazing at the G o d with hands clasped in argali.
the hoods of the snzikes that form His ear-rings

are spread wide to kindly catch
the moon in His crest
while the excellent forest of His hair
is parting to allow pzissage
for the surging Gahga;
Him Whose foot is curved
I worship. (,52)9
A few verses spell out the form of Nataraja, such as verse io8:
He bears the fire and the drum in two hands.
The other two hands
make the 'swinging' and the 'fear not' gestures.
The Notary a bronze 15
Placing His right foot ever on Apasmara,

with His left foot slightly bending
He ever gives everything to those who bow down -
He performs His dance in the Hall accompanied by Devi.
Him, Whose foot is curved,
I worship. (108)'°
Here are the essential features of the classic form, every limb of
significance. However, the opening phrase was left out from the
translation - 'His form is sung in the Vedanta' {vedantod^ruparn). These
same limbs are identified with the formless Brahman of the Upanisads.
One of Umapati's notable theological positions is the conflation of the
Vedanta and the Saiva Siddhanta; this will be discussed in chapter 5
which reviews his thought in detail. Here we shall restrict ourselves to
marvelling at the boldness of the poet's claim, for Nataraja's form is
nowhere sung of in the Upanisads.
Apasmara is generally said to be the demon of ignorance. However,
he is referred to only a few times in the Tevdraniy and it is likely that he was
in origin simply a pedestal figure, such as is found under the foot of other
images of Siva." T o be under Siva's foot was a highly desirable
condition. T h e very name for a Saiva devotee in Tamil, atiyan, 'servant',
means literally 'one who is at the feet'.
Putting the three lines of ash on His forehead,
the hooded snake on His throat,
and the demon as the pedestal for His foot,
and holding fire and the dhakka drum in His hands,
and sun, moon, and fire on His lotus face,
the host of gods and worlds
in the radiance called OM,
with the musician on each side,
He performs the Dance of Bliss in His own hall,
Him Whose foot is curved, I worship. (93)"
He gives Dharma to people

by the beat of His damaruka drum,
Wealth by the fire He holds,
Love with the gesture of freedom from fear,
and the goal of man that is Moksa
with His lotus foot.
In so doing He, the Lord of Dancers,
the performer in the Hall of Consciousness,
looks after all people.
1n The Dance of !îva
N ' a t a r a j a . V ' i k r a m a K u l o u u h g a p e r i o d , c. 1150.

Courtesy: Dr R. Nagaswamy.
The Nataraja bronze i?
That God - embodied in dance,

His actions like no one else's -
Whose foot is curved,
I worship. (104)'^
This connection of the four goals of man with the form of Nateraja is
not found elsewhere, so far as I know. T h e role of the drum and the
upraised foot are as usual, but the other two verge on the adventitious.
O n e might have supposed the fire to represent Love [kdma), and the ' D o
not fear' hand to assure the general stability necessary for wealth
creation {artha). However, Love {kama) in the Hindu tradition means
above all sexual pleasure, and though of course fire is a very apt symbol
for this, yet with the multiple mirroring of the hand's flame in the circle
within which Siva stands an inappropriate sensuality would have been
suggested.
Umapati does not refer to the now well-known correlation between
Nataraja and the fivefold activities of G o d according to the Saiva
Siddhanta. This correlation is clearly set out by Coomaraswamy:
The dance, in fact, represents Hisfiveactivities {pancakrtya), viz., iwft (overlooking,
creation, evolution), j/Aift (preservation, support), san^dra (destruction, evolution),
tirobhava (veiling, embodiment, illusion, and.also, giving rest), anugraha (release,
salvation, grace). These, separately considered, are the activities of the deities
Brahma, Visnu, Rudra, Mahesvara and Sadasiva. This cosmic activity is the
central motif of the dance.'^
Coomaraswamy then quotes from three Tamil sources the
Unmaivilakkam, the Citampara Mummam Kovai, and the Tirumantiram. T h e
earliest, and most important of these, is the Tirumantiram. The Unmaimlakkam,
'The Explanation of Truth', is a manual for the instruction of young
§aivas,'5 written by Manavacakam Katantar, like Umapati's teacher
Marainana a disciple of Meykan^r, in 1255/6. T h e Citampara MumTnani
Kovai of Kumarakuruparar is a late (seventeenth century) hymn of praise
that need not concern us. Tirumiilar's Tirumantiram is a work of the very
greatest importance, on which very litde has been written, and whose
dating is uncertain, though it is clearly earlier than Umapati.'®
Coomaraswamy does not quote the apposite and earliest statement of
identity between the five acts {pahcahrtyd) of Siva and the limbs of
Nataraja, which is Tirumantiram 2799:
Hara's drum is creation,
Hara's hand gesturing protection is preservation;
Hara's fire is dissolution;
Hara's foot planted down is concealment
Hara's foot, raised in dance, is grace abiding.''
Umapaii docs refer to the five acts and relates them to the dance without
connecting them to the p>ose:
In the beginning He Whose form is the self
created Brahma for the creation of the worlds,
Hari for their protection,
and the form of Rudra for their destruction,
and then M a h e » for concealing everything,
the form of Sadasiva with ParvatI beside Him
to show favour to those worlds.
He performs the Dance of Bliss in the Hall.
Him, His foot curved,
I worship. (102)'®
Whether or not Umapati's failure to refer to this identification is

surprising is not easy to say. I do not know of other early (pre-Umapati)
texts that make the identification, and it may be that Coomaraswamy's
reference to it has given it undue prominence for modern writers.
Umapati again identifies the goals of man with the limbs:
Placing one lotus foot, the right one,

on the demon {bhuta),
raising up a litde and bending sideways
His left foot, shining with its tinkling anklet,
with the letters dha and na written on it,
worshipf>ed by the celestials
with Brahma the Ordainer at their head,
to give His worshippers what they desire -
Dharma and the other ends of man -
He performs the Dance of Bliss.
Him Who grants boons,
I worship. (yo)'9
At first sight the compound dhanalipi looks like 'money writing' and
hence 'postal order' or 'cheque'; such documents from devotees home or
abroad play an important part in the economy of the DTksitas. In fact
dhanalipi means 'the writing of dha and na\ and refers to the mental
creation of the image of îva in the Atmarthapijja, where the worshipper,
holding a piece oi darbha grass, writes particular letters on the imagined
form of the God.=^ This raises the whole question of the relation of such
poetry's visualizations and those of the ritual texts. T h e mind of a person
versed in ritual, as were Umapati and many of his readers, was
powerfully exercised in the calling up of images in strictly defined order,

and in considerable numbers. T h e reading of the verses of a poem such
as the Kuncitanghristava is partly an analogous procedure, but one freed
from the determinism of ritual, the iron logic of repeated variations of
formula mantras. There is indeed what can only be described as a
holiday atmosphere about f^vya that is very hard for the Western reader
to sense. T h e poet devotes several verses to ritual because he wants to
paint a complete picture, but here the reference to the ritual which, while
a temple priest, he would have performed every day in his own home
before setting out for the Cit Sabha, slips in inadvertently, it seems to me.
T h e two musicians referred to above in verse 93 are named in two
other verses. T h e y are accretions to the form of the bronze. Although
such figures are readily shown in attendance in sculpture, the Cola
bronze is essentially a single figure in isolation, closely modelled on the
human individual, although a divinity.^' But Nataraja is a special case,
and the additional figures on the base fit easily into the perfect
articulation of the dance.
While HQ Who has no beginning

dances, close beside Him
Bana and the one called Bhanukampa
surpass the ocean's roar
with the sounds of their conch and drum.
And from CM, the surrounding arch,
twenty-one rays can be seen,
accompanied by the Dhvani mantra.
I worship Him, the Lord of the Hall,
before Whom the multitude of the gods bows down,
Whose foot is curved. (g)®'
I praise the Lord Who is dancing
following the sound of dhi mi dhi mi tak
from the drums rapidly struck
by the bristling throng of arms
of the excellent gam Bana the Daitya;
His snakes, the ornaments of His arms,
lifting up their necks in joy
at the sound of the thousand-stringed veena
playing ta na ta na ta na.
Him, who grants freedom from fear,
I worship. (i5o)'3
As the Lord dances Bhanukampa piays

great accompanying music with excellent instruments
including conch and horn filled with the mighty wind
from his thousand fierce faces:
hum, hum, bha, bham, bham, jham, jfd,
and His dancing hall is filled with the shaken hosts of gods
crying out, 'Ha ha ha ha," and being calmed by His attendants.
(150'^
Verses 150 and 151 coming at an obvious approximation o f the halfway
point of the poem perhaps constitute a kind of musical interlude. T h e s e
two musicians seem to be specific to Cidambaram.^'S
Siva's drum {dhakka, damaru) is often referred to. T h e G a n d h a r v a
Citrasena learned the complete science of music {adhiUisam^taviefyasiddhanto)
from the sound of the drum in Natoraja's hand (118).^^ T h e drum
reverberates throughout the universe (172), and denying that the
contingent self is other than the true self loudly proclaims to the world
the Truth (248). W e may note that the drum now plays no place in the
essential music of worship, though of course its beat is essential for dance
performance, and would have accompanied dancing girls. A drum is
included in the music that accompanies processions round the temple,
but the daily ceremonies of pouring water over the Crystal Liiiga and the
ruby Nataraja are accompanied by bells - a row of litde bells on the East
side of the front of the C i t Sabha and the two great temple bells in the
Eastern corner of the first enclosure. A n eight-armed drummer, said to
be Siva, with a large five-headed drum, faces the C i t S a b h a at the base of
the Nrtta SabhL^7
Visnu too is credited with playing the drum; there is in the Saiva
legend referred to here an undercurrent of deliberate diminution of the
severe orthodoxy of both the god and his worshippers, for drummers are
of low caste, as is shown by the caste connotations of the c o m m o n T a m i l
word for drummer, namely paraiyan. Visnu addresses his two wives.
'O Lotus Laksmi, don't let's play today

'I don't want my Snake-lord couch,
'nor Garuda.
'O Earth, come at once,
'for I am going to beat the drum
'in Tillavana with great skill
'to accompany the dance of the Foe of the Cities.'
So saying, in the beginning
Hari went to His stage.
Him who is unborn,

I worship. (230)'®
This verse alludes to an episode in the Saiva sthalapuramm of KaficTpuram,
which begins, in Filliozat's paraphrase,
One day as Visnu was practising yoga, he noticed in his heart a flame in the
middle of which Sadasiva was dancing . . . Questioned by his wife, he told her
that he had seen the Supreme Being Siva dance in his heart and that his dance
had fascinated him.'S [Visnu, as required by Siva, installs a linga in KaAcTpuram
(the Ekambara temple), and then he and all his entourage make their way to
Cidambaram.] Sjva then began to dance. Sri, the king of birds (Garuda) and the
king of serjjents (Adi^sa) saw him and meditated on him. The Ganas performed
on musical instruments while he danced. Visnu wished to do so too and played
the kettledrum. Afterwards he asked the God of the Vedas (Siva) to grant him
the boon of playing this instrument in all his dances.3°
Visnu playing the drum is incorporated into the statue ofUrdhvatandava
Siva in the Nrtta Sabha, rising at an angle from the base of the sculpture,
counterbalancing KalT on the right-hand side.
Siva dances in Visnu's heart because as Supreme Being he is the
consciousness present in every individual. This brings us to a major
feature of Umapati's Nataraja - that the Dancer is Himself saccidananda,
'Being, Consciousness and Bliss'.
Brahman alone is true,

not this world, nor anything else.
Reflecting on this statement of the Upanisath
the leaders of the wise
constantly look upon Him in their hearts,
He the mass of consciousness which cannot be seen.
His Dance of Bliss constantly repeated
like the flickering flame of a lamp,
illusion-free, shining white,
He is what is meant by Tat Sat,
(261)3'
He is 'that God Whose dance is manifest in the sportive manifestation of
consciousness' {cidvilasaprakatitanatanam 293).
Putting the three lines of ash on His forehead,
the hooded snake on His throat,
and the demon as the pedestal for His foot,
and holding fire and the dhakka drum in His hands,
and sun, moon, and fire on His lotus face,
the host of gods and worlds in the radiance called OM,

the musician on each side,
He performs the Dance of Bliss in His own hall,
Him Whose foot is curved,
I worship.
A clear statement of the classic pose, omitting to mention only the
abhqya gesturq. By beginning with the putting on of ash, the poet links
the Dancer to his devotees, who share with Siva the performance of
thb action. T h e ash of the burning ground contrasts with the opulence
of the next verse cited.
He is the Lord. He always wears

necklaces of perfect pearls
on His feet and round His neck,
on His body a golden breastplate
and ornaments studded with diamonds,
and heavenly garments.
As He p>erforms His dance
He gives Dharma and the other ends of man
to all who come to Him
and protects them.
He has no beginning.
It is to Him that sages direct their sacrifice.
I worehip. (io6)33
Whereas the Pallava poet-saints made their tireless pilgrimages across

Tamilnadu to see Siva in small brick-built shrines, the Siva of our poet is
now loaded with ornaments in his vast temple-palace. Not only is the
roof of the shrine covered in gold, so too is the G o d himself. All human
purposes have their source here; rich ornamentation is synonymous with
the ethical ultimate. T h e traditional saying has it that Siva likes abhiseka,
anointing, and Visnu ornamentation, but the naked beggar and wild
dancer cannot escape the dynamic of the temple to attract wealth.
BHRNGIN THE DEVOTEE
In addition to the Goddess standing beside him, representations of

Natoraja commonly show other figures at his feet. W e have already seen
the two Gana musicians. A figure found almost as early as NaUiraja
himself is Bhrngin.
The Na^rqa bronze 23
The blessed Bhrtigin, chief of munis,

bowed solely to the Lord, to the God alone
Who has the deer and the axe in His hands;
and at the decree of Candika at His side,
angry that he did not look at her,
he lost from his fine body
the flesh and other 'feminine' parts.
By His grace,
he obtained three long legs and
residence in His place of honour.
I worship. (154)^
Bhmgin angered the Goddess by neglecting her in his exclusive

devotion to Siva; and after she had cursed him to lose his flesh (the soft,
'feminine', part of his body) he became so weak that he could not move.
Siva made him mobile by granting a third leg, whereupon he-danced for
joy. Bhmgin has no special connection with Cidambaram, but is often
found in Cola stone sculptures of Nataraja at his feet. An image of
Bhm^sa was donated to the Brhadisvara temple by a courtier, Kovan
Annamalai, of Rajaraja I in the eleventh century.^ T h e image is almost
as old as that of dancing Siva, going back to the Sirpur Gupta image.3® It
is not impossible that the origins of the figure lie in the attempt to
represent a dancer's leg movements - perhaps those of Tandu, the
eponymous teacher of the Tandava dance - an attempt which proved to
have no appeal but gave rise to the story of the determined but initially
disadvantaged devotee.
Like the Apasmara demon, Bhrfigin is a foil for Nataraja. T h e angular
figure, a pin man, contrasts with the wholly natural movements of Siva
and the smoothness of his flesh and muscles. Later paintings often show
Bhmgin accompanying Vyaghrapada and Patanjali as audience for Siva
dancing in Cidambaram. A motley crew, it might be said, maintaining
the standard of bizarrerie set by Siva's sons, elephant-headed Ganesa and
six-headed Skanda; and contrasting with the straightforwardly royal
qualities of Visnu and his consorts. And yet the strangeness of these
figures is a pale reflection of Siva's strangeness; the difference is that
Siva's strangeness has been transmuted by centuries of aesthetic
development, whereas Vyaghrapada and Patanjali remain, as it might
be said, raw in their figural condition.
At the royal centre of Gangaikondacolapuram, some 54 km by road
from Cidambaram, both KalT and Bhriigin feature in the Nataraja
sculpture on the outside of the gaTbhag^. K ^ there is a diminutive figure

like Bhrrtgin, dancing at Siva's feet. Such a dancing K ^ i features in
approximately half of the published C 5 i a stone sculptures of Nataraja;
Bhrtgin is less common .37
KALI
Another small figure often found by the feet of N a ^ r a j a is KalT. Her

diminutive form dances near Nataraja's feet at Gangaikondacolapuram.
However, in Cidambaram she is found only beside that form of Siva
which has one leg kicked up, the 'High T a n d a v a pose' {urdhvatandavd)
with which the God defeated the Goddess in their dance competition.
There is a small statue of a dancing Kali at the feet of Urdhvatandava
Siva in the hall south of the Git Sabha, the N m a Sabha, which is
understood to be on the very site where the dance competition took place
between Siva and Kali. Umapati mentions the contest three or four
times; but in general, except for the Nrtta Sabha, K a l i has no place in the
temple; and in the N m a Sabha she is not conspicuous. Kali, however, is
also present in two of the representations of the Urdhvatandava, one of
which is present on tds:\\ gopura. In both the South and North ^c^t/ras she
stands erect, four-armed, the two lower arms hanging straight down, the
upper two- holding indeterminate emblems. Her flaming hair is erect.
O n the East ô^ra she stands to Siva's left; on the Southern, 'Pandyan'
gofnira, to his right. T h e left-hand position belongs to the consort, and the
right-hand position is therefore more appropriate for an opponent. T h e
imponant point is that she does not dance: elsewhere she may dance, as
at Tiruvalangadu, where there is a magnificent bronze of her dancing
complementing the no less magnificent bronze of Siva in Urdhvatandava;
but at Cidarnbaram, the anandatmdava is supreme. Umapati does refer
once to the Urdhvatandava:
Pasupati in ancient days once danced with Kali.

In the assembly of gods and sages,
raising up His foot
and performing the elevated dance
He defeated Kail then
as prelude to her expulsion.
And all the gods and chief sages call Him Lord,
and the sinless ones worship Him every day,
Lord of the High Dance.
(46)38
The Jâtardja bronze 25
4. KalT d a n c i n g n e a r N a t a r a j a ' s feel (Bhrfigin partly visible to left). BrhadTsvara

t e m p l e , G a n g a i k o n d a c o l a p u r a m , c. 1025.
The stylistic development of the sculpture of the gopuras is clearly

shown in the two Urdhvatandavas in plate 5. T h e East gopura shows a
considerable development beyond the West; this image on the South
gopura (not shown here), third in point of time, is only a poor copy of that
of the East. In the West image (plate 5a), the Apasmara faces right, and is
not able to look up at Siva's foot. Much more is present in the East image
(plate 5b), and everything is beautifully executed. The upward leg
though straight is not entirely vertical, and every other limb is subtly curved.
It is instructive to compare the Ordhvatandava in general with the
Ananda Tandava, to better appreciate the qualities of the latter. In the
former mere athleticism, though majestic; and perhaps also a suggestion
of the impassivity of the lihga\ of the immobility of the ultimate phallic
column; of the triumph of the male force that sees olT the dangerous
female. In the Ananda Tandava, there is perhaps above all the sense of
grace: Siva's movements are graceful; Siva is the source of grace; and his
curved foot is the channel for his grace.
The great success that the Nataraja image has in achieving its effect
5. U r d h v a t a n d a v a m u r i i . W e s t gopura a n d East gopura, Cidambaram.
m a y be d e m o n s t r a t e d by contrasting the front a n d rear v i e w s o f a

bronze. Athleticism is often brilliantly a c h i e v e d f r o m b e h i n d , w h e r e
energetic m o v e m e n t is to be seen in the muscles o f the b a c k a n d thighs.
But from the front this e n e r g y is only part o f the highly structured
expression of the w h o l e i m a g e .
O t h e r forms of d a n c e are referred to in passing. I n d e e d , not m u c h
reference is explicitly m a d e to the A n a n d a T a n d a v a f o r m by U m a p a t i ,
but this is because it is constantly b e f o r e h i m a n d in his heart. O f the
other forms of d a n c e , the following refers to îva as light so b r i g h t that
the heavenly bodies a p p e a r dim, and also as e i g h t - a r m e d . T h e poets o f
i?
The Nataraja bronze
6. Naiaraja. Vedaranyani, c. 1200.

the Tevdram refer to dancing Siva as eight-armed, and may therefore be

understood as living prior to the classical C51a formulation of the
Ananda Tandava of four-armed Nauiraja.
Before Whom the sun, moon,
and fire do not shine at all,
nor the stars nor lighuiing;
from fear of Whom Indra, Vayu,
and Death the Restrainer,
son of the sun's ray,
ever keep far away;
on Whose form the best of yogis
constandy meditate in their heart-lotuses;
the Blessed One of wonderful form,
Who has eight hand-lotuses.
Him I worship. (73)39
O n a cosmic plane he has multiple hands, and this cosmic form is
coupled with Umapati's one reference to the cremation ground, so
frequently mentioned by the poets of the Tevaram and Karaikal
Ammaiyar as the scene of Siva's dance.
His eyes are sun, moon and fire
His feet reach down to the subterranean world of snakes,
His hair is in the sky,
the eight directions are His clothes,
His hands reach out to all worlds,
He is unparalleled,
His stomach is all the oceans,
and the cemetery, Rudra's ground,
is the auspicious s|X)t for His dance,
That God, eternal. Lord of the Git Sabha,
Whose praises are sung by the throng of sruti,
I worship. (67)^°
Here the dancer is the cosmos, his vast extension seeming to leave no
room for the description of artistic movement; though another verse
gives the dance on a grand scale - a rare instance in Umapati Sivacarya
of the standard K a v y a style:
i?
The Nataraja bronze
7. § i \ a d.incina; o n A p a s n i a r a w i t h a c o b r a bcnclinp; IK h o o d h c i i c a i h (lis raised l o c i .

Pillar in the w e s u rn c n i r a n c r ol ihc !>i\ac;anga lank, C'idanibararn. Sc\cntccnth
c e n i u r \ or later.
Manifestly with the fresh rays of his smiling face

and the shooting radiance from
the palms of his hand lotuses,
He forms a network of suns in the sky;
with the radiance of Siva by His side
a novel garland of clouds on earth;
Who thus dances intensely a wonderful [dance],
He who performs the dance of a bee:
I worship. (220)^'
In the court style, the poet describes an artificial seeming universe, a
world of illusion. Siva is made to fill the sky with semblances of suns, and
the Goddess, beside him, dark in colour, is low-lying cloud. T h e poet
then, with a further degree of playfulness, abandons this extensive scene
for the small-scale movement of the bee. In court poetry the buzzing
from flower to flower can represent the courtier likewise taking his
pleasure here and there. Normally, however, Umapati eschews this style.
Another form of Siva's dance is first found around the time of
Umapati. In this, the Vaisnava form of Krsna dancing on Kaliya, a
popular fotrn of Cola bronze clearly inspired by Nataraja, is used or
referred to by Saiva artists by allowing the snake that Apasmara plays
with to rear up almost in the proportions of K ^ i y a beneath Siva's
uplifted foot.
While the full life span of Visnu,
Kai^bha's foe,
is supposed to comprise an aeon,
an aeon goes by in half a second for Him,
virtually instantaneously.
Thus declare the Vedas.
What can be said of the lifetimes of Indra
and the world protectors?
Him Who is Time,
Who devours Time,
Who is the dancer on the hood of the snake,
I worship. (282)+'
Siva's dance is beyond time, and subsumes all other dances.
CHAPTER 2
The Cidambaram myth
Every major South India temple has its own legend, its local version of
mythology. T h a t of C i d a m b a r a m is found principally in the Sanskrit
CidambaraMdh^mya} and in the Tamil version of the CidambaraMahatrnya,
the Kîl Puranam, one of the earliest T a m i l sthalapuranas."^ The'sthalapurana
forms the subject of the ceiling paintings on the north side of the mandapa
of the Sivakamasundari shrine in the temple, paintings which like the
mmdapa itself probably date from the late seventeenth century. T h e story
is also told in paintings on the ceiling of the veranda round the C i t Sabha,
which like the veranda probably date from the late nineteenth century. It
is highly probable that the sthalapurana was portrayed in paintings in
Umapati's day. Nothing can be said of these paintings, but it is likely that
his imagination would have had visual prompting and affirmation of the
reality of events.
T h e Cidambaram myth is at the same time the myth of the
anandatandava, and is essentially a reworking of the well-known Pine
Forest myth but, unlike its model which is found in several Sanskrit
Puranas, does not seem to be known outside Cidambaram until modern
times.3 T h e central episode concerns Siva's visit as wandering beggar to
the sages in the Pine Forest. He is accompanied by Visnu in the form of a
beautiful woman. Together they arouse the lusts of the sages and their
wives. When attacked by entities from the sages' sacrificial fire, Siva takes
them as his attributes. He then dances the Ananda T a n d a v a for the first
time. T h e repeat performance of this dance is awaited in Cidambaram
by two sages, one of them Patanjali, an incarnation of Sesa, Visnu's
serpent, the second, Vyaghrapada, otherwise unknown. T h e y worship
the lifiga while they wait. Finally, there is an account of a mythical king
from the north, who, gaining a golden skin, moves to Cidambaram,
rebuilds the temple, and institutes rituals and festivals.
T h e story begins with an account of Vyaghrapada, 'Tigerfoot', who
worships the original lihga of the Mulasthana ('The Original Place'),
3'
The Dance of îva
while awaiting the performance in this world age of the T a n ^ v a Dance.

His name, which has the prestige of Vedic occurrence,4 is probably to be
explained by the original, or at least alternative, name of Cidambaram,
Vyaghrapura, Tigertown'.
Once Madhyandana's son,
worshipping Siva's excellent linga
obtained by His grace the paws of a tiger.
Through His compassion
he was able to bring to his son
the Ocean of Milk and feed him on it;
and he beheld in the Hall
His supreme dance.
I worship the God
Who is the Lord of the Hall of Consciousness,
Whose qualities are praised in the scriptures,
Whose foot is curved. (io)5
T h e sage worships the original lifiga in the Tillai forest of Cidambaram
every day with offerings of flowers, but the bees spoil them, and he seeks
and gains the boon of having tigerpaws instead of hands and feet, and
also an eye on each paw, so that he can climb trees for the best flowers.
He marries the sister of the famous Vedic ra Vasistha, and begets
Upamanyu, who is widely known in the Puranas as a teacher of Saivism,
but figures here only in receiving milk direcdy from Siva. T h e gift is
lavish, for it is no less than the Milk Ocean.
T h e other half of the dual act of principal devotees in the sthalapurana is
taken up by Patanjali, said to be the human form of Visnu's supporting
snake, Sesa. T h e form of Visnu at Cidambaram, as in the great Visnu
temple of Snrangam, is that of Sesasayana, Visnu outstretched on the
coils of the snake 'Remainder'. It is thus that the god floats on the waters
of undifferentiated matter during the period between destruction and
creation of the universe.
Once, meditating on His dance
Visnu's body doubled in weight
and Sesa, his support, had his body squeezed.
Sesa drank the wine of what had happened
from the lotus of Visnu's mouth,
and practising very severe penance
reached His Holy Place
via the tunnel mouth of the Silver mountain
and witnessed the dance in the Sabha.
(n)6
The Cidambaram myth 33
Because of the bliss of meditating on Siva, Visnu's body becomes

heavier. When Visnu wakes up, he tells his two queens, S n and Bhumi
(Prosperity and the Earth), and also Sesa, what happened on the
preceding day. When he went to pay his daily respects to Siva, Siva told
him that they were going to test the married ascetics in the Pine Forest.
Visnu is told to assume the form of an entrancing woman and Siva goes
as a handsome beggar. T h e sages are en<imoured of Mohinl, Visnu as
the Enchantress, and their wives enamoured of Bhiksatona, the Wandering
Beggar. The older sages, angered at the intrusion and disruption,
produce means of attack from their sacrificial fire: tiger, deer, axe,
mantras, dwarf. All are of no avail, and Siva takes them for himself, and
an explanation is thus ^ven for details of his iconography. He then
performs the wonderful Ananda Tandava dance. Sesa is very anxious to
see this for himself, and, following Visnu's instructions, leaves his son as
his deputy and takes human form as PataAjali. He descends into the
subterranean world of the Nagas and enters a tunnel which leads up into
Cidambaram. By this manoeuvre of the narrative Cidambaram is shown
to be atop the cosmic mountain, although in fact it lies on a coastal plain.
O n arriving at Cidambaram, he meets Vyaghrapada, and the pair wait
for the performance of the Dance. Specific temples in Cidambaram
house the lihgas they set up and worshipped while waiting for the Dance.7
Umapati chooses not to refer to the rsis' attack on Siva in the
Kuficitahghnstava. T h e very idea of an attack on Siva is not in consonance
with the poem. It is also a material factor that there is no iconography of
this event; it is only rarely represented in art,® being a transition between
the two key iconographies of Southern Saivism, Nataraja and Bhiksatana.
Umapati's next reference to the sthalapurana is this:
In the beginning
on a full-moon Thursday in the month of the Deer,
under the Pusya lunar asterism,
to fulfil the promise
won by those excellent sages' asceticism,
He summoned Snake-bodied Patafljali
and the great sage, Tiger-footed Vyaghrapada,
and performed His dance
against the wall
in the blessed Hall of Consciousness.
After it was over,
He granted them permanent residence.
(8)9
The Dance of îva
34
8. P a t a n j a l i . East gopura, Cidambaram.
Thus ends the first half of the sthalapurma. Siva's performance for the two
sages is represented by a majestic panel on the ceiling of the
SivakamasundarT shrine, unfortunately now greatly damaged.
T h e last major part of the sthalapuram is the story of Hiranyavarman,
the King from the North, perhaps from Bengal, as the region is called
Gauda. An important event in that story is the King bringing priests
from the North to Cidambaram. Within the story they are the original
priests, who left Cidambaram at Brahma's request to attend his sacrifice.
It is with Brahma's decision to perform a sacrifice that the second half of
the text begins.
When Indra was summoned

to Self-born Brahma's sacrifice in Antarvedi
where the hymns of the Sama Veda were loudly sung,
he did not come.
As soon as Brahma learned that the lord of the gods

was watching His pure dance
Brahma went himself in great haste to Indra
and by His overruling command
brought him back along with the Brahmans
and f>erformed his sacrifice
amid the praises of the gods.
(47)'°
Antarvedi, literally '[the area] within the sacrificial ground', is the Doab,
the district between the Gartga and the Yamuna, a region of North India
of particular sanctity, especially perhaps from the perspective of South
India.
Clearly, one aim of the story can be seen to justify the presence of
priests in Cidambaram who hail from the C a u d a region. Indeed, a high
status is claimed for them, since Brahma intended to invite the gods, but
they all refused to leave Cidambaram vyhere they were watching the
dance of Siva; and at Vyaghrapada's suggestion the priests are sent in
their stead. T h e story would seem to confuse officiating priests with the
recipients of the sacrifice.
Brahma of a Hundred Sacrifices

jxirformed a sacrifice in great Antarvedi,
a sacrifice that took a thousand years to complete.
In that assembly at Vyaghrapada's behest
the chief ascetics were present.
So that they could continue to worship Him
He gladly sent a Dancer made of precious stone
arisen from the best of fires.
He is the source of that image,
His crown is of nine jewels.
His foot is curved.
I worship Him. (16)"
T h e second part of the verse adds information not found in the

Cidambara Mahdtmya or Koyil Puranam. Siva, to compensate the DIksitas
for their absence from his temple, gives them the Ruby Nataraja,
Ratnasabhapati, that features in the daily ritual today. At about 10.45
a.m., after the second abhiseka of the Crystal Linga, there is abhiseka of the
Ratnasabhapati, and most notably, a camphor lamp is moved five times
behind this 10 cm high ruby image, to shine through it, so that it glows
red with all the details of its form made manifest. This takes place on the
The Dance of &va
east side of the Sabha, and in modern times a special roof has been buUt
on piUars in this part of the courtyard solely for this event. M y friend
Paramewara Diksita took pride in his 4-year-old son performing this
lamp action with a small Nataraja in his home, and stressed to me that
his son's skill was untaught and innate.
T h e next verse to be cited contains all the essential details concerning
Hiranyavarman.
Simhavarman, Lord of Cauda,

distressed by his diseased body,
came from his own land
to be freed from affliction
by bathing in the excellent water
with its clumps of golden lotuses -
thereupon becoming
the blessed Hemavarman,
witnessing, in company of the best ascetics,
the dance of Sambhu, Siva the mild,
for Whom he built
a wonderful jewelled temple.
('3)"
Brahma's sacrifice formed the introduction to the last part of the
sthalapurana. Mention of the king himself is delayed by an account of the
creation of the world. T h e fifth king of the Sun dynasty is the mighty
Lokesavikrama. His eldest son Sirnhavarman (Lion-prowess) is a leper
and does not feel fit to succeed to the throne.'3 Instead, he devotes
himself to asceticism, with the unspoken aim of finding a cure. In due
course he makes his way south and meets a seated sage of awesome
aspect who proves to be Vyaghrapada, in samadhi from the last world
age. T h e sage takes the prince to Cidambaram, and on Siva's advice the
prince bathes in the Siva-Ganga tank. He comes out of the water shining
like gold, and is henceforth Hiranya- or Hema-varman, 'Golden
Prowess'. Vyaghrapada and his wife adopt the prince as their son. T h e n
as a mass of radiance from the sky Vasistha, family priest of
Hiranyavarman's father, arrives. He tells him his father is too old to rule,
and he must return to rule the kingdom. T h e prince does not wish to, but
Vyaghrapada tells him to transfer his army and his subjects to
Cidambaram, and to bring back the priests from Antarvedi. He does so
and then rebuilds the temple. Patanjali writes his textbook on the ritual
of the temple and the sthalapurana ends with an account of the temple
festival. As with the end of the first half, this conclusion is grandly
portrayed in the seventeenth-century ceiling painting; unlike the former,

it is undamaged but is in the darkest corner of the mandapa.
All but one of the verses so far considered come from a small block
near the beginning of the poem (verses 8-16). Consideration of this
group will show the poem's handling and distortion of exterior narrative
order.
In verse 8, the promise is made to êsa that he will see the dance. In
verse 9 we have the description of the performance of the promised
dance (quoted chapter i, p. 19). Verse 10 reverts to the opening episode of
the CidambaraMdhdtmya, referring to Vyaghrapada gaining his tiger's feet
and his son feeding on the milk sent by Siva, before again mentioning the
dance performance of verse 9. Verse 11 gives the antecedents likewise of
Patanjali prior to the performance. Verse 12 concerns Jaimini, another
sage who witnesses the dance, making the duo of Vyaghrapada and
Patanjali into a trio; referred to only incidentally in the sthalapurana, when
Vyaghrapada gives his own mini sthalapurana to the princfe. Verse 13
summarizes the final section of the Cidambara Mahatmya. All these verses
refer to the witnessing of particular performances of the Ananda
Tandava. Verse 14 tells of Patanjali writing the ritual manual for the
Diksitas; verse 15 the daily puja\ verse 16 Brahma's sacrifice. T h e last
three form a transition into the next block (17-27) which gives a coherent
account of the temple's ritual.
In the beginning the blessed Lord of Serp>ents,

Patanjali, taking precepts
from varied places in the endless scriptures
in a way that none could emulate,
composed that Sutra for
the worship, festivals and aspersions
of the Dancer,
so that in the way that he has stated
the three thousand Brahmans forever
honour the Lord of Dancers.
(I4)'4
The sthalapurana says that Hiranyavarman had the book when

completed carried round the city to the sound of trumpets before
installing it in the Sabha (25.51-2). It may well be that the two texts were
composed at the same time.
Verse 12 is another literary reference:
The yogi named Jaimini who first attained fame

through his commentary on the ritual section of the Vedas,
at Vyasa's behest
prostrated himself
before the excellent Lord, the Lord of the Hall,
entered into the Hall
and comjposed the excellent hymn of praise
wherein every verse ends with a quote from the Veda.
Even today he dwells in the Hall
beholding the God
Who gave him his good fortune,
Whom I worship. (i2)'5
Association with Jaimini brings a vicarious authenticity. T h e ultra-

orthodox Purva ] ^ m a m s a stands behind the temple v^hich practices
'Vedic' rituals; and his poem of praise is steeped in the Vedas. O u r poet is
deeply interested in other poets, he follows their example, and their
example adds significance to his own work. Jaimini is mentioned again in
the company of several other devotees:
The. God swayed by devotion to Himself,

Who gave salvation to Pulkasa and the Brahman,
to the son of Valkala, to the man caUed Nanda,
and to the wise man who thought his own eye mere grass,
and Who gave eternal presence in Cidambaram
to Vyaghrapada,
to the famous serpent-lord PataAjali,
and to Jaimini author of the hymn,
and thus fulfilled all their desires.
Him, ageless and immonal,
Whose foot is curved
I worship. (29)'®
In addition to the trio of sages already considered, Umapati refers

here to two specific episodes of the sthalapurana, namely that of Pulkasa
and that of Valkali. T h e two saints, Nanda (Tamil form, Nantaoar) and
Kannappar who gave his eye to the linga, are among the sixty-three saints
(Nayanars) celebrated in the Perâ Puranam. (Nantaoar is discussed
below, and Kannappar in chapter 9.) Pulkasa and Valkali are of litde
moment in themselves, but belong to significant strata of the sthalapuram.
T h e CidambaraMahatmya gives the following account of Pulkasa. Pulkasa
is the name of an evil man who kills a family of Brahmans and then robs
travellers. He makes friends with a Brahman and gives him half his
money. T h e Brahman is pleased to get the money, but admonishes
Pulkasa for his .wickedness. Pulkasa then sees the error of his ways, and
becomes depressed. T h e Brahman advises him to go to Cidambaram,
the best of holy places, where the Lord of Ambika dances. As soon as he
sees the Litde Hall in the distance he is to prostrate himself on the
ground. He is to give away his wealth to both yogins and men in the
world, and to strenuously protect the place from danger.
Full of faith Pulkasa goes to Cidambaram, accompanied by the
Brahman despite their difference in caste. Pulkasa gives away all his
wealth to yogins and others. When he sees in the distance the heavenly
Litde Hall {dabhrasabha} of wonderful glory, he pays homage at a distance
of 5 krosas, and remains there continuing to do homage, full of joy, and
protecting that place. In the course of time he dies, and after enjoying the
delights of heaven attains supreme salvation. So too does the Brahman, it
is briefly added.
Kulke, in his painstaking analysis of the Cidambara Mahatmya, which
will shortly be referred to in detail, overlooks the fact that the story of
Pulkasa is taken from the Suta 1.4.17-39), to argue that it
is based on another story from that text, namely the story of Durgha^.
The version in the Cidambara Mdhatnrya differs from its source only in that
Siita's references to his audience, ' O Brahmans!' and so on, are removed
and the phrasing altered to preserve the metre; and the interesting detail
is lost that the Brahman who befriends Pulkasa is a brothel-keeper
(ganikapati). T w o other sinners with interesting specific details are
mentioned in the Pundankapura Mdhatyma, though they too have generic
nomenclature - Durmata and Duhsaha. T h e real interest, however, in
the story of Pulkasa is in its contrast with that of Nanda, although both
were of low caste. Nanda's story is here given according to the
Hemasabhdnatha Mdhatyma, which devotes its ninth chapter to this
Nayanar. Nanda was renowned for saying that he would visit Cidambaram
'tomorrow', but his constant toil as a labourer did not allow time. Even
when at last he goes, his family seek to restrain him since such a holy
place is not for the likes of them. Once there he does not pass through the
courtyard gate but dwells outside. Daily he circumambulates the city,
oppressed by the fact his caste is an impediment to seeing God. T o
succour {rakntum) him, Siva with smiling face comes to him in a dream
and tells him that by entering fire he will conquer his caste and be able to
worship him alongside the Brahmans. Then Siva came to the Brahmans
of Cidambaram and said to them in their dreams, 'If any person of the
lowest caste should enter fire tomorrow, let him be honoured by you.'
T h e perfect priests had a fire lit at the entrance and went into the temple.
'I am a slave and yet am I fortunate,' declared Nanda, and with joyful
devotion he entered the fire. He lost his previous body and took on the
glory of a Brahman. Chaste, pure, his upper body clad only with the
sacred thread, reciting the Vedas he came fbrth from the fire, and as the
gods showered down flowers entered the temple to be seen no more,
having won identity with îva.
Especizdly for readers familiar with the Nayanars, there is a marked
difTerence between the story o f N a n d a and that of Pulkasa, extending even
to their names. T h e factitious quality of the latter means that his caste is all
the name he needs. T h e CidambaraMahatmya even leaves out the detail of
the Brahman's occupation. Partly perhaps its redactors did not want to
diminish the power of the central narrative by adding distracting details;
and certainly not by introducing the well-known Nayanars. T h e story
they had to tell was new, and its success was not assured.
W e have still to deal with the son of Valkala. H e is known from the
CidambaraMahatmya as a demon who defeated Indra, since Siva had given
him the boon of being unconquerable (7.17). M o r e details are given in 41:
Once in the past when Indra, lord of the gods,

had his fine body struck by one called Valkali
he resorted to Visnu and told him what had happened to him;
with Visnu, foe of Mura,
he came to this holy place and worshipped the Lord;
through His pure pity
he obtained great strength and slew his foe.
(4,)'7
According to Kulke this episode, part of Vyaghrapada's father's

discourse to his son, is an interpolation, a Northern Vaisnava text
inserted into the original narrative, with only minimal changes. Kulke is
clearly correct that the narrative was originally Vaisnava, but there is no
p o d reason to suppose that it was not part of the original mix of
ingredients used to construct the Cidambara Mdhatmya. It explains the
presence of Visnu in Cidambaram, and Visnu is to play an important
part in subsequent events - as MohinT in the Daruka Forest. It also refers
to Visnu bringing the Milk Ocean with him to Cidambaram. Kulke
himself remarks that 'the account of the Vaisnava origin of the Milk
Ocean in Cidambaram was probably one of the motives for connecting
the V y i g h r a p i d a legend in the Cidambara Mahatmya with the Upamanyu
The CidambaTom myth 41
legend.''® Indeed, it is hard to think of a stronger motive. Within the

Cidambara Mahatmya the subsequent event - aiva bringing the Milk
Ocean for the benefit of Upamanyu - is given more sectarian point by
the earlier reference to the rival Vaisnava event.
T h e appropriateness of the story of the Milk O c e a n here prompts a
reconsideration of the whole question of Upamanyu, who is again
referred to near the end of the poem:
Tigerfoot's baby boy obtained
the very pleasant ocean of milk
by constantly praising the desirable Lord
Who dances in the heavens
(3O6)'9
Kulke thus summarizes his own position:
The starting point of the Vyaghrapada-legend is seen in the Sanskritization of a
Tamil name of Cidambaraiti, Tuliyur', as 'Vyaghrapura'. Thus, the legend of
the Muni Vyaghrapada was created, who up to this time had been known only
as the father of Upamanyu, a saint of MBh xni, 14. The Vyaghrapada legend,
created in Cidambaram, was brought into connection with this well-known
Upamanyu legend.®"
Yet it is not impossible that the legend is entirely Southern in origin. Its
inclusion in the Critical Edition of the Mahdbharata may be questioned.
T h e editor of the Anusdsana Parvan, R. N. Dandekar, remarks, 'it is
certainly strange that the well-known Upamanyu e p i s o d e . . . should-not
have found place in the Andhra BharaUimu\" T h e relevant part of this
Telegu adaptation was written by Tikkana Somayajl (1200-80); I suggest
the Upamanyu episode is a manifesdy late insertion in the Mahabharata,
and that its origin is precisely a Saiva take-over of the Milk Ocean,
though Cidambaram may not be the earliest site for the attempt.''®
A related incident is the story (found in the twelfth-century Periya
Puranam) of the first Tevdram poet, Campantar being fed with milk from
Uma's breast in a golden cup. T h e 3-year-old's father was alarmed to see
milk trickling from his mouth, and demanded to know who had fed him,
fearful of pollution from a lower caste. T h e opening hymn of the Tevdram
is said to be the poet's reply to this question. A verse in another hymn is a
more direct reference:
When I was rebuked by my angry father,
who rejected as a harmful thing
the sweet dish of wisdom
served in a flowerlike golden cup,
the great Lord possessed me.'3
4'
Upamanyu y/as a noted Saiva teacher, as in the Vâvâ SanJiitd of the

Sioa Puramy a text for which Umapati is said to have written a
commentary; and supposedly the author of a Sanskrit version of the lives
of the Tamil saints, the Upamanyubhaktavitasa\ and in the Mahabharata - a
late insertion as noted above - the teacher of the worship of Siva to
Krena, mentioned by Umapati in verse 54.
T h e central episode of the Cidambaram legend where Siva appears as
Bhik^tana is considered in depth in chapter 7. We have not yet
considered the date of the Cidambara Makdtmya. W e shall now look at
Kulke's dating on the basis of his highly systematic analysis; and at the
account of its composition offered by one of Umapati's biographers,
Sivanandanatha Diksita, who credits not only the Tamil version but the
Sanskrit original to Umapati.
Kulke claimed to discover a historical core to the sequence of events.
He suggests that Sirnhavarman, the king from C a u d a who gains a
golden skin in the Sivaganga tank and rebuilds Cidambaram, was based
on the Cola king Kulottunga I (1070-1118). This hypothesis hinges on a
few small points. Sirnhavarman's father is named Lokendravikrama,
and is further described as bha^rathTpuraparipanthin. Kulke suggests that
this was in fact Rajendra I, who captured the river Canga, and thereafter
established a new palace and temple called the City of the Conqueror of
the GaAga (Gangaikondac51apuram, 54 km by road west of Cid^m-
baram).^'^ This conquest of the CaAga was no more than a raiding party
led by one of his generals; but it is this C51a king and no other who is to be
distinguished by the epithet. He was the great-grandfather of Kulottunga
I. A minor but puzzling detail of the narrative of the Cidambara Mdhdtmya
is that Vyaghrapada adopts Hiranyavarman. Kulke sees this as the
legitimation of an outsider, and connects it with the claim of Kulottunga's
court poet, JayakonUr, that the East Calukyan Kulottunga was named
as crown prince by the Cola Virarajendra.
Kulke relies on two other details for his post quern dating - a close
correspondence between what he sees as an interpolated reference to a
Varuna festival in the month ofMagha and an inscription of NaralokavTran
(pre-1128/1129) concerning the building of a mandapa by the sea, and
road to it, for that same festival. Further, Kulke takes vii, 30 (misprinted
in his book as vi, 30) to refer to the Visnu shrine in Cidambaram.
The foregoing arguments are persuasive, but what is absolutely
crucial for Kulke's bold claim that the Cidambara Mahdtmjya is an example
of'an historical king's biography being transformed into a legend during
his lifetime'^5 is his assumption that after Kul5ttunga II (1135-50)
^ The Dance of
removed the image of Visnu from Cidambaram there was no such

sculpture there until it was replaced by Acyutadeva R a y a {1529-42). T h e
only anU quern evidence is that the Cidambara Mahdtmya must have been
written before Kulotturtga II removed the image.®® However, the image
is in place in Umapati's time:
Even today to His right
Visnu in his jewelled shrine
is lying on the couch of the coils
of the five-headed Lord of Snakes
with his feet to the south and his face to the north.
Although he is always asleep,
he constandy meditates
on His praiseworthy foot.
(42^
At present Govindaraja is lying in the opposite direction, that is, Visnu's
face is directed towards the south and his feet are in the north. T h e r e is
no set rule as to which way that Sesasayana Visnu should be orientated,
but the dual shrines in Cidambaram are a special case, and the head to
the nonh, pointing to the Cit Sabha, is a sign of submission to Siva; to the
south as at present, the reverse, a mark of Vaisnava independence, as
would be expected from the mighty Vaisnava Acyutadeva Raya.^®
It follows from Umapati's reference to the Visnu shrine that the
Cidambara Mahatmya could have been written at any time after the post
quern dates suggested by Kulke. It should also be remembered that the
building in Cidambaram in Kulottuiiga I's reign was due principally to
the general or warlord Naral5kavTran. Kulke closely follows Nilakanta
Sastri, the historian of the C5ias, but passes over the fact that Kul5ttunga
II had an extensive building programme in Cidambaram. Sastri
declares, T h e renovation of the temple and city of Cidambaram is, in
fact, the best known event of the reign.'^9
T h e RRjendrapura Mah^mya by Sivanandanatha Diksita, a life of
Umapati of uncertain date, its title taken from the place of Umapati's
asrama, gives a different view of the composition of the sthalapuram.
One day the priest on duty was opening the door for the night pujd when it was
discovered that the Lord of the Sabha and Amba had disappeared! Hearing this
incredible news the excellent sages, every one of Uiem, assembled in the Deva
Sabha and reflected on the matter. They came to the conclusion that the Lord of
Dancers now remained in the Sabha only as space, bereft of qualities. Someone
meditating on His lotus foot must have drawn the form of Lord to his own place
and installed Him there!
Then the Lord, although bereft of qualities, spoke to them.

'I am to be found in the sthalapurana that the priest {makhin) Umapati is
comf)osing. I am dwelling within a golden casket in his piga room along with Uma.
O best of sages! You must invite him and enthrone him in the Jewelled Pavilion
before the Cit Sabha. Seated in front of him at the time of the morning milking
every day for three fortnights, you, O Brahmans! along with Uma, must listen to
the great Purana of my city, and its abbreviated Tamil version, each of them a
stream of nectar.
As soon as thefirstword is said I shall enter the great Sabha and, O Brahmans! I
shall be visible to all. Go quickly to his monastery.'
Thereupon the Lord rejoined his tangible form, accompanied by Amba.
Going to the monastery the twice-born saw the best of sages and bowing to him
loudly cried, 'We long to hear your Purana p>oem. Come quickly, O knower of
the Supreme Self.'
And Umapati, hearing their words, came with them and entering the Sabha, on
a throne of brass and jewels in the middle of the mandapa, facing east, his arms
upraised in homage,
he meditated on the Lord of the Sabha in the lotus seed-cup of his heart. Then
he stood on the throne and looking at the Brahmans, he began to recite the
beginning of the Purana.
Then the Dancer was before all men. {Rêndrapura Mahatmya 81-95)
O n the basis of the foregoing discussion and revision of Kulke's

dating, Umapati could, conceivably, have written at least the final
redaction of the Sanskrit Cidambara Mahatmya at the same time as making
the Tamil version (generally attributed to him). T h e very poetical
account of Bhiksatana's encounters vîth the wives of the ^ i s , for
example, is almost identical in both versions, and since it is more
appropriate in style and feeling to the Kdyil Puranam than to the rest of the
Cidambara Mahatmya, could well be equally his composition. So too other
sections of the Cidambara Mahatmya.
Noteworthy in the above passage from the Rdjendrapura Mahatmya is
the attitude to the image attributed to the priests. Not only is the image
the object of intensely focussed attention, it can as it were be sucked away
to the one who meditates upon it the most intensely. Again, note that
Umapati restores the image in a double sense, both physically and in his
literary work. The interconnection of the physical image and its textual
version is intensely close. So too throughout the Kuncitahghristava.
CHAPTER 3
Temple, priests, and ritual
'O you excellent gods, why do you dwell on this peak?

There's a sacred place called Pundarika, "White Lotus",
'in the heart-lotus of the earth
'that sustains all the sacred places of the Lord.
'There alone does God shine
'with all His thousand elements.
'Go there today!' -
with this kind suggestion
Nandin hurries them from the Mountain to see Him;
I worship. (227)'
Nandikesvara, leader of the Ganas, Siva's doorkeeper, urges the gods to
leave Mount K a i l ^ a and to go south to see Siva in his full glory. A
portion (Aa/5) o f S i v a is in every sacred place, but only in C i d a m b a r a m is
he totally present. Pundarika means 'white lotus'; Pundarnkapura,
'White Lotus City', is another name for C i d a m b a r a m , and Pundankapura
Mahdtmya the name of a later C i d a m b a r a m mahalmya.
Every day the sun sees the golden pinnacle of His stage,
mistakes it for Meru, stops his chariot
and stays there for a moment
until he hears again the auspicious sound
of Him being worshipped - the ringing of the bells,
and the Vedic mantras of the three thousand Brahmans -
and realises it is the city called Tillai Wood.
(289)'
T h a t the sun mistakes a high building for the cosmic mountain is a
convention of Sanskrit poetry, but has added point here since in the
virtual reality of the slhalapurdna C i d a m b a r a m itself is a cosmic mountain,
46
Temple, priests, and ritual 47
10. R o o f s o f the K a n a k a S a b h a (on the left) a n d C i t S a b h a (on the right) v i e w e d f r o m

the top o f the East gopura, C i d a m b a r a m .
and Patanjali had to ascend through a vertical tunnel to reach it. T h e

highest points of the' temple are the gateway towers, the gopuras, and
other structures within the temple are higher than the Cit Sabha, but to
think of the temple is to think only of the Cit Sabha.
Several kings claim to have covered the Cit Sabha in gold. T h e
present situation is that the roof of the Cit Sabha is said to have golden
tiles, and the similar-shaped Sabha right in front of it, which is called the
Kanaka ('Golden') Sabha, is roofed in gilded copper. However, the roofs
look identical, save that the Kanaka roof is about a metre lower. As for
the bells, today they comprise two large bells about 3 metres above
ground in the north-east corner of the innermost courtyard and a row of
little bells fastened to a pivoting board pulled by a string at the front of
the Kanaka Sabha. Prior to 1934 the large bells were situated directly in
front of the Kanaka Sabha, on the eastern side.
Another name for Cidambaram is Tilva, or Tillai in Tamil, this being
the name of the type of tree with which the whole area was forested.3
Tilvavana Mahatmya is the name of a later Sanskrit slhalapurana for
Cidambaram.
.'\Jthough a few other temples in Tamilnadu are particularly closely
associated with Na^raja and have their own myths of the Dance along
with halls specific to their version of his Dance, Nataraja is above all the
God of Cidambaram. .-X general introduction to the temple, with its
buildings, priests, and rituals, is provided by Umapati, and this is
enlarged upon here; the symbolism and esoteric significance of the C i t

Sabha, the heart of the temple, will be discussed in detail in chapter 4.
Cidambaram has a good claim to be the greatest of all Siva temples.
From the days of the Saiva saints of the seventh and eighth centuries it
has been for southern Saivas the fîl, the temple par excellence which
needs no other name to be known. T o d a y it remains a popular temple,
though not on the scale of the Minaksi temple in Madurai, which has the
economic advantage of being in the centre of a rapidly growing
industrial city. T h e most popular and the richest temple in all India is the
Vaisnava shrine in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, notwithstanding its
remoteness. Nevertheless, the increased popularity of Nataraja in the
second half of the twentieth century along with the great revival of dance
have assisted the temple's reputation in India at large. Within Tamilnadu
the temple enjoys a very special position, being the only major temple to
have remained outside the control of the state government. It did not
entirely escape the D M K attack on Sanskrit and Sanskrit learning in
recent decades,'^ but several learned priests have kept alive the scholarship
and poetry that have been part of the Cidambaram tradition from
earliest times.
T h e plan shown in plate 11 provides a clear conceptual model in the
eye of an artist. T h e Sivaganga tank is misplaced, but otherwise the
essential features are in place. T h e prominence of the two sages,
Vyaghrapada and Patanjali, is characteristic of all post-eighteenth-century
representations of Siva dancing in Cidambaram. T h e South gopura is in
reality no larger than the others, but its greater significance, since Siva
faces south, is signalled today by two orange flags that fly from its roof
T h e drawing clearly shows the enclosures, and above all the supreme
importance of the Cit Sabha.
T h e actual form of the temple is asymmetrical and atypical; its
development hard to unravel. Its gopuras are the oldest group of four
gopuras, and their irregular positioning suggests that the four-gateway
ground plan had not been made canonical by the time of their
construction .5 These ô/>uras are a valuable expression of C o l a art, and a
virtually complete statement of C5ia Saiva iconography. T h e huge scale
of the temple, the area defined by the positions of the gopuras being no less
than 16,500 sqm, demonstrates the importance of the temple in the
thirteenth century.^
LX >_l II LS
II. Plan o f S a b h a n a y a k a t e m p l e . M a d r a s 1867 e d i t i o n Koyil Puranam.

MULANATHA, THE ORIGINAL LIliGA SHRINE
Of all the linger and mobile images

to be found in the holy places He has favoured,
whether in the underworld, the world of mortals, or heaven,
the source is the blessed Mulanatha, 'the Original Lord',
the best of Siva lihga& which ever shines
to the north of His Hall in the inner enclosure.
(296)7
This is where Vyaghrapada worshipped, though he. also established his

own shrine half a mile away.® T h e Mulasthana, T h e Place of the
Original Liiiga', is now in the second enclosure, and presumably was so
in Umapati's day, since the wall enclosing the Cit Sabha (and the
Kanaka Sabha; and the Visnu complex) is said to have been built by
Kulottunga I (1070-1122).
Kulke, in his analysis of the Cidambara Mâtmya, declares with
confidence, 'The older and conservative element in Cidambaram is
represented by the linga cult and the younger and more dynamic one by
the cult of the dancing Siva.'® T h e author of the Vyaghrapada legend
'was the apologist of a threatened /i^fl-cult'.'° This is too stark a contrzist.
O n the evidence of the Cidambara Mahatmya itself, and as we shall see on
the evidence zilso of the Kuficitahghristava, the basic and constant worship
of Siva is always conducted by worshipping the linga. While Vyaghrapada
waits for Siva to perform in this world age the anandatandava, not only
does he worship at the Mijlasthana, he also sets up his own lihga shrine; so
too Patanjali. It is the natural thing to do, and does not in any sense
contradict the dance. T h e principal activity in the Kanaka Sabha in
front of Namraja is the worship of the small Crystal Liiiga which was
given to the priests by Siva himself. W e have already seen the striking
verse of Kuncitahghnstava where the drops of water from Nataraja's locks
become lihgas. Historically, Napiraja worship is later than lihga worship,
but there is not the least conflict between the two forms of worship. T h e
earliest sculptures of Dancing Siva represent him as ithyphallic. O n the
evidence of the Cidambara Mdh^mjya it is worship of the lihga that brings
the vision of the Dance. In the Kuhcitahgfiristava we find that for the
planets and even the gods lihga-worship is an integral part of worshipping
Na^raja:
Desirous of seeing His dance

the planet lords, the sun, the moon and the others,
settled in Cidambaram.
They established lihgai in their own names

beside the excellent edge of the Sivagafiga tank
and worshipf>ed there;
and also constantly meditated
on His gende radiant dance
that continued in their hearts just as it did outside.
("9)"
Visnu, Brahma, delightful LaksmT;
Indra, Fire and Yama,
Nirrti the lord of Raksasas,
Varuna with his noose,
Vayu, Kubera, three-eyed Isana;
Aruna and other gods, the Moon and Sun,
have constandy beheld the dance of Pasupati
in His most holy place.
They have established lihgas in their own names,.
bowed before them,
and enjoyed perfect happiness.
{38)"
T h e worship of Nataraja did not supplant but complemented the
established worship of the lihga. T h e worship of S i v a as dancer was well
established from the time of Tirunanacampantar, the first of the Tevaram
jxjets. There is neither evidence nor reason for the hostility Kulke supposes.
His house is resplendent with five walls,

with gleaming gopuras in each direction
to the number of the Vedas,
with five Halls
which are the sheaths of Brahman -
food and the others, -
with the holy waters,
and with the shrines of the Blessed Mulasthana,
Devi, Visnu, Elephant-faced Vinayaka, and Skanda.
Him Who constandy p>erforms His dance
there in the Sheath of Bliss,
I worship. (76)'^
The most obvious feature of a South Indian temple is '\ts gopuras. Those of
Cidambaram are around 40 m in height, and are landmarks for sailors,
Cidambaram being some 5 km from the sea, as well as for travellers by
land. T h e Vedas here signify the number 4, there being four Vedas, but
at the same time the special Vedic authenticity of the temple is asserted.
T h e gopuras are shining (vilasad). Vi-las is an important word in
Sanskrit poetry. It signifies the vibrant quality of light, and of life itself.
Today there is a double contrast in the gopuras at Cidambaram, as
elsewhere. T h e stuccowork of the tiered upper section, m o d e m since it
has to be periodically renewed, contrasts with the fine C o l a sculptures of
the stone lower section. Again, the garish colours of the upper section
contrast with the bare stone beneath. Originally, the stonework was
probably finely plastered and painted, and the stucco work would have
matched the stone sculpture in quality.
Theô^rfls were completed not long before the writing of our poem,
and quite possibly within Umapati's memory. For him they were
relatively modern buildings. T h e West and East gopuras were probably
completed around 1250. In Harle's opinion, the South was entirely
built at some time between 1248 and 1272, though some decorative detail
and bas-relief figures were left unfinished. Because of slight differences
between the West gppura and the three other ôî/ras, and because of the
style of the West gopura, Harle argues that the West is the earliest. T h e
South gopura bears the mark of Sundara Pandya, and it is called the
Pandya gopura^ but his claim to have built it is generally disputed by
scholars. Although the South gppura, closest in time to Umapati, displays
an evident stylistic decline from the art of the first two gopuras,
nevertheless, Umapati may fairly be said to have lived amid the glories of
C5ia art. It must indeed be stressed how dominant the gopuras. are. Not
only in entering and leaving the temple, but wherever one moves in the
outer courtyard, one cannot but be aware of them.
Harle begins his discussion of the iconography of the Cidambaram
gopuras with these words:
At the end of the C51a period, the grent gopuras succeeded the vimanas as the most
important buildings of the temple in a physical sense and the stage was set for a
new phase in South Indian temple iconography. The iconography of these
gopuras, some with upwards of seventy niches containing images, was potentially
far richer and more complex than that of any previous buildings, not excluding
the great vimanas, of Tanjore, Gartgaikondacoiapuram, Darasuram or Tri-
bhuvanam.'a
Harle goes on to say that the Cidambaram gopuras 'are among the very
first seven-storey gopuras to have been built and the eariiest to have
survived intact.' A point which I do not think has hitherto been made by
any scholar is that it was precisely and uniquely at Cidambaram that
such structures were needed because the centre of the temple contained
no vimana to carry the iconic statement of the forms of iSiva.'® In every
other temple of the period, the exterior of the vimana, the towering
superstructure of the garbhagrha, bore the sculptures that were the
temple's chief public statement after the essential form, the mQlanmrti,
hidden within. T h e kings who built the four royal temples named by
Harle were all devotees of Nataraja, and the creation of Cidambaram is
intimately related to those other temples. Its grandeur could be no less
than those statements of royal power, and the only way to achieve that
was by building the gxtdXgopuras. It was not feasible to build a vimana over
the Cit Sabha; and the form of the gopuras is manifestly based on that of
the vimana.^^ T h e lack of a vimana over a central shrine necessitated the
development of the gopuras, in Cidambaram as major iconographic
statements. I would add the thought that once the decision was made to
shift the iconographic statement formerly found on the vimana,. the logic
of the situation demanded four such gopuras, otherwise the' centre of
iconographic gravity would entirely shift away from the centre. With
such gopuras, in each direction, however, due weight was restored to the
centre.
The first tier of all the gopuras is crowded with divinities other than
Siva; the second tier rises up grandly and spaciously and is devoted to
forms of Siva. T h e first tiers each have forty-six images, the upper tiers
twenty-three. T h e sculptural programme of each gopura is the same.'®
We shall have occasion in further chapters to refer to particular images
on the gopuras; note here that vilasad surely refers not only to the shining
masses of the towers, but also to the throbbing presence of multiple
sculptures.
Finally on the subject of the gopuras in this chapter, the fact that the
gopuras are in each direction -
His house is resplendent . . .

with gleaming gopuras, in each direction
to the number of the Vedas -
merits discussion. T h e standard form of a great South Indian temple is

that of a rectangle with an entrance in the centre of each side. In
Cidambaram, however, although the 1867 drawing given above (page
49) showed the gopuras as situated centrally, they are in fact not so
situated.'^ The true positions are shown in the scale plan in fig. i above-
(p. 6). These asymmetrical positions are difficult to account for. T h e
South gopura is the only one in line with the axis of a shrine, the Cit
lOo The Dance of îva
Sabha. It may well be that the South and \Sicst gopuras are on the site of
entrances of a very early period of the temple, whereas the other two had
their positions determined only at the building of the gopuras now in
existence, by which time the whole site had grown.
Let us turn now to one more other striking characteristic of the
Southern temple in general, namely the series of enclosure walls.
Jouveau-Dubreuil likened the procedure by which the temple precincts
were expanded to the phenomenon of the growth of a tree trunk, the
cross-section of which shows a number of concentric rings each an
annual contribution to its thickness. O n the same principle the earlier
enclosures are those towards the centre, while each concentric wall with
its gateways records successively a later addition. However, a full quota
of enclosures seems to have been present at an early stage in Cidambaram.
Not only does Umapati speak of five walls, or enclosures (the word
prakara means both wall and enclosure), five enclosures are mentioned
already in the Cidambara Mdhdtmya. In chapter i8, the gams ask
Nandikesvara who is going to protect the boundaries of the temple
Hiranyavarman has renewed.
Nandikesvara apjx)inted his own entourage to be the guards of the Sabha,

surrounding it (i). For the protection of the next courtyard he appointed bhutas
(2); for the .next courtyard, pisacas (3); as protectress of the courtyard after that
KaE and her own attendants (4); beyond there, he ordained Bhairava and others
as protectors (s).®®
In the Puranam, Nandikesvara says.
These ones will valiandy protect all this house:

paritams who crowd everywhere
will protect the inner parts.
Next, the middle portions will be guarded
by many angry kulh and by Kali.
The outer parts will be guarded
by appropriate classes
of the Lord's hosts. {K^l Puranam, NatarMaccamkam 50)"
In both accounts, the preceding discussion shows the Ganas, Siva troops
under Nandikesvara's command, to be indignant that mortals should
freely behold Siva's Dance. This angry jealous nature seems to be proper
to door-keepers, and here perhaps increases along with distance from
the centre. KalT is mentioned only here in both texts.^^ T h e Cidambara
M-ahatmya, by referring to KalT as she w h o stands beside the Lord, is
perhaps referring to Sivakamasundari in her separate shrine in what is
now the third enclosure. Alternatively, the KalT temple is referred to It
may well be that the fifth enclosure is the remainder of the city. A variety
of fierce boundary goddesses is to be found around the outskirts of the
town, especially to the north, and such has doubdess been the case for
centuries. But today there are not held to be any such dangerous
presences within the temple itself.
Given that Umapad does refer to five enclosures, it is also surprising
that when he introduces the Upanisadic idea of the five sheaths of a
human being, he links this idea not to the enclosures, but to the five halls.
That the enclosures represent these sheaths is a notion which is popular
in modern times at least. For example, G . Vanmikanathan:
T o Maanikkavaachakar and, indeed, to all the saints of Tamilnaadu, and, for
that matter, even to the common man, the abode of God is his own body, his
mind, his heart . . . This faith has been extended to the ground plan of the
temples by the great sages who wrote the Aagamas . . . [The] five courtyards
represent the five sheaths of a human body, viz. annamaya kosa, pranamaya kosa,
manomaya kosa, vijnammaya kosa, anandamaya kosa.^.. the sheath of food, i.e., food
transformed into flesh, the sheath of breath, the sheath of mind, the sheath of
intellect, and, ultimately, the sheath of bliss.'S
And more pertinendy the same claim with regard to Cidambaram itself
was made in 1983 by Somasetu Diksita in his introduction to the second
volume of the Cidambaram ritual text, the Citsabhesotsavasutra. Umapati,
however, unquestionably links the sheaths with the five halls -
. .. five halls
which are the sheaths of Brahman -
food and the others
T h e five halls as understood today, and presumably then, are, in inverse
order of proximity to the centre, the Raja Sabha (the Thousand-pillared
Hall), the Deva Sabha, the Nrtta Sabha, the Kanaka Sabha and the Git
Sabhi.^5
The five S a b h ^ do not correlate with the five enclosures. T h e Git
Sabha and the Kanaka Sabha, respectively the sheaths of bliss and
knowledge, are in the innermost enclosure. T h e Nrtta Sabha, the sheath
of intellect [manas) and the Deva Sabha, the sheath of breath, are in the
second enclosure. T h e Raja Sabha, the Thousand-pillared Hall, is in the
third enclosure.
Other than the key identification of the Git Sabha with the Gonsciousness
that is Bliss, there would seem to be no special force in the connections
made here. Gertainly none is spelled out. But the five halls do have both a
certain unity and a clear progression of significance. All have the same
type of roof, and are as it were variations on the basic theme of the Git
Sabha as an assembly haU. T h e K a n a k a Sabha is in many respects a

duplicate of the Cit Sabha. T h e Nrtta Sabha is an elegant and ornate
pavilion containing principally the shrine of îva as U r d h v a t ^ d a v a , but
also space for a dancer to dance. T h e Deva Sabha houses the many
bronze images of the temple and other precious objects; the Diksitas hold
their assemblies on the steps in front of it. T h e R a j a Sabha, vast in extent,
is only entered twice a year by devotees; kings were crowned there in
Cola times.
T h e Nrtta Sabha is the most ornate of these halls, it is also the only one
easily examined. It is an extremely interesting structure in design, being
a stone chariot, provided with two stone wheels, and two stone horses.'^^
However only the top of one wheel and the head of one horse are now
visible, having been concreted over to strengthen the basic structure as
part of the Kumbhabhiseka of 1955. At an early period the structure was
curtailed by part of the Visnu complex to the south, and cut sheer away
to the north to make a passageway. And as early as the construction of
the wall of the first enclosure, its position in relation to the Cit Sabha was
clearly demoted.
Apparent in the representation of the temple in plate ii above is the
potentially significant position of the Nrtta Sabha. At present the lack of
a southern entrance to this enclosure considerably reduces the architectural
value of the Nrtta Sabha. But it is also noteworthy that Umapati makes
no reference to the Nrtta Sabha other than its presumed inclusion in the
list of five Sabhas. It now houses the shrine for Urdhvatandava Siva
along with a small Kali beside his feet, but this shrine is clearly a later
addition, the original ornate pillars being crudely walled off here to
enclose the shrine on three sides. This shrine faces east, which is at odds
with the orientation of the Sabha, which faces the Cit Sabha, and
towards which its now hidden horses were intended to be seen drawing it.
Also present in the innermost courtyard is the Visnu shrine, set at right
angles to the Cit Sabha. T h e present building of the Vishnu shrine which
is known as Govindaraja is not old. T h e rectangular garbhagrha has a
barrel roof, and has an ardhamandapa and a pradak^no. patha (circumam-
bulation passage). Vaikhanasa priests {arcakas) officiate at this shrine. In
the past there have been disputes with the Diksitas, and the ownership of
the Hundred-pillared Hall remains in dispute. It is significant that the
ritual texts of the temple do not mention the Hundred-pillared Hall; nor
does Umapati. Either it was simply superseded by the Thousand-pillared
Hall, or it belonged to the Vaisnavas. T h e Vaisnavas could have been
allowed to use it after the construction of the Thousand-pillared Hall; or
it could have been allocated to them by Acyutadeva R a y a when he

rebuilt the Visny shrine in the sixteenth century. Although the shrine has
established its autonomy in law, one public assertion of status is not
permitted - a flag may not be raised on the shrine's flagpole.
Verse 76 quoted above includes the Visnu shrine when it speaks of the
five shrines:
and with the shrines

of the Blessed Mulasthana,
Devi, Visnu, Elephant-faced Vinayaka, and Skanda . . .
In modern times 'the five shrines are frequendy spoken of by the priests,
but the Visnu shrine is no concern of the Saivas, and the Cit Sabha is
included to make up thefive.'^^T h e Visnu shrine was clearly subordinate
in Umapati's day, as dernonstrated by its orientation with the head
submissively towards the Cit Sabha, and it was perhaps under the overall
control of the Diksitas. T h e Cidambara M^dtmya, as we saw in the last
chapter, establishes Visnu as Siva's helper.
THE PRIESTS
We come now to consider the personnel of the temple, the 'three

thousand priests' whose mythico-historical origin was mentioned in the
previous chapter. Their importance for this study is very great, for
Umapati was one of their number, they were his audience, and it is only
among them that the poem has survived to the present. In the poem,
they are frequently mentioned. Here is a typical example:
Those who possess faith,

who know the Vedas,
learning the sastras and other sciences
through the grace of supreme Siva,
abandoning meaningless spieech,
doing puja to Him, the Lord, several times a day,
performing the ritual actions laid down by the Veda,
they obtain the Awareness of the Self
that is very hard to obtain for any one else,
they, the Brahman lords, p>ortions of Him
Who bears the axe and the deer,
(92)'®
However, to properly appreciate the position of the priests of

Cidambaram, various factors must be understood. In the first place, the
status of a temple priest is relatively low. Although he calls himself a
Brahman, other Brahmans consider him degraded by his contact with
worshippers at large, and consider his Brahmanhood to be only
nominal. In Tamilnadu, Saiva priests generally belong to the Adisaiva
caste, said to have emanated directly from Siva, rather than from Purusa
as did the four vamas, the four main castes. T h e origins of the Adisaivas
are described in the Agamas, and it is the Agamas rather than the V e d a s
that they are supposed to study. T h e C i d a m b a r a m priests are a special
case, for they came originally from outside Tamilnadu; and they put
sp>ecial emphasis on their performance of ritual according to the Vedas.
Although in the opinion of other Brahmans they are, so to speak, tarred
with the same brush, as other temple priests, the Diksitas marry only
amongst themselves, and the women are supposed never to leave
Cidambaram.^9 A remarkable feature is their democratic organization,
where all priests have an equal say, and all are trustees of the temple.
Young and old, they have far more self-confidence and pride in their
temple than is usual among other temple priests, however dedicated they
may be.
As in other large temples, menial tasks, especially cooking, are
performed by low Brahman families. For chanting during the fire
sacrifice and for sraddha rituals ordinary, that is high-status, Brahmans,
are employed by the priests, three families being authorized at present to
provide this well-paid service. A t the same time, several Diksitas are
studying the Vedas, that is to say, recitation of the Vedas; and a
traditional school of Vedic recitation has been started by one of the
Diksitas. This is both a raising of status and the beginning of a return to
the earlier glories of the temple.
We have also to consider the account of the priests in the Cidambara
M3hitmya and the Kîl Purdnam. In both texts, there is the account of the
priests' arrival from the north, and in the Cidambara MahMmya an
introductory account of the priests at the beginning of the-text. T h e key
episode in their arrival, and one that is often referred to today, is not
referred to in the Kuficitahghristava.
In the Cidambara Mdhdtmya, the king arrives with all his people and
with the priests. T h e king witnesses the dnandatdndava and faints,
overwhelmed by emotion. H e then displays to the sage V y a g h r a p a d a the
sage-lords (muntsvara) he has brought back with him.
But among those munk who were devoted to Him, their selves perfected, 3000 in
number, there was one the King did not see. Then the King's face went white,
his heart was dismayed. When he had counted again and again, but could not
see the sage who would complete their number, who indeed was not to be found
amongst aU the people, then even as the King was lamenting, a voice was heard,
sweet and calm, audible among other voices but which came from no embodied
person {srojjya vamnam asanrin^. 'O Hiranyavarman, one among these sages
(muni) is missing. Do not grieve in your heart as to how this came about. For
these of pure lineage, whose lustre is that of blazing fire, I shall be the one who
makes their number total three thousand.' Hearing this speech which was like a
proclamation of coronation the King lost his grief and considered those
Brahman lords {viprendra) to be the Lord incarnate {isaviffraJia).
[Cidambara Mahatmya 24.78-84)
In the Cidambara Mahdtmya, the chapter concludes with the sages {muni),
'their faces and hearts bright, great in power', telling Vyaghrapada that
even if Brahma again asks for them to attend his sacrifice, they must
never again be sent from Cidambaram:
And the son of Madhyandina, hearing the words of those sages {muni) of
unlimited power smiled gendy and said, 'So be it.' Then setding the sage-lords
{mumsvara) and the army to the west of the Golden Sabha, the King, his joy
unequalled, dwelt there with his armies, the sage-lords {mumndfa) and all his
p>eople beholding the Tandava of âmbhu.
T h e version in the KîlFuranam is similar, but the account of the journey
is expanded and poeticized. Mention is made several times of the
chariots ('like red suns' Kîl PUranam, IraniyavaTma carrukam 119) the
priests are given to ride in; and when they reach Cidambaram, 'the great
jewelled chariots' are drawn up in a straight line so that they can be
presented to Vyaghrapada {K^l Puranam, Irarnyavanma carrukam 127).
T h e priests' status is thus affirmed in the words of the Kîl Puranam:
The Unblemished One who is
Mother and Father to all beings
Saw the sincere anguish of the prince
Who could not find one of those
Great ones of perfect truth and
Proclaimed for all the gods to hear,
They are all equal to Us and we are equal to them.
We are one among them.'
Everybody heard these words of grace.

The prince realized that the Vedic Sages have the greatness
Of the Lord of the Vedas who
Dances in the hall of Tillai
Being one among them.

He came and bowed at their feet
With a trembling hean as the gods
Poured down a rain of flowers.
Puranam, Iramyavamta carrukam 128-9)3®
This is not unlike the Cidambara Mahatmya, though it does not repeat the
Sanskrit text's mention of the great power and indeed the unlimited
power of the priests; but the next verse of the K^lPurariom is very different:
The sages shining by their number

Were afraid of themselves because of the grace
Given by the Lord of the Gods.
They felJ on the earth and arose revived.
They bowed and worshipped Him forgetting (themselves)
They said, 'Give us the grace of taking us
As slaves in seven births,' and danced
Holding their staves wrapped in cloth.
(AîV Puranam, Iramyavamna carrukam 130)^'
W e are now in an altogether different environment. T h e falling to the
earth, and the dancing, behaviour nowadays rigorously excluded from
the temple even on the part of devotees, let alone the priests, belong to
popular religion and are not countenanced by the Sanskrit tradition.3'
However, in the light of this version, we should perhaps look closely at
the Cidambara Mahatnvya's account of the K i n g fainting when on his
return he sees the anandatandava:
He beheld the Tandava of Sambhu. Then he experienced
the bliss of consciousness in Cidambaram, that steals the sight,
the anandatandava of âmbhu that removes all taints.
He lost his jxjwer of speech and his power of movement.
He lost his power of sight. His heart lost its power.
He fainted, overwhelmed by his emotion {rasa).
And then when the confusion {moha)
generated by seeing the Tandava had departed,
the King bowed to Na^raja and went out.
{Cidambara Mahdtmya 24.74-7)
T h e use of the rare word analarnbhumu, 'bereft of power', in verses 75 and
76 adds to the force of the account. Here, then, the phenomenon of
trance, confirmed by the state of confusion {moha), is focussed by the
author of the Cidambara Mahdtmya entirely on the King, and not a breath
of it touches the priests.
Also to be considered here is the account of the priests given as a kind
of crescendo at the end of the introductory part of the Cidambara
Mahatrrâ that p r e c e d e s the story o f V y a g h r a p a d a . T h i s a c c o u n t is g i v e n

b y S i v a to N a n d i k e s v a r a (so S u t a informs his disciples). T h r e e main
threads run through this lyrical efRision. O n e is that the priests are v e r y
good Brahmans.
Twice-born, of excellent birth, their minds purified by their tapas,

among the Vedas, O Gana-lord, they are all a synonym for Brahma.
Ever satisfying the gods with the great sacrifices where the fees are liberal
with honest hearts they perform piga to me.
There is ever very pure sp>eech in their mouths,

the Goddess of prosperity in their glance, quietude (ianft) in their hearts,
beauty in their bodies.
Devoted to truth and religious observances, their radiance blazing like fire,
the topmost peaks of the mountain of Dharma, suns to the darkness of sin,
they bestow knowledge free from taint through the attainment of seedless yoga,
seeing Siva in their hearts, these ascetics rejoice.
Husbands of the Muses {kalavilasinT), lovers of the Sciences,

moons rising from the oceans of the Sastras, O Nandin!
cuckoos in the park of the Agamas,
Ever attentive to their guests,
devoted to the f>erformance of the six duties of Brahmans,
these supreme twice-bom are the embodiment of true and pure behaviour.
{Cidambara Mahntmya 5. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10,• n)
Beyond this standard Brahmanism, the Three Thousand have a

special purifying quality.
Free of lust, anger and the other faults,

destined to good fortune {bhagyasalin),
the sight of them destroys other men's misdeeds.

Further, the pure-syllabled utterances of these twice-born
root out men's sins without extraneous aid.
Seeing them once has the fruit of long jierformance of asceticism.

Grave sins are quickly dissolved by thinking on these.
Seeing those twice-born just once, their bodies adorned uith ash,
is very great tapas for the body and removes the taints.
{Cidambara Mahatmya 5. 6, 9, 14, 21)
Here the ambiguous status of the temple priest has been made into a
52 TTu Dance of
positive virtue. T h e third e l e m e n t is t h e s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t t h e
priests e n j o y w i t h S i v a .
Though they do not have matted locks, nor die crescent moon,
nor an eye on their foreheads, nor the woman
in the left-hand side of their bodies, yet are Uiey forms of me.
I too am one of these twice-born, O Nandin!

and dwelling only there with them I am pleased.
They alone know my glorious nature which is beyond the supreme,
but I do not altogether know their supreme and wonderful glory!
Thus, O Nandin, they who meditate on those twice-born

are meditaung on me, the Great Lord,
and are doing what is pleasing to me.
They are playful manifestations of the Agamas {agamaltlmam),

their hearts are intent on me, and I am one like them.
No one else in the three worlds is like them.
This truth has been told to you, my principal Gana.

I am not able to speak of all their glory.
{Cidambara Mahatmya 5. 4, 12, 13, 23, 25, 29)
Remarkable is the statement, 'They alone know m y glorious nature

which is beyond the supreme, but I do not altogether know their
supreme and wonderful glory!' {Cidambara Mahatmya 5.13). T h e writer or
writers of the Cidambara Mâtmya clearly felt it necessary to establish the
credentials of the Cidambaram priesthood, but for the modern reader
such praise might seem inappropriate to Saiva theology, even to verge
on the hysterical. Any judgement, however, needs to be tempered by
consideration of the rituals of the priests.
Umapati himself in the Kuncitahghristava has moments of excess in
praise of his colleagues, in which a degree of self-praise might be present:
He is worshipped
by the three thousand sages in the Sabha -
Patanjalis in the science of grammar,
so many venerable Kanadas and Ak^padas
in the discourses of logic,
embodiments of Vyasa in the Vedanta,
the equals of Kumarilabhatta in Jaimini's Mimamsa,
Bodhayanas in the techniques of Vedic sacrifice,
veritable Brahmas in the Vedas -
Him the best of teachers,

I worship. (89)33
T h e phrase 'veritable B r a h m a s in the V e d a s ' is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the
Cidambara Mahatrrâ's ' a m o n g the V e d a s t h e y are all s y n o n y m s for
B r a h m a ' {Cidambara Mahatrriya 5.2). B u t there m o r e stress is p l a c e d o n
their relation to the A g a m a s . T h e y are ' c u c k o o s in the p a r k o f the
A g a m a s ' (5.10), a n d ' p l a y f u l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the A g a m a s ' {agamalUa)
(5.25). In the Kuncitanghristava, U m a p a t i m a k e s a c a r e f u l s t a t e m e n t o f the
relative w e i g h t o f the t w o t y p e s o f scripture.
For the enlightenment

of pupils excluded from the Vedas
the Brahmans, gods on earth,
read out the Kamika and other Agamas
which make known His glory
in their Conduct and Yoga sections.
But they themselves,
under white umbrellas held high
by the.kings who come
when they perform the Vajapeya sacrifice,
worship Him
according to the way of the revealed Vedas.
(107)34
Note the word 'pupils'. Priests today do not normally have pupils; nor
are temples the cultural centres they used to be. But, as we shall shorUy
see, Umapati had pupils while still a priest in the temple, according to his
biography. Nor was this unusual. T h e CitsabhesotsavasHtra, the Festival
Ritual text, includes a long series of prose prayers to be said on the
raising of the flag at the beginning of the Brahmotsava festival, some of
which praise the priests; and their pupils are mentioned: 'pressing at
their heels are the tens of millions of their pupils who have come from
various countries {desd) to study ^ruti, Smrti, Puranas, the Epics, etc. and
many sciences'.35 It is not surprising that the priests were popular
teachers if indeed, as the same prayer declares, 'they have studied all the
Vedas and quite surpass Lotus-born Brahma in their understanding of
their meaning'.
T h e performance of Vedic sacrifices by the priests is stressed here and
elsewhere in the poem. T h e same emphasis is found in parallel
Cidambaram texts. Thus the CitsabhesotsavasHtra says of the priests that
they 'enshadow the entire circles of the fourteen worlds with the high
64 Dance of $iva
lifted white umbrellas they earn t h r o u g h V a j a p e y a sacrifices'.37 T h e

CUsabhesotsavasutra differs f r o m the a b o v e verse o f U m a p a t i a n d the
Cidambara Mahatmya a n d K^l Puranam b y not m e n t i o n i n g k n o w l e d g e o f
the A g a m a s as part o f the priests' learning, a l t h o u g h it d o e s refer to
twenty-eight pillars o f the C i t S a b h a representing the Agamas.3®
_ U m ^ a t i ' s verse seems to set the DUcsitas o n a s u p e r i o r p l a n e t o the
A g a m a s ; indeed w e elsewhere learn that the Diksitas are t h e m s e l v e s the
Vedas:
In e v e r y kalpa the V e d a s ,
t o lose t h e i r f e a r o f b i r t h in the first h a l f
a n d o f d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e s e c o n d h a l f ,
satisfy t h e D e a t h o f D e a t h w i t h m a n i f o l d a s c e t i c i s m
a n d at H i s c o m m a n d
b e c o m e three thousand B r a h m a n s -
a s u t e unobtainable b y the gods themselves,
a n d in d u e o r d e r c o n s t a n d y w o r s h i p H i m
a c c o r d i n g to the procedures o f His path.
^ • (176)39
T h e A g a m a s are clearly s e c o n d best, for S i v a ' s p u r p o s e in p u b l i s h i n g
them is
S o that those w h o h a v e n o right

t o p e r f o r m the rituals laid d o w n in t h e V e d a s
c o u l d attain D h a r m a a n d the o t h e r ends o f m a n ,
(146)40
In o n e verse the B r a h m a n h o o d o f the priests c o n t a m i n a t e s , so to
speak, the final g o a l , w h i c h is said to b e B r a h m a ' s p a l a c e , despite the
continuous vision o f N a t a r a j a .
T h e best o f t h e w i s e ,
m a k i n g t h e i r h o m e in H i s h o l y p l a c e ,
m e d i t a t i n g o n H i m in t h e lotuses o f t h e i r h e a r t s ,
c h a n t i n g the M a n t r a ,
beholding H i m with His consent

all the t i m e p e r f o r m i n g H i s d a n c e
in t h e G o l d e n H a l l w h e r e
His praises are s u n g b y B r a h m a a n d V i s n u ,
live h a p p i l y , all t h e i r d e s i r e s fulfilled

a n d a f t e r this life t h a t is t h e i r last
r e j o i c e in B r a h m a ' s p a l a c e .
(147)^'
T h e priests are here called 'the best o f the wise' {vibudhaparibrdhd). The
choice o f n a m e s for the T h r e e T h o u s a n d is significant. A l t h o u g h in this
study it is c o n v e n i e n t , a n d indeed entirely fitting, to speak o f t h e m o f as
priests, U m a p a t i never o n c e does so. T h e y are a l w a y s Brahmans,
ascetics, sages, or simply the p u r e , the wise. T h e term munivaray ' e x c e l l e n t
sage', used five times, plus three times o f particular munis, is possibly
a d o p t e d u n d e r the influence o f the T a m i l for muni, n a m e l y muriivar.^ B y
contrast, muni alone is used o n l y twice (106, 142), muntndra oncf,yativara
twice (95, 210). M o s t f r e q u e n d y they are called B r a h m a n s : vipra (17, 47,
69, 276), viprendra (92). O n e goal of the p o e m , as in the case o f the
Cidambara Mâtmya, is to p e r s u a d e the reader o f the true B r a h m a n status
of the priests, a n d the p a l a c e of B r a h m a here is in s o m e sense a vision o f
that goal.
T h e earliest m e n t i o n o f the priests of C i d a m b a r a m is in the eighth
century with C u n t a r a r ' s listing of the S a i v a saints, the Tiruttontattokai
h y m n , w h e r e they h o l d pride of place. T h e h y m n begins,
I serve the s e r v a n t s o f t h e B r a h m a n s l i v i n g in T i l l a i .
H o w e v e r , it has n o t h i n g else to say of them. A detailed, if idealized,

picture is given in the twelfth century b y C e k k i l a r in his Periya Puranam,
the key text of T a m i l S a i v a devotion, written, it is said, in C i d a m b a r a m .
•
W i t h b e a u t e o u s o r n a m e n t s rich b e y o n d r e c k o n i n g
T h e y d e c k the L o r d a n d p e r f o r m the a u s p i c i o u s rites;
T h e y hail the L o r d w i t h t h e w o r d s o f the V e d a s ;
T h e y r e n d e r g l o r i o u s l y all o t h e r s e r v i c e , b e f i t t i n g t h e m ;
S e r v i c e w i t h i n the L o r d ' s t e m p l e a n d shrine is theirs.
Poised in d h a r m a , t h e y cultivate a n d m a s t e r the f o u r V e d a s

A n d their s e x t u p l e c o m p o n e n t s o f r a d i a n t truths;
T h e y t e n d the T r i p l e Fire that lives m a y thrive in g r a c e ;
T h e y a r e rich in their servitude d i v i n e
O f the g r e a t L o r d o f the G r a n d D a n c e .
T h e y d e s c e n d o f a flawless r a c e a n d a r e i m p e c c a b l e ;
B y their s o v e r e i g n acts sixfold, they h a v e c h a s e d K a l i a w a y ;
T h e y d e e m as w e a l t h true, o n l y the H o l y A s h ;
Love of Siva is all that they seek after; thus they thrive.
Flawless is their m a s t e r y o f C a r y a , K r i y a , Y o g a a n d Jrtana;
T h e y are g r e a t in m u n i f i c e n c e a n d ascesis;
T h e y a r e everp>oised in righteousness;
T h e y lack n o t h i n g ; p o i s e d in p a t i e n c e a n d h o n o u r
T h e y are the divine B r a h m a n s w h o s e intellect

H a t h been by Siva clarified; they are
T h r e e t h o u s a n d s t r o n g w h o h a v e in this v e r y life
G a i n e d die L o r d - G o d for their adoration.
W h a t o d i e r b e a t i t u d e a r e t h e y in n e e d o P
T h e y a l o n e a r e t h e i r e q u a l s ; u n i q u e is t h e i r g l o r y .
{Periya F^rmam 353-7)^3
T h i s discussion o f the priests o f C i d a m b a r a m m a y b e fittingly c l o s e d

with the RajendrapuraMai^mya's description o f U m a p a t i in his fifty-sixth
year as he w e n t out f r o m the t e m p l e a f t e r w o r s h i p p i n g N a U r a j a :
H e g o t in the p a l a n q u i n v ^ t h its h i g h p o l e s t o p p e d b y g o l d e n b u l l s o n e a c h
side a n d set o f f w h i l e his sons a n d c r o w d s o f d i s c i p l e s , w h o k n e w t h e V e d a s ,
r e c i t e d the T h r e e V e d a s in d u e o r d e r
RITUALS
U m a p a t i ' s e n c o u n t e r with the S a i v a S i d d h a n t a teacher Maraifiana

C a m p a n t a r will b e e x a m i n e d in s o m e d e p t h in c h a p t e r 5, a l o n g with a
general description o f the c o m p l e x o f ideas c u r r e n t at the time. W e h a v e
n o w , h o w e v e r , to consider the w o r k of the priests as d e s c r i b e d in the
Kunntdnghristava. D e s p i t e the careful a b s e n c e o f a n y w o r d for f u n c t i o n i n g
priest in the poem,45 a n d the constant stress o n the spiritual w i s d o m a n d
purity of the T h r e e T h o u s a n d , their daily w o r k , t h e n as n o w , w a s service
of S i v a in the temple.
In his references to ritual U m a p a t i closely follows the ritual m a n u a l
attributed to Patanjali. T h i s differs f r o m the ritual f o l l o w e d b y all o t h e r
S a i v a temples in that it is not c e n t r e d o n a fixed lihga in a garbhagrha, a
central sanctum sanctorum; a n d in that the ritual p r o c e d u r e s , though
otherwise sharing c o m m o n features, are p u n c t u a t e d throughout by
V e d i c mantras.
A t C i d a m b a r a m , there are three key o b j e c t s o f daily ritual, for w h i l e
N a t a r a j a is s u p r e m e , ritual actions are focussed o n the C r y s t a l L i i i g a a n d
the ruby N a t a r a j a . C i d a m b a r a m is not a l o n e in h a v i n g such special
objects, but normally such s u p e r n u m e r a r y pieces s u p p l e m e n t the lihga,
w h i c h is not the case in the C i t S a b h a .
A n o t h e r factor is that while all t e m p l e ritual has a theatrical q u a l i t y the
daily ritual at C i d a m b a r a m , p e r f o r m e d on the raised p l a t f o r m o f the
K a n a k a S a b h a , is all the m o r e like a stage p e r f o r m a n c e . T h a t this is so
follows from the fact that b o t h the C i t S a b h a a n d K a n a k a S a b h a are
m o d e l l e d on a dancer's stage.
A c o n n e c t e d a c c o u n t o f the rituals a n d festivals o f the t e m p l e is g i v e n

in the o p e n i n g section o f the p o e m , f o l l o w i n g o n its selective s u m m a r y o f
the sthalapuraruL T h i s section o n ritual a n d festival is f o l l o w e d b y a verse
describing B r a h m a a n d V i s n u s e a r c h i n g for the t o p a n d b o t t o m o f S i v a ' s
Uhga, the scene usually sculpted o n the w e s t f a c e of the exterior o f the
garbhagrha in other C o l a S i v a temples, a n d here indicating that the m o s t
intimate details of the t e m p l e h a v e f o r the m o s t part n o w b e e n g i v e n .
T h e b o a r w h o s e n a m e w a s V i s n u , L o r d o f Sri,
c o u l d n o t see the l o t u s o f H i s f o o t .
T h e goose whose n a m e was B r a h m a

c o u l d n o t see the crest o f H i s c r o w n ,
so w e a r e told.
(27)
V e r s e 27, then, marks the e n d o f the p o e t ' s f o r m a l introduction to

C i d a m b a r a m , with the allusion to the western outer wall the garbhagrha
of other S i v a temples suggesting the l e a v i n g o f the sanctum. V e r s e s 14 to
22 refer to the daily ritual o f the temple, verses 23 to 26 to the festivals.
Verse 14 describes Patanjali's composition o f the temple's ritual manual;"*®
verse 15 -
T o the B r a h m a n s , g o d s o n e a r t h ,
w h o d e l i g h t the L o r d o f D a n c e w i t h the w o r s h i p
they f o r e v e r p>erform six t i m e s a d a y ,
•
a n d to all l i v i n g b e i n g s , o f w h a t e v e r caste,
w h o are His devotees,
H e the P e r f o r m e r g i v e s h a p p i n e s s .
T o the w o r s h i p p e r s in H i s t e m p l e
H e g a v e the C r y s t a l L i n g a f o r lustrations.
I worship
H i m W h o gives v e r y g r e a t h a p p i n e s s ,
W h o s e f o o t is c u r v e d . (15)47
T o their delight,
for t h e m to p e r f o r m H i s w o r s h i p
at the a p p o i n t e d times,
H e g a v e the B r a h m a n s a linga
m a d e f r o m the solidified f o a m o f n e c t a r
f r o m the m o o n o n H i s o w n h e a d ,
like a d i a m o n d ,
surpassing in its lustre
58 Ttu Dance of $voa
the m o o n , fire, t h e s u n ,
l i g h t n i n g , a n d t h e stars,
always sparkling.
H i m , W h o takes a w a y the fear o f existence,

W h o s e f o o t is c u r v e d ,
I worship. (276r
T h e profound i m p o r t a n c e o f the C r y s t a l Lirtga, the C a n d r a m a u l i s v a r a ,
in the life of the t e m p l e led R a j a g a n e s a D i k s i t a to d e v o t e f o u r t e e n p a g e s
of notes to it, w h e r e a s n o o t h e r topic r e c e i v e d m o r e t h a n t h r e e a n d a h a l f
pages. His enthusiasm led h i m to c l a i m , for instance, that verse 1726 o f
the Ttntmantiram referred to the C r y s t a l L i n g a :
T h e h u m a n f o r m is like t h e Siva lifiga,
T h e h u m a n f o r m is like C i d a m b a r a m
T h e h u m a n f o r m is like S a d ^ i v a
T h e h u m a n f o r m is like t h e H o l y D a n c e
S o m e say that U m a p a t i g a v e the C r y s t a l L i n g a to the t e m p l e , w h i c h

w o u l d b y no m e a n s rule o u t his praise o f it. A c c o r d i n g to the b i o g r a p h y
of U m a p a t i e n t i d e d the Rdjmdrapura Mahatmya, the Crystal Liiiga was
once in his possession, t h o u g h u n b e k n o w n s t to h i m , w h e n h e h a d b e e n
e x c l u d e d f r o m the t e m p l e as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f b e c o m i n g a disciple o f
Marainana Campantar:
O n e d a y U m a p a t i D i k s i t a w a s a b o u t to e n t e r t h e T e m p l e o f t h e D a n c e r . T h e
sage-lords angrily said, ' O U m a p a t i ! y o u must not enter the T e m p l e o f the
D a n c e r . ' T h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , w h e n t h e priests a t t e n d i n g N a u r a j a w e n t t o t h e
S a b h a at t h e first p e r i o d o f t h e d a y , t h e y a t o n c e n o t i c e d t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e
g o l d e n c a s k e t o f C a n d r a m a u l i . T h e y w e n t o u t a n d s u m m o n e d all t h e s a g e - l o r d s .
T h e n t h e y all c a m e w i t h t h e t e m p l e s e r v a n t s a n d e n t e r e d i n t o t h e a s s e m b l y h a l l
(the D e v a S a b h a ) , a n d a s t h e y w e n t in t h e y c a l l e d t o t h e p r i e s t o n d u t y . H e w a s
s t a n d i n g t r e m b l i n g in t h e p r e s e n c e o f the D a n c e r b u t c a m e a s s o o n as c a l l e d t o
the D e v a S a b h a a n d t h r o w i n g o p e n t h e d o o r t o l d h o w o n e n t e r i n g t h e G i t S a b h a
he n o t i c e d that t h e b o x o f the M o o n - c r e s t e d i m a g e w a s n o t t h e r e . T h e n t h e
priest in c h a r g e o f the w o r s h i p o f the D a n c e r w e n t b a c k t o t h e G i t S a b h a t o
f>erform w o r s h i p t o H i m .
A c e r t a i n old m a n g e t t i n g u p t h e r e in t h e a s s e m b l y d e c l a r e d , ' I a m t h e b l e s s e d
L o r d o f the S a b h a ' a n d r e l a t e d t h e w h o l e s t o r y o f U m a p a t i t h e p r i e s t . ' Y o u m u s t
listen.' T h e s a g e bulls w e r e l i s t e n i n g t o his s p e e c h w i t h d e e p d e v o t i o n w h e n a
certain c l e v e r b o y c a m e in a n d w r o t e it all d o w n o n a leaf.
[ U m a p a t i is p r a i s e d b y Siva s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e o l d m a n , a n d it is i m p l i e d ,
since he is said to h a v e b e e n t h e p r o t e c t o r o f Siva's commands on Mount
K a i l a s a , that he is a n i n c a r n a d o n o f N a n d i k e s v a r a . T h e possessed m a n c o n c l u d e s , ]
T o d a y b y m y c o m m a n d t h e b o x o f m y linga, w h i c h h a s m y f o r m , rests in
U m a p a t i ' s faultless a s h r a m . Y o u m u s t all g o t o this w i s e m a n , a s k h i m f o r it a n d
b r i n g ii b a c k . '
S o saying, this L o r d o f the S a b h a d i s a p p e a r e d . [ T h e n the priests d e c i d e d to d o

as they h a d b e e n told.] T h u s d e c i d i n g those l o r ^ y sages w e n t t o U m a p a t i w h o
w a s d w e l l i n g w i t h his disciples in his m o n a s t e r y w h i c h is splendid o n the b a n k s o f
the S v e t a in the v a r i e d w o o d called R a j e n d r a p u r i a n d p a y i n g respect to h i m ,
d e c l a r e d , ' W e h a v e g r e a d y o f f e n d e d . O k n o w e r o f the G r e a t Self! Just t o d a y w e
h a v e l e a r n e d y o u r greatness f r o m the m o u t h o f the L o r d o f the S a b h a . ' S o said
the sage-lords.
' W h y h a v e y o u c o m e here?' he asked.
[ T h e y tell him w h a t has h a p p e n e d . ]
' W h e r e a m I, w h e r e is the lihga, w h e r e is the S a b h a , w h e r e is the casket, w h e r e
are y o u w h o are the equals o f the L o r d o f D a n c e r s w h o d a n c e s the D a n c e o f
Bliss? I d o not know.5° Nevertheless I will look for the casket.' T h u s he spoke
before them.
G o i n g right then to the puja r o o m he l o o k e d a n d s a w it. T h e n the g r e a t m a n said,
' T h e casket is here today!' O p e n i n g the casket he s a w the lihga, closed it a n d g a v e
it to t h e m . T a k i n g the lihga the three t h o u s a n d B r a h m a n s w e n t to t h & C i t S a b h a
c h a m b e r a n d deposited the casket.
B a t h i n g in the m o r n i n g , b e h o l d i n g B r a h m a n w i t h o u t qualities, in the m i d d l e o f
the d a y he worshipped, acted as priest for the lihga a n d the i m a g e . A f t e r his m e a l
he set his m i n d to writing books, at night he a l w a y s t a u g h t t w o subjects.
[This must m e a n he started g o i n g again to the T e m p l e , a n d served "as priest in
the C i t a n d K a n a k a Sabhas, in the mornings.]
W i t h the sounds o f the lotus-shaped c o p p e r bell a c c o m p a n y i n g sruti a n d the
music o f the flute and the mna a c c o m p a n y i n g the D r a v i d i a n V e d a he c o n s t a n d y
p e r f o r m e d worship o f the L o r d o f the d a n c e , a n d o f the lihga a n d the yantra.
{Rêndrapura Mahatmya, 21-44)
•
T h i s l o n g extract throws light not o n l y o n the l e g e n d a r y history o f o u r

poet, but on the religious and psychological climate of much of
H i n d u i s m o f w h a t e v e r d a t e - w h a t f o r m o d e r n i t y is g r o s s s u p e r s t i t i o n is,
in o t h e r t e r m s , t h e f r e q u e n t w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e d i v i n e t o m a n i f e s t b o t h in
h u m a n b e i n g s a n d in m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s .
T h e s e q u e n c e o f t h e ritual s e c t i o n o f t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e Kmcitmghnstava
c o n t i n u e s as f o l l o w s :
B r a h m a o f a H u n d r e d Sacrifices
p e r f o r m e d a sacrifice in great A n t a r v e d i ,
a sacrifice that took a thousand years to complete.
In that assembly at V y a g h r a p a d a ' s behest
the chief ascetics w e r e present.
S o that they could continue to w o r s h i p H i m
H e gladly sent a D a n c e r m a d e o f precious stone
arisen from the best o f fires.
H e is the source o f that image,
(•6)3'
yo The Dance of .few
A s in the c a s e o f the C a n d r a m a u I S v a r a , t h e a n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e R u b y
N a t a r a j a , the R a t n a s a b h a p a t i , a r e r e m a r k a b l e . S i n c e t h e i m a g e c a m e
out of Brahma's own supcr-sacrifice, the Vedic affiliations o f the
C i d a m b a r a m priests are t h e s t r o n g e r . T h e DIksitas possess, m d e e d , a
kind of quintessential transformation o f the w h o l e sacrificial p a r a p h e r n a l i a
into N a t a r a j a in litde. J u s t as in ihtjaiminâ BraJimana the daily agnihotra
sacrifice is said t o b e an a b r i d g e m e n t of Prajapad's thousand-year
sacrifice, a n d f u r t h e r the u l t i m a t e a b r i d g e m e n t o f all sacrifices, so t o o t h e
r u b y N a t a r a j a is, impliciUy a n d v i s u a l l y , a n a b r i d g m e n t o f t h e u l t i m a t e .
The Brahmans perfomi the perpetual rites -

first the auspicious day;
reverencing the excellent gurus;
the purification of the body down to the elements
with die drying up and the other two procedures;
all the affixings
pertaining to hand, body, OM, the gods;
muttering all the mantras.
First worshipping Him within,
their bodies made of Siva,
they conduct worship to Him externally.
T h i s verse is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the priest's s e l f - p r e p a r a t i o n b e f o r e h e

begins the e x t e r i o r ritual. ' T h e a u s p i c i o u s d a y ' , t h a t is the d e c l a r a t i o n
that the d a y is auspicious, is a n o l d V e d i c p r a c t i c e for special ritual
o c c a s i o n s that b e c o m e s a c o n s t a n t f e a t u r e o f t e m p l e ritual. T h e t e m p l e
ritual is a c o d i f i e d a g g l o m e r a t i o n of w h a t w e r e originally scattered
special practices. T h e list o f p r a c t i c e s h e r e f o l l o w s t h e o r d e r o f P a t a f t j a l i ' s
Plijdsutra. B y a n d large, the ritual o f t h e C i d a m b a r a m t e m p l e differs o n l y
f r o m that o f t e m p l e s f o l l o w i n g A g a m i c ritual b y its use o f V e d i c m a n t r a s
- the procedures are otherwise i d e n t i c a l . 5 3
T h e s e c o n d topic m e n t i o n e d b y U m a p a t i is t h a t o f p r a i s i n g o n e ' s
gurus. T h e Pujasutra says s i m p l y t h a t t h e priest s h o u l d b o w to S v e t a a n d
other g u r u s , o n e ' s own guru, and to Siva.^^ T h e additional notes
(Vtvaram) to the Pujasutra e x p l a i n that the o t h e r g u r u s a r e G a n e s a , U m a ,
S k a n d a , V i s n u , a n d B r a h m a . S v e t a h e a d s a r e m a r k a b l e list, b u t w h o is
S v e t a ? A B r a h m a n c a l l e d S v e t a figures in t h e Lihga Parana as a staunch
d e v o t e e o f the lifiga; there is the n o t a b l e U p a n i s a d i c t e a c h e r S v e t a k e t u . A
m o r e likely alternative is M e y k a n t a r w h o w a s b o r n in T i r u v e n g a d u , o f
which S v e t a v a n a is the Sanskrit n a m e , a n d w a s n a m e d S v e t a v a n a p p e r u m a l .
Not only was Meykantor the teacher of Umapati's teacher, but,

according to one life of Umapati,^ Umapati was taught the essential
Saiva path by Sveta, as well as by Maraijfiana Campantar and V y a s a
and Siva; not only that, Umapati was given by Sveta a G a n e ^ that was a
wish-fulfilling creeper, an \ardhar'\tnem Cidambara yantra, and an
incomparable crystal lihga\ Note how doctrine, thought, 'the essential
Saiva path', is inextricably combined with material objects. This kind of
combination is a key feature of Hinduism.
P e r h a p s the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e p a r t o f S a i v a ritual is the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f
the b o d y b y m e n t a l l y r e d u c i n g it to its c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s . T h e priest
purifies the e l e m e n t s o f his b o d y b y m e n t a l l y d r a w i n g t h e m u p w a r d s into
the last o f the y o g i c centres w h i c h is a b o v e the b o d y , t w e l v e t h u m b - w i d t h s
a b o v e , w h i c h gives it its n a m e in Sanskrit, 'the dvddasanta\ T h e element
o f earth g o e s u p as far as the knees, w a t e r f r o m the knees to the n a v e l , fire
f r o m the n a v e l to the throat; w i n d f r o m the throat to the m o u t h ; e t h e r
f r o m the m o u t h up. E a c h o f the e l e m e n t s c o r r e s p o n d s to a f a c e o f
five-headed Sadasiva. Safely outside the body and joined in the
dvddasanta w i t h the r a d i a n c e o f the L o r d of the S a b h a , the priest c a n n o w
p r o c e e d with the ' d r y i n g u p a n d the o t h e r p r o c e d u r e s ' . H e dries u p the
b o d y w i t h the w i n d that he has b o t d e d u p within it, h e b u r n s it w i t h a fire
that begins f r o m his b i g toe to c o n s u m e all as it rises, a n d thirdly, as he
returns to his b o d y h e d r e n c h e s it in n e c t a r f r o m the b o d y o f Siva.5®
H i s b o d y is n o w purified b u t it needs to b e sanctified. T h i s is a c h i e v e d
PatanjalipHjasutra, this is
b y a f f i x i n g m a n t r a s to it. In fact, a c c o r d i n g to the
d o n e to the h a n d s b e f o r e the purification o f the e l e m e n t s {bhUtahiddhi},
a n d the rest of the a f f i x i n g after the bhutahiddhi, t h o u g h n o r m a l l y in S a i v a
ritual the h a n d s - a n d - b o d y a f f i x i n g s are c o n s i d e r e d as a unit.
H e should affix the P r a n a v a , CM, in d u e o r d e r o n his a r m s , e l b o w s ,
wrists, ribs, s t o m a c h , thighs a n d ankles, m o u t h , a n d feet. T h e most
elaborate of the p r o c e d u r e s that U m a p a t i n a m e s - the Patafijalipyasutra
gives details o f additional affixings - is that of the g o d s {devatanydsd). In
this, a deity is m a d e to stand in e a c h part o f the b o d y , a n d other deities all
a r o u n d the b o d y , a l o n g with m a n t r a s f r o m the Taittirfya Brdhmam.
The priest n o w has a divine b o d y , saturated with the p o w e r of
mantras. W i t h this divine b o d y he c a n act as a S i v a in the ritual. T h a t the
priests every d a y follow p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h m a k e , as the verse says, 'their
bodies m a d e o f S i v a ' , renders m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e the b o l d claims o f
the fifth adhyâ of the Cidambara Mahatmya r e v i e w e d above. Siva's
remark, ' T h o u g h they d o not h a v e m a t t e d locks, nor the crescent m o o n ,
nor an e y e on their foreheads, nor the w o m a n in the l e f t - h a n d side o f
The Dance of &va
their bodies, yet are they forms o f m e ' [Cidambara Mahatnâ 5.4), is the
m o r e plausible w h e n w e r e m e m b e r the ritual.
T h e next verse continues to f o l l o w the course o f the d a i l y ritual.
C o n s e c r a t i n g t h e p l a c e a n d t h e vessels,
offering water for w a s h i n g the feet
and water for sipping,
then w o r s h i p p i n g the c o n c h w i t h flowers,

p e r f o r m i n g t h e w o r s h i p w i t h the five p r o d u c t s o f t h e c o w ,
the w o r s h i p o f t h e f>ots,
the w a t e r - w o r s h i p ,
the w o r s h i p o f t h e b u l l ,
the w o r s h i p o f t h e d o o r ,
the w o r s h i p o f G a n e s a , L o r d o f O b s t a c l e s , a n d t h e o t h e r g o d s ,
a n d the b a t h i n g o f t h e C r y s t a l L i n g a a n d t h e R u b y L o r d .
T h e y , the p u r e , w o r s h i p e v e r y d a y H i s f o r m ;
(18)57
T h e p l a c e a n d the o b j e c t s o f the ritual, n o less t h a n the priest, h a v e to b e
m a d e pure. T h e n Siva is invited as h o n o u r e d guest, a n d is a c c o r d i n g l y
offered w a t e r to wash his feet a n d w a t e r to refresh his m o u t h . The
w o r s h i p p i n g o f the c o n c h involves the priest p r a i s i n g it, o f f e r i n g it flowers
and incense, worshipping the sun within the conch, and further
p u r i f y i n g it before sprinkling w a t e r f r o m it o n h i m s e l f a n d all the
e q u i p m e n t . N i n e pots are set out a n d filled w i t h w a t e r a n d o t h e r liquids
to be used in the w o r s h i p o f the C r y s t a l L i n g a a n d also the Ruby
N a u i r a j a . T h e pots a n d their c o n t e n t s are then w o r s h i p p e d .
S i x times a d a y e v e r y d a y
the l o r d l y s a g e s free f r o m sin
worship His linga
w i t h the five p r o d u c t s o f the c o w ;
w i t h oil;
w i t h milk, w i t h c u r d s , a n d w i t h g h e e ,
w i t h h o n e y a n d p u r e s u g a r - the fivefold ambrosia;
with sweet lime juice;

w i t h the w a t e r o f t e n d e r c o c o n u t ;
with boiled rice;
with fragrances,
w i t h the w a t e r s o f the o t h e r G a r i g a , t h e S i v a g a n g a t a n k .
(19)38
The linga is a n o i n t e d with these liquid substances, a n d the b o i l e d rice is
p l a c e d before it. A n o i n t i n g , h o w e v e r , is not quite the right w o r d for the
Sanskrit abhiseka, since a n o i n t i n g , s m e a r i n g or r u b b i n g with oil, is the

small-scale application of a substance, w h e r e a s abhiseka is large-scale
application, the m o r e the better. T h e root o f abhiseka is sine, 'to sprinkle',
b u t the process of abhiseka is rather i n u n d a t i o n . In the abhisekas o f the
N a t o r a j a b r o n z e , the S a b h a p a t i , described b e l o w , thousands of litres o f
various liquids are used.
U m a p a t i continues:
H o n o u r i n g H e r W h o is in t h e Sri^cakra o n t h e w a l l ,
and after H e r
the L o r d o f D a n c e r s w i t h i n t h e ^ a i v a c a k r a ,
[then the L o r d o f D a n c e r s ]
a n d o n H i s left H i s J f i a n a âkti,
She W h o has two hands a n d holds a parrot;
then w o r s h i p p i n g
the Bull, B r a h m a , a n d the o t h e r s ;
m a k i n g all the kinds o f r e v e r e n t i a l f o o d o f f e r i n g s ,

m a k i n g the e x t e r n a l f o o d o f f e r i n g s ;
and performing-the homa,
they h o n o u r H i m e v e r y d a y .
. . . . (20)^9
T h e G o d d e s s in the ^ricakra on the wall is w o r s h i p p e d , a n d then
N a t a r a j a within the C i d a m b a r a m cakra. T h e n , t h o u g h this is not stated
clearly in the verse, the bronze N a t a r a j a a n d the bronze Sivakamasundari,
as ParvatT is called in C i d a m b a r a m , are w o r s h i p p e d . A s part o f this
worship, the following verses are m e d i t a t e d u p o n :
F o r the i m a g e o f Siva w i t h o u t form
is to b e m e d i t a t e d o n b y w o r s h i p f ) e r s .
T h i s image has a blue throat,
is s u p r e m e bliss,
j o y o u s l y delights in the T a n d a v a .
T h i s i m a g e is to b e w o r s h i p p e d
by Brahma, Visnu and M a h a d e v a
w h o s e f o r m s h a v e qualities.
T h u s is this s u p r e m e i m a g e
o f the o n e w h o is b e r e f t o f all i m a g e s
a n d is the o v e r l o r d o f all b e i n g s -
so says the eternal S r u t i . ^
In the case o f the G o d d e s s :
O n the t w o - e y e d , t w o - a r m e d , G a u r l ,
o n e - f a c e d , d a r k in f o r m ,
h o l d i n g a b e a u t i f u l lotus in o n e h a n d . .
T h e BuU and Brahma are here two instances of the eighteen servants
of the Dance [nrttasevaka), whose number begins with G a n e ^ and ends
with A p a s m a r a > Food offerings [ball) are made to Indra and the other
gods on the balifn^ in the second enclosure, and fire sacrifice is offered
in the sacrifice hall iyagasalSj.
T h e y , the pure, w o r s h i p H i m with incense,
then with the l a m p s -
the s n a k e - l a m p , t h e m a n [ - a n i m a l ] l a m p ,
the b u l l - l a m p , the p o t - l a m p ,
the l a m p w i t h five w i c k s ,
the fire-sacrifice-lamp,
the s t a r - l a m p , t h e c a m p h o r l a m p ;
and with ash, with fan,

with excellent white umbrella
and chowry;
with mirror, with mantras, with flowers;
w i t h fine c a m p h o r flames held high.
Quickly they a b a n d o n ignorance
a n d see H i m c l e a r l y e v e r y d a y .
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l a m p s is i n d i c a t e d b y the fact that o f the 135 p a g e s

of the PatanjalipujasutTa, n o less t h a n 9 c o n s e c u t i v e p a g e s in section 24 are
c o n c e r n e d with the lamps. U m a p a t i c o n t i n u e s to f o l l o w closely the o r d e r
of contents of Patanjalipigdsutra. The multiplicity o f l a m p s s h o w s the
importance o f fire in worship; a n d the a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f precise p h y s i c a l
objects here is closely related to the c o n d e n s a t i o n o f the d i v i n e into
material form that is e v i d e n c e d in the C r y s t a l L i i i g a a n d the R u b y L o r d
of the Hall. A n d yet it is t h r o u g h this visual b o m b a r d m e n t o f l a m p s that
the priests are e n a b l e d to a b a n d o n i g n o r a n c e . T h e y see N a t a r a j a clearly
with the various illuminations - a n d e n a b l e the w o r s h i p p e r s to see h i m -
but also they see him with spiritual e n l i g h t e n m e n t . T h e p h y s i c a l light
and the spiritual light are inseparable.
O n the p e r i m e t e r o f H i s d w e l l i n g
a r e the t e n l o t u s - p e d e s t a l s w i t h t h e i r t e n bulls
in a d d i t i o n to t h e l a r g e - s i z e p>edestal
for the c o n s t a n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f o o d - o f f e r i n g s
at the t h r e e t i m e s f o r I n d r a a n d the o t h e r s .
T o all t h e q u a r t e r s ,
outside o n high
the flagpoles s h i n e like n i n e m o u n t a i n s .
(22)64
U m a p a t i n o w elaborates o n the bali offerings referred to briefly in

verse 20. It is the d u t y o f e v e r y B r a h m a n to m a k e offerings o f f o o d [bali),
usually grains o f rice, to all creatures; a n d t e m p l e ritual follows suit, there
b e i n g special altars (pT^d) p r o v i d e d for the o f f e r i n g o f bali. A t e m p l e
always has o n e m a i n balipitha in front o f the flagpole a n d the N a n d i n bull,
and then usually other, smaller balipTthas are p l a c e d a r o u n d the outside o f
the garbhagiâ. In the case o f C i d a m b a r a m , the m i n o r balipithas are, as
one w o u l d e x p e c t , p l a c e d a r o u n d the C i t S a b h a a n d K a n a k a S a b h a , the
two f o r m i n g a single unit, on all four sides, e a c h a c c o m p a n i e d b y a
N a n d i n bull; the flagpole a n d the m a i n balipitha are to the south, in the
second enclosure. In the third enclosure, separated b y a wall f r o m the
N r t t a S a b h a , are t w o further massive balipithas, a n d o n e large N a n d i n .
FESTIVALS
T o provide a c o h e r e n t a c c o u n t of the ritual life of the t e m p l e , I n o w

interrupt U m a p a t i ' s o p e n i n g sequence b y including t w o verses f r o m
later in the p o e m w h i c h refer to the abhiseka of N a t a r a j a himself.
In o r d e r to c o n s t a n t l y a n o i n t a l o n g w i t h m a n t r a s
at the six times o f daily w o r s h i p
the C r y s t a l L i h g a
a n d the i m a g e o f the L o r d o f D a n c e m a d e o f p r e c i o u s s t o n e
w i t h p u r e a n d s a c r e d w a t e r s {tirtha),
a n d also at c e r t a i n times
the b r o n z e i m a g e o f the L o r d o f D a n c e himself,
G a n g a , w h o f o r m s the o r n a m e n t o f H i s h e a d ,
b y H i s c o m m a n d flows into the W e l l o f S u p r e m e Bliss,
(74)63
It's well k n o w n that w h a t is a y e a r for m e n

is a d a y for the g o d s .
In six o f the m o n t h s
o f w h a t is d e c l a r e d to be that d a y -
in Sagittarius, A q u a r i u s ,
Aries, G e m i n i , L e o , a n d V i r g o -
w e r e the e x c e l l e n t f o r m s o f w o r s h i p
b e g i n n i n g w i t h sunrise
for His D a n c i n g F o r m .
(202)66
O n these six occasions the bronze N a t a r a j a of the C i t S a b h a receives
abhiseka. T h e time of day for this progresses through the year. T h u s the
abhixka of markali, D e c e m b e r - J a n u a r y , c o n c l u d e s at sunrise, a n d that

of p u r a t ^ , September-October, concludes at night. T w o of these
abhiuka& are part of the t w i c e - y e a r l y festival, in aai J u n e - J u l y ) and
markaU ( D e c e m b e r - J a n u a r y ) , a n d take p l a c e in the T h o u s a n d - p i l l a r e d
Hall. T h e other f o u r take p l a c e in the K a n a k a S a b h a . S u c h abhisekas
today last a b o u t 4 hours. Dipdrad/uma, w o r s h i p w i t h the w a v i n g of
lamps, takes p l a c e after the i m a g e has h a d the f o l l o w i n g s u b t a n c e s
applied to it: sacred ash, milk, h o n e y , sugar, pancdmrta (a m i x t u r e o f
milk, sour milk, g h e e , h o n e y , a n d sugar), l e m o n j u i c e , c o c o n u t w a t e r ,
G a n g a water, sandal paste. S o m e fifteen Diksitas are i n v o l v e d in the
c e r e m o n y . T h e r e is also simultaneously a fire o f f e r i n g . T h e ^ttamdrâ
Camaka, sections o f the Tajurveda, the
is recited eleven times a n d also
Purusasukta, the DevTsukta, the Durgasukla, the Sarasvatlsukla, the Nava-
grahasukti, and the Taittinya Upanisad. F i n a l l y , r e t u r n e d to the G i t
S a b h a , N a ^ r a j a is d e c o r a t e d with flower g a r l a n d s a n d cloths, as is
Sivakamasundarl. A thousand laitus, sweet-balls, are distributed to the
Diksitas a n d others.
T h e most i m p o r t a n t d a y o f all is the A r u d r a D a r s a n a in mdrkalj, which

is a special d a y t h r o u g h o u t T a m i l n a d u w h e n m a n y ^ a i v a s o f f e r s w e e t
pudding (kali) to N a t a r a j a a n d ^ i v a k a m a s u n d a n . T h i s is the d a y w h e n
Patafijali a n d V y a g h r a p a d a are said to h a v e m a d e the s a m e o f f e r i n g
before seeing the dnandatandava for the first time.
For His Brahmotsavas every year,

in the m o n t h o f T a u r u s
the n i n e flags w i t h t h e i r bulls s h i n e ;
in the m o n t h o f A q u a r i u s t h e r e will b e five flags;
a n d in S a g i t t a r i u s j u s t o n e flag;
a n d there are resjjectively
n i n e , five a n d j u s t o n e fire.
(23)67
A B r a h m o t s a v a is the p r i n c i p a l festival of a t e m p l e ; the n a m e s o m e t i m e s

explained b y saying that B r a h m a c o n d u c t s the c e r e m o n y . O n e a c h flag
Siva's Bull is painted. N o w only two Brahmotsavas are celebrated annually.
In the first festival f o r H i m ,

o n the b r i g h t d a y o f J u n e - J u l y
for twenty-seven days
t h e r e s h o u l d b e n i n e f o r e m o s t priests;
in F e b r u a r y - M a r c h five f o r e m o s t priests,
a n d j u s t o n e in t h e D e c e m b e r - J a n u a r y festival.
For the daily pyas there should be just one priest

in each of these festivals.
T h e performers of these acts of worship

are purefstl among the best of sacrificers.
In His festivals -
first performing the Agnihotra,
the shaving, the purification,
the sipping with mantras,
the sprinkling with mantras,
the purification of the body

with the Pot-gourd verses,
the pacification of the M a n of the Site, the VastupuruM,
that begins with the offering to his feet,
the offering to the Joyful-faced ancestors,

the clod of earth and the sprouts,
the protective amulets,
the sprinkling water on the bull on the flag,
- the pure ones then raise the flag.
T h e d a y b e f o r e the ritual o f setting u p the b u l l f l a g {dhvajapa^vrsa) is

p e r f o r m e d , the priest in c h a r g e o f the festival ritual, the A c a r y a , h a v i n g
p e r f o r m e d the m o r n i n g f i r e - o f f e r i n g {agnihotra), has his hair a n d b e a r d
cut, r e m o v e s e x t r a n e o u s b o d y hair, has his nails c u t , b a t h e s , puts on n e w
clothes a n d , sitting f a c i n g east, p e r f o r m s p u r i f y i n g m a n t r a s , sips wat.er,
a n d scatters w a t e r to the a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f m a n t r a s {mantraproksarta)J°
The kumanda or P o t - g o u r d verses^' are o f t e n - u s e d a c c o m p a n i m e n t s to
personal purification. T h e BaudhânaDharma SUtra repeats the declaration
of the Taittanya Araâka 11.8 that the m a n w h o offers b u r n t oblations
reciting the K u s m a n d a m a n t r a s b e c o m e s free f r o m a n y sin that is less
than the m u r d e r of a learned B r a h m a n (111.7. i). T h e A c a r y a 'performs
the kusmanda homa. B y this his b o d y is purified, all his sins are r e m o v e d
a n d he is fit to d o g o o d deeds.
The creative aspect of the raising of the flag which marks the
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e festival is b r o u g h t out b y the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of two rituals
w h i c h are essential features of the ritual for c o n s t r u c t i n g a temple,
n a m e l y the pacification o f t h e V a s t u p u r u s a , the e m b o d i e d g r o u n d - p l a n
of the temple, a n d collecting earth for the p l a n t i n g o f seeds. T h e offering
to the N a n d T m u k h a ancestors is used b y V a i k h a n a s a V a i s n a v a s as a
ritual for conception, and here is used to promote the successful raising
of the flag with which the festival, we might say, is given birth
T h e protective amulets, which also feature in weddings, are of gold,
sUver, or cotton. T h e Acarya has one, as do the festival deities and the
flagpole. T h e bull on the flag is treated with great respect. Agamic texts,
though not the Cidambaram text, describe its representation in great
detaU.73
In the three Brahmotsava festivals

in His form as Somaskanda
He rides in a canopy on vehicles
in the form of
the moon, the sun, a demon,
a bull, a royal elephant,
the Silver Mountain,
and on a horse;
on the ox-chariot,
with the ox's eyes opened wide.
He is the Beggar.
Every day He progresses through the streets,
bathes,
and with Siva enters His own abode.
(26)74
T h e chief participant deities in the festival are called the Pancamiirti, the
five images. T h e most important is Som^kanda, that is, Siva accompanied
by U m a and their son Skanda. T h e other four are Sivakamasundari
under the name of SivanandanayakI, Skanda with his two wives,
Ganesa, and Candesvara.75
O n the evening of the second day of the festival, the deities process
through the C a r Streets for the first time. Somaskanda is seated on a
crescent moon of silver-plated wood. O n the third evening Somaskanda
rides on a sun-shaped vehicle of gold-plated wood. O n the fourth
evening, Somaskanda is supported by a bhuta, a monster in human form,
with fangs and four arms. O n the fifth evening, Somaskanda is mounted
on a bull, but the bull rides in a giant temporary ratha modelled on the
form o^z.gopuTa. This special vehicle, which has sixteen wheels, has three
compartments. Somaskanda of course takes pride of place, O n his left,
SivanandanayakI, on his right Skanda. O n the sixth evening, Somaskanda
rides on a silver elephant. O n the seventh evening, Somaskanda rides on
Mount Kailasa, with Ravana shaking the mountain with his twenty
hands. This is held to be the most special day of the festival. O n the
eighth evening, the usual deities, the Paflcamiirti, are not taken out. O n e
mUrti alone, Bhiksatana, Siva the wandering beggar, is taken through the
C a r Streets, riding in a golden chariot. When B h i k ^ ^ n a has returned,
Somaskanda is taken out on a plain wooden horse. It is said that
Somaskanda is on horseback to check the C a r Streets in preparation for
the following day, when Nataraja himself, the miila murti, will be taken
round in a chariot.
We have now completed our peregrination through the temple, and
we have looked at the priests and what they do in the temple. All this has
been accomplished on the basis of what Umapati tells us in his poem,
with some help from relevant texts. In the next chapter we go into the Cit
Sabha.
C H A P T E R 4
The Hall of Consciousness, the Heart of th£ Universe
All the V e d a s know that I perform the D a n c e of Bliss,

but they d o not know
the cause, the region,
the time, the place.
T h e r e is on earth a certain great and heavenly Hall

that is able to support my dance.
Cidambara Mahatmya 15.21-26
Vyasa:
N o w I will describe the wonderful character of the Sabha.
Tilvavana Mahalmya 4.1
T w o aspects of the complex of religions called Hinduism are crucial for
much of its history. O n the one hand the enthusiasm for idealism; on the
other the perception of physical reality of the supernatural, that it is
embedded in concrete things.The Git Sabha is a superlative example of
the combination of both these aspects. T h e bronze image of Nataraja is
pre-eminendy present in the Git Sabha, which is both the heart of the
universe and the consciousness that is found in the heart of every human
being. T h e Git Sabha not only enshrines Nauiraja, but embodies him:
the Festival Ritual text says that the temple of the Git Sabha is made out
of the body of the Lord of the Git Sabha.'
T h e supreme importance of the Git Sabha is evident in the opening of
the KîlPurdnam, where the first four verses each end by hailing it, under
its Tamil name, tirucinambalam, 'the holy litde hall'. Shulman brings out
the contrast between the litdeness of the hall and the greatness of $iva in
his translation of the refrain of Guntarar's single hymn devoted to
Gidambaram:
our great lord in the little hall at great T i g e r t o w n . '
Because of the holiness of the Git Sabha, the Tamil tinicdnambalam

also signifies something like 'supreme holiness' and at some point
80
The Hall of Consciousness, the Heart of the Universe loi
became an invocatory expression used to preface the recitation of

Tevdram h y m n s o r t o h e a d a d o c u m e n t ; i n d e e d , it h a s s o m e t h i n g o f t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f DM in S a n s k r i t . A s w e s h a l l s e e , f o r U m a p a t i i n h i s S a n s k r i t
p o e m , n o t o n l y N a t o r a j a , b u t t h e C i t S a b h a a s w e l l , a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o OM.
Two or three centuries before Umapati, around the time of the
c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e Suta Samhi^, t h e T a m i l t e r m cinambalam g a v e r i s e t o
the Sanskritization cidambara, t h e ' s k y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' , w h i c h was
e x p l a i n e d as r e f e r r i n g t o t h e ' h e a r t t e a c h i n g ' o f t h e Chandogya Upanisad.^
T h e h e a r t w a s h e l d to b e the c e n t r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , so t h a t all the w o r l d
w a s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h i n t h e h e a r t a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e , in a s e n s e , w i t h i n
the heart:
dm! [The teacher should say:] 'Now, what is here in this city of Brahman, is an
abode, a small {daharam) lotus-flower (puridajikarn). Within that is a small space
[daharo... akasah). What is within that, should be searched out; that, assuredly, is
what one should desire to understand.'
. . . 'As far verily, as this world-space [akasa) extends, so far extends the space
within the heart. Within it, indeed, are contained both heaven and earth, both
fire and wind, both sun and moon, lightning and the stars, both what one
possesses here and what one does not possess; eveything here is contained within it.'
[Chandogya Upanisad Q.1.1 2ind ^^
T h i s t e a c h i n g , w h i c h b y t h e t i m e o f the Suta Sarnhitd w a s k n o w n as the
D a h a r a V i d y a , is p r o m u l g a t e d in t h e C i d a m b a r a m Mahatnryas.^ A n o t h e r ,
r e l a t e d i d e a is a l s o d e v e l o p e d , n a m e l y t h a t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f India
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p h y s i o l o g y o f t h e h u m a n b o d y , in a s m u c h as k e y
S a i v a sites o c c u r as t h e cakras, s p i r i t u a l n o d e s , o f t h e c o s m i c g i a n t w h o is
t h e w o r l d . In this, t h e V e d i c i d e a o f P u r u s a is l i n k e d w i t h t h e m u c h l a l e r
ideas o f H a t h a y o g a .
I n c h a p t e r 15 o f t h e Cidambara Mahatmya, ^ e s a h a s b e e n practising
e x t r e m e tapas in h i s l o n g i n g t o see t h e d a n c e t h a t V i s n u h a s t o l d h i m o f ,
w h e n ^ i v a a p p e a r s a n d tells h i m a b o u t t h e C i t S a b h a a n d its site.
T h e eanh and the body may be said to be the same, O wise one!
T h e earth has a great vein, the Ida nadl, that reaches Lanka.
There is another called Pihgala that reaches the Himalaya,
and between them is the famous Susumna
which reaches the middle of Tillavana.
Very extensive, it (like the other two) belongs to the beautiful earth
which is thus shaped like Purusa.
Sriparvaia is said to be at his crown,
K e d ^ a mountain is at the forehead,
the great place called Kailasa peak at the head,
O Sesa! VaranasT, with the holy river, is between the brows,
K u r u k ^ t r a is o n the c h e s t , a n d P r a y a g a is c a l l e d t h e n a v e l ,
w h i l e C i d a m b a r a m is in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e h e a r t ,
a n d K a m a l a l a y a ( T i r u v a r u r ) is t h e [ M u l ] a d h a r a cakra.
H e w h o l e a v e s this p l a c e a n d g o e s t o o t h e r p l a c e s
a b a n d o n s a g r e a t j e w e l h e h a s in his h a n d f o r a p i e c e o f glass.
T h e c e n t r e o f that p l a c e is v a s t , d i v i n e , p u r e , like B r a h m a n ,
TTiere is O SCM a g r e a t tihga n a m e d t h e H o l y M i i l a s t h a n a .
T o t h e s o u t h o f it, n o t f a r a w a y t h e r e is a m i g h t y h a l l , n a m e d S k y {ambara).
It is w o n d e r f u l , the s o u r c e o f all g o o d t h i n g s .
In it I p e r f o r m m y i n v a r i a b l e D a n c e o f Bliss.
{Cidambara Mahdtmya 15.31-9)
This clumsy passage is a conflation of a section of the Suta Samhita that

moves from the account of &thas to praise of the inner tirtha in the self, for
which the jewel in the hand is more appropriate praise.® But then
Cidambaram itself is the heart!
T h e word 'invariable' {abhahgura) in the sentence 'I perform my
invariable Dance of Bliss' is necessary not only because of the claimed
eternality of the dance, but also to mask the fact that it is a new, Golan,
development of the iconography of îva. W e see clearly here the
invention of tradition, a novelty sought to be made the more secure by a
double embedding in human physiology. Not only is Cidambaram the
heart of the world, but it is the only port of call, as it were, of the world
body's central canal {na/^.
A clearer version is given in the Kojil Puranam:
Because the active b o d y c o r r e s p o n d s to the physical w o r l d

T h e I d a Na<ff g o e s t h r o u g h L a A k a .
T h e o t h e r b r i g h t a n d b e a u t i f u l Pirtgala Na^
G o e s through the great H i m a l a y a .
T h e S u s u m n a N a ^ lies b e t w e e n .
T h a t c e n t r a l N a ^ , t h e S u s u m n a , w h i c h is h a r d t o find
G o e s Lhrough T i l l a i .
Shining with goodness,
T h e M u l a L i A g a is in t h a t p l a c e .
T o the s o u t h o f it lies
A p e r m a n e n t hall, u n s e e n
B y the V e d a s w h i c h s u r r o u n d it.
T h e r e we d a n c e forever. S o said
T h e L o r d w h o t a k e s us as H i s slaves.
B e c a u s e the H a l l o f t h e s p a c e o f w i s d o m is e t e r n a l ,
It will not pass a w a y w i t h t h e t h i n g s o f M a y a .
It will c o n t i n u e f o r e v e r .
I f the souls d o c o u n d e s s g r e a t tapas
And receive the hard won eye of jjermanent wisdom

They will see the dance.
Those who do not get to see it
Will be reborn. Puranam, PataOcali carrukam 70-2)7
T h e n o r t h e r n sites o f t h e S a n s k r i t t e x t a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e ' H i m a l a y a '

in this b r i e f e r a n d s m o o t h e r a c c o u n t . A m o r e f u l l y w o r k e d - o u t s e q u e n c e
is t o b e f o u n d i n t h e Vyaghrapura Mdhdtmya ( 1 5 . 1 8 - 3 3 ) , w i t h V a r a n a s T a s
the highest, ajna, c a k r a , p r e c e d e d b y s o u t h e r n sites: T i r u v ^ r ( M i a l a d h a r a ) ,
Jambukesvara (Svadhisthana), Arunacala (Manipura), Cidambaram
( A n a h a t a , h e a r t ) , K a l a h a s t i ( V i s u d d h i ) . A y e t f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t is
Citsabhesotsavasutra, w h e r e t h e g r e a t
f o u n d in t h e F e s t i v a l R i t u a l t e x t , t h e
abhisekas t h a t t a k e p l a c e six t i m e s a y e a r in C i d a m b a r a m a r e i d e n t i f i e d
with the six cakras.^
U m a p a t i s a y s t h a t N a u r a j a d a n c e s in e a c h o f t h e cakras:
He is the non-stop dancer

in the Muladhara and the rest of the six centres,
even as He is in the heart-lotus of Viraj.
(65)'
T h e r e is a t h i r d a s p e c t o f t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e C i t S a b h a t o b e
m e n t i o n e d . N o t o n l y is t h e C i t S a b h a t h e h e a r t o f t h e w o r l d a n d t h e h e a r t
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l self,"but it a l s o h o u s e s t h e R a h a s y a , t h e S e c r e t . T h i s h a s
a s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n , o n t h e w a l l t o t h e r i g h t o f N a t a r a j a , a n d is h i d d e n
f r o m p r o f a n e v i e w b y a curtain. F o r U m a p a t i a n d the ritual texts o f
C i d a m b a r a m , t h e R a h a s y a is ayantra, a diagram, or rather a diagram
w i t h a p i c t u r e o f N a t a r a j a a n d ^ i v a k a m a s u n d a r i in t h e c e n t r e . T h i s
R a h a s y a Y a n t r a is e s s e n t i a l l y a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w e l l - k n o w n S r T c a k r a . ' °
U m a p a t i several times speaks o f Siva d a n c i n g on the wall o f the' C i t
S a b h a , w h i c h m u s t r e f e r t o t h e Y a n t r a , t h o u g h o n e is r e m i n d e d o f t h e
C i t r a S a b h a , t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S a b h a in K u t r a l a m , T i r u n e l v e l i
District, w h e r e the shrine consists essentially o f a w a l l w h e r e o n are
painted N a t a r a j a , SivakamasundarT, a n d the SrTcakra.
It is s t r i k i n g t h a t t o d a y t h e S e c r e t is t h o u g h t t o b e n o t h i n g b u t e m p t y
space. T h u s S. M e y y a p a n , a well-informed resident o f C i d a m b a r a m ,
says o f the R a h a s y a :
No images are sheltered within, only a garland of golden bilva leaves is seen as a
pendant. T h e mystic secret purport is that God exists in the form of Formless
space. How to worship God who is present in every space of the expansive
universe? Here it has been provided to worship the empty space itself as G o d . "
Sivaramamurti, in his brief discussion of Cidambaram in Na^rga,

having mentioned the Golden Hall, comments::
It is very interesting that there is a hall beyond, all empty, to suggest space, akma.
A screen here, when pulled aside, reveals just space, with no real image in it
cxcept what fancy may imagine as present in the sky. The removal of the veU is
just the removal of ignorance, and behind the veil is the real truth - sat, cit, and
manda, representing the Natoraja form itself This representation of ether, space
or void, represents the rahaâ of chidambara, or the mystery."
Another popular idea is that a LiAga of Space is within the Cit Sabha.
Harle, for instance, notes that 'the akasa... lihga is believed to be installed
in the Cit Sabha'.'3 T h e Suta Samhita declares that there is a linga made of
each of the five elements, and each is identified with a particular site.
Thus Tiruvanamalai, where Siva is said to have appeared in the Linga of
Fire before Visnu and Brahma is naturally the site of that lihga. Umapati
refers to this list in verse LOO, but it is significant that he does not site the
lihga in the Cit Sabha:
in the Tillai wood, on the crown of the Triple Peak,
stands the Linga of Space.
Each one of these lihgas is the Lord of the Dancere.'+
Here Umapati is concerned to affirm the priority of Nataraja over the
lihgas\ it is surely for the same reason that he has nothing else to say about
the notion of dkasa lihga, if indeed, the akasa lihga had become of any
consequence by his day.'^ T h e Cidambaramahatmya and the Kîl Puranam
state that Cidambaram is situated on the top of a subterranean
mountain, the base of which rests in the world of Nagas, but this
mountain is not named, nor does it have more than one peak. Verse 103
describes Siva as 'shining on the top of the Triple-peaked Mountain'
{trisikharasikhare). In verse loi Siva is said to be 'residing on the Triple
Peaks' {trikulmthityusam), which K . M . Rajaganesa Diksita takes to mean
'in the Triple Peak mantra'; and given the explicit mention of Srlvidya,
known as the Triple Peak because of its threefold division, in verses 120
and 207, this is plausible. T h a t the Sncakra is soon to be mentioned
several times in the poem makes the identification still more likely.
T h e sanctity of the site to some extent foments the popular imagination.
I was told by one intelligent resident of the city that the long-lived sage
TirumQlar entered into final samMhi in the Cit Sabha and taught many
mysterious things to Siva before expiring. T h e scholar B. G . L. Swamy
was led to suggest that the back of the Cit Sabha was a secret chamber
'where yogis entered into eternal samadhV}^
Ramalinga Dikshitar says that the Rahasya is the formless [ampa)
aspect of Siva, Nataraja is the form aspect of Siva {sampdj^ and the Crystal
LiAga, CandramauEvara, is the form-and-formless {rOpdmpay but gives
no source for this tripartite formulation which puts the Crystal Lifiga on
a higher level than Nateraja. Siva tells Sesa at the beginning of chapter 15
of the Cidambara Mahdtntya, before mentioning the existence of the Cit
Sabha, that he has two forms, one with form, the other without form.'®
THE A R C H I T E C T U R E OF T H E C I T SABHA AND THE KANAKA

SABHA
Despite its extreme importance, little has been been written on the Cit
Sabha as a building. T h e building today consists of a massive stone plinth
topped by walls, supporting pillars, and roof beams £ill of sandalwood.
T h e tiles are of copper, plated in gold. A slightly smaller version of itself,
the Kanaka Sabha, stands direcdy in front of it, to the south, separated
by a hallway 1.5 m in width. Such a wooden superstructure is found in no
other Cola temple, though subsequendy other Siva temples in Tamilnadu
copied the basic form of the Cit Sabha to house their own Nataraja
festival bronzes. Provision for human dancers in Cola temples is typified
by the Nrtta Sabha, with an open area amid a mass of pillars, and
everything of stone.
T h e shape of the roofs of the twin Sabhas is distinctive - rectangular
with a curvilinear sikhara, resembling the roof of the Draupadi Ratha at
Mamallapuram - and is repeated on the other halls in Cidambaram,
and also over the other shrines there.
Given the wooden structure of most of the Cit Sabha, it is not surprising
that no early examples of similar buildings survive, but a seventeeth-century
painting seems to show the kind of raised dance pavilion that the builders
of the temple reproduced in a sacred version; see plate 12.
The best idea of the Cit Sabha in Umapati's day can be gained from
the mural painting in the circumambulatory of Rajaraja I's Rajarajesvara
temple at Tanjavur, consecrated in 1009/10, a painting which,
contemporary with the founder, portrays him worshipping at the Cit
S a b h a . S i v a r a m a m u r t i describes it as
representing N a t a r a j a in all his glory at C h i d a m b a r a m , with the entire
concourse o f DIkshita priests a r o u n d h i m , the emf>eror shown at o n e end,
a c c o m p a n i e d b y his queens a n d a large retinue, including his chosen soldiers
and bodyguards. T h e g r o u n d plan o f the temple is also w o n d e r f u l l y given here.
It is a very interesting representation o f the v e r y high regard that the C h o l a
emp>erors had for N a t a r a j a at Chidambaram.®"
12. D a n c e s t a g e . W a l l p a i n t i n g , N a r u m p u n a t h a r t e m p l e , T i r u p u d a i m a r u d u r ,
T i r u n e l v e l i D i s t , c. 1700.
T h e painting clearly shows both the C i t S a b h a a n d the K a n a k a S a b h a

in f r o n t o f it. T h e K i n g a n d h i s t h r e e w i v e s , h a n d s in anjali, s t a n d in t h e
K a n a k a S a b h a . T h e y a r e in t h r e e - q u a r t e r s p r o f i l e , b u t t h e S a b h a s a r e
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l . T h e K a n a k a h a s its r o o f s u p p o r t e d b y t h r e e p i l l a r s , o f
w h i c h o n l y t h e r i g h t - h a n d , s o u t h e r n o n e is v i s i b l e . ( T h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f
the painting, on the inner eastern wall, m a t c h e s that o f the Sabhas.^')
S o l d i e r s , c l a d o n l y in a c l o t h t h a t is w r a p p e d r o u n d t h e i r l o i n s a n d t h e n
rises in a n a r r o w s t r i p u p t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r c h e s t s a n d r o u n d t h e i r n e c k s ,
stand to the right, outside t h e K a n a k a S a b h a . A b o v e t h e r o o f o f the
K a n a k a S a b h a and part of the r o o f o f the C i t S a b h a are seated eight
w o m e n , e i t h e r h e a v e n l y n y m p h s o r d a n c i n g g i r l s , c l a d o n l y in d h o t i s
t i g h t l y w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e i r l o w e r h a l v e s , e a c h d h o t i in a d i f f e r e n t a n d
rich pattern; j e w e l l e d collars enclose their necks a n d delicate scarves
float o v e r t h e i r s h o u l d e r s . T h e s e w o m e n a r e in a w e l l - d e f i n e d r e c t a n g l e .
T o t h e left s t a n d t w o b e a r d e d p r i e s t s . T h e s p a c e i m m e d i a t e l y a b o v e t h e
rest o f t h e r o o f o f t h e C i t S a b h a is b l u r r e d . B e h i n d t h e figures a b o v e the
K a n a k a S a b h a is a d o u b l e t i e r o f c o l o n n a d e s w i t h a t i l e d r o o f , a s e x i s t s
today, t h o u g h with a r e n o v a t e d frontage. T h e priests a n d w o m e n are
t h e r e f o r e s h o w n in the c o u r t y a r d o n t h e e a s t e r n side o f t h e S a b h a s . T h e
right-angle o f the buttress to the right o f this p i c t u r e p o r t r a y s a n o t h e r
w a l l o f the s u r r o u n d i n g c o l o n n a d e . T h e right buttress itself h a s a m a s s i v e
structure painted on it, w h i c h m u s t b e a k i n d o f g a t e h o u s e t o the
c o l o n n a d e , h a v i n g a s i m i l a r set o f t i l e d r o o f s , t h o u g h a l s o a t r i p l e set o f
s m a l l e r r o o f s a b o v e t h e m . T h i s s t r u c t u r e is e n t i r e l y m i s s i n g t o d a y ; b u t
the t w o roofs, at least, o f the twin S a b h a s s e e m unchanged.
It is c l e a r f r o m t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n t h a t t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l i n t e n t i o n o f t h e
S a b h a wais o r i g i n a l l y v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e %i2ir\dz.vd garbhagrha,
being intended to facilitate display. T h e gilding o f the roof, c a r r i e d out
b y s e v e r a l C o l a k i n g s , f o s t e r e d this d i s p l a y , m a k i n g t h e S a b h a a b e a c o n ,
as it w e r e , r a t h e r t h a n a d a r k r e c e p t a c l e ; a n d i n p a i n t i n g s t h e s h r i n e is a n
o p e n s t a g e . B y c o n t r a s t , in K r a m r i s c h ' s w o r d s , ' T h e c u b i c a l c h a m b e r o f
t h e G a r b h a g r h a is r e p l e t e w i t h static order.'^'^ Y e t K r a m r i s c h twice
refers to C i d a m b a r a m garbha^ha in h e r
in h e r b r i e f a c c o u n t o f t h e
authoritative study o f the H i n d u temple, a n d c o m p a r e s garbhagrha t o
the h e a r t . T h e o p e n display o f the S a b h a q u i c k l y r e g r e s s e d to the heart, if
n o t t h e w o m b . T h e S a b h a , h o w e v e r d i f f e r e n t its o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n , h a s
converged with the garbhagrha. ' T h e w o r l d in w h i c h w e l i v e is i n d e f i n i t e in
e x t e n t a n d o p e n o n all s i d e s t o q u e s t i o n a n d u n c e r t a i n t y ; w i t h i n l i m i t s ,
n u m b e r a n d m e a s u r e is t h e G a r b h a g r h a . '
T h e T a n j a v u r p a i n t i n g is a r o u n d 2 0 0 y e a r s e a r l i e r t h a n Umapati.
S o m e 300 y e a r s l a t e r t h a n U m a p a t i w e r e p r o d u c e d t h e p a i n t i n g s o n t h e
ceiling of the îvakamasundari shrine. H e r e there are several paintings
of the C i t S a b h a , the largest m u c h d a m a g e d . T h r e e smaller ones give
c o n s i d e r a b l e detail, b u t d i f f e r w i d e l y . O n e s h o w s V y a g h r a p a d a w o r s h i p p i n g
at t h e M u l a l i n g a , w i t h t h e t w i n S a b h a s b e s i d e it. In f a c t t h e C i t S a b h a is
empty, awaiting Siva's p e r f o r m a n c e of the d a n c e .
T h e s e c o n d painting s h o w s the C i t S a b h a a m i d a stylized p l a n o f the
w h o l e site, a f t e r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k c a r r i e d o u t b y H i r a n y a v a r m a n .
H e r e t h e C i t S a b h a is g i v e n a d o u b l e - t i e r e d r o o f , m u c h h i g h e r t h a n t h a t
of the Kanaka Sabha. In the sequence of registers the painting
i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g this o v e r v i e w o f t h e t e m p l e as a w h o l e r e p r e s e n t s
t h e t w i n S a b h a s as n o r m a l . W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e artists a r e d i f f e r e n t , t h e
s e c o n d p a i n t i n g e x p r e s s e s t h e i n h e r e n t d e m a n d in t h e l o g i c o f a t e m p l e
f o r a vimana o v e r t h e c e n t r a l s a n c t u m .
A t the centre o f the t e m p l e are the twin S a b h a s , the C i t a n d the
K a n a k a . T h e s e adjoining edifices, of almost identical rectangular plan,
13. T h e C i t a n d K a n a k a S a b h a s as v i s u a l i z e d b y V y a g h r a p a d a , a d j o i n i n g t h e M u l a n a t h a
shrine. C e i l i n g p a l m i n g in S i v a k a m a s u n d a n C i d a m b a r a m . Seventeenth century.
together measure 11.9m (east-west) b y 13.4 m ( n o r t h - s o u t h ) . T h e Cit

S a b h a is 1 m h i g h e r t h a n t h e K a n a k a S a b h L A h a l l 1.5 m in w i d t h l i n k s
t h e S a b h a s , flanked b y s t e p s set a g a i n s t t h e p l i n t h t o e a s t a n d w e s t . T h e
Cit S a b h a has w o o d e n walls, m a d e u p o f sections o f four 3 5 c m w i d e
p l a n k s set b e t w e e n w o o d e n p i l l a r s o f t h e s a m e w i d t h ; t h e s o u t h e r n w a l l
h a s w i n d o w grills a n d w o o d e n d o o r s , a n d is c o v e r e d in s i l v e r p l a t e s . T h e
r o o f is s a i d to b e s u p p o r t e d b y t w e n t y - e i g h t f r e e s t a n d i n g w o o d e n p i l l a r s ;
and the roof of the Kanaka Sabha by eighteen wooden pillars.
C o p p e r - p l a t e d folding doors take up m u c h o f the eastern and southern
sides o f K a n a k a Sabha.
I H E I N T E R I O R OF T H E C I T SABHA
W i t h i n t h e hall five s i l v e r - p l a t e d s t e p s l e a d f r o m t h e K a n a k a S a b h a t o
t h e h i g h e r l e v e l o f the C i t S a b h a , t h o u g h t h e first s i l v e r s t e p is o n t h e
s a m e level as t h e K a n a k a S a b h a . W i t h i n t h e C i t S a b h a is a f u r t h e r s t o n e
p l i n t h set b a c k a b o u t i m w i t h a w a l l b e h i n d it, w h i l e b e n e a t h N a t a r a j a
a n d S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i t o h i s l e f t , this is f r o n t e d w i t h gilt p a n e l l i n g , w i t h
t h e p l i n t h s o f t h e t w o murtvi r i s i n g a b o v e this. T o N a t a r a j a ' s r i g h t is t h e
C i d a m b a r a m R a h a s y a , w h e r e several strings o f g o l d e n bilva l e a v e s h a n g
in f r o n t o f a c u r t a i n . T h e c u r t a i n is 1.5 m h i g h a n d 3 . 5 m l o n g , e x t e n d i n g
b e h i n d N a t a r a j a a s w e l l a s c o v e r i n g t h e C i d a m b a r a m R a h a s y a . It is
m a d e o f t w o layers, the i n n e r o n e red, the o u t e r o n e black: illusion
o u t s i d e , e n l i g h t e n m e n t i n s i d e . It is r e n e w e d t w i c e a y e a r , o n t h e t e n t h
d a y o f the m a i n festivals, old c u r t a i n s b e i n g p r e s e r v e d in t h e D e v a S a b h a .
In addition to N a t a r a j a , S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i a n d the c u r t a i n o f the

C i d a m b a r a m R a h a s y a , the C i t S a b h a contains a mukhalinga, r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e h e a d o f B r a h m a t h a t S i v a c u t o f f ; S i v a ' s pddukas, golden sandals
m o u n t e d o n a p l i n t h ; B a l i n a y a k a , a C a n d r a s e k h a r a miirti t a k e n r o u n d
the second pr^ra during food offerings to the various deities;
S v a r n a k a r ^ n a ('Gold-attracting') B h a i r a v a , o c c a s i o n a l l y w o r s h i p p e d in
the K a n a k a S a b h a , a n d said f o r m e r l y to h a v e t u r n e d c o p p e r i n t o g o l d f o r
t h e D i k s i t a s ; a n d , w o r s h i p p e d d a i l y in t h e K a n a k a S a b h a , t h e Ruby
Natoraja and the Crystal Linga.
T h e exterior o f the C i t S a b h a has a double c o l o n n a d e o f r o u n d
c o l u m n s o f h i g h l y p o l i s h e d b l a c k s t o n e ; this c o l o n n a d e is n a r r o w e r o n
the eastern side, to a l l o w p a s s a g e r o u n d the C a n d e s v a r a shrine, t h o u g h
t h e p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e is n o t v e r y o l d . T h e c e i l i n g o f t h e c o l o n n a d e h a s
paintings retelling the sthalapurma, d a t i n g b a c k p e r h a p s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f the century. T h e plinths o f b o t h S a b h ^ h a v e b e e n r e c e n d y f a c e d with
g l a z e d w h i t e tiles i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h n a r r o w e r c o l u m n s o f g r e e n tiles.
A d j o i n i n g the e a s t e r n side o f t h e K a n z i k a S a b h a is a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
m a i ^ p a w h i c h consists o f a copper-tiled r o o f o f similar design s u p p o r t e d
by r o u n d w o o d e n pillars similar to those a r o u n d the outside o f the C i t
S a b h a . U n d e r this r o o f w o r s h i p p e r s g a t h e r t o w a t c h t h e l a m p w o r s h i p o f
the R a t n a s a b h a p a t i , the R u b y N a t a r a j a .
A stone r o o f s e c t i o n o n massive pillars a d j o i n s the front o f the K a n a k a
Sabha, with a m o d e r n bronze Nataraja and SivakamasundarT enclosed
in glass j u s t b e n e a t h t h e c e i l i n g a n d a l w a y s o n v i e w . T h i s w a s c o n s t r u c t e d
in t h e 1930s, r e p l a c i n g a n o l d a n d m u c h l o w e r s t r u c t u r e . O n t h e c e i l i n g
are modem paintings of Nataraja and the Sncakra, and various
lotus-based designs.
O n e i t h e r side o f t h e f r o n t o f t h e K a n a k a S a b h a h a n g w o o d e n b o a r d s
e a c h w i t h a v e r s e f r o m t h e Kuncitahghristava in T a m i l s c r i p t . O n t h e left,
the o p e n i n g v e r s e , o n t h e r i g h t v e r s e 278.'3 T h e b o a r d s l o o k c o n t e m p o r -
a n e o u s w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e p r i n t e d b o o k .
T H E C I T S A B H A A N D K A N A K A S A B H A IN THE
K UfJ CIT Alio HR IS TA VA
U m a p a t i refers to the C i t S a b h a t h r o u g h o u t the Kuncitanghristava.^* A

d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e S a b h a is g i v e n p r i d e o f p l a c e a t t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e
p o e m . U m ^ a t i takes his r e a d e r s at o n c e to the h e a r t o f the m a t t e r in the
o p e n i n g o f h i s p o e m . W e s h a l l first c o n s i d e r v e r s e s 3 t o 7 , l e a v i n g till l a t e r
t h e m o s t e s o t e r i c v e r s e s i a n d 2.
T h i s H a l l is f o r m e d o u t o f the letters o f the a l p h a b e t

f r o m the b a s e plinth to the g o l d e n stones,
a n d in it there are
Brahma, Visnu, Rudra, Mahesvara,
a n d five-headed S a d a s i v a a b o v e w i t h A m b a ;
a n d o n the wall
the L o r d o f the C i t S a b h a is d a n c i n g .
H i s m a n y d e e d s are praised
b y the five elements, the six sciences,
a n d the f o u r V e d a s ,
e a c h manifest in the f o r m o f pillars.
I worship
H i m w h o gives limidess happiness.
W h o s e foot is c u r v e d . (3)'5
T h e first l i n e o f t h e S a n s k r i t , t r a n s l a t e d a s -
f o r m e d o u t o f the letters o f the a l p h a b e t
f r o m the bzise plinth to the g o l d e n stones,
- c l e a r l y p a r a l l e l s a p a s s a g e in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e C i t S a b h a g i v e n i n
t h e F e s t i v a l R i t u a l t e x t , ' a d o r n e d w i t h a b a s e {adhisândj t h a t is t h e f o r m
o f all t h e m a n t r a s b e g i n n i n g w i t h e a c h o f t h e l e t t e r s f r o m a o n w a r d s ' . ' ®
T h e n u m b e r s o f t h e e l e m e n t s , s c i e n c e s a n d V e d a s a r e n o t s p e l l e d o u t in
the Sanskrit, b u t they at least are entirely c o n v e n t i o n a l , a n d d o not rteed
to b e stated to b e u n d e r s t o o d .
T h e b a s e p l i n t h {mUlapTtha) is a m a s s i v e a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y c o m p l e x
s t r u c t u r e , as a r e all C o l a p l i n t h s , a n d is s i m i l a r in s t y l e t o t h e b a s e m e n t s
o f t h e gopuras."^ T h e F e s t i v a l R i t u a l t e x t i d e n t i f i e s t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f
letters o f the a l p h a b e t w i t h specific m o u l d i n g s o f the plinth, in a v e r y rare
hnkage of the highly f o r m a l structures o f architecture with the m o r e
usual topics o f intellectual discourse. In s u b s e q u e n t verses Umapati
c o m p a r e s t h e tiles a n d b e a m s a n d s o o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g w i t h r e l i g i o u s
t o p i c s , f o l l o w i n g t h e Ttlvavana Mahatmya, b u t t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s i d e o f t h e
e q u a t i o n r e m a i n s r u d i m e n t a r y , a n d , a s w i l l b e s e e n in t h e c a s e o f t h e
g2 Tfu Dance of îva
n u m b e r o f pillars, s o m e w h a t r e m o v e d f r o m reality.
W i t h t h e five g o d s n a m e d h e r e w e a r e b r o u g h t i n t o t h e w o r l d o f S a i v a
Siddhanta. T h e architectural structure contains an iconological structure:
five-headed S a d a s i v a is s i t u a t e d o n t o p o f t h e f o u r l e s s e r g o d s , t h e m s e l v e s
supported b y the alphabet.
T h e roles of these forms of Siva are clearly stated by Umapati in verse 102:
In the beginning He Whose form is the self
created Brahma for the creation of the worlds,
Hari for their protection,
and the fomi of Rudra for their destruction,
and then Mahesa for concealing everything,
the form of Sadasiva with Parvati beside Him
to show favour to those worlds.
He performs the Dance of Bliss in the Hall.
(I02)»8
It is i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t N a t o r a j a is t h e h i g h e s t f o r m o f Siva,
s u r p a s s i n g a s w e l l a s s u b s u m i n g t h e o t h e r five f o r m s .
W e h a v e s e e n U m a p a t i r e f e r t o t h e U p a n i s a d i c i d e a o f t h e five s h e a t h s ;
a n d h e l a t e r r e f e r s t o t h e m a g a i n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e five d e i t i e s i n
question here:
At His command
Brahma shines in the sheath of food,
Visnu whose excellent vehicle is Garuda
shines in the sheath of breath,
and Rudra in the sheath made of mind,
and then Mahesa in the excellent sheath of consciousness,
and Sadasiva in the sheath called bliss.
E a c h o f t h e s e five f o r m s o f Siva h a s h i s o w n t h r o n e { p i ^ ) w i t h i n t h e C i t
Sabha. Umapati refers in verse 3 to t h r e e o f these seats w h i c h are
constituted b y pillars:
His many deeds are praised

by the five elements, the six sciences,
and the four Vedas,
each manifest in the form of pillars.
T h e five p i l l a r s t h a t a r e t h e e l e m e n t s c o n s t i t u t e t h e t h r o n e o f R u d r a . T h e
six p i l l a r s t h a t a r e t h e s^tTos c o n s t i t u t e t h e t h r o n e o f M a h e w a r a . The
f o u r V e d a pillars constitute the t h r o n e o f Sadasiva.3°
In t h ^ l o w e r p a r t o f H i s hall
The Agamas, Kamika a n d the others,
o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m Siva's m o u t h s ,
h a v e a s s u m e d the f o r m o f g o l d e n pillars
to the n u m b e r o f twenty-eight.
O n e v e r y side their l o w e r parts shine b r i g h d y ;

their h i g h e r parts are h i d d e n within.
T h e y praise H i m W h o is w o r t h y o f praise
in H i s d a n c i n g f o r m praised b y h u n d r e d s o f scriptures.
(4)3'
T h e twenty-eight pillars that are the A g a m a s are said to constitute the
throne o f B r a h m a . C o n c e i v a b l y the esoteric parts o f the A g a m a s are
referred to h e r e as w e l l as the h i g h parts o f t h e pillars w h i c h are
c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n t h e o v e r h a n g i n g r o o f . T h e N a t a r a j a c u l t is c o n s i d e r a b l y
l a t e r t h a n m o s t o f t h e A g a m a s , a n d is t h e r e f o r e c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n t h e m ,
so to speak. T h e V e d a s , the ' h u n d r e d s o f scriptures' {srutisata), a r e a l s o
m e n t i o n e d : t h e r e is n o s e n s e o f a n t i p a t h y b e t w e e n t h e t w o c l a s s e s o f
r e v e a l e d literature.3^
In His assembly hall the stairway,

made up of the five letters of His mantra,
looks like the Silver Mountain.
Jaya and Vijaya are the principal guardians
who protect its doorway.
Within shine the five gods,

Brahma and the others,
along with the ninety-six Tattvas.
I worship
Him Whose constant dance is there,
Whose foot curves.
W i t h i n t h e h a l l five s t e p s l e a d f r o m t h e K a n a k a S a b h a t o t h e h i g h e r l e v e l
o f t h e C i t S a b h a , t h o u g h t h e first s t e p is o n t h e s a m e l e v e l a s t h e K a n a k a
S a b h a . T h e five s t e p s a r e h e l d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e five s y l l a b l e s o f t h e ^ i v a
mantra, namah îvaya. T h e s t e p s w e r e p l a t e d in s i l v e r b y M a n a l i M u d a l i a r
in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t g i v e n t h e i m a g e o f t h e S i l v e r m o u n t a i n , it
is likely t h e y w e r e a l s o o f s i l v e r in U m a p a t i ' s d a y . T h e c o m p a r i s o n o f
t h e s e steps w h i c h rise a b o u t a m e t r e f r o m t h e l e v e l o f t h e K a n a k a S a b h a
to t h a t o f t h e C i t S a b h a , w i t h a m o u n t a i n , m a y se-em less o f a g r o s s
e x a g g e r a t i o n w h e n it is r e m e m b e r e d t h a t C i d a m b a r a m is t h o u g h t t o b e
o n t o p o f a m o u n t a i n in t h e Cidambara Mahatmya, a n d t h a t t h e C i t
S a b h a a s t h e s u p r e m e a b o d e o f N a t a r a j a is s u p e r i o r t o a n y H i m a l a y a n
mountain. * • u .u
. \ l t h o u g h t h e n i n e t y - s i x Uittvas a r e m e n t i o n e d b y A p p a r m t h e s e v e n t h
century, systematic e n u m e r a t i o n s a r e late. U m a p a t i refers to t h e m m his
T a m i l p o e t r y b u t n o t in h i s t r e a t i s e s . ^ S i n c e , a s U m a p a u s a y s , t h e s e
tattvas w h i c h s u m u p t h e p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d a r e t o b e u p r o o t e d -
He u^nsform'd my very thought -

Uprooting the tattvas six and ninety,
Hard to narrate
t h e i r p r e s e n c e in t h e C i t S a b h a is p e r h a p s l e s s t o b e e x p e c t e d t h a n a n y
other o f the constituent symbolisms. But as c a n b e seen f r o m the next
v e r s e , t h e C i t S a b h a is n o t o n l y t h e h e a r t o f t h e w o r l d , b u t t h e w o r l d i t s e l f
in e s s e n t i a l f o r m .
Its finiab represent the âktis.

Shining below them, the tile-pins
represent hairs.
The golden tiles are the breaths
and the rafters they're affixed to
are the veins and arteries.
Under these all the worlds
take the form of the cross-beams
and the arts the main beams.
In this the Lord dances.
Him Whose body is unparalleled.
I worship. (6)36
T h e r e a r e nine finials o n the r o o f o f t h e C i t S a b h a , a n d t h e y are

faithfully s h o w n in all m o d e r n pictures. The nine Saktis play an
i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e p r i e s t s ' m e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Siva i n t h e ritual
o f worship.37 In the standard A g a m i c f o r m o f w o r s h i p o n w h i c h the
C i d a m b a r a m r i t u a l is b a s e d , w o r s h i p o f Siva is p r e c e d e d b y w o r s h i p o f
h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p o w e r s , t h e w o r s h i p p e r a s c e n d i n g t o w a r d s Siva a s t h e
levels w o r s h i p p e d rise. In t h e c o u r s e o f a series o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n s , the
worshipper mentally constructs a lotus throne, o n w h i c h a stainless
throne will b e placed. Eight o f the Saktis are associated with the eight
petals o f this lotus; the ninth S a k t i , M a n o n m a n T , t h e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
S a k t i o f S a d a s i v a , sits in t h e c e n t e o f t h e l o t u s . E a c h o f t h e e i g h t S a k t i s
presides over a male governor of the impure domain that is the
p h e n o m e n a l world. A g h o r a S i v a c a r y a describes t h e m thus:
S h i n i n g like the rising sun, t h r e e - e y e d , f o u r - a r m e d , c r o w n e d w i t h their m a t t e d

locks w h i c h are o r n a m e n t e d b y the c r e s c e n t m o o n , they e a c h h o l d a c h o w r y ,
m a k e the gesture o f g i v i n g a b o o n a n d the gesture o f ' D o not f e a r ' , a n d w i t h their
f o u r t h lotus h a n d cling to their [representative o f ] Siva.
[Knyakramadyotika p. 8g)
U n l i k e this s m o o t h a n d c c ^ e r e n t m e d i t a t i o n a l p r o c e s s t a k e n b y t h e
C i d a m b a r a m ritual f r o m the A g a m a s a n d the s t a n d a r d ritual m a n u a l s o f
S a i v a S i d d h a n t a , t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e C i t S a b h a is b y c o n t r a s t ad hoc,
a n d s o m e w h a t i n c o h e r e n t , w h i c h is n o t a l t o g e t h e r s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e w e
h a v e to d o with a n a c t u a l b u i l d i n g r a t h e r t h a n a n idealized p s y c h o l o g y .
In the H a l l H e h a s a r o u n d H i m ,
in front, to right a n d to left,
G a n e s a , S k a n d a , L a k s m l , B r a h m a ' s fifth h e a d ,
the A s t r a d e v a , H i s sandals, the C r y s t a l L i n g a ,
the dancing image of ruby,

with to the west the Gold-attracting form.
A n d in the m i d d l e Blessed Siva's L o r d
j)erforms H i s d a n c e .
A l t h o u g h f r o m a d i s t a n c e o n l y N a t a r a j a is v i s i b l e i n t h e C i t S a b h a , it is i n
f a c t a d d i t i o n a l l y p o p u l a t e d . B r a h m a ' s fifth h e a d w a s c u t o f f b y S i v a ; in
t h e S a b h a it t a k e s t h e f o r m o f a lihga, t h e F a c e L i i i g a . I n v e r s e 3 0 it is s a i d
t h a t B r a h m a is t o Siva's r i g h t a s m e n t i o n e d , a n d t o h i s l e f t , t h a t is b e s i d e
C a n d e s v a r a in t h e B r a h m a - C a n d e s v a r a s h r i n e a d j o i n i n g t h e C i t S a b h a .
T h e A s t r a d e v a , t h e ' M i s s i l e D e i t y ' , is t h e T r i d e n t , a n o b j e c t o f g r e a t
ritual significance, p r o v i d i n g p r o t e c t i o n f o r rituals a n d festivals, a n d
w o r s h i p p e d in its o w n right. Siva's g o l d e n s a n d a l s a r e prominent in
m o r n i n g a n d n i g h t - t i m e r i t u a l s , f o r t h e y a r e c e r e m o n i a l l y c a r r i e d in a
p a l a n q u i n to a n d f r o m t h e b e d c h a m b e r h e s h a r e s w i t h Sivakamasundari,
she h a v i n g an i m a g e p e r m a n e n d y within that c h a m b e r .
T h e s e five v e r s e s , f r o m v e r s e 3 t o v e r s e 7, s h o w t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
C i t S a b h a . A d j o i n i n g t h e C i t S a b h a is t h e K a n a k a S a b h a , w h i c h is
referred to only o n c e b y U m a p a t i .
He it is in front of Whom
the Kanaka Sabha, the Golden Hall, shines,
supported by the Puranas in the form of pillars,
in which the lotus face of the Lord of Bulls,
the very form of Dharma, looks north,
in which the lordly sages perform grand abhiakas

on the Lord, Devi, the Crystal LiAga,
the Boy Bhairava, and the Ruby Nataraja
(75)»
Abhisekas a r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e K a n a k a , n o t i n t h e C i t S a b h a . U n l i k e t h e
C i t S a b h a w h i c h h a s a r a i s e d p l a t f o r m a n d a w a l l i n its c e n t r e , the
K a n a k a S a b h a has a smooth floor, reputedly m a d e with just five huge
flag s t o n e s , a n d a c h a n n e l s o t h a t t h e d a i l y abhisekas flow s m o o t h l y a w a y .
In the m i d d l e o f the south e d g e o f the floor o f t h e K a n a k a S a b h a is
N a n d i n , S i v a ' s bull, f a c i n g n o r t h in c o n s t a n t a d o r a t i o n . I n v e r s e 178,
U m a p a t i says that with the G o d d e s s o n his l a p , Siva s p e e d s a c r o s s t h e
o c e a n s o n his l o r d l y bull, i n c a r n a t i o n o f D h a r m a .
S c a r c e l y less t h a n a lihga, t h e s e a t e d b u l l is t h e s i g n o f a S i v a t e m p l e . I n
Cola times b r o n z e figures o f the bull with a human body became
p o p u l a r , p o r t r a y i n g N a n d i n as N a n d i k e s v a r a , S i v a ' s w i s e a n d learned
chamberlainUmapati mentions N a n d i k e s v a r a as the source o f the
l i n e a g e o f his s c h o o l .
A s I h a v e s a i d , t h e a b o v e v e r s e is U m a p a t i ' s o n e m e n t i o n o f t h e
K a n a k a S a b h L N o e x p l a n a t i o n , s o f a r <is I a m a w a r e , h a s b e e n o f f e r e d a s
t o w h y t h e K a n a k a S a b h a is s o n a m e d . U m a p a t i s e v e r a l t i m e s r e f e r s t o
t h e C i t S a b h a a s t h e G o l d e n H a l l - a s i n d e e d t h e h a l l is n a m e d i n e a r l y
inscriptions - but invariably uses s o m e o t h e r t e r m t h a n Sabha.
In verse 246 N a n d i k e w a r a sees Siva i n a l l h i s f o r m s i n t h e C i t S a b h a ,
h e r e c a l l e d t h e G o l d e n H a l l {kanakasadas). O n e o f t h e s e f o r m s is OM.
The Lord of Dance Whom Nandikesa

saw in the Golden Hall
as His form as Half-woman,
afterwards as Half-Narayana,
then again as Parvati,
as the Formless Lifiga,
as OM, the Saving Syllable,
as the fire within that circle,
the unparalleled form of Saccidananda -
for the moment
the supreme was easily accessible -
(246)4-
In another verse the Cit Sabha itself, again called Golden Hall
{svarmsamsad), is OM.
B y l o o k i n g at H i s D a n c e o f Bliss
f r o m w h i c h streams forth
the r a d i a n c e o f s u p r e m e S i v a
in the G o l d e n H a l l w h i c h is DM itself
the lordly sages crossed o v e r

fierce B e i n g , that vast o c e a n ,
the host o f w o r l d s are in H i s b o d y
that is b e y o n d c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d r e a s o n i n g ;
H e is the t e a c h e r o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t
t h r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f the S u p r e m e Spirit,
H e is ancient, H e m a k e s darkness d i s a p p e a r ,
(222)4'
T h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e C i t S a b h a is t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f S i v a :
B y His light the w h o l e w o r l d c o n s t a n d y shines;

His s u p r e m e r a d i a n c e
b e i n g in the f o r m o f the L o r d o f D a n c e
a c c o m p a n i e d b y A m b a in the G o l d e n H a l l
in the heart lotus o f V i r a j ,
(85)^'
W e h a v e n o w r e a c h e d t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h it w i l l b e f r u i t f u l to' c o n s i d e r
the t w o o p e n i n g verses o f the p o e m . T h e p o e m at o n c e addresses the
h e a r t o f t h e m a t t e r , in a w a y t h a t is r e m i n i s c e n t o f a t e a c h e r b e g i n n i n g
w i t h t h e mUla sUtra, t h e s u m m a t i o n o f w h a t h e w i l l g r a d u a l l y e x p o u n d t o
his p u p i l s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e n o r m a l b e g i n n i n g o f a k a j y a .
The universe is the body

of radiant Viraj, the Cosmic Man.
His feet are in the south, sun-bom Yama's quarter,
his multiple heads in the north;
and in that Man, in the lotus of his heart,
in the centre, facing south
in the royal ânfra called the Sammelana,
meditated on by the best of sages in their hearts,
the Lord dances, with His Szikti at His side.
I worship Him, the Lord of Dancers,
Whose foot is curved. (i)-»4
I worship the Lord of the Cit Sabha

Who is dancing in the golden p>ericarp -
the great King of Yantras that stands on the wall -
of the single lotus, that is the heart
o f the five h u n d r e d m i l l i o n m i l e s o f t h e e a r t h ,
the h e a r t o f t h e c r e a t o r w h o s e n a m e is h o l y V i r a j ,
H i s feet c o n s t a n d y w o r s h i p p e d b y t h e t h r e e S a k t i s ,
s h i n i n g in the N a d a n t a , H i s d a n c e s n i n e f o l d ,
His foot curved. (a)^^
T h e Cit S a b h a m a y have architectural origins, as has b e e n suggested,

i n a s t a g e f o r a d a n c e r , b u t it a l s o g o e s b a c k t o t h e V e d a s . T h e m y s t e r i o u s
V i r a j , t h e r a d i a n t s o v e r e i g n , is P u r u s a , t h e C o s m i c M a n f r o m w h o m t h e
world was produced by the sacrificial process {Pumsasukta, Rgueda
10,90,5). A s t h e t e m p l e o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f S i v a ,
C i d a m b a r a m is t h e h e a r t o f t h e w o r l d ; C i d a m b a r a m is t h e h e a r t o f t h e
Cosmic Man.
T h e C i t S a b h a is n a m e d o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y , b u t t h e v e r s e s s e e k o u t its
c o r e . H e r e , in t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e pK)em, t h e f o c u s is o n t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
drawing or painting of N a t a r a j a within the d i a g r a m oîYvtyantra, rather
t h a n t h e m e t a l i m a g e in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s ; a n d ihcyantra b e l o n g s to the
C i t S a b h a , it is a f f i x e d t o t h e w a l l .
The voyAyantra, t h e S a m m e l a n a y a n t r a , is a v a r i a n t o f t h e famous
Sricakra, with the centre taken b y a d r a w i n g of N a t a r a j a with ParvatI
( S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i ) a t h i s side.'^®
The Devatastotra, a h y m n in p r a i s e o f t h e d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e C i d a m b a r a m
temple, published with the Patanjalipujdsutra, c o n t a i n s t w o v e r s e s in p r a i s e
of the Rahasya:
W e praise the C i d a m b a r a m Rahasyam,

this p l a c e that is the w a l l ,
w h e r e the specific yantras, o f the S r i c a k r a a n d o t h e r s a r e f a s h i o n e d ,
wet with musk,
m a d e o f the k n o w l e d g e o f e t e r n a l bliss,
m a n i f e s t i n g the m i n g l i n g o f N a t e ^ a n d $ i v a ,
m a r k e d w i t h strings o f g a r l a n d s o f g o l d e n bilva leaves.
I w o r s h i p the g r e a t C i d a m b a r a m R a h a s y a w h o s e g l o r y is w o r l d - s u r p a s s i n g ,
w h o s e l i f e - g i v i n g d r u g , the P a f i c a k s a r a , g i v e s g o o d t h i n g s to all t h e w o r l d ,
in w h i c h at the e n d o f t h e d a y ,
s h e l l - h a i r e d S i v a s w a l l o w s all the S a k t i s a n d is e m b r a c e d b y G a u r i ,
f r o m w h i c h at d a w n the u n i v e r s e arises, S a k t i s h i n e s
- let that s h i n e f o r t h in m y h e a r t . «
T h e S a m m e l a n a c a k r a , t h e K i n g o f Y a n u - a s , is t h e c e n t r e o f f o c u s .
T h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f a n y c u r t a i n , a n d it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e C a k r a
w a s n o t c o v e r e d o v e r i n h i s d a y . O r it m a y b e a q u e s t i o n o f t h e m i n d ' s
e y e . U m a p a t i is g o i n g t o c a l l b e f o r e t h e r e a d e r a l l a s p e c t s o f D a n c i n g
S i v a in C i d a m b a r a m , a n d the c o r e , so to s p e a k , o f this a c t o f i m a g i n a t i o n
is t h e m e n t a l c o n s t r u c t t h a t is t h e ân/ra. J u s t a s t h e t e c h n i c a l t e x t s o n
yantroi spell o u t d i m e n s i o n s a n d p r o p o r t i o n s , so t o o the d i m e n s i o n s o f the
u n i v e r s e a r e s t a t e d , f o r t h a t a l s o is a s u b o r d i n a t e p a r t o f t h e grand
construct c e n t r e d in C i d a m b a r a m .
T h e h e a r t is t h e s e a t o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n H i n d u i s m . T h e yantra,
w h i c h is c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a l o t u s , is a t t h e s a m e t i m e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n
t h e h e a r t o f t h e w o r l d . N a t o r a j a is t h e u l t i m a t e c o r e o f t h i n g s ; w i t h t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f his cult h e b e c a m e e v e r m o r e central. A n d y e t w i t h i n the
d i a g r a m s a n d m e n t a l c o n s t r u c t s t h e G o d r e t a i n s his f o r m , e v e n if h e r e his
feet alone are mentioned. His feet are w o r s h i p p e d b y the feminine
principles w h o a r e c o m p r i s e d w i t h i n his C o n s o r t . T h e t h r e e Saktis a r e
I c c h a S a k t i , J n a n a S a k t i , a n d K r i y a S a k t i . T h e i r l o c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s in
t h e C i d a m b a r a m t e m p l e a r e a s f o l l o w s : I c c h a S a k t i is b e s i d e N a u r a j a i n
t h e C i t S a b h a , J f l a n a S a k t i is S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i i n h e r s e p a r a t e s h r i n e ,
and Durga, whose small shrine is backed by the outer wall of
SivakamasundaiTs, is K r i y a Sakti.4® I n the theology o f the Saiva
S i d d h a n t a , I c c h a S a k t i is S i v a ' s d e s i r e w h e n h e is m o v e d b y t h e p i t i a b l e
condition o f selves, to save t h e m , a n d for that e n d h e creates the w o r l d ;
J f l a n a S a k t i p e r m i t s S i v a t o k n o w w h a t h e c r e a t e s ; a n d K r i y a S a k t i is h i s
a c t i v i t y m a n i f e s t i n g itself b y m u l t i p l e a c t i o n s .
L i k e the n i n e Saktis referred to a b o v e w h i c h a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y the
Rnicds o f t h e C i t S a b h a , t h e s e t h r e e S a k t i s a r e a l s o i n v o l v e d in t h e
meditational process of invoking Siva. A f t e r the nine Saktis o n the petals
o f the lotus throne, the w o r s h i p p e r visualizes three c o n c e n t r i c circles on
top o f the lotus throne, outermost b e i n g the sun circle with w h i c h J f l a n a
S a k t i is i d e n t i f i e d , t h e n t h e m o o n c i r c l e , w i t h K r i y a S a k t i , a n d i n n e r m o s t
t h e fire c i r c l e w i t h I c c h a S a k t i .
J u s t as a s t a n d i n g b r o n z e o f P a r v a t i a c c o m p a n i e s e v e r y Natoraja
b r o n z e u n d e r w o r s h i p , so too w i t h i n the Y a n t r a the s t a n d i n g f o r m o f
S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i is d r a w n .
T h e r e a r e t w o m o d e r n p a i n t i n g s h a n g i n g in t h e N a t a r a j a t e m p l e , n e a r
the D e v a S a b h a , o n the m a i n route to the C i t S a b h a , w h i c h s h o w Parvati
s e a t e d in a c o m f o r t a b l e c h a i r as s h e w a t c h e s t h e D a n c e . I k n o w o f n o
C i d a m b a r a m text w h i c h so describes the G o d d e s s , a n d the p a i n t e r s w e r e
d o u b t l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ' e v e n i n g d a n c e ' in t h e $iva
PradoM Stotra q u o t e d b y C o o m a r a s w a m y in his f a m o u s essay on the
D a n c e o f Siva: ' P l a c i n g the M o t h e r o f the T h r e e W o r l d s u p o n a g o l d e n
throne, s tud d e d with precious gems, S u l a p a n i d a n c e s o n the heights o f
K a i l a s , a n d all t h e g o d s g a t h e r r o u n d H i m . ' 4 9
Siva, our poet tells us, is 'shining in the Nadanta', and here we have to
do with another matter given wide currency by Coomaraswamy.
Coomaraswamy in his essay twice refers to Siva's dance in C i d a m b a r a m
as the Nadanta dance, but does not explain the temxS® Dorai Rangaswamy
in his detailed study of the Tevaram poet Appar objects to Coomaraswamy
calling the Cidambaram or Tillai dance the Nadanta Dance, roundly
declaring that 'Thepaiicakâ natma cannot be the Nadanta dance.' T h e
Nadanta, in Dorai Rangziswamy's view, is the Dance in the crematorium:
It is the void which is spoken of as the crematorium... 'When am I to reach Him

who dances the great dance inside the wild [i.e. the crematorium], when the air,
the fire and the world are dead?' {Tevaram 7.84.3). The poet longs for this
experience. This is really the Nadanta Dance. The universe [494] evolves; there
starts the movement (nâ); a point of stress is formed {bindu), and the vibrations
result in various forms becoming grosser and grosser till one reaches the world of
the present. The involution is the reverse process and the final stage is the Nada,
and Nadanta is what is even beyond this incipient sign of creation. It is this void
of Nadanta where nothing but Siva exists; this grace is there inseparable from
Him as the Mother.^'
This is a correct and helpful exposition of the meaning of Nadanta,

though no one else, I believe, has thus applied it to the pTe-anandatarukva
dance. Shulman's translation of this verse of Cuntarar differs considerably:
flawless radiance
becoming wind
and fire,
and earth -
when shall I reach him
whom I know
as the great Dancer in the forest.j®
Cuntarar does not in fact refer to Nadanta, and it would not be

unreasonable to suggest that Dorai Rangaswamy sees Nadanta as the
supreme form of the dance and wishes to find his poet, Cuntarar,
associated with it. In this wish, Dorai Ranagswamy passes over a
significant reference to ndda. In 7.84.9, Cuntarar says -
The lord
who becomes primordial sound [nMa],
life within flesh
and the living lamp of wisdom - 33
Within the standard tradition of the T a m i l §aiva Siddhanta, the one

author to connect the Nadanta with the dance is a disciple o f the
founding father, Meykantar, w h o wrote a small primer spelling out the
symbolism of Nataraja and the Paflcaksara mantra.
O my gracious Guru! Thou hast explained to me beautifully the nature of the

N a d ^ t a dance. Let me now know the nature of the Five Letters {paOcaksara).
Can they be one with the letters which are imperishable?
{UTonaivilakkam 40)
Y e t again, explanation for the use of the term is lacking. T h e earliest
application of the term to the dance must be that of Tirumular, in his
lyrical and obscure way.
The Primal Supreme danced;
The Fire in His hand danced;
The Holy matted lock danced;
In intoxication of joy He danced;
The crescent moon danced;
Merging in Nada He danced
The Dance of Nadanta, heavenly.
{Tirumantiram 2751)3+
A good instance of Tirumular's ecstatic manner is the following:
Nadanta that is end of Nada (Principle of Sound)
Bodhanta that is end of Bodha Qftana)
Vedanta that is end of Vedas
îvananda that Bliss of Siva,
Sadasivananda that is without end.
In all these, He dances the Siva Natana,
He that is Nada Brahma (Lord within the Sound Principle).
{Tirumantiram 2792)
T h e last d e t a i l in t h e t w o o p e n i n g v e r s e s o f t h e Kuncitahghristava is t h a t
S i v a ' s d a n c e is n i n e f o l d . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this p r e c i s i o n , h o w e v e r , is
not clear. T i r u m u l a r says that S i v a d a n c e d nine d a n c e s to delight the
n i n e S a k t i s (Tirumantiram 2736); b u t a l s o t h a t h e h a s e i g h t d a n c e s a n d five
d a n c e s . F o r T i r u m u l a r , ' E v e r y w h e r e is C i d a m b a r a m , E v i e r y w h e r e is
D i v i n e D a n c e . ' F o r U m a p a t i in t h e o p e n i n g o f his p o e m , t h e d a n c e is in
t h e C i t S a b h a , a n d e v e r y d e t a i l is p r e c i s e l y s p e c i f i e d , e v e n t h o u g h in this
instance the nine dances are not identifiable.55
He danced, Jivas to delight;

He danced nine dances,
T h e nine Saktis to delight;
I02 The Dance of îva
He danccd in forests;
He danced in the thoughts of His devotees;
He danced in the junction of Susumna within;
He danced in Jfiana Endless;
Thus He danced away,
He, my Lord.
{Twumantiram
T h e ecstatic singing of Tirumiilar is far removed from the complex
and sometimes tortuous syntax of Umapati, and its complex of ideas,
though parallel, is less constrained. After the tight and concentrated
opening of his poem focussed on the Sabha, Umapati too, in Tirumular's
words, dances away, flitting from one idea to another, but his Nataraja
remains securely housed in the Cit Sabha, the Cit Sabha that is also the
heart.
His dance that is pure consciousness
He, inconceivable, performs
in the heart more subde than the subde,
in the palace called the lotus of consciousness,
in the little cave.
Him Whose foot is curved,
I worship. (273)5®
CHAPTER 5
âiva Siddhdnta and Veddnta
Examination of the temple ritual and the symbolism of the Cit Sabha has
involved mention of elements of Saiva Siddhanta, or the S i d d h ^ t a as it
was called in the Sanskrit texts.' It is now time to set these elements in a
wider context. It will also be necessary to consider the references to
Vedanta and Advaita in the poem; the latter is not necessarily a subset of
the former. By Umapati's day there had been several centuries of
development of Saiva thought, development fostered by royal patronage
over much of India. T h e Siddhanta had become an all-embracing
system, encompassing temple worship and architecture. T h e r e was an
increasing readiness on the part of that system to compromise with what
was originally the alien thought of the Vedzis. W h y forego royal favour
and patronage by antagonizing such conservative and purely orthodox
forces as yet remained in society by asserting difference from the Vedas?
Vedic recitation and Vedic sacrifice remained prestitigious, and continued
to assist the sanctification of royal power. Although the Siddhanta
system seems to have originated in individual practice, in the course of
time its core texts, the Agamas, become more and more concerned with
temples. A t the same time, the various Vedanta schools were developed
in conjunction with sectarian affiliation; their monastic centres sought
power and influence. T o mention only Sankara's Advaita, one important
innovation was the worship of the Sricakra; and several âkta texts, most
notably the Saundaryalahari, ' T h e Ocean of [the Goddess's] Beauty', were
attributed to lânkara. A n d it may be questioned whether the îvadvaita
of Srikantha's commentary on the Brahma Sutras was a S i d d h ^ t a
colonization of Vedanta, or vice versa.
T h e Siddhanta has three fundamental categories:/>fl/i, Siva; pasu, the
individual self; pasa, the bonds. Maya, one of the three bonds, is the
material cause of the universe, Siva is the efficient cause, and his female
part, Sakti, is the instrumental cause.^ M a y a evolves in a long series of
tattvas, from bindu, the subtlest, to earth, the grossest. This evolution is in
103
two stages, divided between Pure M a y a and Impure M a y a , the former

being necessary for beings on a higher level than common humanity.
Umapati chooses the following summation of the Siddhanta to open
his annotated collection of key passages, the HundredJewels Collection, the
$alaratnasarâha\
Now, to liberate the self from the bonds of mala, rnâ, and karman, and to
manifest its îvahood, knowledge proceeds from §iva.3
Umapati comments, 'Siva is of like nature as the self, the difference
being the self is bound and Siva-ness is unbound . . . A n d here by the
word jndna is meant Siva's Sakti which takes the form of both
enlightenment {avabodha) and dDcM.'^ T h e bonds are material, and
because of this knowledge alone cannot liberate: the material process of
diksd is essential to remove bonds. T h e special feature of the Siddhanta
system is the notion of mala, callcd anavamala when the term mala is
applied to all three bonds.
Umapati twice refers to the three bonds collectively as he oears the
close of his poem and a personal note appears. In verse 300, the
individual's awareness of the difficulties of existence is made a universal
statement, but this rhetorical procedure may signify rather 'I am like all
other people in feeling in this way.'
'O Lord, my heart is plunged in the ocean of sarmara,

'so terrifying, hard to cross, swarming with
'the crocodiles that are the bonds (JmaJ.
'I have followed evil ways, an outright rogue. Depressed,
'I have turned away from the worship of Your feet,
'sinful that I am. Protect me, protect me.'
so saying all people resort to Him.
(300)5
In the next verse, the Diksitas are referred to:
The lordly wise, they enjoy, oh yes they enjoy

the unparalleled pleasure won by worshipping Him.
By spiritual yoga they cross, oh yes they cross
the ocean of existence, abundant in horrors.
By meditating on Him in their hearts
they burn up, oh yes they bum up
the very hard set of bonds.
They say His mantra again and again,
and delight in the supreme glory of His foot.
Him Whose foot is curved I worship. (308)®
îva Siddhanta and Vedanta 105
In his Mmcuvi^tutu, ' T h e Heart as Messenger', Umapati considers the

royal insignia of Siva, following a convention of Tamil poetry; one of
these insignia is the elephant, which
quells th'vast cruel sorrowing

posts and smites the sea of birth to turn
Dustily dry.7
Common in Siddhanta texts is the notion of burning up the mala,
either the pdsa of that name, the anavamala, or aU three pâs under the
heading of mala. In the &Uaratnasajâha the individual self is said to have
his malas burnt up by the fire ofdiksd.^ Later in that work Umapati, on the
subject of anavamala, quotes from the Raurava Agama. A heap of cotton
thrown in a blazing fire burns up and is completely destroyed. It can
never become cotton again. Similarly, the soul that reaches the highest
state after the purification by <Rksa is never reborn.9
Umapati refers to the bond o^karman in one verse in the Kmdtahgkristava:
A l t h o u g h the actions that h a v e a l r e a d y b e g u n to b e a r fruit
will b e w o r k e d out t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e in this life,
the m o r e frightening latent a n d future, residues
c a n b e destroyed through k n o w l e d g e :
thus declare the statements o f the A g a m a s -
that is well k n o w n -
but fortunately for living beings

H e destroys all forms o f k a r m a
just b y His b o d y in His d a n c e b e i n g seen,
and gives happiness:
H e is victorious in the Hall.
(268)'°
This threefold classification o^karman is extensively employed in Saiva

discussion of the efficacy of rituals that contribute to liberation. Active
karmm, prarabdhakarman, literally, 'karman whose effects have already
begun', has brought about the present embodiment of a self, and can be
removed only by being consumed {bhogat). In his $ataratnasariâha,
Umapati gives as siitra 87 the standard passage on this point:
Karman from m a n y existences is burnt like a seed b y the m a n t r a s [o{diksa\\ future
karman is prevented. A s for that karman b y w h i c h this present b o d y exists, that
[can be e n d e d only] b y b e i n g c o n s u m e d . "
In the Civapirakacam Umapati says:

T h e proper fruit of karman niust u n a v o i d a b l y b e eaten; m u c h oikarman m a y b e
r e m o v e d b y m e a n s of the Agama and Veda [Civapirakacam 32).
However, Umapati's verse 268 over-rides the Agamas: the mere sight
{alokamatra) of Nataraja destroys all kamum. Umapati makes his point
delicately, in that he says simply that 'they' are destroyed. I have
translated tmi ('they', 'those*) as 'all forms o(kamum' since Umapati used
the dual endings for the two sorts oikarman that the S i d d h i i t a says can
be desu-oyed (by the knowledge that £ksa brings), and the word iani has to
apply to all three karmam for the plural to be justifed. Beneath the formal
grammar of the verse there is also a certain frisson in the way that the
tarn, those that are destroyed, follows closely after the neuter plural
nigamavacam^', and the Agamas are over-ridden, though not destroyed.
Verse 308, ' . . . they burn up . . . the very hard set of bonds . . .',
considered earlier, likewise departs from the doctrine of the Siddhanta,
when it claims that meditating on Siva in one's heart achieves what in the
âtaratnasamgraha and all the literature of the Siddhanta is the sole
province of (nksd. Meditation is a good thing, and should lead to diksa, but
the verse in question does not mention diksa, nor does the poem at large.
Again there is specific mention of something called spiritual yoga
{adhyatmayoga). As in verse 268, with its bold contrast between the
statements of the Agamas and the sight of Siva's dance, so too in verse
273, Umapati's most detailed reference to the teaching of the Siddhanta,
the Siddhanta is distanced from intimate connection with Nataraja
mysticism.
Employing the Vidya aspect in fire,

the Pratistha, esublishing aspiect, in water,
and the Nivitti, solid aspect, in the earth,
the calming aspect called Santi in the air,
His own aspect, Santi Surpassed, in the ether,
Inconceivable, He performs His dance
that is pure consciousness
in the heart more subtle than the subde,
in the palace called the lotus of consciousness, in the little cave.
(273)"
For the Siddhanta, existence below supreme Siva takes the form of
thirty-six tattvas. T h e highest Siva is beyond them, and thus in verse 81
Siva is called 'surpassing the tattvas' {tattvMta). These tattvas descend from
subtle to gross. At the top is bindu, at the bottom the five 'portions' or kalas
which are referred to in this verse, and which are in one sense nothing
more than the five gross elements which comprise the entire manifest
world. An important role of these kalas within the ritual system has
already been referred to, for the process of mental purification of the
body that is part of the Cidambaram ritual was lifted from the standard
Siddhanta texts. In discussing the verse that mentions hhutasuddM'^ I
pointed out that each of the elements corresponds to a face of
five-headed Sadasiva and that the element of the earth goes up as far as
the knees, and by further stages, water to the navel, fire to the throat,
wind to the mouth, and ether to the dvadasanta above the head. Each of
these elements is seen as a domain pertaining to a kald ('portion'), with
the names as given in the present verse. Each kaB is seen as a mode of the
highest tattva, the bindu. Mvrtti kald, corresponding to the element earth,
the solid aspect of bindu, is the energy that stops. PraHsM kala,
corresponding to the element water, the liquid aspect of bindu, is the
energy which establishes. (An instance of the establishing power of water
would be vegetable growth. From within the poem, an instance of this
establishing power can be found in the water drops from Siva's hair that
establish lingas all over the w o r l d . V i d j > d kald, corresponding to the
element fire, the fiery aspect of bindu, is the energy which permits
knowledge, ^nti kald, corresponding to the element air, is .the calm
aspect o{ bindu. $dntyatita kald, corresponding to the element ether, is that
aspect of the bindu which is in no way shaken by the evolution of the
realities of manifestation.
The kalds play an important part in the key initiation, namely the
nirvana diksd, in a more sustained and elaborate version of the daily bhUta
suddhi. In this diksd a cord called thepdsa sdtra, 'bond cord', equal in length
to the initiand's height, has transferred on to it all the constituents of that
person, most notably the kalds, along with the dtman. In this context the
ontological framework of the manifest world is provided by the kalds.
Each kald therefore contains a slice, as it were, of the complex series' of
realities that the Siddhanta perceives. Each slice is envisaged in detail by
the guru, on whom all the activity of the ritual falls, though the true agent
is thought to be Siva. First the guru follows the order of emission of the
world, beginning with the most subtle of the kalds, the sdntyatUa,
transposing them each into the cord. Coloured powders mark out the
places of the respective kala^ on the cord. T h e next day the guru detaches
each kald section in turn from the cord, this time working upwards in the
order of reabsorption, beginning with nivrtti, and places it in the
sacrificial fire. The bonds that each kald contains perish with it in the
flames.
Umapati in his treatises stresses the importance of diksd. In the
^taratnasamgraha he cites, for instance, the ^rvajmnottama Agama:
The self is bound by these UUtvas and associated with aU their features. It can
obtain release only through the Saiva diksa:'^
Umapati enlarges on this in his gloss, saying that the self is associated
with the tattvas and their features (in other words, with maySj, and is
tightly bound by the beginningless \amvd\ mala and by the river ofkarman.
Near the end of his treatment of this sutra he declares:
Because mala is material, knowledge alone cannot make it disappear, no more
than it can a film over the eye. Mala's disappearance is brought about only by
the physical action of the Lord that is called diksa, [and the cataract] only by the
eye-doctor's surgery.'®
Prior to this he cites three passages that dismiss the panorama of other
religious actions - bathing in holy waters, sacrifice, vows, worship,
meditation - nothing can bring about release save diksa. This stern
concentration of purpose is demanded by the constraints of the
Siddhanta system, but it is as alien to the free-ranging of the poet of the
Kmcitahghristava as it is to religion at large.
U M A P A T I ' S T E A C H E R , M A R A I S A N A C A M P A N T A R
In the Kuncitanghristava, Umapati makes no mention of any teacher, but

lineage is not relevant to a poet; he does assert his own status as teacher,
and this assertion will be considered at the close of this section. Only in
one of his works, the Civapirakdcam, does Umapati give the lineage of his
teaching:
The following Gurus have a right to exercise authority over us, viz.: Nandikesvara,
the lord chamberlain of Mount Kailasa, wherein shines the glory of the God of
gods; Sanatkumara, one of the disciples of the former; the immediate disciples of
Sanatkumara, who obtained a revelation of the truejnana, and descended to the
earth; the great mum Pararnjyoti who was a disciple of the last-mentionedjnanin-,
Meykantor, a disciple of Pararnjyoti, who obtained an insight into the true jnana,
who lived at Tiruvennai Nallur; Arulnanti, of immortal fame, and the disciple of
Meykantor; the divine Gampantar, pxjssessed of glorious spiritual riches and
never-fading benevolence.
I place on my head the glorious lotus-like feet of my spiritual father,
Maraiftana Gampantar, who came into the world to enlighten it, to cause the
many-headed Sama-Vedam to thrive, to cause to prosper the descendants of
Parasara-Mûni [a class of Brahmans], and to secure the prop>er attainment of
nanam [in the world]. He is the crowning gem of the Saiva school, who has
graciously taken me as his servant. He is the lord of Marutur, and is the glory of
Tirupennakatom [the source of the river Pennan], which is encircled by groves,
and the mountain-tops of which, capped with cool, beautiful clouds, send out
their arm-like flag-staffs, so as to intercept the moon in her course.'?
In the CahkaTpaKirakaTanam, 'Exposition and Refutation', perhaps the

latest of his T a m i l treatises, and dated by him {1313 AD),Umapati refers
only to Meykantor in the beginning, but mentions C a m p a n t a r of
Marutiir in the final verse.
Turning now to his Sanskrit treatises, the Pauskara Bhâ makes no
mention of any " teacher;'® but Umapati's ^cdaratnasamgraha is of great
interest. After his prefatory verses Umapati says that he bases his
commentary (on the extracts that he has selected) on the commentaries
of Sadyojyoti, Ramakantha, Narayanakantha, A g h o r a îvacarya and
others and also on the tradition handed down in the lineage of his own
teacher.'9
W e must also note his earlier remarks in this work:
In this world where through the malign influence of the Kali Yuga the meaning
of the Agamas has been lost, the heretical {pasarida) doctrines are increasing, and
the succession of teacher and pupil is confused, the supremely compassionate
Umapati Sivacarya in order to benefit his own pupils . . . drew together one
hundred Siitra jewels.'"
In his Tamil poems, Umapati hjis much to say concerning his teacher.
His messenger poem, Nencuvi^tutu, 'Message through the Heart', is
directed to his teacher; Umapati apostrophizes him as Campantar the
great muni, who liberated him from his bonds, and as Campantar the
Lord, nalha. Since Siva appears in the form of the Guru, it is often
difficult to discern when the Guru is specifically referred to, but the
following passage seems to apply to Marainana:
He th'Lord ethereal came in procession;

I adored him, seeing others Him adore;
He threw his eyes on me; in that instant
Abolished was the bunch of my mala
Fivefold,'' and He transformed my very thought
Uprooting the to/toas six and ninety,'®
Hard to narrate; to me my inner spa
of honied ambrosia, he did reveal
And demonstrate that th'sacred ashes white,
Th'form of Siva's devotee and worship
O f Siva alone to be true; 'Riches
and life domestic are false,' he declared;
He did inculcate the inner content
O f the Pentad of Syllables sacred
And how to chant and count and meditate
On it; He taught me to look within too
Fearless, and trim th'inner taper aflame

And merge with the inly light of that lamp
Brieht with boundless efRilgence beautiful;
® {mcuvitutuluy^
In his Pomppahro^, 'Multiple H y m n of Praise', an experiential

account of the working of Siva's Grace, Maraiftana Campantar is again
called Lord, ndtha, and Umapati declares that he gave him the fuU set of
initiations {samaya, visesa, nirvana, and acmyabhisekd):
Our befuddled citta He clarified
By his divine presence, but not content
With this, He did initiate us in th'path
Supreme of Saiva wisdom infinite
Beginning with starurya and ending
In abhiuka\ by his divine look
He caused the wound of cruel birth, and deeds
Twofold, to vanish; on our head He did place
His beauteous hand flowery and did melt
Our stony heart and did elucidate
Unto us Truth's nature; like recession
Of murk from sky into space at th'advent
Of ruddy sun. He the Just One did cause
Anava Mala, though it be deathless,
To cease its ceaseless hold on me henceforth.
May that Holder of Justice, us protect.
{Pomppahro^ 235)»4
Umapati's Vii^venpa, 'Questions in the metre', a work of thirteen
verses, is supposed to be addressed to Maraiftana Campantar, the
answers being found in Umapati's other works; this differs from the
works of his predecessors that also question the teacher, for they also
provide the teacher's answers, the teacher in both cases being Meykantor.''5
TEACHER AND INITIATION IN T H E L I F E OF UMAPATI
As mentioned in the Introduction, there are two Sanskrit lives of

Umapati which might be relatively early. T h e shorter, that of
Sivanandanatha Diksita, starts almost at once with what is clearly in all
versions the central event of Umapati's life, his meeting with Maraifiana
Campantar (in Sanskrit, Vedajftana Sambandha). In Sivanandanatha
Diksita's account, Umapati, in his 56th year, accompanied by his two
sons and his pupils, having worshipped Nataraja went outside to his
splendid ivory palanquin.
îva Siddhmta and Vedanta 111
He got in the palanquin with its high poles topped by golden bulls on each side
and set off while his sons and crowds of disciples, who knew the Vedas, recited
the Three Vedas in due order.
A certain learned Brahman, Vedajftana Sambandha by name, was sitting in the
street with his disciples and when he saw that palanquin with the Brahman
riding in it, with Vtfdic recitation, music, and the lamp on the pole he called his
disciples to him and declared, 'This man is blind in the daytime. But you don't
see the whole picture. Things will turn out well for him.'*® Then the Brahman
knew this speech to be true and got down from his palanquin.
After prostrating himself at his feet, he filled his stomach with the leavings of his
meals, recognizing him to be the giver of knowledge; and thereafter he followed
him for three years.
That teacher when he had provided instruction in true knowledge to that pupil
bom in the family of the lordly sacrificers {yqjvendra) attained the form of the
supreme self free from birth and death.
With his pupils Umapati dwelt in the monastery built by the Cola called Vira in
the beautiful wood called Rajendrapura that is splendid on the outskirts of
Cidambaram.
But the three thousand Brahmans, intent on worshipping the Dancer, when
they heard all that had happened to Umapati, all assembled in the second hall
[the Deva Sabha], and summoning both his sons, said to them, 'Today your
father who has in his possession the Bull-flag of the Blessed Lord of the Original
Lifiga Shrine has abandoned all the pure behaviour laid down by the Vedas.
Intent on worshipping the feet of a mystic {Jnanin) he has abandoned his kinsmen
and has strenuously applied himself to the path preached by that man.'
When all the sage-lords had sp>oken thus, the two sons remained silent in the
assembly. 'From now on, these sons, wife and daughter must refrain from
sacrificing with, eating with and honouring this man.'
When they had heard the sentence of the sage-lords, the two sons, of excellent
character, rose to their feet, prostrated themselves before the sage-lords, and
went home mulling over what had happened. They bowed several times at their
mother's lotus feet, and said, 'O Mother! hear the order given today in the
assembly with respect to our father. "His daughter, his sons, and all his kin must
entirely cease relations with him - they must not sacrifice, eat, speak with him;
they must not honour him." Thus those sages pronounced in the assembly.
What reply shall we two make to their sentence?'
'This very severe sentence must stand. We are forever bound by their sentence.'
Then one day Umapati DIksita was about to enter the Temple of the Dancer.
The sage-lords angrily said, 'O Umapati! you cannot enter the Hall of the Dancer.'
{RqendrapUTa Mahatmya 9-21)
As presented in this version, Umapati is wealthy and rides in great

state. He is accompanied by pupils. T h e Saiva Siddhanta teacher has
pupils, but so has Umapati; and it will be recalled from chapter 3 that the
priests are described as having flocks of pupils.
Why the palanquin? This is always understood as an indication of the
life of luxury of pampered priests.®? T h e DUcsitas' socio-economic
condition in the days of the glory of the temple would have been higher
than today. In more recent times, such riding in state is normally the
privilege of the head of a mat^. Paintings from the seventeenth century
onwards often show distinguished ascetics riding in palanquins. Just such
a palanquin, though made only of wood, is to be found today in the moAa
in Cidambaram where Aghora Sivacarya is said to have lived in the
twelfth century.
But it is by no means impossible for Umapati to have been simply a
successful priest at this time. I can point to a contemporary parallel.
Several priests in Cidambaram today are wealthy, due in most cases to
the system of tendering for annual contracts on each of the main shrines;
and one priest, benefiting principally from foreign visitors to the temple,
is the proud owner of a white Ambassador car, complete with driver,
which stands resplendent outside his modest and shared hpuse. In itself,
then, the magnificence of conveyance is not impossible; though to have
pupils would have meant some other claim to prestige than mere wealth.
But what of the lamp? Not even the priest of today I have mentioned
drives round with his headlights on in broad daylight.
Let us now consider the Parthavana Mahdtmya's version of these events.
[Umapati] performed the midday pigd and then mounted the beautiful
palanquin brought by the temple servants who acted as bearers, and started to
go to his home. But there on the road was the SivacaryaVedajftana, surrounded
by his pupils.
He was fervently teaching the Saiva Siddhanta to his pupils. One among his
pupils, hands in anjdi, pointing out to his teacher the Diksita lord, mounted in
his palanquin, accompanied by lamps and music, in the very hot month of
Madhu, politely asked him, 'What use is there now for lamp-bearers? The
teacher said, 'How can you be in doubt? It is an owl-man going by!'
Then, hearing the speech of the guru, Umapati, the sacrificing Brahman, was
startled and obtained a trace from a previous birth.
Jumping down to the ground from his palanquin as if he had been burned by
fire, he at once in haste began to praise the Teacher.
{Parthavana Mahatmya 72-7)'®
This is similar, but the verses that precede provide a clue to another
interpretation: Umapati's father, after teaching him to perform the
Vedic sacrifices (63), 'taught him the Five-Syllabled Mantra and other
mantras, and the Patanjali ritual rules. T h e n he gave him, following the
&iiva Siddhanta and Vedanta 113
âstras, the ba7ialihga\6^). This banalihga, a pebble lihga t h a t is a p e r s o n a l

and portable lirâ, is g i v e n at the end o f the second of the three
S i d d h a n t a dtksas.'^
His father teaches h i m h o w to w o r s h i p his personal lifiga, t h e n the
p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e L o r d o f t h e C i t S a b h a (65-68). A f t e r
three y e a r s his f a t h e r dies. T h e text t h e n says, ' A u t o n o m y o f w o r s h i p h a d
c o m e to U m a p a t i Diksita. R i s i n g o n that d a y , then, in the aforesaid
m a n n e r , h e p e r f o r m e d t h e m i d d a y puja a n d m o u n t e d h i s p a l a n q u i n . '
T h i s account has referred to U m a p a t i ' s visesa dUqa. C o u l d it b e t h a t

what is n o w described is t h e celebration o f the conclusion of his
acaryabhiseka, the fourth a n d greatest o f the initiatory processes, w h e r e i n
t h e u s e o f a p a l a n q u i n is a c t u a l l y p r e s c r i b e d ? I t w o u l d b e b e c a u s e o f t h i s
s p e c i a l c e l e b r a t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e l a m p c a r r i e r s ! T h a t t h e p a l a n q u i n is
c a r r i e d b y t e m p l e s e r v a n t s is p e r h a p s m e n t i o n e d b e c a u s e t h i s is n o t t h e i r
usual function. Aghora Sivacarya says that the abhiseka should be
a c c o m p a n i e d by recitation o f the V e d a s a n d auspicious noises; o t h e r
texts call for a variety o f musical instruments, singing, a n d e v e n dancing.3°
Y e t there a r e g r o u n d s for r e j e c t i n g this e x p l a n a t i o n o f the c i r c u m s t a n c e s
surrounding U m a p a t i ' s m e e t i n g with M a r a i n a n a . W e r e the suggestion
just m a d e correct, there w o u l d be the p a r a d o x that n o sooner was
U m a p a t i formally m a d e dcarya, than he happened to m e e t his true
t e a c h e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , U m a p a t i h i m s e l f tells us in t h e Kmppahrotai that
h e r e c e i v e d the full series o f S a i v a initiations - ' b e g i n n i n g w i t h samaya
\diksa\ and ending with \âryd\ abhiseka'^ H e s e e m s t o s a y t h a t it w a s h i s
teacher M a r a i n a n a w h o p e r f o r m e d these ceremonies u p o n him, t h o u g h
b e c a u s e o f t h e G u r u b e i n g ^ i v a a s f a r a s t h e S i d d h a n t a is c o n c e r n e d ,
ambiguity remains. W h i c h e v e r G u r u gave h i m diksd w o u l d be Siva.
C o u l d it h a v e b e e n a f e l l o w p r i e s t ? T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f t h e D i k s i t a s
p e r f o r m i n g e l a b o r a t e i n i t i a t i o n s . C e r t a i n l y t h e y h a v e not d o n e so in
living m e m o r y ; a n d the glorious fact that they are the equals o f Siva b y
b i r t h m a k e s e l a b o r a t e i n i t i a t i o n u n n e c e s s a r y . I t is t h e n a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
U m a p a t i r e c e i v e d in d u e c o u r s e t h e r e g u l a r a n d f u l l i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e
Saiva Siddhanta from Marainana.
F u r t h e r , it m a y b e t h a t t h e w a y U m a p a t i is s u p p o s e d t o h a v e m e t h i s
t e a c h e r is e n t i r e l y a f a b r i c a t i o n . U m a p a t i o f t e n refers to light and
d a r k n e s s . I n h i s Tiruvamtpayan, 'Fruit o f D i v i n e G r a c e ' , U m a p a t i makes a
striking comparison:
Like the owl which cannot see even in bright sunlight, the soul (though present
in God) cannot perceive God, owing to its connection with Anava Mala.33
It is l i k e l y t h a t t h i s s t r i k i n g p h r a s e w a s e n o u g h t o s p a r k t h e i m a g i n a t i o n
o f a b i o g r a p h e r . A l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n t h e i n c i d e n t is a common
S i d d h a n t a simile, o n e cited b y U m a p a t i in his ^ratnasamgraha:
Just as someone [looking for something in the daric] abandons the torch he holds
in his hand when he has found the thing, so the soul being now able to perceive
[Siv-a] the One to be known, afterwards abandons the means of knowing [Him].
L a s t l y , t h e w h o l e t e n o r o f U m a p a t i ' s w r i t i n g o n S a i v a S i d d h a n t a is
g e a r e d to the action o f g r a c e - that the k e y e v e n t s in his life s h o u l d
p e r t a i n t o c o n v e r s i o n e x p e r i e n c e s is a n e x p r e s s i o n i n s t o r y f o r m o f t h e
k e y s t o n e o f his t h i n k i n g .
INITIATION BY UMAPATI
U m a p a t i d o e s n o t m e n t i o n a n y t e a c h e r in r e s p e c t o f h i m s e l f in the
Kuncitahghristava. I n a p o e m , m e n t i o n o f a t e a c h e r w o u l d n o t b e e x p e c t e d .
A g a i n , in so f a r as h e w a s w r i t i n g a s a D i k s i t a , m e m b e r o f a d e m o c r a t i c
c o m m u n i t y all m e m b e r s o f w h i c h w e r e b y d e f i n i t i o n t h e e q u a l o f S i v a ,
a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f a t e a c h e r w o u l d b e less likely. A n d y e t Umapati
claims himself to b e a h i g h - p o w e r e d teacher, referring to a n event that
might otherwise have been thought biographical embroidery:
Sambhu, Lord of the Dance, has given me success

through great mantras of enormous power;
great magic power through yoga;
and the great enlightenment of the self
that removes birth and death;
and the rank of guru - confirmed in writing -
to give release to Suta and others;
He has shown me His dance,
He has given me exceeding delight.
(305)35
T h i s is a reference to the o t h e r f a m o u s incident in U m a p a t i ' s life, his

initiation o f Suta, an outcaste w o o d - c u t t e r , w h e n the latter h a n d s h i m a
letter from Siva o r d e r i n g the initiation.3^
The Rdjendrapura Mahdfyma g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t .
' O Umapati, I am "the Dancer who favours His devotees". T o d a y , when you
have read this, you must make that Suta, a man of the lowest caste, receive
release through the descent of Sakti from you.'
P l a c i n g this c o m m a n d o f t h e L o r d o f t h e S a b h a o n his h e a d , a n d h a v i n g b r o u g h t
b e f o r e h i m the n o b l e a n d v e r y c o n s t a n t outcaste, h e , the m o s t e x c e l l e n t o f
e n l i g h t e n e d m e n , l o o k e d u p o n h i m a n d b y b r i n g i n g d o w n his o w n S a k t i c a u s e d
a surge o f the r a d i a n c e o f t h e S u p r e m e S e l f t o e n t e r h i m .
{Rymdrapura Mahafyma 70-1)
T h e w o o d - c u t t e r ' s w i d o w is m o s t u p s e t a t t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f h e r
s p o u s e in flames, a n d despite U m a p a t i ' s explanation c o m p l a i n s to the
K i n g . U n d e r investigation, U m a p a t i opts to d e m o n s t r a t e his p o w e r s b y
c o n f e r r i n g e n l i g h t e n m e n t o n a b u s h . T h e b u s h a c c o r d i n g l y g o e s u p in
flames, to r e v e a l a y o g i n w h o h a d b e e n w a i t i n g f o r release w i t h i n (or
behind!) the b u s h . L e e S i e g e l ' s w o r k o n m a g i c in I n d i a leads o n e to b e o n
t h e l o o k o u t f o r c o n j u r i n g tricks;37 b u t m o r e l i k e l y is t h a t t h e a c c o u n t o f
t h e i n c i d e n t w a s i n s p i r e d b y a n u n i n f o r m e d v i e w o f t h e fiery n a t u r e o f
e x t r e m e ^ a k t i n i p a t a . A s U m a p a t i s a y s i n t h e âtaratnasamgraha, ' W e r e t h e
(Rksa t o b r i n g a b o u t c o m p l e t e d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l l t h e p ^ a s a n d t h e t r u e
nature o f o n e ' s b e i n g to b e r e v e a l e d , at that v e r y m o m e n t t h e b o d y w o u l d
fall away'.3® F o r t h e S i d d h a n t a , t h a t c a n n o t h a p p e n b e c a u s e , a s U m a p a t i
g o e s o n t o s a y , t h e karman t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d t h e b o d y i n t h e p r e s e n t l i f e
has to take effect. A s s u m i n g the event h a d a historical basis - he does
a f t e r all r e f e r t o it - it m i g h t r e a d i l y b e s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e s h o c k o f t h e
i n i t i a t i o n w a s s o g r e a t t h a t t h e o u t c a s t e d i e d o f a h e a r t a t t a c k , a cause
celebre t h a t y e t e n d e d f a v o u r a b l y f o r U m a p a t i .
T h e FarthavanaM^tmya also describes U m a p a t i ' s giving o f enlighten-
m e n t t o his w i f e , ParvatT. W h e n h e b e c a m e a n a s c e t i c , his w i f e w e n t w i t h
h i m t o t h e p e n a n c e g r o v e . H e t a u g h t t h e Pauskara Agama t o d e v o t e e s
there for a m o n t h , then she asked for release f r o m rebirth for herself, a
w i f e n o t b e i n g d e p e n d e n t o n a m a n w h o is ajiogin. U m a p a t i , after other
p r e l i m i n a r i e s , f e d h e r pancagaiya, t h e five p r o d u c t s o f t h e c o w , t o r e m o v e
h e r sins, b l i n d f o l d e d h e r , ' a n d e n t e r e d h e r b o d y t h r o u g h h e r v a g i n a
{bhogamarga), t o o k o u t t h e p a r t i c l e {kala) t h a t is t h e s u p p o r t o f life a n d
c o m i n g out again t h r o u g h the v a g i n a placed [ h e r life f o r c e ] i n t h e
s u p r e m e s p a c e o f t h e atman. H e b u r n e d h e r l i f e l e s s b o d y , b a t h e d , a n d
r e g a i n e d his purity.'39
T h e m a g i c a l t u r n o f t h e s e t w o e p i s o d e s a c c o r d s ill w i t h t h e S a i v a
S i d d h a n t a treatises o f U m a p a t i , b u t reflects a real a n d i m p o r t a n t c u r r e n t
o f H i n d u t h o u g h t , a m p l y p r e s e n t in m o s t T a n t r i c s c h o o l s . M o r e t o t h e
p o i n t , it is n o t s o f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e m i n d s e t o f t h e Kuncitahghristava,
w h i c h is v e r y m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h p o w e r o v e r e v e n t s s o u g h t b y t h e
a d e p t {sadhaka) w h o s e e k s e n j o y m e n t {bubkukm)A°
VEDAS AND AGAMAS
A k e y f e a t u r e o f t h e T a m i l S a i v a S i d d h w t a , o n e m i g h t a l m o s t s a y its
d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e , is t h e c l a i m t h a t its s o u r c e l i e s i n t h e V e d a s a s w e l l a s t h e
Agamas, in w h a t it c a l l s the VedagamasThere was already a
m o v e m e n t in this d i r e c t i o n w h e n , a r o u n d l o o o , B h a t U i Ramakantha
mentions that a m o n g s t other threats to the S i d d h a n t a ' s p u r i t y some
people sought to reconcile the established truth o f the S i d d h a n t a w i t h the
V e d a . ' ^ A s w a s s u g g e s t e d in the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c h a p t e r , this c l a i m t o
V e d i c o r t h o d o x y w a s an a t t e m p t to b r o a d e n t h e b a s e o f the S i d d h a n t a ' s
appeal. With the further d e v e l o p m e n t o f the T a m i l âiva S i d d h a n t a , the
c l a i m t h a t ' t h e S i d d h a n t a is t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e V e d a ' ( m a d e f o r i n s t a n c e
in t h e l a t e Ultarakamika Agama) c o m e s t o b e a n e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i f f e r e n c e
t o b o t h t h e V e d a s a n d t h e A g a m a s , i m p l y i n g t h a t i n s p i r a t i o n is f o u n d
elsewhere - indirecdy in t h e Tevaram a n d o t h e r T a m i l p o e t r y , a n d
d i r e c d y in t h e w r i t i n g s o f M e y k a n t e r .
A verse attributed to U m a p a t i m a k e s a n adroit s u m m a t i o n o f the school:
T h e V e d a is the c o w , the true A g a m a its milk;

the liturgical T a m i l o f the F o u r
is the g h e e c h u r n e d t h e r e f r o m ;
the essence o f the T a m i l w o r k f o s t e r i n g w i s d o m
by M e y k a n U i r o f eternal T i r u v e n n a i n a l l u r ,
the ' G o o d T o w n o f S a c r e d B u t t e r ' ,
is the taste yielded b y that g h e e . «
The Four are the three poets o f the Tevaram p l u s M a n i k k a v a c a k a r .

Arulnanti, M e y k a n t a r ' s disciple, says that the V e d a s a n d the ^ a i v a g a m a s
are both positioned beneath Siva's sacred foot, and continues:
T h e only real b o o k s a r e the V e d a s a n d S a i v a g a m a s . A l l o t h e r b o o k s a r e d e r i v e d

from these. T h e s e t w o b o o k s w e r e eternally r e v e a l e d b^ the P e r f e c t G o d . O f
them, the V e d a s are gerural, a n d g i v e n o u t f o r all; the A g a m a s are special a n d
revealed for the benefit o f the blessed; a n d t h e y c o n t a i n the essential truths o f the
V e ^ s and V e d a n t a . H e n c e aU o t h e r b o o k s are pirvapaksa b o o k s a n d the
S i v a g a m a s alone are S i d d h a n t a works.^^
U m a p a t i is g e n e r a l l y c o n t e n t t o l i n k t h e A g a m a s w i t h t h e V e d a s i n h i s
T a m i l works. Both he a n d Arujnanti d o not s e e m to h a v e differed f r o m
Tirumular's view:
V e d a a n d A g a m a alike
A r e revelations o f G o d ,
T h a t is T r u t h .
&iiva Siddhmta and Vedanta 117
T h e o n e is g e n e r a l
T h e o t h e r special.
T h e i r goals two, t h e y say.
Search them both -

F o r the truly learned,
T h e r e is n o difference.
{Tirumantiram 2398)+5
I n t h e âtaratnasamgraha, b a s e d a s it is e n t i r e l y o n t h e v e r s e s f r o m t h e
A g a m a s , t h e r e is little s c o p e f o r m e n t i o n o f t h e V e d a s . A p r o p o s o f t h e five
h e a d s o f S a d a s i v a g i v i n g o u t p u r e k n o w l e d g e in five s t r e a m s a t t h e t i m e o f
c r e a t i o n , U m a p a t i s a y s t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t is e n l i g h t e n m e n t c o m e s f o r t h
as nada f r o m f o r m l e s s S i v a ; it t h e n t a k e s t h e f o r m o f t h e T a n t r a s w h e n it
c o m e s f r o m S a d a s i v a . O n e o f t h e five s t r e a m s is t h e V e d a s . ' T h e f o u r
V e d a s then just take the f o r m o f a s t r e a m . ' T h e entire intellectual
u n i v e r s e {sakalam vahmayam sastrqjalam) is c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s e . [ s t r e a m s
a n d their subdivisions] ' T h e S i d d h a n t a has superiority over the V e d a s
a n d all o t h e r [ s y s t e m s ] . . . t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t is t h e V e d a s e t c . is i n f e r i o r ,
t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t is t h e S i d d h a n t a is s u p r e m e . U m a p a t i g i v e s this sutra
o n e o f t h e m o s t e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n s in t h e ^taratnasamgraha, b u t t h e
V e d a s a r e b a r e l y n o t i c e d . T h e s i t u a t i o n is d i f f e r e n t in his B h a ^ a o n t h e
PauskaraAgama, t h e B h a ^ a b e g i n n i n g w i t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f w h y it is t h a t
t h e A g a m a s a r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e . W h e r e a s t h e âtaratnasamgraha is a s e a l e d
w o r l d o f a mass o f S i d d h a n t a texts, the B h d ^ a takes a m o r e r e l a x e d v i e w ,
q u o t i n g f r e e l y , a t least in this o p e n i n g s e c t i o n , f r o m P u r a n a s a n d o t h e r
s o u r c e s o u t s i d e t h e S i d d h a n t a . T h e S i v a d v a i t i n N i l a k a n t h a is q u o t e d ' a s
s a y i n g ' W e see n o d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e V e d a a n d t h e S i v a g a m a . ' ^ s
U m a p a t i poses the question, w h y then w e r e they b o t h c o m p o s e d ? A n d
gives N i l a k a n t h a ' s a n s w e r , ' T h e V e d a is i n t e n d e d f o r t h e t h r e e [ t w i c e - b o r n ]
Cfistes, t h e o t h e r f o r all c a s t e s . ' U m a p a t i t h e n m a k e s t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e
V e d a ' s a u t h o r i t y is f o r t h o s e w h o a r e ' u n r i p e ' , t h e A g a m a ' s f o r t h e ' r i p e ' .
' B o t h t h e V e d a a n d t h e S a i v a g a m a s o f t h e S i d d h a n t a a r e s u p r e m e o v e r all
o t h e r [texts]; a n d o f t h e t w o t h e A g a m a [is s u p r e m e ] . ' 5 °
U m a p a t i takes a c o n t r a r y v i e w in t h e Kuncitdhghrislava:
For the enlightenment o f pupils excluded from the V e d a s

the Brahmans, gods on earth, read out the Kamika and other Alamos
which make known His glory in their C o n d u c t and Y o g a sections.
But they themselves, under white umbrellas held high
by the kings w h o c o m e when they perform the V a j a p e y a sacrifice,
worship Him according to the w a y of the revealed V e d a s .
(107)3'
8 The Dance of îva
It m a y b e significant that U m a p a t i m e n t i o n s o n l y t h e caiya

sections of the A g a m a s , especially t h a t krâ, t h e ritual s e c t i o n , is o m i t t e d ,
since the most significant d i f f e r e n c e lay in t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the
C i d a m b a r a m t e m p l e ritual ( ' V e d i c ' in t h a t it u s e d V e d i c m a n t r a s ) a n d
that of the A g a m a s .
So that those who have no right

to perfomi the rituals laid down in the Vedas
could attain Dharma and the other goals of man,
. Parvatl under His instruction
published the multitude of Siddhanta Tantras
that He, Supreme Siva, had composed,
in its divisions of the Kamika and the others
and their constituent parts; and the sixty-four arts.
B o t h verses clearly assert the priority o f the V e d a s , a n d t h e f o r m e r ,

verse 107, reminds us of t h e g r a n d status a s s u m e d b y t h e priests o f
C i d a m b a r a m . E m b o d i m e n t s o f the V e d a s a n d p r a c t i s i n g ' V e d i c ' ritual
(in that it used V e d i c mantras), the D i k s i t a s w e r e c o m m i t t e d to u p h o l d
the Vedas-. B u t other verses refer to t h e S i d d h a n t a a l o n e . H e r e is a n o t h e r
instance o f the G o d d e s s ' s association w i t h r e v e l a t i o n :
Gauri, hearing the seven crore mantras -

that give the great magic powers,
subjecting the three worlds and so on -
originated from His five lotus faces,
Sadyojata and the others,
by His command
She Herself brought them down to those worlds,
along with their usages and ceremonies.
(245)33
T h e seven crore of m a n t r a s are in p r i n c i p l e a p o w e r o f k n o w l e d g e a n d

action that is entirely u n v e i l e d . T h e y a r e i n s t r u m e n t s o f g r a c e , for ^ i v a
uses t h e m to g i v e either liberation {mukti) o r s u p e r i o r e n j o y m e n t s in the
pure worlds {bhukii) to selves w h o s e mala is ripe. T h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f
these m a n t r a s is a standard part o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e universe as
v i e w e d b y the A g a m a s , b u t in the A g a m a s the G o d d e s s d o e s not usually
play a role in their p r o m u l g a t i o n , as h e r e a n d in t h e p r e c e d i n g verse.
However Umapati's concluding sutra in his Sataratnasajâha is:
M y fair-faced lady! reveal this knowledge to m y devotees.54
In his commentary on this he cites from the Vayu Samhitd U p a m a n y u ' s

conclusion of the main account of Siva that he gives Krenai'Seautiful-
necked Siva told the Sivagama, sole means to benefits, to îva [Parvati]
out of compassion for his devotees'.
A n o t h e r verse gives t h e A g a m a s priority o v e r t h e V e d a s :
A t the beginning of the K a l p a there first appeared

from His exceUent throat the two sounds
'om, now {athd)V, excellent and auspicious,
making known the meaning of the Siddhanta.
Afterwards the V e d a s and other sciences originated;
Brahma, Visnu and the other gods; all the worlds.
H i m W h o faces South,
the abode of the illuminating sun,
I worship. (251)^®
U m a p a t i refers indirectly to o n e f a m o u s A g a m a w h e n h e says in verse

299 that Siva is 'praised b y V i s n u the M a n [ - l i o n ] ' {naraharivinutani).
A c c o r d i n g to B h a t t a N a r a y a n a k a n t h a c p m m e n t i n g on the Mêndra
Agama, I n d r a , stained b y the sin o f h a v i n g killed V r t r ^ u r a , w h o w a s a
B r a h m a n , praised V i s n u w i t h a t h o u s a n d n a m e s a n d w i t h h y m n s f r o m
the three V e d a s . V i s n u g a v e h i m a breastplate b e l o n g i n g to N a r a s i r n h a
{narasimham kavacam) a n d o r d e r e d h i m to practise tapas w h i l e a d o r i n g
Siva. W h e n a t h o u s a n d years h a d g o n e b y , Siva t a u g h t h i m the Kamika,
B e c a u s e the h u s b a n d of U m a h a d thus t a u g h t it to I n d r a w h e n h e w a s in
Kamika w a s c a l l e d Mrgendra, f r o m
the f o r m o f N r s i m h a , ' M a n - l i o n ' , this
the fact that a lion {mrgendra) h a d b e e n the auditor.57 T h e Mrgendra is not
o n e of the 28 A g a m a s , a p p e a r i n g in the list of s u p p l e m e n t a r y Upagamas as
the Narasirnha. Y e t it is, in B r u n n e r ' s w o r d s , ' o n e o f the m o s t f a m o u s
a n o n y m o u s texts of Saivism'.^® V e r y f r e q u e n d y c i t e d b y the S i d d h a n t a
masters, it w a s also often referred to b y the n o n - d u a l i s t Saivas. Madhava
(fourteenth century) b a s e d his a c c o u n t o f the S i d d h a n t a o n it, a n d
U m a p a t i uses it extensively in the âtaratnasarngraha.
O n c e or twice U m a p a t i refers to the V e d a s w i t h o u t reference to the
A g a m a s , m a k i n g the point that Siva is the source o f the V e d a s :
He, Mahesa, the Great Lord, in the beginning

created Brahma and gave him
the complete collection of scripture,
(36)59
,2o Ttu Dance of &va
From Whom the Whole of Sruti,

which has the form of Brahma's breathings,
and all the Smrti which resembles it -
ritual texts, ancient songs, the Purana,
the manifold excellent mantras
along with the epics and the sciences -
shine everywhere even today of their own accord;
He, through His pity, becoming the Natesa in His Hall,
protects all the worlds. Him, matchless,
(87)«O
T o round o f f this p r e s e n t a t i o n o f U m a p a t i ' s v i e w o f t h e V e d a s a n d

A g a m a s , w e shall l o o k at a c o m p r o m i s e position f r o m t h e Cidambara
Ai^hatmya and the KîlPurdnam. A t the b e g i n n i n g o f the H i r a n y a v a r m a n
episode, creation is d e s c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g to the S i d d h a n t a - t h o u g h it
seems to b e g i n in the C i t S a b h a - b u t the V e d a s are iiwerted i n t o the
s c h e m a a n d p r e c e d e the emission o f t h e M a n t r a s . T h e A g a m a s , w h i c h
should follow the M a n t r a s in the p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i o n , are o m i t t e d . O n c e
creation has b e e n d e s c r i b e d , the A g a m a s , despite n o t h a v i n g been
m e n t i o n e d in c r e a t i o n , a r e n o w m e n t i o n e d as o f superior m e r i t to t h e
V e d a s . B r a h m a n s w h o sacrifice in t h e fire that is S i v a ' s o w n b o d y to
propitiate h i m w i n h e a v e n . T h o s e w h o a r e intent o n the discipline, y o g a ,
a n d ritual laid d o w n in Siva's A g a m a s g a i n liberation u p to the l e v e l o f
similarity of f o r m w i t h Siva {sdriifâ).^^ B r a h m a n s w h o p e r f o r m sacrifices
w i t h o u t desire attain the t h r e e f o l d mukti - p r e s u m a b l y the sab/gia,
samifjya, and sarufâ o f t h e S i d d h a n t a . B o t h those w h o are d e v o t e d t o t h e
V e d a n t a (the U p a n i s a d s ) , a n d those w h o are well established in the
jnanapada of the A g a m a s attain sayujya {Cidambara Mahdtmya 2 0 . 7 - 2 2 ) . The
t ^ l j h i r a n a m , h o w e v e r , o m i t s the U p a n i s a d s , a n d gives all the w e i g h t to
the A g a m a s :
We placed Our will on the powers,

The flawless formless great Maya was animated and
Five elements starting from sound were produced from it.
The preserved letters and language beginning with
The Mantras of the Vedic texts
Were expanded in a pure way
And the impure elements were
Assembled from the beginning.®'
The people who followed the way of the Vedas
Attained heaven. Those who followed
The paths of virtue, rituals, and yoga
A c c o r d i n g to the A g a m i c texts,
W i t h O u r help attained O u r o w n world,
O u r vicinity, and O u r o w n form.
T h o s e w h o attained great wisdom in U s
G o t to b e with U s without separation.®3
T h e r e w a s i n e v i t a b l y c o n s i d e r a b l e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e rivjil g r o u p s o f
s c r i p t u r e s , a n d U m a p a t i w a s , as it w e r e , a f a u l t l i n e b e t w e e n t h e t w o .
M a n y o t h e r w r i t e r s m u s t h a v e b e e n in a s i m i l a r l y c o m p l e x ideological
position, but he stands out with remarkable p r o m i n e n c e . O f the four
f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s o f t h e T a m i l S a i v a S i d d h m t a , U m a p a t i w a s t h e first t o
u s e t h e t e r m iSaiva S i d d h m t a , t h o u g h T i r u m u l a r u s e d it a m o n g the
m a n y terms he freely coined. T h i s was the term that c a u g h t on, b u t the
colophon of the Pauskara Btmya uses the more significant term
V a i d i k a s i d d h a n t a , the V e d i c Siddhanta, to express U m a p a t i ' s position,
a n d this w o u l d v e r y w e l l fit t h e Kunciiahghristava too.
SIDDHANTA AND VEDANTA
A t the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e Pdrthavana Mâtmya t h e t e a c h e r a n d his p u p i l s

have come out from the city to worship the lihga which Arjuna
w o r s h i p p e d . O n e o f t h e p u p i l s , b e i n g t o l d t h e y w e r e p a s s i n g b y t h e site o f
Umapati's dsrama, r e j o i n s ' Y o u p r e v i o u s l y said t h a t t h e g r e a t m e n d i c a n t
S a n k a r a w h o w r o t e t h e A d v a i t a c o m m e n t a r y w a s b o r n in t h e l i n e a g e o f
the Tillai B r a h m a n s . How d i d it h a p p e n t h a t t h e y w h o expounded
o p p o s i t e v i e w s w e r e b o r n in o n e a n d the s a m e p l a c e ? ' Brahmananda
t h e n g i v e s t h e story o f U m a p a t i ' s life, b u t S a i i k a r a is n o t r e f e r r e d to
a g a i n . In t h e Kuncitahghristava, U m a p a t i refers t w i c e to S a i i k a r a . ^ a i i k a r a
is said to h a v e b e e n b o r n in C i d a m b a r a m , to h a v e b e e n a D i k s i t a :
He Who wears the Skin decided to spread

the knowledge of Advaita in all the worlds
and joyfully created from a portion of Himself
in the ocean of the family of the terrestrial gods
who allay darkness by worshipping His own foot,
a lord among ascetics, pure, called Saiikara,
who occupied the throne of omniscience.
He conferred His grace upon him;
(295)'^
T h e o t h e r verse e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n s S a i i k a r a ' s c o m m e n t a r i e s o n ten
U p a n i s a d s , a n d says t h e y a l w a y s praise the f o r m o f B r a h m a n t h a t t h e y
k n o w to b e the D a n c e (88).
These Upanisads that form the key statements

in the Vedanta, entail proximity to Brahman;
the principal ten of them are especially important
along with the great Commentary composed by the ascetic;
having the form of pillars they always praise
die form of Brahman they know to be the Dance;
U m a p a t i d o e s not refer to the f a c t t h a t S a i i k a r a t e a c h e s M a y a v a d a

(against w h i c h h e argues in his treatises), a n d a s s u m e s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t
of the p o e m that S a A k a r a ' s A d v a i t a d o e s n o t d i f f e r f r o m his o w n . In v e r s e
89 he celebrates the Diksitas' k n o w l e d g e o f the Brahma Sutras:
embodiments of Vyasa in the Vedanta
veritable Brahmas in the Vedas - (89)®®
W h y in verse 88 does he refer to t h e U p a n i s a d s as pillars? P r e s u m a b l y

this is a reminiscence o f the earlier p a s s a g e w h e r e c o r e texts are p a r t o f
the structure o f the twin S a b h a s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t that the U p a n i s a d s are
not f o r m a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d into the s y m b o l i c structure. Y e t , e v e n if the
Upanisads are pillars, their value is l i m i t e d , for they entail only
' p r o x i m i t y to B r a h m a n ' . In terms o f M a y a v a d a , o f c o u r s e , this m a k e s n o
sense; in terms o f S i d d h a n t a , it g r a n t s a l i m i t e d v a l u e to the V e d a n t a .
T h e n a g a i n , U m a p a t i m i g h t h a v e said samipya r a t h e r than sayujya to show
that he did not a c c e p t the V e d a n t a v e r s i o n o f A d v a i t a .
U m a p a t i argues against A d v a i t a V e d a n t a ( M a y a v a d a ) at l e n g t h in his
Cahkarpa Mrakaranam, ' E x p o s i t i o n a n d Refutation'.®^ T h i s w o r k o f 9 7 5
lines d e v o t e s 5 8 o f t h e m to an e x p o s i t i o n o f M a y a v a d a a n d 254 to its
refutation. W h e r e a s A r u l n a n t i r e f u t e d M a y a v a d a as e l e v e n t h in the
f o u r t e e n systems c o n s i d e r e d in the Civanam Cittiyar, U m a p a t i takes the
M a y a v a d a as the f o u n d a t i o n o f w h a t is to b e refuted. M a y a v a d a is
refuted b y an a d v o c a t e o f A i k y a v a d a (the u n i o n o f ^ i v a a n d t h e atman,
with the existence o f anava mala denied), and so o n in turn, each
succeeding v i e w a closer a p p r o x i m a t i o n to S i d d h a n t a until the S i d d h a n t i n
himself, w h o refers the others to the Civapirakacam. In his r e f u t a t i o n o f
M a y a v a d a , U m a p a t i c o n c e d e s that the V e d a s d e c l a r e that Brahman
alone exists, b u t then w h y speak o f e v e n a p p a r e n t d u a l i t y ? If the V e d a is
self-generated {svayambhu) then it is s e p a r a t e from Brahman, which
c a n n o t then b e the o n e existent. If the V e d a w a s uttered b y B r a h m a n ,
h o w c a n that b e since B r a h m a n has n o parts, a n d n o v o c a l o r g a n s ? If
B r a h m a n uttered the V e d a t h r o u g h g o d s o r rns, like a spirit s p e a k i n g
t h r o u g h the person it possesses, t h e n the V e d a w o u l d b e the u t t e r a n c e o f

a pasuy a n d w o u l d not b e free f r o m mala, impurity. M o v i n g f r o m the
pramam to the pramÔy U m a p a t i argues that the oneness of gold
u n d e r l y i n g all the f o r m s , such as o r n a m e n t s , that g o l d takes, nevertheless
has h a d c h a n g e s w r o u g h t u p o n it b y a doer. ' T h e g o l d has n o t b e c o m e
o r n a m e n t s w i t h o u t a d o e r . ' F u r t h e r , if B r a h m a n is the creator, there
must b e a material c a u s e u p o n w h i c h it acts, otherwise the creator a n d
the created will b e the s a m e .
U m a p a t i then supposes that the M a y a v a d i n claims that the adt, the

non-conscious, came from cit, the conscious. If the nonconscious
phenomenal world (prapanca) e m a n a t e s f r o m B r a h m a n , is this b e c a u s e
such is the nature o f B r a h m a n ? T h e n the w o r l d must b e o f the nature o f
B r a h m a n a n d not acit. If B r a h m a n g i v i n g out the w o r l d w h i c h is acit is
said to b e like a l a m p g i v i n g o u t b l a c k s m o k e , U m a p a t i rejoijis that the
blackness pertains not to the l a m p b u t to the w i c k a n d the oil, ' a n d in a n y
case the black s m o k e does not g o b a c k into the brightness o f the l a m p . ' If
the world is said to b e B r a h m a n ' s p l a y , [ila, the b o d y a s s u m e d in p l a y is
separate f r o m the player. 'Just as the silk w o r m binds itself with the silken
thread of the c o c o o n a n d dies vyithin it, so also B r a h m a n w h i c h assumes
an illusory b o d y {mâsanra) in p l a y {[ila) will find itself imprisoned a n d b e
devoid of its absoluteness and intelligence.' W i t h regard to mukti,
U m a p a t i argues that tat tvam asi, ' T h a t art thou', is in fact the s a m e kind
of figure of speech as the statement ' Y o u h a v e b e c o m e a tiger' addressed
to a b r a v e m a n . T h a t person has not literally b e c o m e a tiger. ' W h e n the
V e d a s say I a m Brahman this m e a n s that the I is different f r o m
B r a h m a n . T h e M a y a v a d i n c l a i m i n g a false B r a h m a - ^ a n a will neglect
the virtuous c o n d u c t o r d a i n e d b y the V e d a s . A b o u t to die, he receives no
reassurance f r o m G o d , a n d w h e n d e a d the other gods will b e a n g r y with
him because of his c l a i m to b e B r a h m a n . '
T w o verses m i g h t seem at first sight to express a position resembling
that of Sarikara. It will b e fruitful to consider t h e m together.
Inconceivable in terms of
time or space or any other category,
honoured by those who meditate on His own Mantra,
He is the Essence of Advaita [advaitasara),
bereft of middle, beginning and end.
He sees the hearts and thoughts of all men,
He is the first One, the one beyond Maya,
quietened, the illuminator of all heavenly bodies,
truly named the Lord,

composed of lustre, the radiant O n e .
Him the supreme, the ultimate dancer,
Whose foot is curved, I worship. (267)®®

Reflecting on this statement of the U p a n i s ^

the leaders of the wise constandy
look upon Him in their hearts,
the mass of consciousness, beyond perception.

His Dance of Bliss constandy repeated
like the flickering flame of a lamp,
free from illusion, shining white,

supporting the spheres of truth and being.
He is what is meant by T a t Sat
V e r s e 267 speaks o f Siva as the essence o f A d v a i t a , b u t calls h i m

'beyond Maya', as in tattvaUta, that is, beyond the really existent
p h e n o m e n a l universe. T h e t e r m A d v a i t a is, o f c o u r s e , n o t necessarily
s y n o n y m o u s w i t h M a y a v a d a . M o s t f o r m s o f V e d a n t a p h i l o s o p h y are
versions o f the n o t i o n o f n o n - d u a l i t y . T h e c u r r e n t l y p r e e m i n e n t p o s i t i o n
of S a n k a r a ' s p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h has left the W e s t w i t h a somewhat
distorted v i e w o f I n d i a n religious t h o u g h t , is the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a rising
tide o f p o p u l a r i t y w h i c h w<is first b e g i n n i n g to b e seen a r o u n d the t i m e o f
U m a p a t i . T h u s , in a d d i t i o n to U m a p a t i ' s o w n r e f e r e n c e s to S a A k a r a in
the Kurkitanghristava, Umapati's younger contemporary M a d h a v a , made
head of the Saiikara monastery at Sringeri in 1331, wrote the
Sarvadarsanasahgraha, a r e v i e w o f sixteen s y s t e m s o f I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y
s h o w n as c u l m i n a t i n g in S a n k a r a ' s V e d a n t a .
In U m a p a t i ' s Cahkarpa Mrakaranam the N i m i t t a k a r a n a p a r i n a m a v a d i n
takes a position close to that o f N i l a k a n t h a , a n d w h i c h m a y b e c a l l e d
Sivadvaita. H e r e all e x i s t e n c e is a manifestation of Siva. T h e w o r l d is a
real m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Siva; Siva a n d the self are citr, Siva, the world, and
the self are not separate entities.
T h e term advaita (Tamil: attuvitam) is used t w i c e b y the f o u n d e r o f the
Tamil Saiva S i d d h a n t a . E x p l a i n i n g his s e c o n d sutra, M e y k a n t a r says,
' T h e Primal ( G o d ) is o n e w i t h souls a n d o t h e r than souls: for the w o r d
advaita m e a n s " n o t t w o " ; for if it b e taken to m e a n " o n e " , there is that
w h i c h thinks it is One . . . like t u n e a n d s o u n d , like fruit a n d its essential
sweetness, the g r a c e o f the o m n i p r e s e n t L o r d is in advaita r e l a t i o n

(with souls), t h e . p r e c i o u s S c r i p t u r e s d o n o t s a y " o n e " b u t " n o t t w o " . ' ? '
In verse 267 S i v a is c a l l e d ' t h e o n e b e y o n d M a y a {mâtita), b u t this is
n o t s a y i n g that t h e w o r l d is a n illusion; r a t h e r , it is s a y i n g t h a t S i v a is
b e y o n d t h e really existent p h e n o m e n a l u n i v e r s e , a n d is e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e
expression tattvMta, 'beyond the tattvas'. He is h o n o u r e d by those
m e d i t a t i n g o n his M a n t r a , a n d h e sees m e n ' s t h o u g h t s : G o d is c l e a r l y
separate f r o m h u m a n i t y .
In verse 272,

m i g h t s o u n d l i k e M a y a v a d a , b u t n o t w h e n r e a d w i t h the rest o f the v e r s e .
T h e words Satycan brahmaiva are reminiscent o f Brhadarcmyaka Upanisad5.4. i:
•
This, verily, is That. This, indeed, was That, even the Real. He who knows that
wonderful being as the first-born - namely, that Brahma is the Real [satyam
brahmeti) - conquers these worlds. Would he be conquered who knows thus that
great spirit as the first-^m - namely, that Brahma is the Real {satyam brahmeti)?
[No!] for indeed, Brahma is the Real {satyam hj> eva brahma)7'
This passage of the Brhadarartyoka Upanisad immediately follows mention
of Brahman as the heart:
The heart {hrdaya) is the same as Prajapati (Lord of Creation). It is Brahman. It is all.
Another relevant passage is from the Sandilyavidya section of the
Chdndogya Upanisad:
Verily, this whole world is Brahma. Tranquil, let one worship It as that from
which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he
breathes.73
T h e point is not that the world is illusion, but that Brahman is
everywhere.
I turn now to three verses which can be fruitfully considered as a group.
On the best of mountains, the lotus-eyed Visnus,
who had each in turn relinquished their authority,
greeted Krena Govinda come for a boon for the gods.
After embracing him in delight, and asking how he was,
they enlightened him as to Him:
'Dear one, it's because you don't
'comprehend the Essence of Brahman in your heart,
'that you ask for action -
'action is the cause of suffering!'
(215)74
In 215 w h e n K r e n a c o m e s to seek d i v a ' s h e l p a g a i n s t the d e m o n s , t h e

V i s n u s o f f o r m e r ages, the earlier avalaras, w e l c o m e him and explain that
it is b e c a u s e he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d the truth o f B r a h m a n , brahmatattDa^^
that he seeks action - b u t a c t i o n is the c a u s e o f s u f f e r i n g . T h e y e n l i g h t e n
him as to the true n a t u r e o f ^ i v a as B r a h m a n . A n d t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e h a s
B r a h m a as e x a s p e r a t e d t e a c h e r o f V e d a n t a :
'So to win wisdom you must go this very day

'and take refuge with the Lord of the Sabha.'
Thus the Creator informed the throng of sages
and sent them to that Lord of the Sacred Place,
(216)76
A p p r o p r i a t e l y , these t w o verses c o n c e r n i n g failure to u n d e r s t a n d t h e
true nature o f reality are f o l l o w e d b y one that b r e a k s the r u n of
exasperated instruction a n d y e t c o n t i n u e s the t h e m e o n a n o t h e r p l a n e :
Once the Daughter of the Mountain

seeing her son Ganesa
when playing on the Silyer Mountain
quickly pick up the Mountain of the Gods
between his great tusks
. because he thought it was a golden banana,
in her love for him she called Him at once
and proudly showed Him the deed of their son,
(217)77
H e r e at the b a c k of the p o e t ' s m i n d is a v a r i a t i o n o f the V e d a n t i c t r o p e
of m o t h e r o f pearl m i s t a k e n for silver, a n d the r o p e for a s n a k e ; G a n e s a
mistakes g o l d e n M o u n t M e r u for a b a n a n a . T h i s verse is an i n v o l u n t a r y
allusion to the M a y a v a d a t y p e o f error. T h e r e is a switch f r o m the strain
of p r o p a g a n d a to m a t e r n a l satisfaction - the m o t h e r ' s p r i d e in her s t r o n g
if silly son is all p a r t o f the process o f relief M a y a v a d a w o u l d h a v e b e e n in
U m a p a t i ' s m i n d b e c a u s e o f his t w o references to ^ a r t k a r a c a r y a .
A n o t h e r verse describes the t e a c h i n g o f the V e d a n t a , in this c a s e b y ^ i v a

to Parvatl:
He was delighted to tell in private

the Daughter of the Mountain
the truths of the Vedanta
but, infuriated by Her inattention,
cursed Her to be bom in the family of a fisher king.
Him She chose as Her husband in marriage
when He caught the mighty fish in the ocean.

She took up Her dwelling in His left side.
• . (157)'®
T h i s s t o r y is p a r t o f t h e M a d u r a i c y c l e , v e r y p o p u l a r f r o m a t least t h e
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c y c l e is r e p r e s e n t e d in b a s - r e l i e f s o n t h e c o l o n n a d e
plinth o f the w e s t side o f the i n n e r m o s t c o u r t y a r d , w h i c h s e e m to b e p a r t
o f t h e m o d e r n r e n o v a t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e . T h e fish in q u e s t i o n is N a n d i n ,
S i v a ' s bull a n d doorkeeper. T h e divine couple's sons w e r e e n r a g e d to
find t h e i r m o t h e r b a n i s h e d a n d t h r o w S i v a ' s b o o k s i n t o t h e sea. F o r
l e t t i n g t h e b o y s i n t o his r o o m , Siva c u r s e s N a n d i n t o b e b o r n as a fish in
t h e sea. H e is t h e r e b y e n a b l e d t o r e s c u e t h e b o o k s t h a t h a d b e e n s o
summarily disposed of. In the sixteenth-century version of Para-
ncStimunivar, the b o o k S u b r a h m a n y a snatched f r o m S i v a ' s very h a n d
was not an Upanisad but Meykantar's Civamnapdtam\
The lord of all, source of all living beings,
His nature unchangeable,
giver of all, ornament of all,
all surpassing. His name is Being,
eyes full of compassion,
the essence of all the Vedanta,
truth, existence, dwelling in the sky,
worshipped by Sanaka and the other sages
energy in the singing of the Sama Veda,
the Lord of the Hall {samsad),
praised by all poets,
(284)79
VEDANTA AND NATARAJA
A verse that gives a straightforward account of the iconography of

Nataraja, begins by affirming an origin in the Vedanta.
His form is sung in the Vedanta.
He bears the fire and the drum in two hands,
(108)8°
T h e same claim is made in more general accounts of Siva. Thus,
His form is the Self as described in the Vedanta,
Brahma and Visnu are his sons,
He is the Lord of the Universe,
He is present in the Hall,
(66)8'
And again,
M y mind is aware of n o L o r d o f the G o d s b u t H i m -

the m o o n His crest, His m o u t h softly smUing,
His throat blue, H e has three eyes,
the V e d a n t a sings of His deeds.

H e creates B r a h m a and V i s n u ,
His play is universal M a y a ,
the w o m a n occupies the left half o f His b o d y , . . .
(302)®»
In b o t h these v e r s e s t h e m e n t i o n o f t h e V e d a n t a is r o l i o w e d b y the
s t a t e m n t t h a t h e c r e a t e d B r a h m a a n d V i s n u . T h e r e is a l s o m e n t i o n o f
M a y a . In verse 2 8 4 S i v a is the e s s e n c e o f all t h e V e d a n t a {samwedarUasaram).
A t t h e e n d o f the p o e m t h e V e d a n t a a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f B r a h m a n a r e
l i n k e d w i t h the g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e o f S a i v i s m :
R u n n i n g , constantly running
to the place that is dear to H i m ,
adorning, constandy adorning

their bodies with ash a n d rudraksa beads,
listening, constandy listening

to His deeds that are sung in the V e d a n t a ,
performing, constandy p e r f o r m i n g intendy

worship three times a d a y ,
the lordly ascetics, absorbed in c o n t e m p l a t i n g B r a h m a n ,

attain the place of B h a v a that is b e y o n d being.
H i m W h o s e foot is curved
I worship. (311)®'
T h e o b v i o u s m e a n i n g o f V e d a n t a h e r e is t h e U p a n i s a d s . S i v a is, o f
course, sung of in the Matumarayana Upanisad and the ^vetahatara
U p a n i ^ , b u t his d e e d s a n d i c o n o g r a p h y a r e o n l y to b e f o u n d in t h e l a t e
t e m p l e - o r i e n t e d A g a m a s ; a n d it m a y b e t h a t t h e A g a m a s , s e e n a s t h e
culmination of the V e d a s , are referred to here b y V e d a n t a , w i t h a
d e l i b e r a t e a m b i g u i t y . B y this a m b i g u i t y , U m a p a t i w o u l d , w i t h i n the
p o e m , absorb Saiikara, a n d p e r h a p s o t h e r V e d a n t i n s , w i t h i n the a m b i t
o f the S i d d h a n t a .
TAMIL §AIVA SIDDHANTA AND NATARAJA
A l t h o u g h the f o u r g r e a t T a m i l p o e t s o f t e n s i n g o f S i v a ' s d a n c e , t h e y w e r e
writing before the C o l a codification o f N a t a r a j a . T h e three masters o f
the T a m i l Saiva S i d d h a n t a tradition h a v e almost n o t h i n g to say a b o u t

S i v a ' s d a n c e . O n l y M a n a v a c a k a m K a t a n t a r d e a l s w i t h it, a n d i t p l a y s a
p r o m i n e n t p a r t in his Unmaivilakkam:
O my Teacher, explain to me the following! What are the 36 tattoos? What is

anava? What is that K a r m a which arose even then? W h a t am I w h o seem to
differ from these? W h o art T h o u ? What is the Lord's Sacred Dance {nataimtam)
and what is the truth of the Paflcak^ra?
O Meykandanatha, graciously expound so that I may understand the nature of

the Sacred Dance [ninratatj seen by the sages that takes the form of the Five
Letters beyond the Nada tattva (nadantd).
O my son, hear. T h e Supreme Intelligence dances in the soul formed of the
letter YA, with a form comjxjsed of the five letters, si VA VA NA MA for the purjxjse
of removing our sins.
Hear now how the Dance is jjerformed. In his feet is NA; in his Navel is MA; in his
shoulders is si; in his face is VA; in his head is YA.
[These letters are to be contemplated in those parts.]
T h e hand holding the drum is si, the hand held out is VA, the hand holding out
protection is YA; the hand holding the fire is NA; the foot holding down Muyalaka
is MA.
T h e arch {timvaci) over Sri Nataraja is OM; and the aksara which is never separate
from the OM is the filling Splendour. This is the dance of the Lord of
Cidambaram. T h e y understand this who have lost their self [ahahkara).
Understanding, they have left their births behind.
Creation starts from the Drum. Protection proceeds from the Hand of Hope.
T h e fire produces Destruction. From the Foot holding down proceeds
Tirobhava; the Foot held aloft gives Mukti.
By these means, O u r Father scatters the darkness of Maya, burns the strong
Karma, stamps down Mala (Anava) and showers grace, and lovingly plunges
the soul in the Ocean of Bliss. This is the nature of His Dance.
T h e silent Jfianins, destroying the three kinds of Mala, establish themselves

where their selves are destroyed. There they witness the sacred Dance {ninralat)
filled with Bliss . This is the Dance {kuttu) of the Sabhanatha whose very form is
Grace.
T h e O n e who is past thought and speech assumes m c i o u s l y the Form

compjosed of the Paftcaksara in the Dancing Hall of Para Sakti, so as to be seen
by his Consort, Uma, Haimavad. They never see births who see this mystic Dance.
O my gracious Guru! T h o u hast explained to me beautifully the nature of the

Nadanta dance. Let me now know the nature of the Paf^cak^ra, C a n they be
one with the letters which are imperishable?
{UTvnaivilakkam 3; 31-40)®+
igo The Dance of îva
U m ^ t i briefly links the P a f l c a k s a r a w i t h the D a n c e in his Ttmvaru^xiyarr.
On one side mystic darkness of 'Weakness', on the other

dance of mystic 'Wisdom', - Soul between the two.
Commentajy. The syllables MA and NA represent the energeuc whirl of Impurity in
itself, and as operating in the Soul; the syllables and VA represent the mystic
action of Siva and of Grace. Between these stands YA, which represents the Soul.®5
U m a p a t i contrasts Siva's m a n i f e s t a t i o n in n a t u r e {unanatanam), urn b e i n g
'flesh', 'weakness', with his dance of knowledge {nananatam). This
distinction is b a s e d o n M e y k a n t a r ' s n i n t h sutra:
Let the soul by spiritual vision {naiuikkan) discover the Lord in its own
consciousness - the Lord who cannot be known by imperfect knowledge
{mqkkan) and sense-perception.®®
PANCAKSARA
A major difference between the Siddhanta and the Tamil Saiva

S i d d h a n t a is the p r o m i n e n t r o l e o f t h e F i v e - l e t t e r M a n t r a (pancaksara),
namah sivaya, in the latter s y s t e m . ( T h e o r d e r o f t h e s y l l a b l e s is v a r i a b l e . )
T h e Five Letters are m e n t i o n e d briefly b u t e m p h a t i c a l l y b y M e y k a n t a r .
T h e ninth sutra referred to a b o v e c o n t i n u e s as follows:
When the self abandons the world of sense {pasa) as a quickly passing mirage, the
Lord becomes cool shade [for it]. It will ponder the Five Letters in the manner
prescribed.
Meykan^r adds:
If the self knows by the Five Letters that it belongs to Hara; if in the heart it
worships Him by diem; if in the navel it offers oblation by them; if between the
eyebrows it meditates; then in that meditation God will appear and the soul will
become His servant.®'
U m a p a t i d e c l a r e s in t h e Tiruvarutpayan,
The Agama and the Veda and other sastras

only explain the truth of Paficaksara.®®
C . N . S i n g a r a v e l u , the e d i t o r o f t h e j o u r n a l âiva Siddhanta, explains the
l o g i c o f this v i e w :
The holy hymn Sri Rudram occupies the central position among the four
Vedas. The Panchakshara has been mentioned in the middle of Sri Rudram.
The Panchakshara may therefore be considered to be the core of the Vedas. It
may also be considered to be the quintessence of the twenty eight Saiva Agamas
which form the basis for Siddhanta Saivam.®^
L i k e t h e V e d a s a n d A g a m a s , t h e P a f i c ^ a r a is p r e s e n t in t h e C i t S a b h a
as t h e five silver s t e p s l e a d i n g u p f r o m t h e K a n a k a S a b h a (5).9® T h e r e a r e
t h r e e o t h e r d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e P a A c a k s a r a in t h e Kuncitanghristava-it
d o e s n o t h a v e h e r e t h e p r e e m i n e n t p o s i t i o n it e n j o y s in t h e T a m i l S a i v a
S i d d h a n t a . T h e g o d s o f t h e five d i v i n e f u n c t i o n s w o n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
p o w e r s b y r e c i t i n g it a l o n g w i t h o t h e r m a n t r a s (112); V a s i s t h a a n d t h e
other sages m u t t e r e d it e v e r y day f o r a y e a r in C i d a m b a r a m (59);
D a & i r a t h a g o t his s o n s b y r e c i t i n g it in C i d a m b a r a m (116). T h e ^nRudra,
or âtarudnya, in which the Paficaksara first occurs, and on which
U m a p a t i is s a i d t o h a v e w r i t t e n a c o m m e n t a r y , is m e n t i o n e d t h r i c e . T h i s
section o f the Taittinya Samhita p l a y s a p r o m i n e n t p a r t in t e m p l e r i t u a l ,
b o t h in C i d a m b a r a m a n d all o t h e r S i v a t e m p l e s . N a n d i k e s v a r a , S i v a ' s
c h a m b e r l a i n , w o n his p o s i t i o n b y r e c i t i n g t h e ^nRudra three crore times
(153). B u t as U m a p a t i s a y s , h e h i m s e l f w a s g i v e n b y S i v a ' s u c c e s s t h r o u g h
g r e a t m a n t r a s o f e n o r m o u s p o w e r ' (305): this s t a t e m e n t refers n o t t o t h e
Paftcaksara m a n t r a alone, b u t to a w i d e variety, s o m e o f w h i c h are
c o n s i d e r e d in t h e c h a p t e r f o l l o w i n g . I n t h e c a s e o f m a n t r a , as' in o t h e r
respects, U m a p a t i ' s S a n s k r i t p o e m t a k e s a m u c h w i d e r v i e w t h a n t h a t
m e r e l y o f the T a m i l S a i v a S i d d h a n t a , o r o f t h e S i d d h a n t a .
YOGA
In v e r s e 3 0 5 U m a p a t i also s a y s t h a t S i v a g a v e h i m ' g r e a t m a g i c p o w e r s
t h r o u g h y o g a ' . Y o g a p l a y s , in f a c t , a m o r e i m p o r t a n t role in t h e p o e m
than S i d d h a n t a or V e d a n t a , b e i n g a m o r e o r less c o n s t a n t p a r t of
worship of Siva. However, Yoga is n o t necessarily separate from
Siddhanta. As U m a p a t i himself mentions, Y o g a (along with Carya,
P r o p e r B e h a v i o u r ) is o n e o f t h e f o u r p a r t s o f a n A g a m a . N o w , as B r u n n e r
has s h o w n , this f o u r f o l d d i v i s i o n o f t h e A g a m a s is in f a c t a r e l a t i v e l y
r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o n in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h o s e texts.9' Y e t , as B r u n n e r a l s o
s h o w s , the Y o g a s e c t i o n s , a l t h o u g h n o t c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h e R i t u a l s e c t i o n s ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s are e i t h e r r e d u n d a n t or extraneous.9^
T h e S i d d h a n t a s c h o o l w a s in a c o m m a n d i n g p o s i t i o n in m a n y p a r t s o f
I n d i a ; this p o s i t i o n w o u l d o n l y h a v e b e e n b o l s t e r e d b y a n e x t e n s i o n o f
the a p p e a l o f t h e s c h o o l , a n d the inclusion o f Y o g a , h o w e v e r m o d i f i e d
from that o f P a t a n j a l i , w a s c l e a r l y s u c h a n e x t e n s i o n . T h e Mrêndra
Agama, o n p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e the m o s t p o p u l a r o f A g a m a s b y U m a p a t i ' s
t i m e , a n d a m a j o r s o u r c e f o r his $ataratnasamgraha, has a Y o g a section.
T h e p o s i t i o n o f S i d d h a n t a in g e n e r a l p r o v i d e s a p a r a l l e l f o r U m a p a t i ' s
m e n t i o n o f S a i i k a r a . U m a p a t i in w r i t i n g his p o e m , s o u g h t to b r o a d e n t h e
appeal of both his p o e m a n d the p h i l o s o p h y to w h i c h he o w e d allegiance,

by including within the horizon o f his ideas S a f t k a r a ' s version of
V e d a n t a , w h i c h b y his d a y h a d at last attained prestige a n d g r o w i n g
favour. S r i k a n ^ a h a d established A d v a i t a as a p p l i c a b l e to monistic
Saivism. W h y therefore not g o all the w a y - so w h a t m a y b e seen as the
logic of the Kuiuitahghristava suggests - a n d s u b s u m e w i t h i n the S a i v a
S i d d h a n t a , at least within the confines o f the p o e m , w h a t w a s otherwise a
principal rival o f the school?
Siva is the great y o g i n , and even w h e n D a k s i n ^ u r t i the teacher, he
is at the same time y o g i n . U m a p a t i describing D a k s i n ^ u r t i says that
he is h a n d s o m e with his y o g a posture b a n d {paUd), the b a n d o f cloth
that makes c o m f o r t a b l e p r o l o n g e d y o g a posture (142). In C i d a m b a r a m
Daksinamurti is the most important initial murti for d e v o t e e s after o n e
or another of the G a n e s a s ; his shrine is o n the o u t e r wall o f the
M u l a n a t h a shrine, a n d the p a s s a g e w a y is o f t e n i m p e d e d b y w o r s h i p p e r s
prostrating themselves before him. T h i s i m p o r t a n c e o f D a k s i n a m u r t i is
further shown b y the p l a c i n g o f a n o t h e r D a k s i n a m u r t i shrine in front of
the m a i n balipitha - the first shrine seen o n e n t e r i n g t h r o u g h the S o u t h
gopura.
Siva's most f a m o u s action as y o g i n is the destruction o f K a m a , the g o d
of love. K a m a was sent b y the gods to shake Siva's ' u n w a v e r i n g g a z e out
of the state o f absorption {sarmdhi) H e ' d attained t h r o u g h y o g a ' (37).
Siva's action is that of y o g a - ' H i s f o r m is the S e l f as d e s c r i b e d in the
V e d a n t a . . . through H i s meditation {svadhyanat) d e s t r o y i n g darkness a n d
delusion in all the worlds' (66).
G r e a t yogins are a fact of life. T h e S i d d h a T i r u m u l a r lived u n d e r g r o u n d
for a world a g e ,
being in samadhi,
in the state of supreme bliss
that arises from seedless yoga;
his knowledge free from constraint

he meditates constantly
within himself upon Him. (185)93
T i r u m u l a r is only the first of the S i d d h a s . T h e r e are m a n y others.
The great yogin-lords, by yogic practices

such as drawing the senses into their heart-lotuses
take their breath to their own entrance to Brahman
and live for a divine host of years -
their bodies adamantine

through taking herbs, jewels, and pills
according to the science of the Siddhas,
they Worship Him as their own self
(226)94
Siva of course is synonymous with yoga. It is H e
on Whose form the best of yogis

constandy meditate in their heart-lotuses
(73)®^
These specialists aside, yoga is of universal importance:
He is the Lord and has given all creatures

two hands to worship the lotus of His feet,
two eyes to see Him,
eloquence to praise all His deeds,
two feet to circumambulate Him,
and mind to meditate on Him: -
He ever protects us.
Him Who bears the Ganga as His watery crown.
I worship. (94)®®
In the case of Bhusunda, the wonderful crow who lives forever on
Mount Meru, the practice of yoga seems to parallel if not coincide with
grace:
By His grace,
he attained freedom from fear of death,
hard for anyone else to attain.
Thanks to meditating on Him {jaddhyanayogat)
he sits on the excellent Golden Mountain,
(168)97
Dhyanayoga is a term used several times. When Sesa swallowed Vayu,
Vayu gained a mighty body by meditating on Siva {yaddhyanayogat) and
burst free (254). T h e Vaisya lyaqDakai 'had as his manifest wealth the
splendour of meditation on His foot' {jaâhghridhyanabhanuprakadtavibhavo)
(214). A certain king defeated all his foes by the yoga of meditation on His
feet (jatpadadhyanayogat) (204). It is Siva 'from Whom the best of yogins
attained skill in direcdy experiencing union with the universal self,'
{yasmat sarvatmyayogmubhavanipuTiatam lebhireyo^varyah) (269); Siva 'ever
protects all disposed to meditate on His lotus feet' {sarvan svapadasarasijad-
hyanasUan ajasram raksaty) (190). Vyasa's son, Suka, and others, burning up
134 ^ Dance of $iva
through the y o g a o f k n o w l e d g e (jnanqyogat) the i m p e n e t r a b l e forest o f

T a m a s . . . w i n the true h a p p i n e s s that is e n l i g h t e n m e n t {prabodham) (307).
W h e n A i j u n a tells K « n a h e has seen a strange f i g u r e o n the field o f
battle, holding a trident, sparks coming from his mouth, Krena
m o m e n t a r i l y g o e s into a y o g i c t r a n c e {muhurtam . . .yogad dhyatvS) before
telling A r j u n a that this is S i v a (271). W e are to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t this t r a n c e
was hardly necessary for K r e n a to m a k e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t so u s e d is
K r e n a to m e d i t a t e o n S i v a that S i v a is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m m e d i t a t i o n f o r
him. D r a u p a d i in her p r e v i o u s birth c o m m u t e s h e r h u s b a n d ' s c u r s e
u p o n her b y m e d i t a t i n g o n H i s m a n t r a {yanmantradhyanayogad) {224).
It must not b e f o r g o t t e n that P a t a A j a l i , the i n c a r n a t i o n o f S e s a , w a s a
key figure in the history o f the t e m p l e . A n universal intellect in c o n t r a s t to
his yet m o r e m y t h i c a l c o m r a d e in d e v o t i o n , V y a g h r a p a d a , P a t a f l j a l i
included the s t a n d a r d treatise o n y o g a a m o n g his o t h e r w o r k s :
As Patafljali he wrote those books named after him

on yoga, grammar, medicine and ritual
(278)
O u r review of the S a i v a S i d d h a n t a a n d V e d a n t a in the p o e m h a s
e n d e d in y o g a , a n d m e d i t a t i o n o n S i v a in o n e ' s h e a r t , w h i c h b r i n g s us
back to a point close to the d a n c e in the heart w i t h w h i c h t h e last c h a p t e r
e n d e d . M o r e c o m p l e x m e d i t a t i o n a l f o r m s are c o n s i d e r e d in the c h a p t e r
on the G o d d e s s .
CHAPTER 6
The Goddess
In s e v e r a l w a y s t h e G o d d e s s as p r e s e n t e d in t h e Kuncitanghristava can be
s e e n in C i d a m b a r a m t o d a y v i r t u a l l y as s h e w a s in U m a p a t i ' s t i m e . I n t h e
first p l a c e s h e is p r e s e n t as S i v a ' s c o n s o r t S i v a k a m a s u n d a n in t h e C i t
S a b h a , as a s t a n d i n g figure in b r o n z e w h o w a t c h e s his d a n c e . S h e s h a r e s
his w o r s h i p in this m o s t s a c r e d p l a c e . S e c o n d l y as S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i s h e
has h e r o w n extensive shrine o n the w e s t b a n k o f the S i v a g a n g a tank.
T h i s d a t e s b a c k to t h e r e i g n o f K u l o t t u n g a I, a n d w a s p e r h a p s t h e first o f
t h e series o f m o n u m e n t a l G o d d e s s o r A m m a o t e m p l e s e r e c t e d in t h e
thirteenth century. Thirdly there is t h e Tillai Kali temple on the
northern e d g e o f the t o w n , built u n d e r K o p p e r u n j i n g a in the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . A p i l g r i m a g e t o C i d a m b a r a m is u s u a l l y c o n c l u d e d b y a visit to
this t e m p l e . A n d f o u r t h l y , t h e r e is a s m a l l i m a g e o f K a l i in t h e s h r i n e t o
U r d h v a t a n d a v a S i v a within the N r t t a Sabha.
T h i s list b y n o m e a n s e x h a u s t s t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e G o d d e s s . J u s t
o u t s i d e t h e S i v a k ^ a s u n d a r i s h r i n e is a t i n y s h r i n e t o A k h i l a n d e s v a r T
(spouse o f S i v a at t h e j a m b u k e s v a r a t e m p l e , T r i c h y ) , a n d a d j o i n i n g t h a t
a s h r i n e to D u r g a . In t h e t o w n a r e s e v e r a l G o d d e s s t e m p l e s , to D u r g a , to
D r a u p a d i , a n d others; annual firewalking is a p o p u l a r e v e n t in o n e o r
t w o . In these r e s p e c t s also, t h e p i c t u r e m a y n o t h a v e b e e n so v e r y
different f o r U m a p a t i . Finally, w o r s h i p o f SriCcikra a n d S r i v i d y a c o n t i n u e s . '
SIVAKAMASUNDART
T h e G o d d e s s in C i d a m b a r a m is S i v a k a m a s u n d a r i , the b e a u t i f u l l a d y
w h o is S i v a ' s l o v e , a n d is specific to C i d a m b a r a m in the s a m e w a y t h a t as
K a m a k s T she is specific to K a n c T p u r a m a n d as MTnaksT to M a d u r a i .
T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N a t a r a j a in m e t a l s e e m s a l w a y s to h a v e b e e n
a c c o m p a n i e d b y the G o d d e s s . S h e s t a n d s , l e a n i n g slightly to o n e side, as
the p r i n c i p a l w i t n e s s o f the d a n c e . T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f this
f o r m o f the G o d d e s s is s i m p l y t h a t she is n o t d a n c i n g , a n d not a t t e m p t i n g
135
The Dance of îva
to rival Siva. An early myth of Cidambaram, though perhaps first found

in Tiruvalangadu, is that of the dance competition, where the wild
goddess who is the original inhabitant of the Tillai forest attempts to
surpass the male intruder.
From the eighth to the eleventh centuries stone sculptures representing
Nataraja tend to portray ParvatI on one side witnessing the dance and
Kail dancing beside Siva. T h e earliest example of this comes from a cave
excavated by one of the commanders of the Pandya ruler Parantaka
Netuflcaîyan in the eighth century.
Tlie Goddess in the Git Sabha is emphatically different from KaE.
S i v a k ^ a s u n d a r i is the housewife of the God. In the two great festivals of
the temple when the two bronze images have gone round the city in their
festival cars, in the final stage of their return to their home when the images
are carried on the shoulders of devotees, the Goddess moves ahead of
Natoraja so that she enters the home first to prepare it for her Lord. T h e
temple has a fine collection of bronzes, and of these bronzes, those of the
Goddess are particularly notable. Indeed, Nagaswamy remarks of the
Cidambaram bronzes belonging to the twelfth century, ' T h e quality of
these female images . . . seems to suggest a specialisation in portraying
feminine form more elegantly than the male one.''^ T h e images of
SivakamasundarT are the most numerous. As we noted above, such
images are usually made to complement a Nataraja, and their predominance
in the Cidambaram hoard is hard to explain.
In the opening of the poem, the presence of the Goddess is played
down. Umapati mentions the Sammelanacakra, as we saw in chapter 4,
and by implication the Goddess is present beside Siva in this cakra, and
the poet then says Siva 'dances with His Sakti [at His side]'. T h e second
verse of the poem remarks that the Lord of the Cit Sabha has his feet
'constantly worshipped by the three Saktis' - citsabhesam trisrbhir api soda
saktibhih sevitahghrim. These are Iccha Sakti,Jnana Sakti, and Kriya Sakti.
Theologically, Iccha Sakti, the Power of Desire, is the power by which
Siva, moved by the pitiable condition of individual selves, desires to save
them, and for that end creates the world; Jnana Sakti, the Power of
Knowledge, permits Siva to know what he creates; and Kriya Sakti, the
Power of Activity, is the activity manifesting itself by multiple actions.
Their local manifestations in the Cidambaram temple are nowadays
said by the Diksitas to be as follows. Iccha Sakti is beside Nataraja in the
Cit Sabha as Sivakamasundari, Jftana Sakti is Sivakinasundarl in her
separate shrine, and Durga, whose small shrine is backed by the outer,
wall of Sivakamasundari's, is Kriya Sakti.3
The Goddess 137
15. S i v a k a m a s u n d a n . P a r a m a k a I p e r i o d , c. 950. C o u r t e s y : D r R . N a g a s w a m y .
T h e r e is n o further r e f e r e n c e to t h e G o d d e s s until v e r s e 20. T h i s is a

distincUy l o w - k e y a p p r o a c h to t h e G o d d e s s , a n d c o n t r a s t s w i t h , f o r
instance, the i n v o c a t i o n o f U m a p a t i ' s Civapirakacam, w i t h the first verse
on N a t a r a j a a n d t h e s e c o n d a full a c c o u n t o f the G o d d e s s :
T h e great Para Sakti pervasive W h o is

In sooth Tirodhana Sakti, doth stand
As the Lord's Iccha, Jftana and Kriya
Saktis and is of the form of Grace that grants
U n t o the souls their ordained bodies,
And experience; to cause unto souls
O u t of M a y a - pure or impure,
Their bodies, instruments, locales
A n d experience, the Goddess is
In union with the First Causes, and yet
She is O n e only W h o is ma/a-free;
She is the seed of the Lord's five-fold acts;
She, the Mother, to deliver to souls
From their misery of transmigration
Witnesseth in Tillai's golden forum
T h e dance of the Lord; we wear on our crown
Her lotus feet of grace, and Her adore. ^
In the Kmcitahghristava, it is n o t until verse 77 that there is a s i g n i f i c a n t
reference to the G o d d e s s :
T h e Goddess W h o is the visible form of Saccidananda

is resplendent in Her palace
shining on GaAga's western side.
Her lotus mouth

the abode of all intellectual systems,
she has as many hands as there are Vedas.
She is H i s j f i a n a âkti,
the companion of final liberation.
Kamasundari is her name.

She it is W h o beholds His dance.
(77P
T h e shrine of the Goddess in Cidambaram has changed little since the
fourteenth century.^ It is substantial in size. T h e gateway and the
surrounding colonnades are clearly early. T h e original C51a shrine was
subsequently enclosed, perhaps when the elegant mandapa was built in
the sixteenth or seventeenth century. But also early are the very fine
sculptures of dancing girls and musicians that line the base of the portico.
The shrine for the wall-mounted SrTcakra on the north wall of the
portico is modern. Modern paintings on the mandapa portray Suka
The Goddess 139
teaching the ^ncakra to Adisankara; and scenes from the Lalitopak/âna.

It is not known what the modern paintings replaced in the centre: the
centre is flanked by Nayaka paintings (seventeenth-century) - to the
north the sthalapuram, with the famous Bhiksatana and Mohinl scene; to
the south another unidentified variant of the sthalapurana and the life of
Manikkavacakar.
This form of the Goddess is associated with learning. K . M .
Rajaganesa DTksita notes that 'Sage PataAjali wrote lydkaranamahabhasya
with her blessings. She was worshipped by Hayagriva, Agastya,
Lopamudra, D u r v ^ a s and Parasurama. Adisankara wrote his commen-
taries on the Upanisads in her temple.'7 Nowadays a few students from
Annamcdai University are often to be seen sitting studying in the
colonnades.
THE DIVINE COUPLE
' Y o u r face is beautiful, O lady!

'This is all the m o n e y I've m a d e
'since I was a. boy.
'Please, it's for you. T a k e it,
'and hold m e tight in your arms.
'I'm desp>erately hit
'by Love's arrows.
'Console m e here and now.'
T h u s spoke the Blessed O n e

as H e followed U m a on the mountain,
she hurrying away
though held back b y her companions.
(256)8
Can it really be that Siva is approaching Parvatl as a courtesan?
Reminiscent of Kalidasa's description of the divine couple's honeymoon
is this:
U n d e r the pretext of showing the flocks of geese
energetically besporting themselves
in the land-lotus bed on the peak of the G o l d e n M o u n t a i n
H e was tighdy embraced by Siva,
His constant companion.
T h e white ash on His forehead

was rubbed off b y the noble lady's nipples
as she moaned in unparalleled sexual delights
exp>erienced in manifold ways.
(200)9
[^2 T^f Dance of îva
W a t e r f o w l are n o t e d for their e n e r g e t i c a n d h i g h l y m o b i l e c o p u l a t i o n .

P o e t r y has a greater f r e e d o m t h a n sculptural art.
Conquering the circle of rays

from the young disc of the sun
with the colour of His lower lip -
for it was reddened
by the betel served with longing
by the Daughter of the Snow Mountain
in her eagerness for play -
in His keenness to display
His skill in music
He's playing the veena
His moving hand never quits,
Him who is made of the first rasa,
Whose foot is curved, I worship. (212)'°
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f betel in r o y a l life c o m e s o u t well in the story told b y

K a l h a n a (twelfth century) in his history o f K a s h m i r , w h e r e i n the e x i l e d
k i n g JayapTda while w a t c h i n g a d a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e reveals his original
status b y c o n t i n u a l r e a c h i n g b e h i n d his b a c k in e x p e c t a t i o n o f b e i n g
h a n d e d betel b y the m a i d a p p o i n t e d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e . " S o t o o ParvatJ
serves her L o r d , t h o u g h her service is p r o m p t e d b y her desire to m a k e love.
Y e t , in contrast to the instant g r a t i f i c a t i o n a b r u p d y s o u g h t in verse 2 5 6
a b o v e , here p h y s i c a l l o v e is s u b j e c t e d to the c l a i m s o f art. T h e r e is
p e r h a p s a tension here b e t w e e n the desire o n the p a r t o f the G o d d e s s a n d
the claims o f S i v a ' s m u s i c a l art, a tension t h a t e n h a n c e s b o t h , a n d all
constitute the 'first rasa\ that is, smgara, erotic aesthetic e m o t i o n .
A l l o f the verses c o n s i d e r e d in this section h a v e b e e n instances o f
smgara rasa, rasa that is m a d e g r a p h i c a l l y explicit here:
His wide eyes are bees

agitated by the river of sweet rasa -
the wine of love -
coming from the mountains
that are the jutting breasts -
golden pots -
of Gauri ever ready to play. ('49)"
Breasts are o f great a n d manifest importance in H i n d u culture.

W o m e n in the S o u t h h a d b a r e breasts until m o d e r n times, a n d milk is o f
s u p r e m e i m p o r t a n c e in a v e g e t a r i a n c u l t u r e . T h e p o t in d a i l y life a n d
The Goddess 141
e v e n m o r e i n ritual is a n o p e n s y m b o l o f t h e f e m a l e , o f t h e w o m b a s w e l l
a s t h e b r e a s t . S p e c i a l p l a c e is m a d e i n t h e sUudafmram f o r the providing of
divine m i l k f o r t h e y o u n g U p a m a n y u , in r e m i n i s c e n c e o f t h e p o e t saint
N a n c a m p a n t a r , similarly fed. I n this v e r s e the nutritive m o t h e r b e c o m e s
t h e n u t r i t i v e l o v e r , f e e d i n g S i v a ' s p a s s i o n , a n d p r o m o t i n g a l i q u i d flow i n
w h i c h the p o e t a n d r e a d e r also participate.
If three verses describe the h a p p y love o f the two, a n o t h e r three speak
of jealousy.
Seeing the smearing of musk pziste

and the forehead mark of musk
and the fresh garland of flowers,
as H e came to her
the lotus-eyed Daughter of the Mountain,

inferring H e had been up to something,
asked, ' O Lord,
for the j o y of which woman
was this marking made
while I am your good wife? Speak!'
(26I)'3
T h i s r e f e r e n c e t o a d u l t e r y is p a r t o f t h e l a n g u a g e o ^ kaiyUy a r e f l e c t i o n
o f t h e l i f e o f t h e c o u r t , a n d is t o b e f o u n d e v e n i n s u c h t e x t s a s t h e
Saundaryalahan. I t is e q u a l l y c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e m a i n l y S o u t h e r n figure
o f B h i k s a t a n a , t h e utterly h a n d s o m e n a k e d ascetic, his loins c l a d o n l y in a
r e a r i n g c o b r a , w h o e n t r a n c e s w i v e s w h e r e v e r h e w a n d e r s . Still more
r e d o l e n t o f t h e c o u r t a n d t h e h a r e m is t h i s :
'You frolic in secret

'with my companions Jfiana and Iccha!
'You don't stop playing with them all night!
'How dare you come to the Sabha in the morning!
'You enjoy being inconsiderate!
' G o off to the Divine river: she's just there!
' N o one wants me.'
When the Daughter of the Mountain

was annoyed and sp)oke thus,
He placated her.
T h e multiple forms of the G o d d e s s might easily be seen to lead to

emotional complexities. T h e d e m a n d s of the verse force the poet to
reschedule DevT, since properly speaking it is the I c c h a Sakti w h o is
i6. G a n g a d h a r a m u r t i . Souih gopura, Cidambaram.
p r e s e n t In t h e C i t S a b h a ( n o r m a l l y , in o t h e r t e m p l e s , u n d e r t h e p a r a l l e l
n a m e o f B h o g a âkti). K r i y a $ a k t i , t h e t h i r d o f t h e t r i o , is u s u a l l y
c o n s i d e r e d to b e D u r g a in C i d a m b a r a m .
In o n e v e r s e ^ i v a lists his l i a i s o n s ; in a n o t h e r v e r s e w h e n h e and
P a r v a t T a r e r e c o n c i l e d h e lists t h e m o s t f a m o u s p l a c e s o f his w o r s h i p :
'You are her friend.

'You must soothe M y noble lady.
'Her heart has been filled with anger
'towards Me
'through
'My fun and games
'with the women dwelling in the Daruka forest;
'My rape of Hari
when he was a woman on Mount Meru;
'My conncction with the Divine River;
and My burning up of Lxjve.'
So saying in all frankness
He sent Jaya to the women's quarters.
The Goddess 143
I worship H i m -
H e ' s h a r d to get -
W h o s e foot is c u r v e d . (257)'^
T h e r e a r e m a n y f a m o u s S i v a t e m p l e s , a n d in a c c o r d w i t h a l o n g
s t a n d i n g p o e t i c a l f a n c y i n I n d i a , S i v a t a k e s t o t h e a i r v^rith P a r v a t T a n d
gives her an aerial v i e w .
Often He and His Beloved mount the Bull

and He shows her -
'Look, Gaun,
'Here's My excellent abode,
'the golden p>eak called Kedara;
'here's K ^ ,
'and here's KaficTpuram,
'here's excellent Arunagiri,
'Svetaranya, Vedaranya,
'and the Causeway,'
but every day He comes back
to His own place,
Cidambaram,
His home.
(23O'®
In addition to m o v i n g through space, the divine c o u p l e often m o v e
t h r o u g h t i m e t o suit t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f v a r i o u s sthalapuranas, P a r v a t T t a k i n g
h u m a n birth, a n d then b e i n g married to Siva. U m a p a t i gives just o n e
i n s t a n c e o f this.
Gaining the lotus-hand of Katyayani

in her father's ashram -
that ascetic
who put down darkness,
whose heart experienced bliss
through understanding the meaning of the Vedas
learned from the face of the sun -
He, constantly protecting the mass of beings
drowning in the exceedingly frightening ocean of sarmara,
is eternally victorious in Sivapuram.
(i8o)'7
KALI
The N m a Sabha contains a shrine to Ordhvatandava Siva.'® Here Siva

is today said to have defeated KalT in the dance competition by raising
The Dance of îva
his leg to his head. A small image of dancing KaH is on the ground beside
the Ordhvatandava murti. However, the walls of this shrine are clearly an
addition to the original structure, the fine pillars being pardy concealed
within plain stonework. T h e shrine has its own wood-framed copper-plated
roof, as does an open area before it of some 36 sq m which thereby
constitutes a mandapa to the shrine within the main Nrtta Sabha, the rest
of the structure having a flat roof. T h e open area would have been
sufficient for the performance of a single dancer.
The small statue of dancing Kali here is her only representation in a
shrine of the temple; in the alcove of Urdhvatandava on the Y^zstgopura a
small Kali stands to Siva's left, and to his right in the South gopura.^9
KalTs dance is not mentioned in the chief sthalapuramy the Cidam-
baramahatmya, nor in the Tamil version, the Kîl Puranamy but one of the
minor Sanskrit sthalapurmas does deal with it. This is how Umapati refers
to the dance competition:
Paiupati in ancient days

once danced with Kali.
In the assembly of gods and sages,
raising up His foot
and performing the elevated dance
He defeated Kali then
as prelude to her expulsion.
And all the gods and chief sages call Him Lord,
and the sinless ones worship Him every day,
Lord of the High Dance.
I worship. (46)'°
THE T I L L A I KALI TEMPLE
The classic simplicity of C51a art was created at the height of the
dynasty's power. O f R5jaraja III who reigned until 1256, the historian of
the Coias says, 'an incompetent ruler under whom confusion increased
and the dissolution of the Cola kingdom was hastened'.^' Refusing
tribute to Sundara Pandya, he was subsequently captured by that king's
ally, the K5dava K5pperunjinga, and held in the fortress at Cendaman-
galam. In 1231 Rajaraja was released by his Hoysala allies. It was this
warlord, Kopperunjinga, who built the shrine of the present-day K a l i
temple, about half a kUometre to the north east of the Nataraja temple,
on the northern boundary of the city.
The Goddess 145
Tillai K ^ has the unusual feature of four heads, which are said to
represent the four Vedas, though I know of no textual explanation.
Brahmacandesvara in the main temple might be relevant, for this too is a
unique combination with Brahma, and perhaps relates to the claimed
Vedic affiliations of Cidambaram; the Tillai I ^ I i temple also claims to
follow 'Vedic' ritual.
When KaE who is Brahmacamundika,

bom from the fire of GaurTs anger,
terrifier of demons,
a portion of Brahma the Creator,
at His fierce high dancing
hung down her four faces
in shame
and so exceedingly praised Him
to assuage her sin,
He, His eyes filled with compassion,
took care of her
and made her the protector of His holy place.
(283)-
Alone of the Sanskrit sthalapuranas, the VyaghrapuraMâtmya deals with

the dance competition. It does not mention the four heads of Kali, and
might therefore predate the installation of that murti. T h e three thousand
Diksitas, the munindras, witness her defeat, her dance not being described,
only Siva's plethora of technical movements, culminating in a non-technical
conclusion - 'placing one foot on the ground he put the other in the
sky'.'^3 KalT hangs her head, and draws in the dust with her toes, a
reminiscence of Parvatl doing so in happier circumstances in Kalidasa's
account of Siva's wooing. Not only do the Diksitas in the Vyaghrapura
Mahatmya witness K ^ ? s defeat, they proceed to lecture her on proper
behaviour: one should not boast in the presence of the great, and so on.
KalTs role as protector was already brought out in a verse earlier in the
poem:
When KaE had eaten a portion of the hdlahala poison

and slain in battle the demon called Danika,
as BhadrakaE She shook the world
with Her horrific power.
He went forth to meet Her,
countered Her,
and showed Her the Dance of Bliss in the cremation ground.
The Dance of îva
It is through Her
that the Lord protects all the worlds.
Him who is worshipped by the sun and the moon
(I92)»4
This is closely based on an episode in the Lifâ Puram, with one

important omission. T h e Uhga Puram gives the following account.
O Brahmans, they approached Brahma and told him everything. Accompanied

by Brahma they went to Siva . . . 'Damka is really fierce. He defeated us at the
outset. You must protect us and kill the demon Daruka who can only be killed
by a woman!'
Hearing Brahma's submission, the blessed Lord Siva, Destroyer of Bhaga's
eyes, faindy laughed and said to the Goddess, Daughter of the Mountain, 'I ask
you now, O beauteous woman, for the welfare of the worlds, to slay this Daruka
who can be slain only by a woman, O woman with a lovely face!'
Hearing his words, she. Mother of the World, intent on taking birth, entered the
body of God (Deva), she who is the Queen of the Gods Pevesi). A portion of her
entered the Lord of the Gods (Devew), the best of the gods; but Brahma and the
other gods with Indra at their head did not know this. Even all-knowing Brahma
was deluded by her Maya and saw the beautiful Daughter of the Mountain at
Siva's side just as before. Parvati, having entered into the body of the God of the
Gods, made a body for herself out of the poison in his neck. And being aware
that she had so transformed herself, Siva, the Foe of Kama, emitted KaK with
his third eye - her neck was blue and her hair was matted.
When she was bom, her throat black with the black p>oison, then the other gods
became confident that there would be complete victory - though it had not yet
occurred - for the Supreme Lord (Paramesvara) and his consort (BhavanI). But
when the hosts of gods and Siddhas got a good look at her they fled in terror, for
she was like fire, black, her black throat embellished with poison - Visnu,
Lotus-born Brahma and Indra led the way. An eye was manifest on her
forehead, the white digit of the moon was prominent on her head, the terrible
[poison] on her neck, the sharp trident terrible in her hand, and she had her
ornaments. Along with her, Siddha-lords and Siddhas, and Pisaca-demons were
born . . .
At Parvatfs command the Supreme Mistress (Paramesvari) slew the demon
Daruka who had been slaying the lords of the gods. By the excessive pervasion of
her violent emotion, by the fire of her anger, all this world was afflicted.
But Siva who is Being (Bhava), to drink up the fire of her anger, cried in the form
of a baby boy in the burning ground full of ghosts, through illusion (Maya). She
saw the baby boy who was the Lord (Isana) and was deceived by his Maya. She
picked him up, sniff-kissed him and gave him her breast. Then along with her
milk he drank up her anger. With this wrath the boy became the Protector of
Holy Places (Ksetrapâ). And of that wise Ksetrapala there became eight
forms. And thus by that boy her anger evaporated.
The Goddess 147
Then to show favour to her, the God of Gods performed the Tandava dance at
dusk, he the delighted Trident-bearer along with all the goblin-lords and ghosts.
The Supreme Queen (Paramesvari) after drinking her fill of the nectar of Mild
(Sambhu) Siva's dance herself danced for her own delight, like a^fjgimamidst the
ghosts. All around the gods, Brahma, Indra and Visnu in their midst, bowed
down and praised KalT and then Queen ParvaD too. Thus the Fierce Dance of
the Lord Who bears the Trident has been briefly described to you; but others
say that the Fierce. Dance of the Lord is brought about by the bliss of yoga
{yoganandd)?'^
What is omitted in Umapati's verse is the giving of milk by KalT to

the baby Siva. T o have included this would have demeaned Siva. T h e
striking exchange with which the episode ends, KalFs milk for the nectar
of the dance, places KalT in too favourable a light to be appropriate for
the Kuncitmghnstava. With regard to the Lihga Parana, we may note that
this episode there follows the story of the origin of Ganesa, and is itself
followed by an account of Upamanyu receiving the Milk Ocean; this is to
say, the unnatural son who does not receive milk is followed by two
instances of extraordinary giving of milk.
T h e mention of Upamanyu reminds us of his appearance in the
Cidambaram sthalapuTana\ and the name of the demon, Daruka, reminds
us of the Daruka forest which is prominent in the sthalapurana. Even for a
demon remarkably litde is said about him - the only information is his
name. T h e only other-occurrence of this word is as the tree and forest. It
is in this Daruka forest, according to the Cidambara Mahatmya, that the
first performance of the anandatandava takes place. T h e Uhga Parana
episode closes with two dance performances - Siva's evening tandava
dance {tmdavam/ samdhydyam),'^^ and KalFs dance after drinking the
nectar of Siva's dance. T h e occurrence of the tarulava dance arouses the
suspicion that the demon Daruka is somehow a transposition of the
Daruka forest episode. This suspicion is confirmed by the closing words
of the episode: 'Thus the Fierce Dance of the Lord W h o bears the
Trident has been briefly described to you; but others say that the Fierce
Dance of the Lord is brought about by the bliss of yoga (jogdnanda).' This
is an alternative explanation of the dance of Siva, designed to pull the
rug, so to speak, from beneath the Cidambaram story. T h e chapter
begins with the sages asking Suta how Siva's dance began {nrttdrambhd).
The term yogdnanda is cunning: nowhere is Siva's dance said to be
brought about by yoga, though as we have seen in chapter 5, it is
identified with the dnandaoîht Upanisads. Reference ioyogdnanda, then,
is an oblique reference to the dnandatdndava without a formal recognition
of its existence. T h e alternative version of Upamanyu that follows might

also be an attempt to detract from the Cidambaram version.
There is yet one more element in the Uiâ Parana's story that points to
Cidambaram, or rather another element deliberately designed to refute
the Cidambaram version of events, though in this case not the version of
the Cidambara Mdhdtmya. I refer to the dance of Kali. It seems to me to be
a deliberate inversion of the dance competition between Siva and KaE.
That K ^ drinks her fill of the nectar of Siva's d a n c e , and literally 'up to
her throat' neady complements her earlier drinking of Siva's poison, and
Siva's drinking of her anger along with her milk; nevertheless, I suggest
the primary intent of the narrative is to refute the story of the
competition. (The Unga Purdm is said by Hazra to be no later than looo,
but he admits the possiblity of later interpolations.)'^
There is also the question as to why Umapati should refer to this
account. In answer it must be said that the above interpretation would
probably not have occurred to him; and what interests him is that Siva
counters KalTs horrific power, and transmutes it to protective power.
Further, Umapati's verse suggests that it is on her account that Siva
danced in the cremation ground. T h e cremation ground was the only
place of Siva's dance for K a r a i k ^ Ammaiyar, and the usual place as far
as the Tevaram trio were concerned. But Manikkavacakar seldom refers
to it. Umapati continues this trend. It is precisely the anandatandava, the
creation of the Cola court, that makes the burning ground an
inconvenient site. Siva's dance is now beneath the golden roof of the
Cit Sabha.
The Linga Parana does not use the name BhadrakalT, but the Goddess
under this name would have been constandy before Umapati's eyes,
since she figures on the Cidambaram gopura, the identification spelt out
by the incised caption on the statue on the West gopura. Similar images
are on the South and North gqpuras. However, what the image in
question actually represents is not clear. Its form holds the attention.
Harle describes it thus:
The goddess has eight arms and apparendy stood with her right leg raised and
placed on the recumbent 'asura'. lioth her legs are now broken. The goddess
wears a crown (ratna mukuU?), with a large flame aureole behind it. Both
contain snakes and other figures. From the goddess' right ear-lobe dangles a
small human figure; from her left ear hangs a large circular ear-ring in the
interior of which is a bird. She has a third eye and tusks, but her excessively
ghoulish expression is probably due in part to a broken nose. There is a rope of
snakes above the goddess' breasts, which are particularly fat, and a sacred
E
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thread of small spheres (skulls?) passes between them. Many of the goddess'
hands have been broken off and it is not easy to distinguish any of her hand
emblems or gestures.
The 'asura', holding a sword in his right hand, has fallen to a crouching position
on his knees. He has a human head, with slighdy grotesque features, and wears a
crown. Behind him, a bhuta-like creature with tusks and a small sword holds one
hand around the top of the asura's crown.'®
Harle attempts no identification other than noting the similarity of the

goddess's pose with that of MahisamardinT, and declaring 'This is
evidently a representation of the $akti in combat with an asura.* R .
Nagaswamy makes a clear identification, saying of the West image, 'KaU
here appears as Sumbha Nisumbhasiidani in which form she was popular
in the C o l a p e r i o d . H i s italicization of S u m b h a is significant, for the
one other instance of this form is called only Nisumbhasiidani. T h e
name itself comes on high authority, for the Tiruvalangadu copper
plates of Rajendra C o l a I state that when Vijayalaya conquered the city
of Tanjavur he installed the image of Nisumbhasudani and ruled his
country by her grace. This image has been identified as that worshipped
as 'Vadabhadrakali near the eastern gate'.3° Nagaswamy observes that it
is a 'unique sculpture . . . exhibiting the tremendous power with which
the Devi shook oflT the mighty asuras and emerged victorious. It is also
illustrative of the grim determination with which Vijayalaya C51a was
able to throw oflf the yoke of the Pzillava power of the north and the
menacing power of the Pandyas of the south . . . W e may say the great
period of Kali worship begins with the installation of Nisumbhasiidani at
Tanjore.'3'
Nagaswamy does not give a description of the image he publishes, but
there seem to be two figures beneath the goddess rather than one, which
would strengthen Nagaswamy's argument.^^ However, although our
understanding of the nature of Kali is augmented by consideration of the
Tanjavur image, Nagaswamy's suggestion does not bear close examination.
In the case of the yNeslgopura image, the crucial one because the earliest,
the middle figure, between the goddess and the 'asura' is clearly attacking
the asura. If we turn to the South gopura image, although the matter is
made more complicated by the middle figure appearing feminine,
certainly there too the middle figure is, so to say, on the side of the
Goddess rather than the victim's; and its erect hair is in the K a l i -
Bhairava style.
How, then, is the image to be explained? Umapati provides the clue in
verse 52:
The Goddess 151
When D a k ^ proceeded to sacrifice

•without inviting Paramasiva,
Gauri his daughter
going there to her father
and seeing her husband put to shame
entered the fire.
He, the Lord, creating
the thousand-headed hero Virabhadra
and KaE used them to bring about
the destruction of Dak^, and of others.
(52)33
I suggest that the 'demon' is Daksa and the middle figure Virabhadra.
This myth has a long and complex history, going back to Rudra's
exclusion from the sacrifice in Vedic times, and from the Mahdbhdrata
onwards affirming Siva's superiority to the Vedic sacrifice. Umapati's is
a late version, the historical development being first Siva himself doing
the destruction, then Virabhadra, then Virabhadra and Kali. This
development perhaps mirrors the growing importance of Kali. T h e
Goddess is called BhadrakalT in the versions of, for instance, the Kurma
Parana, the îva Parana, and the Tamil Kanta Paranam. In the Cidambaram
gopura versions she becomes the dominant partner in the assault, though
Virabhadra retains the executive role. That Virabhadra is decidedly
unlike the powerful figure of the texts is to be explained not only by the
artist's desire to promote B h a d r a k ^ , but also the sculptural impossibility
of fitting two overwhelming images in the same niche.^ In the version of
the îva Parana both Virabhadra and KalT are thousand-headed, but the
iconographic texts prescribe only the one head for their images. In the
yêsl gopura image Virabhadra is clearly in the act of beheading Daksa. It
might be questioned why Daksa, if it is he, is holding a sword. The
version of the Kanta Parmam states that Daksa thought it shameful to run
away and resolved to fight V i r a b h a d r a 3 5 - hence the sword. The head of
the victim is also significant, for it looks much more like the head of a
Brahman than of a demon, and a Brahman with a goat-like beard.
K A L I AS S I V A ' S D E S T R U C T I V E FORCE
When Visnu took on the body of the Man-lion

and had his great body broken in battle,
yet he came roaring before Him.
A mighty parrot did He become,

the chief of sarabha birds,
and from the fire-pit of the eye on His forehead
at once created a KaE
with ten thousand faces -
the Fierce Antagonist was her name -
and sent him, like a good oblation,
to the fire of the tip of her tongue.
(I26)3fi
Kail is thus made a product of Siva's special form assumed to put
down Visnu's fiercest form. T h e Sarabha was a popular murti in the
twelfth century, as will be discussed in chapter 8 on the other forms of
Siva in the poem. It is especially noteworthy that the Nrtta Sabha that
commemorates Urdhvatandava's defeat of Kali also contains a Sarabha
shrine.
Kail emanates from Siva in a way parallel to her earliest historical
appearance in the Devimahatmya (c. sixth century), when she comes forth
from Ambika, as alluded to above in verse 283, 'born from the fire of
Gauri's anêr'. A n obvious element in the origin of such stories is the way
a person's face becomes black with rage. This hypostatization of emotion
is perhaps most powerfully developed in the sequences of goddesses that
populate the sections of the Sricakra. In this verse the distortion of Siva's
face into that of a bird's then reverts to human form, but form that is
feminine and multiply feminine.
A point of contrast is a passing implication, in a verse where all
compounds begin with k, of Siva smiling at KaE: 'His heart is delighted
by K a i r s dance.'37 Umapati may have in mind Manikkavacakar's Kirii
Tiruvahaval:
He dances 'mid the company of beauteous Tiger-town,
That golden beauty like Himalaya wears,
There to Umai, whose roseate mouth is filled with sweetness.
And to Kali grants the beauteous smile of His blest countenance.3®
DRAUPADT
In Cidambaram, in addition to the great temple and the minor stone

temples already mentioned, there is a variety of hut temples to various
Goddesses, with low-caste pujdris. T h e r e is no reason to think the
situation very different in Umapati's day. T h e inclusion of Goddess
shrines within great temples that can be traced from the thirteenth
century onwards, demonstrates the intrusive pressure of such deities on
The Goddess 153
formal and official Sanskrit gods. Although only Durga is admitted to the
devakostha of the standard Cola temple, she is the representative of a
whole throng of Goddesses.
There is at least one Draupadi temple in Cidambaram today, to the
north-west, and one passes by it when going to Singarattottam, the site of
Maraiftana's asrama, where Umapati would have stayed with his new
teacher on being banished from the temple, if his biography is accepted.
T h e importance of the Draupadi cult in historical times should be
remembered when we read Umapati's verse on her former incarnation:
A certain woman named Nalayani

was the good wife of Mandavya, a famous ascetic;
she desired to do
what was pleasing for her husband.
To allay the fire of the curse he uttered
she clouded over the radiance of her beauty.
By meditating on His mantra
she acquired five kings as her beloved husbands,
such as could hardly have been won by any other woman;
and ako the state of Siva free from rebirth.
(224)39
This story is a striking expression of the power of female sexuality.
Nalayani is a good wife {satT) not least because she remains devoted to her
foul-smelling and eventually leprous husband. She is unperturbed when
one of his fingers drops oflTinto the rice bowl, and eats the rice. Pleased by
this action, the husband grants her a boon. She asks for him to take on a
fivefold body and grant her sexual fulfilment. He accedes to this request,
but after thousands of years tires of it. She begs him to continue, but,
angered by her importunity he curses her to have five husbands in her
next life to assuage her lust. She is greatly upset at this fate, and practises
severe austerities, amid the five fires, to seek Siva's help - dulling the
radiance of her beauty in the process. Siva promises five husbands each
the equal of Indra - these, of course, will be the five Pandavas she will
marry as Draupadi. The Mahabhdrata makes no mention of the pancaksara.
The story is a doubled mirror-image of what happens in the epic: she
wants the fivefold sexuality, but then she doesn't. Here as throughout
events are painted over with a high gloss, so that brightness is the prime
characteristic. The epic story is reduced to a good wife praying to Siva
and gaining success. The brightness of Siva's grace overshadows
everything else. Nevertheless it is permissible for us to look into the
shadows, which are made more emphatic by the dynamic of the poem.
SRTVIDYA AND SRICAKRA
From this subsidiary form of the Goddess, we turn now to her highest
manifestation. As we saw in chapter 3, the poem begins boldly with the
most esoteric form of divinity in Cidambaram, which is a modification of
the pan-Indian esotericism of the Goddess in the form of Sricakra.
T h e role ofyantras in worship in Cidambaram is a complex issue,
concerning which I have only limited information. Somasetu Diksita in
his Sanskrit introduction to the Festival section of the C i d a m b a r a m
ritual text, declares that there are five principal cakras in the R a h a s y a
part of the Cit Sabha, namely the ^ncakra, the Sivacakra, the
Dhvank:akra, the C i n t ^ a n i c a k r a , and the Sammelanacakra,4° However,
this comes at the end of thirteen sets of five elements constituting the
temple, and is perhaps constrained by numerical determinism. W h e n
Pataftjali in the text speaks of the Sricakra and otheryantras on the wall
of the Cit Sabha, the editor gives as footnote a verse listing nine cakras,
adding the Tandava, the Lalita, the Ganesa, and Skanda cakras to the
above five. All seem clearly to be based on the Siicakra, and there can
be no doubt that by Umapati's day Saktism had penetrated to the core
of Cidambaram worship.
T h e first two verses to be considered in this section come at the
beginning of a group of verses that is of exceptional interest. This group
as a unit will be considered at the close of the chapter. T h e first verse
concerns the Sivacakra, 'His Cakra', the Sncakra so to speak comman-
deered by Siva; but the second verse concerning their joint presence in
the centre of the cakra - which I take to be the Sammelanacakra - is so
closely connected with the central S ^ t a tradition and the most famous
and accessible of Sakta texts, the Saundaryalahan, that it seems best to
discuss it here in the chapter devoted to the Goddess; and as we shall see
the group as a whole concerns the Goddess.
The faultless worship His Cakra every day,

His body, within the radiance of true form,
shines brightly on all sides
as far as the fourteen-cornered enclosure,
joined with His Sakti on His left
He comprises the beauty of the golden filaments
of the eight-petalled lotus.
His Cakra is pervaded with the Siva mantras,
Mohana etc. in the Chamber of the Thousand [Petals].
(109)4'
The Goddess 155
T h e 'fauldess' (anaghdh), as throughout the poem, are the Diksitas,^® but

the term in the case of Cakra worship has a special significance, in as
much as worship of the Sricakra lays greater stress on personal purity
than does any other Hindu ritual system.
Siva with the Goddess beside him fills the fourth enclosure marked out
by the fourteen comers that stands within the eight-petalled lotus.
Mohana might refer to the outermost of the nine enclosures of the
Sncakra (and those cakras based on the Srlcakra), which has the name
Trailokyamohana. Siva stands within the prabhavali that is OM.
Rajaganesa Diksita says that this verse is a further description of the
Cidambaram mantra with which the poem begins (verses i and 2); he
then quotes two verses from Tirumular's section on the Tiru-v-ambala
Cakram:
Letter Five is the seat of Nandi

Letter Five is Holy Mantra
Letter Five is Divine Chakra
Letter Five is Lord's abode.
How do you see the Dancer?

Many are the ways;
Chant first Letter of Dance (Ci),
Thou with Dancer will one in thought be;
That is the way to see the Dancer truly. {Ttrumantiram 934, 935)
B. Natarajan, the translator of these verses, notes, 'Even the chanting

of the first letter of Sivayanama is enough to enable the devotee to
envision the Dancer.' T h e Tirumantiram is one of the most important texts
in the history of Southern Saivism, and without doubt, because of the
lack of early commentarial tradition, the most obscure. This quotation
does not at first throw much light on Umapati's verse, but we should
surely bear in mind the two verses that follow in the Tirumantiram.
Kindle the Fire (Kundalini) where it dormant lies

Chant letter na that is in the chakra
Then the symbolized na
Brings the Lord there.
She Herself Grace grants
If upward you lift Kundalini;
She Herself granting Grace
High above in Sahasrara places thee;
There do you chant Her syllable ma
You shall indeed be placed
Like a gem of ray serene. (Ttrumantiram 937, 938)
Should this mention of the thousand-angled cakra be connected with the

verse in hand? Tirumiilar's ecstatic sequences remain tantalizingly obscure.
At all events, from the point of view of the structure of the poem, it is
notable how closely verse 109 relates to verse n o , which follows, an
intimacy of connection that is found perhaps only in the first verses of the
poem and in another couple shortly to be discussed. It is as if, in these
cases, the symbolic density of the topic has some magnetic force that
influences its successor; or, to put it another way, as if the density of the
subject-matter demanded a second verse for proper expression.
In the middle of the earth circle,
within the eight and sixteen-petalled lotuses,
within the forty-three angles,
in the Bindu,
in a delightful jewelled palace surrounded by
continuous multitudes of Kalpa trees,
He, with Devi,

seated on a golden couch
whereof the legs are formed by Brahma and the others,
and [SadajSiva forms the plank,
is worshipped by the gods with Visnu at their head;

(110)43
T h e most famous source for this is the notable and most widely read
Sakta text, the Saundajyalahan, ' T h e O c e a n of Beauty', attributed to
ârtkara.'W
Fortunate but few

are those who worship you
the swelling wave of consciousness
and bliss
amid the ocean of nectar
on the island of jewels
encircled with groves
of heavenly wishing trees
within the mansion of wishing gems
with its groves of kadamba trees
on your couch formed by Siva
where you recline
on die lap of Paramasiva. {Saundaiyalahan 8)45
T h e same idea is expressed in Saundaryalahan^^, with the further point

that Siva as the Goddess's seat seems to be her bedspread, since, himself
white in colour, he now reflects her red colour and further seems to be
erotic rasa incarnate. W e saw the reverse above in verse 149 where rasa
The Goddess 157
seems to flow from the Goddess's golden breasts. And yet for Umapati,
Siva is firmly and dominandy smgara rasa in himself; he is only apparendy
so in the Smndmyalahari, where the source of power is the Goddess. And
for Umapad, Siva is seated beside the Goddess, insinuated into the heart
of Saktism.
T h e sequence of verses following 8 in the Saundaryalahan \& interesting
here and perhaps parallel. Verse 9 states that the Goddess rising up from
the mulMhara cakra through the other cakras sports in secret with her lord
in the thousand-petalled lotus. In verse 10 she goes back down again; in
verse 11 there is a description of the Sricakra. There may here be a
convergence between all three texts, our poem, the Saundajyalahan zxvA
the Tirumantiram.
Also to be noted here is a passing reference to Siva as tnkomsthitijusam,
'present in the Triangle', (280, where most words begin with tr or tr)
which plainly refers to Siva's position in diyantra and which Rajaganesa
Diksita takes to be the Sricakra. Indubitably, the hz&\cyantra, the core
reality here, is the SrTcakra, which is subjected to various and perhaps
ill-defined modulations. But ill-defined is an inappropriate qualification
here - it is rather a question of the shimmering, the rippling of
imagination's power.
I turn now to the Srividya, the intimate correlate of SrTcakra worship.
There are some grounds for claiming that the second century of verses
has near its beginning, from verse 109, an injection of S ^ t a , or modified
Sakta esotericism that parallels the Namraja esotericism of the poem's
two opening verses, discussed in chapter 4; and this new element could
be said to be signalled in verse 101 which includes a brief reference to the
SriVidya, and Siva's colonization of it: he is 'Irikutasthitijusam', 'Who is
present in the Triple Peak mantra, the Trikuta'. Rajaganesa so takes it.
These peaks are the three divisions of the mantra: Vagbhava, Kama,
and Sakti.
His Jfiana Sakti,
enrapturing in the world of the Secret Place,
She who is the blessed great Sixteen Syllables,
the knowledge praised
by the gurus, Srinatha and Tantric heroes
she who is worshipjied by YoginI du&,
She who is Siva undivided from [His] Self,
She it is that the yogi searches for in his heart
and becoming free of mental constructions
is praised by mighty yogis.
Him, free of qualities,

I worship. (207)^'
A pair of verses, an exceptionally close pair, remains to be mentioned.

T h e y refer to the story of Lalita, a KaflcTpuram-based form of the
Goddess whose principal narration is the Lalitopak/âna, appended to the
Brahmmda Purana. T h e scene the first verse describes can be seen today
on the central ceiling of the mandapa of the Sivakamasundari shrine. T h e
paintings here, in oils, damaged by fire in 1989 look impressively
Victorian but were executed in i972.'»®
He was satisfied when He saw BhavanT

standing in Her chariot which was the Sricakra,
preceded by Her Saktis mounted on elephants and horses,
accompanied by Her companions
the Nityas, Varihl, and Mantrim,
displaying the Weapon Science of the Young Girl,
Her hands grasping all weapons,
on the battlefield,
in Her shining battledress.
I worship Him
that friend of Kubera, the Lord of Wealth,
Whose foot is curved. (i28)49
Here the static ultimacy of the Sricakra, diagrammatic form transcending

all phenomenal movement, is pressed into service as war transport.
According to the Lalitopakhyana Lalita riding in the Ccikraraja chariot is
accompanied by Mantrinl in the Geyacakra chariot and Dandanatha in
the Kiricakra chariot. Bhaskararaya (seventeenth-century) explains in
his commentary on the Lalitasahasranaman of the Lalitopakhyana that kiri
means 'boar' and that Dandanatha is VarahT.5° T h e Nityas are the
goddesses presiding over the fifteen days of the lunar fortnight; in the
sahasranaman Lalita is She w h o rejoices at beholding the rising valour of
the Nity^.5'
Creating the avatara portions of Visnu

on the battlefield with her ten nails,
the Goddess destroyed the Lord of Obstacle's jianfra
with the trunk of her elephant face that came upon her
from looking at the Lord of Love.
With His missile she destroyed the Daitya Bhanda

along with his city and the host of his sons.
The Goddess 159
She it is who resides in the ^licakra.

Him who performs auspicious deeds,
I worehip. (129)3'
These two verses are based on the Lalitasahasranaman rather than the
Lalitopakhyana.
I now return to the sequence of verses 108-14 (see p. 154). Peculiar
force is provided by what can be seen as the concluding verse of the
series. Umapati goes quite outside the usual Southern geography of the
poem by referring to the great poet, mahdkavi, of the twelfth century,
Snharsa, author of the Naisadhacarita - and the identification is exceptionally
precise since Snharsa names both his parents in colophons:
A Brahman called Harsa,
[here just a Brahman rather than a poet]
making use of the Cintamani mantra,

the Wish-fulfilling jewel,
obtained from his father, Snhlra,
sat in the cremation ground
fearless in the night
on the lifeless body of his mother, Mamalladevi.
Through His excessive compassion
he won back his mother
and attained all knowledge and other magic powers.
I worship Him Who bears a drum in His hand
and Whose foot is curved.
Here there is indeed a complete absence of a nutritive maternal breast;
or rather the son nourishes the maternal breast.The connection with
Nataraja seems particularly slight, though a Cintamani mantra does
feature in the ritual of the temple. This Cintamani mantra, however, has
nothing in common, other than its name, with the Cintamani Sriharsa
claimed to be the driving force behind his work. Note also the possibility
of a degree of fellow-feeling on the part of Umapati, himself a master of
mantras. If we accept the biographies, there might also be a degree of
wishful thinking, in as much as our poet, our Sivacarya, had some
embarrassment concerning a missing person. When Umapati gave
Saktinipata (immediate release through the power of the Goddess, Siva's
grace) to Suta the wood-cutter, that man disappeared in a flash of flame.
At all events, the verse remains somewhat bizarre and out of place on a
first reading.
If, however, we consider H a r » sitting on his dead mother in relation

to the verses immediately preceding it, an explanation suggests itself. In
the six verses (from io8 to 113), we have found a sustained presence of the
Goddess, even if slighdy muted by Siva. Thus, in 109, we are told that
Siva is present in the Sncakra; in n o , Siva forms the plank of the bed in
the centre, but we are to understand Siva here as Sadasiva and Siva sits
beside the Goddess on the golden couch. Verse 111 is a change of topic -
Siva's matted locks stream out; yet is there not an essential femininity in
long hair notwithstanding its being a badge of asceticism, and further a
certain consonance with G a n g a in Siva's own nature as presented here?
Verse 112 returns to the Goddess with mention of the Snvidya, along
with other mantras. A n d then,
Those who know the heart
of revealed scripture know
He Whose form is the dance
has but one Sakti to be praised.
She is Kail in Her anger, Durga in battle,
She takes the fonn of Visnu to protect the world,
in enjoyment She is BhavanT.
Jfiana, Kriya, and Iccha
comprise Her varied bodies.
At the time of universal destruction
She calms down and is absorbed into Him.
Him Whose son has an elephant's face,
I worship. (113)^
Although the manifestations of the Goddess are duly subordinated to
Siva, nevertheless there has been an irruption of feminine power that
provokes a probably unconscious reaction in the poet's mind, and the
next thing he does is think of S r i h a r ^ on his dead mother, inverting the
dominance of Kali over Siva, of K a i l sitting on Siva as a corpse, not
referred to, but brought to mind. T h e r e is a fine C 5 i a bronze in the Tillai
KalT temple of KalT with Siva beneath her feet.
This strange verse aside, Umapati's presentation of the Goddess, of
which a full account has just been given, is remarkablyjudicious and well
balanced, her various aspects given even-handed attention. However, as
we have seen, Umapati was slow to give full attention to the Goddess,
and she is allowed only a restricted role in the poem as a whole.
CHAPTER 7
Bhiksatana
Napiraja and his temple, âiva Siddhanta and yoga, the Goddess and
the Sncakra - these form the core of Umapati's worldview. They do not,
however, provide a complete picture of Umapati's understanding of the
Dance of Siva. Other aspects are of some importance.
As was noted in chapter i, Siva's first performance of the Tandava
Dance followed his appearance as Wandering Beggar in the Daruka
Forest. Siva as beggar, Bhiksatana, features in a dominant position on
the gopuras of the temple, three of which must have been completed
around the time of Umapati's birth. T h e architecture of the gopuras is
such that there are two especially large niche sections on each of the
main facades, one either side of the doorway. Each gopura having an
inner fa9ade and an outer fa9ade, there are on the gopuras a total of
sixteen statues whose position is particularly imposing.'
O n all {o\xr gopuras each of these dominant niches contains one of four
images, Somaskanda, Kalyanasundara, Bhiksatana or KaAkala. The
four images form two pairs. Bhiksatana differs very little from KaAkala;
the former is naked^the latter is clothed. Kalyanasundara represents the
marriage of Siva and ParvatT; Somaskanda shows the married couple
seated side by side, with their son Skanda between them. T h e opposition
between the pairs is stark: the wandering ascetic as opposed to the
married man and his family. In the case of the East and West gopuras,
both inner and outer fagades have one married and one ascetic image.
O n the South and North gopuras, this opposition does not obtain: -each
facade has either two ascetic or two married forms. O n both South and
North^câs the ascetic forms face south, and the married forms face north.
The notion of God as Beggar is tautologous. Bhiksatana is a
sublimation of the wandering ascetic who defends himself with his
trident and his magical powers, and whose model is Siva. Moreover, in
the South the dominant literature, the Tevaram, codified a hundred years
or more before Umapati, was the work of itinerant singers who, if not
i6i
18. B h i k ^ ^ n a . E a s t gopura, Cidambaram.
beggars, had a parallel lifestyle. T h e n again, although the Sanskrit

tradition, and the T a m i l tradition also by Umapati's time, saw Bhiksatana
as principally active in the D e o d a r forest of the sages, this is arguably not
the case with the writers of the Tevaram, w h o speak of the women of one
village after another calling out to the beggar. T h e r e is a marked change
with Manikkavacakar, for he makes only three or four references to îva
seeking alms; this is no doubt a reflection of his very different lifestyle. All
four saints poured much of themselves into their poetry, and in
Manikkavacakar's case it may be supposed that for the former royal
minister Bhiksatana was an uncongenial version of his deity.
W e are dealing with a figure manifestly based on the human
wandering âiva ascetic. T h e technical term must be a Kapalin,
Skull-bearer, since in all cases he holds a skull cup, but more generally
surely any numinous wanderer is the model for this divine form. H e is an
outsider, who scares by his look; and sometimes charms. Dorai
Rangaswamy notes
the great transformation effected, by the Tamilians in the horrid and terrific
forms . . . these terrific forms with which Saivism started from its early
Bhiksdtana 163
beginnnings, are not so very prevalent in the Tamil Country... It is the lovable
forms and the dance of $iva that have captivated the Tamilians. More than this
the Tamilians have made the terrific forms themselves beaudful and lovable...
By transplanting the terrible and horrible fonn of Kapali to this atmosphere of
love and beauty, the Tamilian has worked a miracle; one gets the sublimation
and universalization of this story.''
Although Bhik^tana is mentioned in Umapati's poem only briefly, in

the Tevaram he is scarcely less important than Nataraja. Here is a typical
example of Cuntarar's presentation of Bhiksapina. Note the intimate
connection of begging and dance in Siva.
Draped in bark clothes,

a tiger's skin upon his waist,
he begged a seqjent for its skin.
He loves to go begging
for food.
When he stops, it is to dance
with fire, in the night:
his place
is Valampuram.
With the burning ground,

beloved of jackals,
for a stage,
our lord dances,
spinning steadily
as the music swells.
His Woman,
her curls twisted into braids,
is happy
as half of
that Fire Dancer whose place
is Valampuram.
Hawks haunt the reeking

begging bowl he carries;
his ornament
is ash;
matted hair is piled
high upon his head.
Palymra fruits fall

with a thud
to the ground
as he wanders from door to door

seeking alms
with his skull,
carrying off the women's dresses

with the alms he receives.3
There is an element of grim reality here, with the reeking begging bowl;
occasionally concern for modern taste leads Shulman to overstress the
grimness, as in Cuntarar's
He has trudged through the village streets

as he begged for paltry alms>
T h e poet-saints themselves may have trudged, but surely never Bhiksatana.

T h e essential grace of the God's movement is well brought out by A p p a r
in this hymn, also to the Siva of Valampuram:
The Lord has a blackened throat.

He is the Kapalin,
who destroyed Kala
by kicking him.
He wears the skin of the elephant
and carries the skeleton,
accompanied by mums and garuR',
he wanders playing on a riina.
With his charming smile he lures me.
With a certain swagger,
he entered Valampuram
and resides there.
He wears the silken garment on his waist
and sandal pziste on his body.
He came here gently dancing.
I asked him which was his native place.
He laughed, and as if taking my soul away
with his captivating smile
moved towards another house and entered Valampuram .5
Nagaswamy has pointed out that several features of this description

are notably present in the fine bronze (plate 19) the V a l a m p u r a m temple
possesses - the movement of the God's legs, playing the mna-very rare in
the case of a Bhiksatana image, and the charming smile; and that an
inscription in the temple, made in the reign of Rajadhiraja II, referring
to this image, uses Appar's very words in respect of it: vattanaikal pa^
nalantu, 'with a certain swagger' (literally 'slightly turning his leg').^
Bhiksatana •65
19. B h i k s a i a i i a . M t l a m p a r a m b n l l a n i , V ' a l a n i p i i r a n a t h a r tcniplt-.

Courtcs\-: F r e n c h Institute o f P o n d i c l i e r r v / Rcnle Kran(;-aise fl'l",\ti r n i e - O r i e n t .
Bhiksatana is often superbly rendered in bronze. Whereas the form

Nataraja undergoes a long development, Bhiksatana is simply a handsome
naked man. Here lies the earliest essence of T a m i l sculpture, the human
figure and nothing but the human figure. Again, whereas the Natoraja is
an attempt to capture the movement of a dancing god at the centre of the
cosmos, and carries an increasing theological load, the wandering
beggar has no such accretions and moves slowly and languidly to show
off his beauty. His essence is thus the more easily captured in the
immobility of plastic art.
T h e fullest expression of Bhik^tana in stone was achieved in the royal
temple at Darasuram. T h e impressive tableau originally in the mandapa
in the north-east c o m e r of the first enclosure is at present in the Museum
at Tanjavur. Siva as Kaiikalamurti is flanked on one side by the wives of
the seven sages and on the other by fiveô;^ playing musical instruments.
BHIKSATANA IN T H E CIDAMBARAM TEMPLE
A Kankala in a significant position is the one in the Nrtta Sabha, facing

north, but though the pillars of its niche are original the sculpture is a
poor modern copy. A naked woman of the type c o m m o n in m o d e m
gopura-stucco is to the God's left. However, its position shows the implicit
connection of Bhiksatana with dance. O f no less interest is the m o d e m
painting on the wall above the D a k s i n ^ u r t i shrine, where a properly
youthful Bhiksatana shows, however facilely, a grace of movement
which is hard to capture in stone.
Where Bhiksa^na does his begring is an interesting question. T h e gen-
eral impression seems to be that Siva begs only from the wives of the r ^
in the D a m k a forest en route to Varanasi to gain release from the sin of
cutting off one of Brahma's heads. But this is to reduce the significance of
his begging, and to subordinate it to other stories. This aspect of Siva is
clearly modelled on the universal Saiva wandering ascetic, and is limited
neither in time nor space. T h e limitation of which I speak is applied even
by David Shulman in his translation of Cuntarar, Shulman declaring in
his Introduction that Cuntarar's 'favourite myth' is 'the myth of Siva's
entry into the Pine Forest'.7 However, this bears no relation to the text,
which shows women in a variety of villages addressing Siva the beggar.
He is from the wilderness — ' O handsome lord from the wilderness'®
rather than visiting the Pine Forest sages in their forest seclusion.
E v e n t h e S a n s k r i t P u r ^ a s w h i c h m a i n l y s i t u a t e t h e b e g g i n g in t h e
Pine Forest, d o not d o so exclusively. In the Kurma Parana S i v a w a n d e r s a s
Bhiksdtana 167
20. Kahkalamurii from Dar.isurarn. C. I 171).

a beggar for alms, in the usual sequence, after cutting o f f B r a h m a ' s fifth
head, as Kalabhairava:
He put on a strange appearance
that shone with his radiance,
a holy sacrificial cord,
his gleaming three eyes.
After drinking the divine nectar,

the bliss of the Supreme Sacrificer,
the Lord comes to all the worlds,
rich in graceful playful delights {Rlavilasabahulo).
When they saw Saftkara
the black-faced Kalabhairava,
endowed with the beauty of a handsome body,
women followed him.
They sang all sorts of songs,
they danced in front of the Lord,
and when they saw the smile on his face
they arched their brows. {Kurnia Purana ii 31,71-6)
H e then goes to Visnu's world and kills his gatekeeper. O n l y then, in

this account, does he g o to the Pine Forest.
In Umapati's verse, although the d e m a n d s of the C i d a m b a r a m story
mean that the scene has to be the Pine Forest, there is no sense o f place: it
is generic and universal b e g g i n g and response.
'Sir monk, where do you live,

in town or mountain, or in the forest?
Why do you wander here?
Speak, lord,
where will you go?
Stop and do your begging right here.

You must play with us.'
Thus the women, beside themselves,
rushed up to Him in the forest
(232)9
N o t e the use o^ strainam, m e a n i n g both an assemblage of w o m e n and
also w o m e n in general. T h e same word is used in the Kurma Purana
passage quoted above: the L o r d comes to all the worlds, . . . w o m e n
{strainam) followed him. Both verses take for granted the glorious b e a u t y
of the wanderer. T h i s b e a u t y is clearly stated in another verse:
Bhiksatam 169
It was He who made known the 32 raga&,

His face all the more like a night lotus come alive
from the stream of clear nectar from the moon on His crown,
delightful with His unrestrained song.
In the forest He held immobile
the throng of the sages' wives,
He, the complete embodiment of the erotic,
Seeing Him, Visnu's illusory form
determined to marry Him.
• •• . (i3or
This powerful verse begins with technical enumeration - Siva makes
known the fundamentals of music by example. But this singing,
produced so efTortlessly and gracefully that there is no call to mention the
God's mouth, flows out alongside the radiance of moonlight that bathes
his face. Although it is day, emotionally it is the night. By implication, the
lotus faces of the women are no less brought to life by the unearthly
radiance of the intruder. Brought to life, yet held motionless. So far, the
revealer of the complete complex of music reaches out to the complete
group of women, from the elements of music to the audience - then, like
a hammer blow in the course of the verse, or a drumbeat, the conclusion
to this the principal part of the verse, the phrase of consummation -
sawasârampam^ 'He, the complete embodiment of the erotic.' T h e
verse carries on, with a kind of coda. Visnu forgets the part he is playing,
and so far forgets himself that he wants to marry Siva. Siva's performance
is universal, and Visnu is only apparendy a fellow performer. In fact he
too cannot resist the show.
Here only the deer and Kundodara show that this is Bhiksatana. This
majestic figure is truly regal, and a fold of fat separates the deep and
expansive navel from the Kirtimukha of the sumptuous waistband. T h e
skull and three peacock feathers form the front of the magnificent
headdress, which is topped by the elegantly folded locks suggestive of the
foliage of the fig-tree Dciksinamurti sits beneath. Absorbed in his art,
Siva holds an absent vind with supreme self-confidence.
It is as sawasi^drarupam that Siva sends Parvatrs handmaid, Jaya, to
soothe her when she sulks about his misdeeds:
My fun and games

with the women who live in the Daruka forest;
My rape of Hari
when he was a woman on Mount Meru;
(257)"
In the sthalapuram it is this f o r m o f ^ i v a t h a t l e a d s i n t o N a t a r a j a . T h e

erotic ascetic, w i n n i n g t h e h e a r t s o f w i v e s , d e f e a t s t h e h u s b a n d s ' a t t a c k
a n d d a n c e s a d a n c e o f t r i u m p h in S a r g a 11 o f the Cidambara Mahatmya, as
w e s a w in c h a p t e r i. U m a p a t i ' s T a m i l version follows the Sanskrit
especially closely, a n d b o t h texts m u s t h a v e p r o f o u n d l y i n f o r m e d his
p i c t u r e o f S i v a . A s I s u g g e s t e d in c h a p t e r 3, it m a y b e t h a t Umapati
p r o d u c e d the final v e r s i o n o f t h e Cidambara Mâtmjia and himself wrote
s o m e o f the verses that t h e T a m i l f o l l o w s so c l o s e l y . "
T h e following extracts f r o m the M^dtrrrya a r e from Visnu's account of
e v e n t s to Sesa. W h e n V i s n u c o m e s t o seek his d a i l y a u d i e n c e , Siva
i n f o r m s h i m that t h e y a r e to visit t h e s a g e s in t h e P i n e F o r e s t :
For that reason I will take on

a wonderful handsome form,
infatuating,
radiant to the eyes
like the rise of the moon.
Then God Mahadeva, adorned with all ornaments,

the Lord, shone with the radiance
of the headjewels of gods and demons.
Divine jewelled sandals were touched by His feet-lotuses,
His body shone with the dazzling white dhoti He wore.
He was adorned with a sacrificial thread shining on His chest.
He gleamed with a showering of the ash
carried [in a bowl] on the head of a large bhuta [beside Him].
He flourished a skull in His left hand and a drum in His right
He was splendid with the bud of beauty
on the vine of His neck.
The Lord adorned His holy body
T o make its beauty shine.
There was the sprout of a smile
on His lotus face that shone
with the petal of the lower lip.
He was charming with His ear-ring
that was a wave of the ocean of beauty.
The coquetry of His eyes shone out
and achieved the delusion of the world.
The disc of the moon on the expanse of His forehead
shone in the drops of sweat there.
Bhiksdtana 171
He really shone with a shining bright round tilaka mark.

His smooth curls were delightful with crooked rows of bees.
O SeM, with His supreme body that surpassed coral,
the Lord began slowly to move, like a mountain of coral.
{Cidetmbaram Mahatnâ 11.37-46)
Accompanied by V i s n u as a v o l u p t u o u s w o m a n , Siva g o e s to t h e Daruka
forest.
Going then to the beautiful asramas

where the great ascetics dwelt
He stood in the outer courtyard of each.
Sounding. His drum there again

with a joyful face,
the jingle of His priceless anklets
brightened the three worlds.
Then when women were coming

from inside the asrama to give alms
He gave them the eye
and made a million suggestive gestures.
Then from here to there

the Blessed one, Siva the Mild, Sambhu,
in His disguise as mendicant
was besieged by women
whose minds were thrown into confusion
by passion.
Some, their hands busy arranging their unsteady tresses,
let their girdles and clothes
drop right there.
Some praised the very bright radiance of His smile.
Some asked straight out
for the pleasure
of embracing Him.
Some, not having any cooked rice to give Him
took grains
and approached -
the grains were cooked in their hands
by the fire of Love.
Tormented by Love
who had released his irresistible arrow,
they placed His alms on the ground,
thinking it a vessel.
21. W i v e s o f the Rsis. C e i l i n g p a i n t i n g , S i v a k a m a s u n d a n mandapa, C i d a m b a r a m .

Seventeenth century.
Bhiksdtana 173
Some, eager to show respect,

put a flower in a vessel
and threw it at His feet,
while looking at
His lotus face.
Some left hastily to get Him rice for alms,
But the rice became cooked
By resting in their hands. They spilled it
On the ground rather than in His bowl.
Some were confident He was a lover they had known before,
some believed He was Kama, the God of Love, bereft of his wife Rati.
'Crocodile-bannered Love
has taken this form
and fired all his five arrows
simultaneously',
declared some.
'Where are you off to,
leaving me delusion
as I come to give you alms,
as the sun leaves darkness
for night?'
'Though I drink the nectar of your beauty,
it's fire to my deluded heart!
Make my wish come true!'
said one to Him.
'Seeing you - that made my bangles drop off.
Give them back right now
and be off with you!
If you can't give them back,
you mustn't go on from place to place!'
So one woman,
delighting in Him,
held Him back.
Saying 'Come hither',
some showed their firm breasts
to the holder of the begging bowl skull
as they showed the way to their ashrams.
Some said,
'Do whatever you please
where you please!
Anywhere on the ground
can be home!'
The Dance of îva
Some declared,
'O lord! whatever piece of ground
takes your fancy -
even in another wood -
take us to that ground.'
One said to Him,
'O lord! a lot of alms
will be given you in my house.
Don't go to any other house.'
'Our lives seem to be in danger.
Embrace us and give them back to us!'
So said some.
Lest Love torment us
in the guise of Yama who is Death,
protect us!'
some in their fear besought the Beggar.
Gazing at handsome Siva as He was there,
some women danced for joy
in their delight at seeing Him,
and kept on dancing.
Even while the dance, a lovely sight, continued
some women, smitten with love,
gestured theatrically.
As though driven by Love's arrow shots,
so hard to bear,
some young women ran swiftly after Mahesa.
'Why do you hold out this skull of yours as an alms bowl?'
some, oppressed by love unconquerable,
asked the Lord.
As if asking the Lord
'If you don't respond,
think what will happen to us. Lord!'
some kept beside Him.
Seeing Him come for alms
the women pressed against Him,
disturbing their braided hair,
their garlands, necklaces,
and all their ornaments.
Some other lotus-eyed ladies,
as their girdles and saris slipped down,
suddenly fell on Him,
pierced by Flower-bowed Love's arrows.
Bhiksdtana 175
In such ways did the lovely wives

of the ascetics all behave,
young ones drunk with their youth,
those in their prime, and the old.
Gready deceived, the women there

were splendid in their wiles, for the moment.
Long and loud laughed the Trident-bearer.
{Cidambara MafMbnya 11. 37-46)
T h e gopuras are evidence of the importance of Bhiksatana in

Cidambaram; and the paintings on the ceiling of the îvakamasundarT
mandapa may well have been substituted for faded Cola originals
elsewhere in the temple.
T H E FIRST P E R F O R M A N C E OF T H E AN A N D A T A N D A V A DANCE
In the beginning âmbhu the Mild along with Mohini

was strolling in the dense wood called Daruka.
Deluding with His beauty the wives of the Brahmans,
and that throng of silent sages by Visnu's illusion,
nullifying the magic attack the Brahmans staged.
He took pity on the Brahmans, and displayed His Dance.
(4O)'3
Thus Umapati describes in the Kuncitahgknstava how the first performance

of the Dance of Bliss came to happen. T h e account in the Cidambara
Mahdtmya, Visnu's narration of events to Sesa, continues Jis follows:
And I shall tell how I behaved towards all their husbands,

great-souled ascetics that they were,
even in front of their wives.
I instandy became a woman
such that the great sages would think me
neither chaste nor a courtesan,
and stood beside the Great Lord
who was gendy laughing.
Looking intently on my face,
supremely intent, as if upon Brahman,
they committed a succession of offences,
bringing about rebirth for themselves.''*
Then some of the old men among them,
rich in asceticism, were extremely angry.
'Who is this man in the guise of a Kapalika,
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Bhiksatam 177
a Skull-bearer, who has boldly come into our hermitages

and at once puts an end
to the c o n j u ^ fidelity of excellent wives
- fidelity that is the foundation of the universe.'
They released the arrows of fierce curses.
They released them
but saw them come straight back
without hitting Him.
The fury of all those eminent sages was not allayed.
Some maintaining restraint
tended the pits of their sacrificial fires
- as though they wanted Him to stop
and perform the Tandava dance.
In the pits they put fires - and made them blaze,
so too blazed the mantras they muttered.
With the whole range of materials fit for such ritual,
there in the divine Devadaru wood,
the resort of sages, directing them at the Lord of Visnu,
stainless Siva, who destroys all faults,
those ascetics unreflectingly performed black magic {abhicara).
As they p>erformed that terrible ritual in the wood,
their hearts and eyes blazing with the fire of anger,
an extraordinary tiger shot from the fire,
seemingly created by the flaming circles of their furious eyes.
It seemd to split ofjen all the quarters with its roaring
and the sage-lords hurriedly directed it
against the auspiciorus Lord who is the destroyer of all.
Then the great Lord softly smiled
and with His fingernail joyfully
killed that tiger which terrified everyone.
With His nail He cut off its skin and put it on.
Accustomed as He was to divine clothes,
yet He shone, the skin gleaming like a silken cloth.
And then a snake arose from the fire,
attended by bhutas, the burning fire of its poison
unstoppable, its eyes blazing, a gem on its hood.
Terrible, like a heap of darkness,
hissing unbearably, directed by the sages
it rushed towards Siva the Mild.
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22o 'The Dance of îva
The snake rushing at Him,

a gem blazing on its hood,
the God made a bracelet
on His auspiciously marked hand.
Before the ascetics
who while behaving hostilely because of delusion
were yet His devotees,
He took His own form out of compassion for them.
Those lovely locks of His
became tawny matted hair.
He started to perform
the preliminary step (prastaoampajda) of the Tandava dance.
And two more excellent hands
were seen on Him by the sage-lords,
and the Great Lord bore an eye on His forehead
and black on His throat.
There arose a Creature - as if the darkness
that previously had been swallowed by those blazing fires
was vomited forth again by them in a compact lump.
Its hair was tawny with the flames
from the hot coals that were its eyes.
It had the body of a dwarf,
a great mouth with long tusks,
and its arms moved frenetically {lasadbhujam).
Massed ranks of snakes attended it.
Casting fear aside it hurded at Sankara.
The Great Lord was about to begin His dance
but, when He saw it, joyfully crushed it with His lotus foot
and made it there a foot rest.
They, finding Him unconquerable
by the highly dangerous means at their disposal,
hurled the fire itself upon Him, infuriated.
But He playfully caught it
as it hurded towards Him with its ring of flames
and kept it on His auspicious palm.
And then the sages of great strength
wondered what was hapjjening.
Overwhelmed by their anger,
they threw mantras at Him.
Siva caught the mantras used by the sages,
made them into a heavy foot ornament of heavenly beauty,
and put it on to His foot.
BhiksaUma i8i
Then Mahadeva,
His charming burden of matted locks swaying,
concentrated on the Tandava dance,
beginning gendy,
for He is an ocean of compassion.
Then those sages who in their delusion
had sent fires and mantras, exhausted,
were briefly filled with alarm,
feeling themselves weaponless.
Then in a flash with the great speed
of His Tandava they lost consciousness
and fell down on the ground.
I too was not at ease.
At His side when He began the Tandava,
I felt great fear like never before.
He speedily put my fear at rest
with His hand resplendent with the snake bracelet.
He thought of Parvati and she came.
When the daughter of the Himalaya
came beside Him, then the gods in heaven
in delight rained down flowers;
•
and at the same time, by Hb command

I left off" the extraordinary form of a woman
and again assumed my divine form,
auspicious and innate.
Then ParvatT, the supremely illustrious
wife of Sarva, 'Siva the Bowman', Sankara's darling,
adorned as before the side
of Him Who is the Teacher of the World.
She, the Goddess, Mother of the Universe,
her face like a blooming lotus,
when she saw me said, 'Well done, well done!'
and was much amused for a good while.
Then Lord Siva Himself, resplendent,
the embodiment of compassion,
His tawny matted locks undulating
as they stretched to the horizon on either side,
a lotus hand gleaming with the flickering
light of the fire, His blazing eyes
now flooded with overflowing compassion,
filling all the quarters with the terrible beat

from His damant drum which rivalled
the extraordinary hurricane that explodes at the end of time,
the jewelled anklets tinkling on His lotus feet
that are praised by all reverent people
in the eight points of the compass,
and gready frightening Parvati at His side
with His hand that shone
with the gleaming snake bracelet,
then Sambhu, Whose form is the world itself,
began to perform the Tandava quickly,
His tiger-skin garment fluttering
in the speed of His circular movements.
Faster than even I could see,
He made 'Unending' Sew into a bracelet
for Himself with His slighdy curved foot
that was charming with its mobile anklet.
Uma, the Goddess, at His side,
was distraught with fear
- ujxin her He looked with intense compassion.
And all the while
He performed the Dance of Bliss {anandaiandavdj.
Then to Parvati the Lord said,
'Drink the rasa of this Tandava'
and He commanded Nandikesvara,
'O buU, enjoy!'
And then all those sage-bulls
who had been stuf)efied were humble
and said ' O Siva! O Sartkara! O God!'
They said, 'Glory to Uma's Husband,
to the Moon-crested God, to Sambhu!'
He gave them the eye of wisdom
so that they could see the Tandava.
Then Sambhu was splendid in the dance.
His eyes dancing with compassion,
purifying the forest with the lustre of His gende smile.
As if He wanted to trample to death

that Creature which looked like
the agglomeration of their sins,
He stood with one foot on it.
Bhiksdtana 183
T o destroy the sins

that they had accumulated in life after life,
He showed that auspicious foot that was slighdy curved.
Through the compassion of the God of Gods,
those ascetics saw the festival for the eyes
that is the divine Tandava Dance of Supreme Bliss.
When they had seen the supreme dance of Sambhu
they were filled with joy and wonder.
Taking their water-pots and staves
and holding them aloft,
thrilled to the depths of their being,
possessed by the rasa of Siva's bliss,
they danced, reddening the forest
with the shaking of their matted locks.
Praising Him, the gods surrounded the Great Lord,
heaping handfuls of beautiful flowers before Him,
crushing some with the tips of their crowns
as they bowed at His feet.
Narada and other skilled musicians,
their hands adorned with mnas,
stood stock-still, not singing,
not knowing what to do.
Then all His bhutas there in front of Him
performed a weird and wonderful dance at sp>eed. .
All the ganas, overexcited,
performed all sorts of dance routines,
falling down and getting up over and over.
Then the God who is the Great God,
pleased at heart, said to those sages
whose goal was Brahman
and whose hearts were deeply satisfied,
'O Brahma, Visnu, Indra and you other gods!
O great sages! Listen. What I have to say
has never ever been heard before.
Praised by all the gods,
m y A n a n d a T a n d a v a , D a n c e o f Bliss,
is t h e rise o f t h e full m o o n
f r o m t h e g r e a t o c e a n o f s u p r e m e bliss.
Think of it as the symbolic form {lihga) of Siva,
a n d w i t h t h a t in m i n d
25. N a u r a j a . V e d a r a n y a m , c. 1200.
set up a Siva lifiga in this very wood

that is my auspicious dance hall,
and worship it unweariedly.
Worship of this lihga will be
the sole cause of enjoyment and release,
and by it you will attain the supreme unending state,
unobtainable by other means.'
Having spxjken thus, the Blessed One,
the Mountain-lord, with a glance at Gaun,
quickly disappeared into the sky,
O Sesa! with His great spouse, MahabhavanT.
Then the gods bowed joyously
in the direction in which He had gone,
and returned whence they had come,
deeply satisfied with having seen Siva.
Bhiksaâ 185
0 ^ s a , with my mind fixed on it,

1 have continuous and measureless bliss.
N o w I think on that alone,
and am indifferent to my Yoga-sleep.
{Cidambara Mahatnya 13.1-74)
CHAPTER 8
Bhairava the Terrible and other forms of
A l t h o u g h B h i k ^ t a n a is f a r m o r e p o p u l a r in t h e S o u t h , a n d i n d e e d is
characteristically S o u t h e r n , t h e f o r m o f B h a i r a v a , ' t h e T e r r i b l e ' , is c l o s e r
to the g e n e r a l v i e w o f the essential n a t u r e o f $ i v a . In t h e N o r t h B h a i r a v a
is o f t e n a d a n c e r ; o r r a t h e r D a n c i n g S i v a , w h e n m e n t i o n e d , is likely t o b e
c a l l e d B h a i r a v a , the d a n c e b e i n g a d e s t r u c t i v e d a n c e . W h i l e B h i k s a t o n a ,
in the S o u t h , expresses t h e e r o t i c i s m t h a t u n d e r l i e s N a t a r a j a , B h a i r a v a is
the p u r e d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r that N a t a r a j a transmutes into rhythmic
m o t i o n . B h a i r a v a also carries a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l o a d . In t e r m s o f m y t h o l o g y ,
B h a i r a v a is o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d to b e a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f S i v a , b u t in t e r m s o f
m u c h T a n t r i c p h i l o s o p h y h e is i n d e e d t h e full f o r m {pumarupa) of Siva.'
A t the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e ^taratnasarrâha, U m a p a t i discusses t h e v a r i e t y
o f scriptures that issued f r o m t h e five f a c e s o f S a d a s i v a . O n o n e v i e w e a c h
f a c e p r o m u l g a t e s five t y p e s o f scriptures. B o t h t h e S i d d h a n t a a n d t h e
Bhairava T a n t r a s are o f the type called mantrika - the f o r m e r gives mukti,
the latter destroys o n e ' s enemies.^
In T a m i l n a d u t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r o f S i v a is c o n v e n i e n t l y s u m m e d
u p in the E i g h t H e r o i c D e e d s , e a c h o f w h i c h is a s s i g n e d a p a r t i c u l a r
place. Timmantiram 3 3 9 - 4 6 s e e m s to b e the earliest listing of the
at^viraUanam. In T i r u m u l a r ' s o r d e r , t h e s e a c t i o n s a r e i. T h e k i l l i n g o f
A n d h a k a . 2. T h e b e h e a d i n g o f D a k s a a n d t h e substitution o f a g o a t ' s
h e a d . 3. T h e c u t t i n g o f f o f o n e o f B r a h m a ' s h e a d s a n d the d r a i n i n g o f
V i s n u ' s b l o o d into his skull. 4. T h e b e h e a d i n g o f j a l a n d h a r a w i t h a d i s c u s
m a r k e d but o n the g r o u n d . 5. T h e d e s t r u c t i o n b y an a r r o w o f fire o f t h e
T r i p l e C i t i e s o f the d e m o n s . 6. T h e s k i n n i n g a l i v e o f the e l e p h a n t d e m o n .
7. R e s c u i n g the b o y M a r k a n d e y a b y b a n i s h i n g D e a t h w i t h y o g i c fire,
t h o u g h this m e a n s s e e m s s p e c i f i c to T i r u m u l a r , a n d the n o r m is k i c k i n g .
8. B u r n i n g u p K a m a , t h e G o d o f L o v e . T h r e e o f these d e e d s i n v o l v e
d e c a p i t a t i o n . T h i s d e c a p i t a t i o n m a y relate to t h e self-castration o f S i v a .
T h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e d r a m a t i c a l l y s w i t c h e s to the N o r t h e r n v e r s i o n o f
the P i n e Forest m y t h , as g i v e n b y t h e Kurma Parana:
186
Saints, dancing girls, 'ganas' - and Apasmara 187
Siva the Mild in his gracious play

plucked out His Uhga - the cause of pleasure -
because of what the ascetics said,
and threw it away in the forest,
watched in fear by the gods
wondering what was happening.
But through the praises of Brahma and Visnu
He made those sages realize the truth,
and disappeared.
I bow to that Lord Whose foot is curved,
Who fulfils those who bow down to Him. (258)3
This divine gesture of self-mutilation is variously described in the Purar^.
When the Urtga w ^ cut off the Blessed Bhava, 'Being', vanished, no beings were
visible in the universe. And then all was confused. Nothing gave off light. The
sun gave no heat at all, and fire had no light. And even the planets and
constellations were topsy-turvy. {Brahmanda Parana 1.2.27. 35"®)
When they saw Siva, the Mountain-dweller, in disguise, walking along naked,
they cried, O you scoundrel, rip off that Uhgal SaAkara, the Great Yogin, said to
them, 'I will do so, if you really hate my linga.' So saying the Blessed One, the
Gauger out of Bhaga's eyes, ripped it off. And from that instant they could see
neither the Lord nor Visnu nor the linga. Then indeed there were bad omens,
spelling danger for the world. The thousand-rayed sun did not shine. The earth
shook again and again. All the planets lost their lustre and the great ocean heaved.
[Kurma Puram 2.37.40-3)
In the $iva Puram the sages said:
'Your behaviour is immoral and violates the Vedic path. Therefore let your
penis fall to the gound.' And when they said that the Uhga instandy fell on to the
ground. . . . And that lihga like fire burnt everything before it. And wherever it
went it burned things. And it went into the subterranean world and it went to
heaven. It went everywhere on earth. In no place did it become stationary. All
the worlds were thrown into confusion. Those sages were deeply troubled.
{&va Puram, Kodrudrasarîta 4.12.17-183, 19-21)
Siva's lihga while on his body had provided order and stability for the
universe, performing there the role it performs within shrines. In the.first
two versions, everything collapses without this vital element. In the third,
where there is release of energy rather than just its absence, the sages
rather than Siva are the active cause of the lihga falling, and its response is
reactive. In the Cidambaram myth, all opposing forces are absorbed
within the dance. T h e complexity of the iconography of the dance

absorbs its rivals. T h e lifiga is simple - it is either present or absent; it lacks
the accommodating spirit of the dance.
Here is a summary of the version given in the T a m i l sthalapuTona of
KancTpuram, a version based largely on the Kurma Purana.
On the Mufijaman peak cfMeru, five-headed Brahma appeared before some

sages, and told them, 'From me the universe originated, and in me it will
dissolve. All beings are under my protection.' The Vedas heard this claim and
rushed up to declare that the Saiikara is the Supreme Being. Brahma denied
this, and said that Rudra could never be the essence of om. om thereupon took
form to declare that Mahesa was its sole master. Brahma paid no heed, and
continued to vaunt his own glory. Visnu then claimed to be the Supreme. The
two gods began to fight. Seeing this from on high, Siva presented himself before
the combatants. Brahma, still living in a world of his own, dared to say,'Welcome,
my son!' These words angered the Lord. His anger manifested itself The god
Bhairava came from his body and throwing himself on Brahma cut off one of his
heads. Brahma then recognised his error, and begged the Lord to spare his life.
Siva forgave him, but informed him he would have to make do with four heads.
To abate the arrogance of Visnu and the other gods, he commanded Bhairava
to seek the 'alms of blood' from them. Bhairava went first to Visnu's world. He
drove offthe guardians of the palace and confronted the commander of Visnu's
army, Visvaksena. With a thrust of his pike, he speared him on the end of his
weapon. Visnii quickly appeared. Bhairava ask him for a gift of blood. The god
did not hesitate. He cut an artery on his forehead and let the blood flow into the
skull that Bhairava held out. The blood flowed for years and years, but the skull
did not fill up. Visnu fainted and fell to the ground. Bhairava helped him up,
gave him back his strength and fulfilled his desires. He then went to the other
gods and in the same way made them give up their arrogance, by asking them
for the 'alms of blood'. Then he went to Kafici. He put the skull on the ground
and removed Visvaksena from his pike. He handed him over to Visnu. Bhairava
then set up a lihga, Bhairavesvara, to worship. Compassionate Siva appeared
and told him to be the guardian of Kafici and to distribute the blood in the skull
among all the ganas. Those who worship Bhairavesvara (Vayiraveccurao) are
absolved fr9m all their sins. {Kancipura Mahatmyam 34)4
For Umapati, and for Nataraja this dramatic event is domesticated

within the temple. Not only is Brahma accommodated within the
temple, albeit in a subordinate role, and shared subordinacy at that, but
the head which in the Northern myths leads to such difficulties, is
installed beside Siva for all to see, now become a lihga. T h u s are the
pretensions of Kapalikas and % a - w o r s h i p p e r s in general effectively
dealt with!
Once in the past removing one of Brahma's heads

and placing it on His right side for all people to see,
He placed him, the Creator whose faces
are the four Vedas, on His left.
His command was, He Whose form is space,
'O Self-bom Brahma, from today onwards
do you enjoy the remains of the offerings made to me.'
(30P
But Bhairava is also said to perform a very active role:
Bhairava dwells in His holy place
and all creatures who die there have their sins,
including those from previous lives, turned to dust
in a fraction of a second at His command
with a blow of Bhairava's trident,
though many years would otherwise have been
required to work off their consequences.
Bhairava, dwelling in His Hall,
quickly teaches the essential saving truth
that destroys birth and death.
(159)'
Umapati must here be referring to the bronze image of Bhairava present
in the Cit Sabha today,' in the form of Svarnakalabhairava, though the
guardian aspect of this Bhairava is not emphasized today.
This Bhairava holds a damaru drum and a trident in his right hands,
and a noose and a skull in his left hands.
Very handsome, he is accompanied by a dog.
Formerly he turned copper placed at his feet
into gold and gave it to his devotees.
I seek refuge with Svarnakalabhairava.
Mahesvara as Svarnakalabhairava
holds a trident in his hand and is accompanied by a dog
which is the embodiment of the Vedas.
He ever gives all things to those who seek refuge with hrm.
He is the embodiment of the former merit
of the lineage of the lords of sacrifice [the DTksitas].
I seek refuge with him. {Devalastotra)^
In The History of Chidambaram, Somasekharendra Dikshitendra remarks.
Two hundred years ago Diksitas placed copper plates at the feet of this Bhairava
Murti at night and found them changed into gold plates the next morning. Then
it became their livelihood . . . Even today people who seek wealth offer special
pujas, to this God.9
Ramalinga Dikshitar says that the dog is an incarnation o f ' K u n d o d a r a

who carries Siva's umbrella'.'® Kundodara, however, can also be the
gtma who carries Bhik^tona's laden begging bowl, and this identification
of the dog brings out the Bhiksatana aspect of Bhairava, the two forms of
Siva being closely related. It is also true that the standard iconographical
identification of the dog with the V e d a is not such as to appeal to the
priests when the image has been admitted into the holy of holies, the C i t
Sabhi
i ^ a r t from the attribute of 'Gold', similar Bhairavas are met with
elsewhere in the temple, and in the poem, as boundary guardians, and
will be discussed at the close of the Bhairava section of this chapter. T h e
Bhairava w h o produces or attracts gold is a standard iconographic form
and is not unique to Cidambaram. Nevertheless, the presence of
Bhairava in the Cit Sabha is thought-provoking. Bhairava is the chief
deity and apex of an important set of Northern Saiva systems which had
a notable exponent in Cidambaram around the time of Umapati. In his
wide-ranging MaharthaTnemjan, Mahesvarananda makes the intriguing
statement.
Once long ago Lord Bhairava, who brings the universe into being {visvabhavana)
stayed in the great jewelled pavilion that is the space of consciousness."
Sanderson suggests that Mahesvarananda may be referring to the Cit
Sabha. Although the description of the C i t Sabha as a jewelled pavilion
{mandapa) is unexpected, it is made plausible by the fact that Mahes-
v a r i i a n d a subsequently refers directiy to the Cit Sabha, and indeed
seems to associate his own complex Tantric monism with N a ^ r a j a . O u t
of affection for his pupils he composed his book 'So that, O wonder! like
the Lord dancing in the middle of the Golden Hall {kanakasadas), Siva
who is self-reflected consciousness {vimarsa) is easily here before our eyes.''3
A n d again,
This book is as sweet as the Kaveri,
as fragrant as the water lily,
its importance is like that ofNatesa's dance.
There is also the tantalizing quotation of just one couplet from his
teacher's AnandatmdavaviBsastotra, a text otherwise unknown:
We for our pan praise your shining down
through the universe when you look outwards,
and when you look inwards
we praise your inner composure
comp)osed of the bliss of autonomy
arising from bringing about the dissolution of the universe.'^
Mahesvarananda teaches the philosophy of absolute {anultard) non-dual

consciousness 'which leads to liberation in this life in which freedom and
enjoyment [moksa and bhogd) are united'. In his commentary to verse 66 of
his Maharthamaigan, 'By this Reality whose essence is nectar, even if its
touch is only for a moment, every being that surpasses everything,
obtains perpetual and universal glory', he quotes this line from the
îvadrsti - 'When one has once known the gold of true reality, what good
are contemplation and the bodily organs?''® This kind of affirmation
makes one wonder how the Bhairava who attracts gold arose. This
standard iconographic form is a severe reduction in power and status of
the supreme Bhairava on whose authority moksa and bhoga are enjoyed in
this life. Could it not be a deliberate reduction in status of a hitherto
supreme Bhairava? Such a reduction need not have originated in
Cidambaram, though it may well have done so in the South.
In addition to the core story of his chastisement of Brahma, Siva
decisively demonstrates his authority over Visnu. Bhairava terrifies the
baby Krena:
At the Kalpa's end the oceans swell

and cover the earth seven times:
in the middle of the oceans lies Hari on a peepul leaf.
No sooner did he say, filled with pride:
'Here is no man other than me'
than he saw Bhairava carrying His trident,
and fearfully venerated Him with fresh praises:
(236)'7
Nor is it Bhairava's appearance alone that zilarms Visnu.
Portions of this Lord -

Sarabha, Batukaraja, Virabhadra and the others -
destroy the fierce actions of cruel beings
assumed by lotus-eyed Visnu and Brahma and others
in every kalpa\
also protect the whole world the whole time.
Meditating on Him in their hearts, they are victorious.
Him, Whose glory streams forth,
I worship. (203)'®
One of the most striking sections of the Kundtahghristava is from verses

122 to 133, a section which begins with an irruption of terrible power as
iga The Dance of îva
Siva destroys one avaiara of Visnu after a n o t h e r each aveUara goes o f f the
rails once it has achieved its intended purpose and has to be terminated
(122-5). There is a flutter in the rhythm as K a E in verse 126 repeats the
destruction of Narasirnha wrought by Siva in verse 125. Back to Siva in
verse 127 for the concluding destruction by Siva of a form of Visnu, as the
D w a r f s expanded form is ripped up. T w o verses on the Goddess, one on
Visnu as Mohini in the Pine Forest, then back to the sequence of avataras,
though no longer to be destroyed. P a r a s u r ^ a gets his axe by praying to
Siva (131); by worshipping Siva P a r a s u r ^ a killed the demon and got
other benefits also (132). T h e limited avatdra sequence ends with Kalkin
coming at the end of each K a l i j ^ a with a sword given by Siva (133). T h e
clear sequence oi avcUdras makes a radical shift after the interval of the
Goddess, now propitiating rather than opposing Siva. A nice touch is the
reference to the Goddess's creation of all ten avataras from her shining
fingernails (129). T h e n as a coda to the sequence there is reference to a
purely local myth of a multi-headed Visnu swallowing up a Saiva pilgrim
only to be killed by Siva (134).'® T h e theme of Siva defeating Visnu is
then abandoned.
After the opening section, which we have looked at in detail, this is by
far the longest coherent section. It is not without interruptions (shown in
italics in the list below), but this is because the alternating rhythm here
makes a larger and louder beat.
122 Visnu as Fish recovers Vedas from the ocean.
123 Visnu as Turtle intimidates - Siva cuts him up.
124 Visnu as Boar defeats the demon Hiranya.
125 Siva as Sarabha defeats Man-lion.
J26 Thousand-face KdR defeats Man-lion.
127 Siva defeats Vamana become Giant.
128 The Goddess defeats the demon BharuiasuTa; creates the 10 avataras.
/2g The Goddess is in the ^makra.
130 The sages' wives and Vimu as Mohini want $iva.
131 Parasurama meditates on Siva's dance.
132 Parasurama meditates on Siva, goes to Siva's holy places.
133 Siva pves Kalkin the sword he uses.
134 Multi-headed Visnu kills a Saiva and is killed by Siva.
T w o instances of Siva destroying Visnu are of considerable religious
significance and merit discussion here.
Saints, dancing ffrls, 'ganas' - and Apasmara 193
ÂRABHA
All the gods trembled in fear of Visnu

when he took on the body of the Man-lion,
so Brahma sang His praises and He took on
the excellent body of ârabha, the king of birds.
Speedily He cut him up with the dps of His claws
and adorned Himself with the skin,
illuminating the world with his fangs.
Him Who grants the wishes of all.
I worship. (125)®®
In the first place, the presence of a Sarabha shrine in the Nrtta Sabha
must be noted^ At the back, against the enclosure wall, facing north, its
proximity to U r d h v a t ^ d a v a and the small KalT is significant in that
there seems to be here a conglomeration of fierce power amid the elegant
panelled pillars. T h e Nrtta Sabha was probably built by Kulottunga III
(1178-1216), and there may be a special connection of the Sarabha with
royalty. There are only four known Cola images in stone, and the other
three are found in royal temples. T h e earliest is in the Vikramasolisvaram
at Tukkachchi not far from Kumbakonam, the only big temple definitely
constructed by Vikrama Cola (1118-35). There is a ârabha image at
Darasuram, and also in the Kampaharesvarar at Tribhuvanam, the last
of the four great temples built by the Coias, by the Izist great C51a king,
none other than Kulottunga III. At Tribhuvanam, the image is housed
in a separate independent shrine north-east of the central shrine, with a
metal image in addition to the stone one. L'Hernault remarks.
T h e sectarian a s p e c t o f this r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is u n d e n i a b l e for its app>earance w a s

m o r e o r less c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h the m o m e n t w h e n there existed s t r o n g
tensions b e t w e e n the S a i v a s a n d V a i s n a v a s at C i d a m b a r a m w h e n the k i n g
V i k r a m a C o l a (1118^1135) h a d t h r o w n into the sea the statue o f T i l l a i
G o v i n d a r a j a p p e r u m a l . W i t h the p a c i f i c a t i o n o f the q u a r r e l s f r o m the time o f
the f o l l o w i n g reigns it is n o t surprising that a f o r m o f s u c h m a n i f e s t agression o n
the p a r t o f Saivism w a s a b a n d o n e d a n d is n o t f o u n d a f t e r the 12th c e n t u r y . "
The royal aspect of the cult should also be stressed, and the bizarre form
could be seen to reflect the growing political stresses as Coia power
waned - desperate measures calling for desperate means. One niight
contrast Rajaraja's preference for the calm and stately Tripurari murti,
which exclusively occupies the niches on the second storey of the vimana
The Dance of îva
26. S a r a b h a m u r i i . A i r a v a t e s v a r a t e m p l e , D a r a s u r a m , c. 1170.
C o u r t e s y : F r e n c h I n s t i t u t e o f P o n d i c h e r r y / f ^ o l e Franiâise d'Extreme-Orient
of the Great Temple ofTanjavur. In the Kuncitahghnstava, the destruction

of Tripura is remarkable for its absence.®'^
ÂTTANATHA
An image of this form of Bhairava is to be found on the south wall of the

Deva Sabha at the eastern comer. This is an important deity of the
nearest major Siva temple to Cidambaram, namely Sirkali.®3 This
temple has two storeys above iht garbhagrha', the higher, with only a small
square window-like entrance, contains a shrine to Sattanatha. This deity
takes his name from his coat-like garment fTamil: cattd) which is made
out of Visnu's skin.
The temple Devat^totra has this to say of Satm or Kai^cuka Natha:
The god who bears the name of Bhairava
and'stands before a dog,
by Mahadeva's command went
to Visnu the Dwarf when he became large
and struck him on the chest with one hand.
Umapati puts it thus:
Visnu as the Dwarf,
having shrunk his body
to make his petition in Bali's hall of sacrifice,
and made his body grow from earth to sky
and placed his foot - itself the triple world -
on the demon's crown.
But then he terrified
the whole world with his roaring.
The hosts of gods praised Him
as He slew the dwarf
and ripped out his skeleton and tore off his skin.
I worship. (127)'+
VIRABHADRA
We have met VTrabhadra as B h a d r a k ^ s assistant in the beheading of
Dciksa; Umapati gives another description of this event, omitting KalT.
Visnu's cakra lost its fire,
Brahma's heart was in a whirl,
the sun had lost his teeth,
Indra's cheeks were split, Agni lost his flame,
and everyone else lost his life -
,g6 The Dance of &va — .
He was satisfied
when He saw Virabhadra cut ofTDaksa's head
and roam the sacrifice ground with the ganas.
Him Whose heart was delighted,
I worship. (24o)'5
KSETRAPALA
All of the violent forms of Siva so far considered have been agents of
punishment and retribution. Three verses refer however to the 'protector
of the holy place', ksetrapala. O n e verse refers to KaH, and has been
considered in chapter 6; of the others, one refers to Bhairava, one to a
local form.
Holding in His hand Brahma's skull

that cannot be filled even by
pouring into it the stream of blood
flowing from Visnu's forehead;
with hounds at His side,
His spreading matted locks
reddened by the lustre of the tips of His fangs,
Bhairava as Protector of the Field, K^trapala,
protecting the universe from torment, worships Him.
Him Whose foot is curved, I worship. (183)'®
This Bhairava does not differ from the Bhairava previously considered,
except that his protective role is specified. Given the importance of
protecting a holy site, not the least because its holiness is demonstrated
by the fact of its being protected, it is likely that the fierce forms of Siva
already considered are extensions of a primary protective function. T h e
guardian has to be terrible to scare offthe terrifying foe; indeed, he has to
be more terrifying than what is feared, if he is to be effective. Shortly
afterwards, a less imposing guardian is mentioned.
A wicked astrologer who lived on GodavarTs bank,

was an inveterate liar.
Reborn as a lizard, that rebirth took place
in His holy place thanks to the fraction of merit he'd earned.
In order to burn up his inauspicious actions
of falling on people and making ominous sounds
he long worshipped Him with hymns of praise.
By His command he was reborn with a handsome body

and was victorious as the Protector of His Holy Place.
Him who has no equal, Whose foot is curved,
I worship. (igi)'^
This refers to the Lord of Lizards, Palllsa, whose image is near
Daksinamurti on the west side of the Mula Liriga shrine, though the
temple Devatastotra merely has the prayer, 'Ward off the fault of a lizard
falling on us, make us happy.' Pallisa is a far cry from being a full-fledged
protecting deity, but then again it might be asked why Siva, Lord of the
Universe, needs a protector.
T h e answer to this is given by Biardeau:
The god of the great pilgrimage temple is - regardless of his name and his myth
- the pure divinity, withdrawn into himself, the god of ultimate salvation.
Furthermore, his most 'terrible' forms border on being considered improper for
worship, so dangerous are they even for the devotees themselves. These are
relegated to the most inaccessible of locations, where they are surrounded by all
kinds of taboos, a'nd only appeased by the appropriate offerings . . . In short,
even though the god is the master of the universe of which his temple is the
centre, he does not have direct function as its protector hie et nunc. This role is
delegated to an inferior god, with Bhairava being the classic territorial guardian
or ksetrapala.^^
Should a king be his own doorkeeper? But in the case of Siva the
distinction in forms is slight. We now turn to two fierce forms of Siva
mentioned by Umapati but not represented in the Cidambaram temple.
§IVA AS KILLER OF DEMONS ( A N D H A K A A N D J A L A N D H A R A )
Although the trident is an emblem of Siva, and he always carries it as

Bhiksatana and Karikalamurti, in these instances it is as ornament rather
than weapon to be used. When the sages send magical adversaries
against him, he does not use the trident. There are, indeed, grounds for
suggesting that it is emanations of Siva, rather than Siva, who typically
and essentially employ this instrument of assault. In what might be seen
as the standard iconography of Siva, the one important instance of Siva
using his trident is in the myth of Andhaka, where he impales this demon
on his trident, and holds him aloft, in a powerful upward thrust of 45
degrees. It could be that the Southern tradition preferred to make the
separation, to see Bhairava or VTrabhadra use the trident rather than the
stately Siva, and by this hiving off of Siva's terrifying aspects helped to
make, in Dorai Rangaswamy's words, 'the terrific forms [of Siva]
beautiful and lovable'. The K^ncimahatmya has Siva depute to Bhairava
the task of dealing with Andhaka: Bhairava impales the demon, and a
pool formed when he fixed his spear in the earth to remove Andhaka
from it.'^ T o d a y the trident is closely associated with goddesses - a shrine
marked only with a trident will always pertain to a female deity. T h e
trident is not a common weapon. It is best suited for catching fish, as
befits the weapon of Neptune, and it is essentially a ritual implement,
used to induce possession.^"
T h e Andhakari is rare in the South, so much so that Dorai
Rangaswamy is not certain whether or not Cuntarar refers to Andhaka,
the Tamil version of the word being Antaka, and thus referring either to
Andhaka or Antaka, the Sanskrit for Death, the 'Ender'. In considering
Umapati's reference to Andhaka, it will be fruitful to consider also
another demon, Jalandhara. Not only does Umapati mention them in
consecutive verses, in itself of course at first sight a sign of logical
incoherence, so too did Cuntarar, in both of his two mentions of Andhaka.
You cut off one of the Lotus-Dweller's heads.

You destroyed Andhaka with your fiery trident.
Once when Netumal,3' lord of Tirumakal,
was offering splendid worship
for many days,
a single flower was missing
from the (garland of a) thousand;
to fill the gap, he adorned you with the lotus
of his eye,
and you graciously gave him
the discus, victorious in batde,
O pure lord of Tirupputtur rich in groves.3®
He took the bright discus that cleft Jalandhara,
who wanted war,
and gave it to that excellent one
who used his bright eye as a lotus.
The lord who crushed Indra's shoulders
impaled Andhaka, who lived in darkness,
upon his trident.
and gave it to that excellent one.33
T h e myth o f j a l a n d h a r a is much richer in the South: not only is Siva

the source of Visnu's unique weapon, but Visnu becomes an exemplar of
the utmost devotion, since he gives an eye to make up for the missing
thousandth lotus in his offering to Siva. Umapati stresses Siva's
destructive power:
He, Sambhu, the Mild One,

He, Death's Destroyer,
slew the demon Jaladhara
with the discus created by His foot
and protected all beings,
thjeir bodies struck by the missiles and blades
of that one's wicked deeds.
All beings declare
He who slew the manifestation of His anger,
the demon Jaladhara, is to be venerated.
(48)34
T h e version of the Tamil Kanta Puranam is that Indra went to visit Siva.
T o test him, Siva takes the form of a naked yogi with matted hair and
blocks the way, not replying when Indra asks who he is. Indra threatens
the unknown person with his thunderbolt. Siva gets angry at this but, not
wishing to harm Indra, directs the fire of his fury into the ocean. There
Siva's anger takes the form of a boy, the boy becomes a righteous demon,
but his doom to is be beheaded by Siva with a discus that is then given to
Visnu.35 Note that the stary begins with Siva acting as door-keeper, and
that this role is the origin of the appearance of the demon who embodies
Siva's anger. In the version of the îva Parana there is a subsidiary
parallel. When the demon, led astray by Narada, demands ParvatT be
sent to him, Siva's anger manifests from his forehead and starts to devour
the messenger. Siva restrains it, as he does his anger at the beginning of
the story, and makes it devour its own body. When only its head is left, he
makes it his door-keeper, KIrtimukha.3®
So potent is Siva, anger is not necessarily required to produce
emanations from him.
Once on Mount Kailasa,

when the Mountain's Daughter was having fun
she covered over Pasupati's eyes.
From the darkness a demon arose.
T h e y called him Andhaka, 'the Blind',
and he was very wicked.
Being praised by all the worlds -
they were unable to bear the wickedness
streaming forth from the demon into the world -
by killing him He protected them.
(49)37
Siva's destruction of this demon is the first of the heroic deeds of Siva
in Tirumiilar's enumeration, but the story was never popular in the
South, and the priority Tirumular gives it might be a sign of Northern
influence. According to Dorai Rangaswamy, 'No sculpture of Andhakûra
Sarnhara comes from the Tamil Country. N o r is there any description of
it in the Agamas.'^® It is, however, worthy of note that both the demons
Andhaka and Jalandhara are 'sons' of Siva. Virabhadra is likewise an
emanation from Siva. In the case of Ksetrapala, cited from the Unga
Parana in chapter 6 above, Siva takes the form of a baby boy in 'the
burning ground full of ghosts'. David Knipe has described a contemporary
Virabhadra cult in Andhra where dead boys are said to become
VTrabhadra, and to possess men.39 Despite the long time interval, this
litde-knowri cult suggests a parallel with perhaps all of these myths that
see Siva become or generate an angry boy.
K I R A T A , § I V A T H E M O U N T A I N E E R
A story from the Mah^harata, particularly popular in Karnataka, is

Aijuna's wrestling match with Siva. Practising penance in the Himalayas
to win the dread P ^ u p a t a missile from Siva, the great bowman is
attacked by an asura in the form of a boar. Arjuna kills it with an arrow,
but a mountaineer comes up to claim the prey. T h e two men fight, and
eventually Arjuna recognizes the mountaineer to be Siva. H e submits
and wins the deadly missile.
Aijuna who wears a diadem was astonished

to be confronted by Him
in the playful guise of a mountaineer
with Gafiga on His crest,
poison in His throat,
a bracelet of a row of snakes on His arm,
the moon on His brow, a third eye,
a trident with prongs like flames,
the skull of Unborn Brahma,
an army of sprites and ghosts,
a dog that is the Vedas.
(260)^
T h e same event is referred to early in the poem, though probably with

a difierent iconography in mind. As PasupatamGrti Siva stands erect, not
unlike Bhairava, with hair upright, and figures on a side fa?ade of each
gppura.
Once He, Pasupad, Protector of the Bound,

on the Silver Mountain
made a gift of His Own missile
to Aijuna, descendant of P ^ u
- He'd taken on the body of a forester,
fought with Aijuna
and received a broken head.
(3I)4-
There is a locjd connection for this story, for Tiruvetkalam, where the
university town of Annamalai now stands, some 3 km from the temple, is
believed to be the place where Siva gave the missile to Aijuna.
fJanacampantar and Appar sang of this place; the temple, recendy
renovated, is dedicated to Pasupatesvara and Nallanayakl. T h e shrine
has two fine images dug up nearby, a Pallava Kiratarjuna and a late C5ia
Parvatl.
As with Bhiksatana, there is a masking of Siva's true nature that at the
same time is not a masking, since he has zilways been a wild god of the
mountains. T o be noted is the contrast between the physicality of the
wrestling match, so well expressed in Hoysala sculpture, and the hieratic
purely formal representation of the Pasupata weapon. T h e absolute
power of Siva playfully finds muted expression in hand to hand conflict,
but the reality under the illusion is the Doomsday weapon.
T H E S L A Y E R OF D E A T H
Mainly restricted to the South and very popular there is the representation
of Siva as the slayer of Death (Death of Death, kalakdla, 176, 241). The Tsi
Mrkandu, offered by Siva the choice between one good son to die at 16
and many bad sons, chooses the one, whose devotion to Siva is such that
when Death comes at the appointed time Siva bursts forth from the liitga
and tramples on Death.
When once Markandeya was worshipping
the lihga of the Lord of the Silver mountain,
then Death, son of the Sun,
of dread visage, drew him with his nooses.
The Great Lord came from the middle of the lihga
to protect that sage.
Then God killed Death the Suppressor.
That eternal Lord of Dance,
praised by all kings.
I worship. (35)+^
22o'TheDance of îva
27. K i l a n i a k a m u r t i . E a s t gopura, Cidambaram.
T o the north of the Nrtta Sabha a relief of Kalasarnharamurti on the

soutli side of a massive nineteenth-century pillar has been turned into a
shrine. Special pujas, are offered on the full-moon day in the month of
kartikai when every house is beautifully lit with lamps.
O f all the forms of îva considered in this chapter, only îva as the
Ender of the Ender has direct connections with the dance. Early versions
of this image show îva dancing on Death in a manner that resembles
dancing. Indeed, some images of this have been mistaken for early
instance of the anandatdndava, with Death seen as Apasmara.43
S O M A S K A N D A
Somaskanda is t h e g r o u p o f s e a t e d ^ i v a a n d ParvatI with Skanda

s t a n d i n g o r sitting b e t w e e n t h e m . In C i d a m b a r a m , the o n e shrine to
S o m a s k a n d a is o n t h e n o r t h f a c e o f t h e s a m e p i l l a r a s t h a t o f K a l a r i , t h e
t w o sides o f the pillar h a v i n g iron railings a d d e d to p r o t e c t b o t h shrines.
B e n e a t h S o m a s k a n d a a r e t h e five P a n d a v a b r o t h e r s . T o w o r s h i p t h i s
i m a g e , s a y s S o m a s e t u D i k s i t a , is ' t o b e b l e s s e d w i t h b e a u t i f u l c h i l d r e n ' .
H e r e p o r t s t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h e five P a n d a v a s p e r f o r m e d t h e i r R a j a s u y a
sacrifice here, w i n n i n g the throne b y N a t o r a j a ' s grace. A l o n g with the
image of Kalyanzisundara, Siva marrying ParvatI, Somaskanda is
p r o m i n e n t o n the^cûros. U m a p a t i ' s r e f e r e n c e i n t h e p o e m is i n d i r e c t , i n
t h a t h e is p r i n c i p a l l y c o n c e r n e d t o m e n t i o n T i r u v a r u r , w h e r e S o m ^ k a n d a ,
u n d e r t h e n a m e o f T y a g a r a j a , is t h e p r i n c i p a l d e i t y . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
Tiruv^r is a p p a r e n t i n t h e Cidambara Mahatmya, w h e r e i n u n d e r t h e
n a m e o f K a m a l a l a y a it r a n k s w i t h K a « ( V a r a n z i s i ) a s w o r t h y o f m e n t i o n
beside C i d a m b a r a m . T h e s e three places are great. O n e attains liberation
by being born in Kamalalaya, by dying in KasT, and by seeing
Cidambaram.44
Once Moon-crested Siva had betaken Himself

with the Daughter of the Mountain
to the park land of Kailasa.
As He sat there underneath an indira tree,
He was all at once worshipped by a lordly monkey.
To him He gave universal lordship
and a complete armoury of missiles.
I bow to the Lord
Who wears parijata and all other flowers,
and Whose foot is curved. (57)^^
Once it came to pass that Indra, the Lord of Heaven,

had his enemies destroyed by the king with a monkey's face.
Indra gave him the Tyagaraja deity
and also sent six other Tyagarajas to the king.
He worshipped these through the first-born
in excellent temples at the principal site and at all the seven.
I worship Him Who is the basis of those divine forms,
praised by the throng of sages,
His foot curved. (58)4®
These two verses are Umapati's most extensive reference to another holy
place, and reflect the importance of Tiruvariir, a Saiva temple scarcely
2f>.'4 77ie Dance of îva
j 8 . S o m a s k a n d a . E'.ast gopura, Cidambaram.

less important than Cidambaram, though lacking Cidambaram's

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a u n i q u e f o r m o f Siva.+7 S i x o t h e r t e m p l e s share
Tiruvarur's connection with Somaskanda. Somaskanda, moroever, was
o f s i g n i f i c a n c e m u c h e a r l i e r t h a n N a t o r a j a , b e i n g f o u n d in t h e c e n t r a l
shrine o f Pallava temples. N a t a r a j a w a s a C o l a conception. S o m a s k a n d a ' s
c o n t i n u i n g i m p o r t a n c e is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t it is t h e c h i e f
p r o c e s s i o n a l d e i t y i n all S i v a temples.^® E v e n in C i d a m b a r a m , S o m a s k a n d a
is t h e c h i e f i m a g e i n t h e B r a h m o t s a v a p r o c e s s i o n s , e x c e p t w h e n N a t a r a j a
is b r o u g h t o u t . S o m a s k a n d a c o m e s o u t e v e r y d a y .
During the three Brahmotsava festivals

in His form £ts Somaskanda He rides in a canopy
on a vehicle in the form of:
the moon, the sun, a demon, a bull,
a royal elephant, the Silver Mountain, and a horse;
as the Wandering Beggar on His own
in a chariot drawn by a wide-eyed bull,
daily He progresses through the streets,
bathes, and with Siva enters His own abode.
(26)49
O f all these forms, Somaskanda is furthest removed from the dance,
though it was of almost equal importance. Tiruvarur has three times as
many Tevdram hymns dedicated to it as Cidambaram. T h e importance of
the image is manifest on the Cidambaramô^ros and in the Cidambaram
festival. Its power lies in its inclusivity, joining the old indigenous god
Murukan with the Goddess and Siva, and it is the perfect iconographic
expression of the family unit. T h e two images, Na^raja and Somaskanda,
did not rival each other in their forms, the one full of energy, tension,
power, the other utterly relaxed and complete, the only expressed energy
in the bent legs of the baby boy.
We have in this chapter diverged widely from Nataraja, considering
other forms of Siva, and other temples. This has given some idea of the
incredible richness of the religious contexts amid which Siva performs
his Dance of Bliss. I close this chapter with a verse that sets the Dance
against the panorama of Siva's other principal actions.
Performing His dance
in the company of His lotus-eyed Sakti,
cutting off the head of Ka, Brahma,
slaying Time with His lotus foot,
Love with the eye in His forehead,
and the Cities with a smile,
2o6 The Dance of îva
protecting Markandeya, the son of the Brahma rishi,

and all the gods,
the Lord praised by the gods, the Lord of the Cit Sabha,
Who has a thousand faces, Whose foot is curved,
Him I praise. (90)^
CHAPTER 9
Saints, dancing girls, ^ganas' - and Apasmara
This chapter conjoins three very different sets of figures. T h e saints and
dancing girls {devaddsT, or rudrakanya) both played significant roles within
the temple, and together constitute the major human presence within
the imagery of the temple. These two are discussed in relation to Siva's
attendants, the hosts, or g a r ^ - multiple goblin-like figures, who are in
turn discussed in relation to Apasmara.
About dancing girls Umapati has little to say, partly it may be
supposed because the centre of his attention was the dance of Siva; but
also it is likely that he felt no need for their presence within his poem.
Their activity of dancing and singing before Siva was in some sense a
rival activity to the writing of poetry to Siva. Like the saints, the
Nayanars, they were specialists in devotion. As Reiniche says, 'dancing
and singing are also acts of devotion, and the dancing girls of the Saiva
temple are, following the pattern {mode) of the Nayanmar, equally atiydr,
servants of the salvatory divinity'.'
SAINTS
Let us first consider the saints. T h e Nayaoars, the sixty-three saints of

Tamil Saivism, constitute a significant element of the poerh.' A row of
images of these figures is found in every major Siva temple in Tamilnadu,
and their massed presence is an affirmation of the significance of the
devotee, who therein worships the archetype of himself T h e Sanskrit
poem here treats in its characteristic manner material that is peculiarly
Tamilian. Six Nayanars are each accorded a single verse, and they are also
referred to collectively. T h e relevant verses will be discussed in turn, and
then assessed in relation to the poem as a whole and to the life of the poet.
The Nayanars originate in a period prior to the C51a cult of Nataraja
and for the most part have no special connection with this form of Siva.
Their worship of Siva is focussed on the lihga and on the veneration of
207
S i v a |jla( u i ^ a w n - a t h o n C l a n c k s v a r a . B r h a d i s v a r a t f m p i c , G a n g a i k o n c l a c o h i p u r a n i ,
(. 1025.
Saints, dancing girls, 'gams' - and Apasmdra 209
other devotees of Siva.3 Their names are listed by Cuntarar in his 39th
hymn, the Tiruttontattokai ('the holy assembly of the devotees [of
Siva]'), and therefore belong to the eighth century or earlier, Cuntarar
himself being the latest and making the number up to sixty-three. Their
stories find full expression in the Periya Puranam of Cekkilar. In a short
poem entitled Cekki[ar Puranam Umapati gives an important account of
how Cekkilar came to write the Periya Puranam. It is also Umapati who
describes the discovery, and then the redaction, of the Tevaram, the
collected works of the three Nayanar poets, in his poem entitled
TirumuraiJumdapuramm. A fourth poet, or poet-philosopher, Tirumular, is
included in the list of Nayanars, though his writings seem considerably
later than the others.^ Manikkavacakar, who is often considered the
greatest Tamil poet, is not included in the list of the sixty-three
Nayanars, and is not mentioned by Cekkilar, though he is generally
dated around the ninth-tenth centuries, and is considered to be the
sixty-fourth Nayanar. There is in addition in the ranks of the Nayaoars
an important poetess, K a r a i k ^ Ammaiyar, who, however, though she
figures also in the general iconography of Nataraja, is not mentioned by
Umapati in his poem. T h e poetry of these poet-saints will be considered
in the finzil chapter.
Other than these great figures, the Nayanars are a varied collection of
historical and legendary people, whose claim to fame as devotees usually
consists in one startling and extravagant action of devotion. O f this
remainder, Candesvara is the most important, since he is the guardian of
every major Siva temple: in his charge are the keys, and his forgiveness is
sought for any errors in worship. From Coia times, property dedicated to
a Siva temple is made over to Candesvara. His iconography is modeUed
on that of a god in body and ornaments, though he has only two arms,
and is always in anjali, palms pressed together in devotion, his axe tucked
under one arm. The major expression of this figure in art is found on the
north-east wall of Rajendra's temple at Gangaikondacolapuram
{c. 1020-30), and similar statues modelled on this are found on thegopuras
at Cidambaram, the three earlier of which were completed around the
time of Umapati's birth.
This is how our poet gives the story.
A B r a h m a n ' s lad, tending a herd o f c o w s

pastured o n the b a n k o f a river, used their milk
t o a n o i n t a lihga m a d e o f e a r t h a n d s o p l e a s e H i m .
H e w a s m e d i t a t i n g o n it
w h e n his w o r s h i p w a s i n t e r r u p t e d b y his f a t h e r .
In his anger he cut off his father's leg

and continued his worship of Him.
He became the chief of His attendants.
(145P
Annoyed at the use made of the milk, the father, according to

Cekkilar, kicks over the bowl. His son picks up his cowherd's stick to
punish this interruption of worship, but by the power of Siva the stick
becomes an axe, and we have, in Shulman's words, 'the standard
conjunction of blood and milk'.^ T h e violent power of bhakti is shown to
be aJl-conquering, subverting social norms without a qualm. It is
immediately rewarded. In contrast to the fierce anger shown by the
devotee, the iconography of Siva blessing Candesvara, winding a
garland as a crown on the young man's head, is perhaps the most benign
of all the God's images. Alone of the Nayanars Candesvara receives a
niche of his own on the outside of the garbhagrha.
Amongst the remaining Nayanars, Kannappar is probably the most
famous. Later representations show him with his foot raised against a
linga, but he is not kicking it as did Candesvara's father in the earlier
version of Nanacampantar.7 He is marking the place of the lihga's
damaged eye, so that when he removes his own remaining eye - having
already given one of his eyes to the lihga - he can insert it correctly.
Once a certain hunter

on a mighty mountain
where the woods were thick with animals
beheld His lordly linga
and performed puja to it
with mouthfuls of water,
the flowers he carried in his hair,
and the remains of meat he'd eaten.
In his intense devotion
he placed his own excellent eye
as a substitute for His eye.
He went to heaven.
(144)®
The sacrifice of the second eye is not demanded. Before Kannappar
completely blinds himself an arm comes out from the lihga and grasps
Kannappar's arm. Umapati does not mention the attempted sacrifice of
the second eye. For the Hindu the sacrifice of the eye is scarcely more
horrible than the ostensible pollution of the lihga by the saliva of the
h u n t e r . N e i t h e r s e e m i n g e n o r m i t y is o f a n y c o n s e q u e n c e i n t h e f a c e o f
love for Siva.
Another notable Nayanar, the second individual in the traditional list,
is lyaipakai, 'who never said no'. His name signifies 'Enemy of Nature',
and indeed that could be an epithet for several of the Nayanars.
At the time of entering into battle

with his family who were furious
at him giving his wife away,
all his slender body trembling with apprehension,
he was bathed in tears of joy when
he saw Him looking pleased,
Him on Whose feet he meditated and
he, son of a Vaisya, excellent devotee that he was,
his manifest wealth being the splendour of meditation on His foot,
he was mounted upon Nandin, the lord of bulls,
and went to the Silver Mountain -
(214)9
Note that it is the body of the Nayanar that trembles, not that of his
compliant wife. T h e Siva ascetic who asks for the wife is at once given
what he asks, for all Siva ascetics are Siva himself; fortunately that is
indeed the case here.
Midway between the verse on Candesvara and that on lyarpakai
Umapati refers to Comacimarar:
When Lord Siva along with His gatws

disguised His true form and entered
the sacrificial enclosure of a Brahman called Mara,
alerted by Heramba, the man
with great devotion and delight
willingly gave into His lotus hand
the heap of oblation in the pressing
of Soma sacrifice called JyotisAoma, 'Hymn of Light'.
Through this sacrifice he went to Siva's city.
(170)-
This Nayanar receives only five verses from Cekkilar, and in the Periya
Puranam there is no reference to the appearance of Siva as an outcaste;
but the legend continued to develop, and is found, for example, in the
Agastyabhaktavilma, with the difference that it is Cuntarar (Sundara), not
Ganesa, who alerts the sacrificer to the true nature of the intruder. Siva
enters the sacrificial ground as a drunken Candala outcaste, a dead calf
o n his s h o u l d e r , a c c o m p a n i e d b y f o u r d o g s a n d P a r v a t T a n d his t w o s o n s ,
l i k e w i s e C a n d a l a s . P a r v a t l t o o is d r u n k , a n d o f f e r s t h e B r a h m a n s p r e s e n t
a drink f r o m the p o t o f alcohol she carries o n h e r h e a d . O n l y M a r a , w h o
h a d p r e v i o u s l y r e q u e s t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f S i v a in a n y f o r m w h a t s o e v e r ,
d o e s n o t flee i n t h e f a c e o f t h i s i n t r u s i o n , a n d g i v e s t h e o b l a t i o n t o t h e
o u t c a s t e w h o is G o d .
S i x v e r s e s l a t e r , t h e V e d i c s t a t u s o f C i d a m b a r a m is m o s t p o w e r f u l l y
affirmed:
In every kalpa the Vedas,

to lose their fear of birth in the first half
and of destruction in the second half
satisfy the Death of Death with manifold asceticism
and at His command
become three thousand Brahmans -
a state unobtainable by the gods themselves,
and in due order constandy worship Him
according to the procedures of His path.
(176)-
T h e s e t h r e e t h o u s a n d a r e p r a i s e d i n t h e first c h a p t e r i n Periya Puranam
after the a c c o u n t o f C u n t a r a r ' s life; C u n t a r a r ' s o w n h y m n to the saints
begins,
I serve the servants of the Brahmans living in Tillai."

and this is quoted by Cekkiiar.
The last N a y a n a r to b e mentioned in Kuncitahghristava is t h e first
i n d i v i d u a l s a i n t t o b e n a m e d i n t h e Periya Puranam, a n d the only one other
than the Diksitas w h o hails f r o m C i d a m b a r a m , n a m e l y N U a k a n t h a . T h e
' s a g e s ' immis) r e f e r r e d t o in t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e a r e t h e Diksitas.
This jewel in the ocean of the family of makers of pots,

called Nilakantha, seeing Him constandy,
to maintain his good faith with the king among yogis -
on the unanimous advice of the sages -
he and his wife each holding the end of the stick
entered into the water as an ordeal.
He regained his youth thanks to His grace.
Him Who is not great, Who is not small,
(298)'3
Is t h e r e a t o u c h o f h u m o u r i n t h e g r a n d i o s e p h r a s e ' j e w e l i n t h e o c e a n o f
t h e f a m i l y o f m a k e r s o f p o t s ' ? O r p e r h a p s U m a p a t i w a s i n f l u e n c e d in his
choice of p h r a s e b y t h e s i z e o f t h e t a n k t h e c o u p l e e n t e r e d ? T h e l a n k a s it
exists today, before the Ilamaiyakkinar temple, half a kilometre to the

west of the Nataraja temple, is vast, almost as large as the îvagartga
itself A n old stone panel set in the wall of the tank entrance portrays the
scene. T h e story is as follows. NDakantha, though pious, and always
giving free alms bowls to the devotees of the Dancer in the Hall,
on account of the sap of youth coursing through his veins,

he made a fool of himself
in the region of sensual pleasures. [Periya Puranam 362-3)'+
Because he has visited a prostitute, his wife refuses to touch him and he
too swears not to touch her. T h e y live without sexual contact for many
years. A t last, in their old age, Siva appears in the form of a wandering
yogin, king among yogins, to resolve the conflict. H e leaves a bowl in the
potter's safe-keeping, but when he returns it cannot be found. .To prove
that he has not stolen the bowl, the potter is asked by the yogin to
immerse himself in the tank, holding his wife's hand, and again affirm his
innocence. T h e potter's vow makes this impossible. T h e Siva yogin takes
him before the DTksitas, w h o declare that he must do as asked to prove
his innocence. Going back to his house, he does as asked, with the
expedient of a stick between his hiand and his wife's. When they come out
of the water, their youth has returned, and they are bathed in a shower of
flowers from heaven.
T h e initial fault of the husband becomes mere bad luck in the version
of the Hemasabhanatha Mahdtmya (which includes the stories of just two
Nayanars, NUakantha, and Nandana): he is returning from the temple at
night when there is heavy rain. He shelters outside a prostitute's house
when the maid throws betel juice water (from a spittoon?) out of the
window. Wet through, shaking his head, confused, he is seen by the
prostitute. Full of apologies, she has him thoroughly soaped and scented.
Thus sent home, his wife refuses to listen to his explanation.
Umapati is restrained in his references to doctrine and philosophy,
but one verse sets out the four categories of salvation according to Saiva
Siddhanta: sab/âm, sdmTpjam, sdmpyam, sdyujyam:
T h e sixry-three devotees of the B r a h m a n a n d other castes

by their particular forms of w o r s h i p o f H i m
attained assimilation to H i m ;
and b y frequendy reciting His n a m e s

the jjerfect p o w e r o f attaining H i s p r e s e n c e ;
by keeping in the company of devotees

and talking only with them
His worid;
by meditation
fjcerless union with Him.
As Schomenis notes, the legends of the Nayanars are a kind of folk

theology'® and at first sight Umapati seems to be attempting an
improbably formal classification of disparate and even wild phenomena;
but in fact he is surely saying only that they exemplify all the categories of
salvation. In keeping with kauya\ delight in random order, these
categories are not in order of merit; that order is clearly set out by
Umapati in his CivapiTakacam: Those who understand the truth of the
three eternal entities {pasu,paJa,pati} when their guru explains it to them,
their ears and other organs inclining to the instruction, just as water
tends to the valley below, will enjoy sdbfya when they die. T h o s e who
undersund, and continually reflect u p o n , g r a c i o u s l y made
known by the guru will enjoy samtpya when they die. T h o s e have pasa
removed by the power of grace {jnanasakti, or an//), join with that grace
and after death enjoy saripya.
In the final stage the self is filled with j o y , has the power of intuitively
^prehending all things, without the necessity of discriminating individuals,
and is absorbed in union with G o d - this is sayujya, paramolcMy final
liberation.'7
In addition to the Nayanars, other famous humans are mentioned.
There are the well-known figures whose stories are told in the MaJiabhareUa,
Harikandra and Savitri; lesser-known figures from such texts as that
fascinating story book, the Brahmottara Kanda of the Skanda Parana-, and
other figures from unknown sources. O n e story is strikingly similar to
those of the Nayaoars:
A certain Brahman called Rito,

when he cremated his good wife -
so good she was ever trembling
in fear of disobeying
the restrictions her husband imposed -
he used the ashes from her pyre
to smear the image of Siva and die Mother
Wishing to make the offering of food he called to his wife,
'Bring the pot here,' and by His grace

his wife was again at his disposal.
At his own death he enjoyed the place of îva.
(155)'"
A similar story is to be found in the Brahmottara Kar^, though in that
text there is a touch of humour, mocking an ignorant tribal person - here
a Brahman - and most significantly there the wife volunteers to b u m
herself to provide the ashes, while here the husband seems to take the
initiative, in Nayanar fashion.'^
T h e natural order is again opposed by Tinimular, though his literary
stature makes violence unnecessary:
The blessed primal Siddha, Holy Mula by name,

maintaining his body underground for a Kalpa,
was hidden beneath an anthill,
being in samadhi, ,
in the state of supreme bliss
that arises from seedless yoga;
his deeds praised by the king,
his knowledge ever free from constraint,
he meditates constandy within himself upon Him.
(185)-
T h e king who discovers the long-hidden sage praises his deeds.

Tirumiilar, a îvayogin from M o u n t Kailasa came south to meet Agastya
but en rouUyfindinga dead cowherd beside his distressed charges, left aside
his own body to resuscitate and carry out the duties of the cowherd.
Subsequently he was unable to find his own body again, and rezdizing that
Siva wanted him to set out the truths of the Sanskrit Agamas in Tamil, he
meditated for 3,000 years, composing a verse every year.
Let us now consider the Nayanars in relation to the poem as a whole.
Apart from a reference in verse 43 to the four great poets, the Nalvar
(Appar, Tirunanacampantar, Cuntarar, and Manikkavacakar), the
references to the Nayanars cluster around the centre of the poem (144,
145, 155 the Nayanar-like Rita, 170, 185) and at the end (281, 292, 298).
These clusters must be seen in relation to the dynamic of the poem as a
whole. T h e poem begins with the esoteric diagram of the Sammelanacakra
and the Cit Sabha, describes the Cidambaram temple in detail, with its
sthalapurana and rituals (1-26) and thereafter it opens out to wider and
wider spheres of reference, though every verse concludes with worship of
Siva's upraised foot. In the final verses the poet himself spejiks (300, 302,
303, 304, 305, 312, 313 and two further verses), so that there is a clear
overall movement from the very highest significance of NaUiraja in the
Cit Sabha described in detail at the beginning, to the poet himself at the
end. T h e Nayanars come in the centre, and at the end, leading up to the
poet himself Most of the verses of the poem deal with worshippers of
Siva, Gods, heroes and sages for the most part from pan-Indian texts, in
seemingly random order. T h e positioning of the T a m i l saints is clearly
coherent. T h e y have a central place, for they have a central role in the
literature of Tamil Saivism, and a final place through linkage with the
humanity of the poet himself What seems to be the random logic of the
poem has, it transpires, structural significance. It is vital for the proper
appreciation of Sanskrit kaiâ that detailed consideration be given to
such questions.
Finally, the poet himself may be contrasted with the Nayanars.
Cuntarar in his Ttmtlon^ttokai declares himself the servant of each of the
Nayanars, and says in verse 10 'I am the servant of all w h o serve as
bhakUs'] Umapati's perspective is quite different. T h e Nayaoars are just
one of the groups that as poet he marshals according to his whim, and all
of which are effectively on a level before Siva's upraised foot. In his
commentary to his âtaratnasamgraha, Umapati calls himselfparamakdninika,
'supremely compassionate', in respect of his pupils.'^' Signally lacking in
the stories of the Nayanars is the traditional relationship of guru and
pupil, for that relationship is part of the natural order to which the saints
are inimical.
Miraculous events occur in the life of Umapati, most notably the fiery
Saktinipata, (descent of divine Grace) he gave to the wood-cutter Suta;
and when the king came to investigate SOta's demise, Umapati sent up a
bush in flames, to reveal a yogin within w h o had been waiting for release.
In verse 305 Umapati does not hesitate to mention his own magic powers
though he properly acknowledges Siva.
Sambhu, Lord of the Dance, has given me success

through great mantras of enormous power;
great magic j)owers through yoga;
and the great enlightenment of the self
that removes birth and death;
and the rank of guru - confirmed in writing®' -
to give release to Suta and others;
He has shown me His dance,
He has given me exceeding delight.
{305P
T h e Nayanars belonged to the past, and their ranks formed a sacred

number. But Umapati was himself one of the holy three thousand, the
Diksitas, who head the list of Nayanars. Certainly he was acutely aware
of holiness of the saints, and he includes an excellendy chosen selection
of these saints effectively placed within his wide-ranging poem. Just as
the varied histories of the saints are summed up in the line of their images
in the temple, and each saint is an image of standard basic proportions,
so too each sragdhara verse encapsulates a saint or other figure, with a
widely heterogeneous series of events reduced to the standard number of
syllables. T h e necklace of Sanskrit verses subordinates the Nayanars, like
all else, to Siva's raised foot; their iron will inimical to nature, yet they
become so many pearls.
Few of the Nayanars are direcdy involved with dancing Siva, a sign of
their antiquity. But their stories remained a living presence within the
temple. All but one, the early poetess Karaikal Ammaiyar, are men.
Umapati does not refer to her, and she does not appear anywhere in the
art of the temple, zdthough she is prominent beneath the Nataraja
sculpture at Gangaikondacolapuram. The presence of KaE in Cidambaram
may have been perceived as leaving no scope or no need for the wildness
of the female saint.®^ Umapati refers, as we have seen, to two instances of
the total submission of women. Women are given away or burnt, and
this is typical of the general spirit of the stories of the saints. NUakantha's
discomfiture by his wife is an exceptional story in the series.
Most worshippers of Nataraja cannot but be aware of Karaikal
Ammaiyar. Umapati quotes one verse from her Arputa Tiruvantdti in his
Cahkarpa Mrakaranam:
He knows. He makes known. He is knowledge

which knows. He is truth, object of knowledge.
T h e blazing fire, earth, space,
all that, is
A typical verse by this poetess is the following:
This is my greatest desire: without fail,

one day you'll show yourself to us,
My Father with locks twisted like the flames of a lighted fire,
the place where you dance, in full night,
over the high flames.'®
Sometimes even mistaken for KalT, her skeletal form is usually shown
seated cross-legged and shaking castanets; she is also shown, as at
Darasuram, walking on her hands up the Silver Mountain to see Siva,
following her biography in the Periya Puramm. A b a n d o n e d by her

husband despite her beauty on account o f fear of the p o w e r Siva gave her
to produce a melon out of thin air, she long searches for him only to find
him remarried with a daughter named after her. H e r husband wants to
worship her feet - her response is to fix her mind on Siva's ankleted feet,
and to pray to be reduced to a skeleton, and companion of Siva's
demons. She then sings her poem A^ta Tinivantati, which includes the
verse, 'I've become one of the faithful choirs, hosts w h o adore the superb
lotus feet [of Siva]'. Inspiring fear in all w h o saw her, she travelled north
to the Silver Mountain. W h e n she reaches Siva's M o u n t Kailasa, she
dare not touch it with her feet, and ascends it 'by her head'. R e a c h i n g
Siva at the top she falls at his feet, only to be addressed by him as
'Mother'. She hails him as father, and prays to be ever beneath his feet,
singing his praises where he dances. H e tells her she m a y ever witness his
great dance in Tiruvalangadu, and ever sing its praises there, companion
to hisânas. She goes all the way back to the South travelling on her head,
and dwells in Tiruvalangadu, constantiy beneath his pink feet.
D A N C I N G G I R L S A N D T H E GANAS
Karaikal Ammaiyar does not dance. K a l i did, in her attempt to defeat

Siva. Apart from Siva it is w o m e n w h o are dancers."^ M a l e dancers are
the teachers of dancing girls, whose presence must have been very
noticeable in temples. It is difficult to say how many there were in
Cidambaram. T h e 400 dancers w h o were called to T a n j a v u r at the
founding of the great temple there by Rajarajesvara were an exceptionally
large number. T h e i r presence in stone in C i d a m b a r a m , however, is
overwhelming. In the first place a large portion of the inner walls of the
entrance of each displays from top to bottom the whole range of
more than a hundred dance poses defined in the ancient canonical work
on dance, the M t y a ^ t r a . A dancing girl performs in each o f the panels.
As one enters into the temple, one enters into a world of dance, and a
world of dancing girls. Extensive sets of dance sculptures are found also
round the plinth of the Thousand-pillared Hall, and the base of the
colonnade of the Sivakamasundari shrine. Here there is no didactic
purpose, and there is no evident sequence in the dance poses presented;
merely a joyous affirmation of dancing girls and musicians, each dancer
being flanked by musicians. Small dancing figures are found on the
pillars of the Nrtta Sabha, and in that S a b h a there was space for one
dancer to perform.
O n the Nrtta Sabha, and elsewhere in the temple, a dancer is shown

raising her leg above her head.®® T h e r e is a piquancy in her doing this on
the Nrtta Sabha, where Siva is said to have defeated KalT by that very
action. M a r c o Polo, a contemporary of Umapati, describes that very
pose being performed in Tamilnadu (Ma'abar):
they begin to sing, dance, leap, tumble, and make different entertainments to
move the god and goddess to joy and to reconcile them, and thus they say as they
make entertainment, O Master, why are you vexed with the goddess and do not
care for her? Is she not beautiful, is she not pleasing? May you thus truly be
pleased to be reconciled together and take pleasure with her, for truly she is very
pleasant. And then she who has said so will lift her leg above her neck and will
spin round for the pleasure of the god and goddess.'^
All around the golden walls of His Hall
unparalleled heavenly nymphs
to please Him carry in their lotus hands
mirrors and all the eightfold auspicious objects
made of gold and precious stones,
and p)erform His worship.
(291)30
Umapati also refers to them as singing:
His stage filled with all the hosts of heavenly nymphs
moving hither and thither,
eager for singing the beginning
of the praising with the seven notes,
sa ri ga ma pa dha m
(252)
Umapati is speaking of dancing girls here, though he does not mention
dance as such. Gros remarks in his introduction to the Tevdram, 'The
musical and choreographic environment of the temple . . . has its
archetype in the troupes ofgana musicians and in the celestial dancers.'3'
But t h e ^ f l ^ are not only musicians but also dancers themselves. T h e y as
well as Siva are exemplars of masculine dance. In sculpture they no less
than the dancing girls form a corps de ballet.
Dhaky observes,
In gay gambolling parties these gana goblins are found in various, though
definite, situations in the fabric of sacred buildings. From weird and impish,
bizarre and demonic to peacefijl, serene, sublime, these dancing, music-making,
frolicking and fighting genii of Sambhu . .. frequendy are the liveliest creations
in the minor figural art of India from the fifth to the tenth centuries.3'
While in northern India the depiction ofganas or pramaihas decreased after the
eighth century - indeed they are rarely encountered after the tenth century - the
temple sculptors in Tamilnadu continued to carve them until at least the end of
the thirteenth century with undiminished vigor.33
Theologically, the âms, and more so their leaders, the ô^-lords,
have a serious role to play, and Umapati states it:
He, independent,
creating the hosts of Rudras and ^ga^-lords
their excellent bodies deformed,
sent them forth to protect the world,
He Who is without end,
has always protected the world and the universe beyond;
Him, Who gives happiness to those who bow down to Him
(228)34
Dhaky describes them from the point of view of an art historian, an
Indological art historian:
In their kinds and functions these bhuta entities cover the entire range of Nature
and her inherent, as well as cohering forces. From the dark powers of the
underworlds, through the brown and green forces of the earth's skin {tvac), from
the transparent phantoms and spirits of the intermediate and astral regions to
the Shining Ones of the celestial quarters, every conceivable minor and major
force of the Dynamic Reality, in its apparent and p>enultimate functional
divisions, is represented by diva's trouf>e of elementals.35
As Umapati says in the verse quoted above, they are deformed, though
excellent in that deformity. T h e y are human in appearance, though
sometimes with animal heads. Short and round in shape, they are
pot-bellied and lacking necks. T h e y have two arms. T h e i r poses are often
contorted. Umapati mentions them as the companions of Nandin, under
whose direction they attend on îva.
Whereas in Pallava and Calukya art they tend to be adantides, at
ground level supporting the weight of temples, for the C5ias they float
upwards, and are often found high on walls and under eaves. Kramrisch
stresses their inherent lightness:
The inward realisation of lightness, weightlessness, non-existence of the physical
body in a state of concentration on the Supreme Spirit and on His manifestation,
the Word, and the hearing of its music are shown in the images of the Ganas
who, while resembling the shape of man, are unlike. Their bodies made of
breath move in the air.s^
In the story of the Nayanar Comacimarar mentioned above, Siva
bursts onto the sacrificial ground with his garias. These companions of
Siva are prominent in sculpture and mythology. Umapati mentions
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t h e m several times as u n d e r N a n d i n ' s c o m m a n d , d w e l l i n g at the f o o t o f

M o u n t Kailasa. T h e musicians w h o a c c o m p a n y h b dance are geam. A t
the s a m e time they arc natural forces, a c c o m m o d a t e d within the
Siddhanta scheme of creation.
In their m o s t i m p o r t a n t a p p e a r a n c e f o r us, at t h e t i m e o f S i v a ' s first
p j e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e A n a n d a T a n d a v a , it is t h e i r c h i l d l i k e q u a l i t y t h a t is
m o s t a p p a r e n t ; a l o n g w i t h t h e i r a b i l i t y t o j o i n in w i t h S i v a r a t h e r t h a n
merely watch:
Praising Him, the gods surrounded the Great Lord,

heaping handfuls of beautiful flowers before Him,
crushing some with the tips of their crowns as they bowed at His feet.
Narada and other skilled musicians, their hands adorned with vmd&,
stood stock-still, not singing, not knowing what to do.
Then all His bhutas, there in front of Him performed

a weird and wonderful dance at speed.
All the ânas, overexcited,

perfomied all sorts of dance routines,
falling down and getting up over and over.
{Cidambara Mahatmya 13. 63-6)
A P A S M A R A
Karaikal Ammaiyar, the M o t h e r , b e c o m e s the c o m p a n i o n of Siva's

h o s t s , t h e m u l t i p l e x o r , a n d s h e is v i v i d l y s h o w n in a m a r v e l l o u s p a n e l
b e n e a t h N a t a r a j a a t G a n g a i k o n d a c o l a p u r a m ( t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ) . W h a t is
a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g in t h i s p a n e l , in t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , is n o t t h e p r e s e n c e o f
KalT n e a r Siva's feet, b u t the c o n j u n c t i o n o f the g a r ^ w i t h A p a s m a r a .
T h e similarity o f the ganas a n d t h e ' d e m o n ' is, I t h i n k , a p p a r e n t .
L e t us l o o k a g a i n at w h a t t h e Cidambara Mahatmya h a s t o s a y a b o u t
Apasmara:
There arose a Creature {bhuta) -

as if the darkness that previously had been swallowed
by those blazing fires was vomited forth again
by them in a compact lump.
Its hair was tawny with the flames

from the hot coals that were its eyes.
It had the body of a dwarf,
a great mouth with long tusks,
and its arms moved frenetically (/WMu/om).
Saints, dancing ^rls, 'gams' - and Apasmdra 223
Massed ranks of snakes attended it.

Casting fear aside it hurtled at âAkara.
The Great Lord was about to begin His dance
but, when He saw it, joyfully
crushed it with His lotus foot
and made it there a foot rest. {Cidambara Mahatmya 13. 29-33)
Then Siva dances.
As if He wanted to trample to death that Creature {bhutd)
which looked like the agglomeration of their sins,
He stood with one foot on it.
T o destroy the sins they had accumulated
in life after life, He showed
that auspicious foot that was slighdy curved.
{Cidambara Mahatmya 13. 58-9)
Throughout the description pf Apasmara, he is referred to as a bhuta,
exacdy the same word that is applied to the ganas. It is true that his eyes
are flaming, and he probably has multiple arms, but these characteristics
are also found among âwos. In verse 150 Umapati described how Siva
danced to the sound of
the drums
rapidly struck
by the bristling throng of arms
of the excellent ganas
such as Bana the Daitya.
Umapati himself mentions A p a s m ^ a only once:
He bears the fire and the drum in two hands.
T h e other two hands
make the 'swinging' and the 'fear not' gestures.
Placing His right foot ever on Apasmara,
with His left foot slighdy bending
He ever gives everything to those who bow down -
(108)
Noting that Apasmara is made into Siva's foot-rest, let us leave him for
the moment and consider the forest sages.
Then those sages who in their delusion
had sent fires and mantras, exhausted,
were briefly filled with alarm,
feeling themselves weaponless.
224 T^
Then in a flash with the great speed of His Tandava

they lost consciousness and fell down on the ground.
Then to Parvafi the Lord said,

•Drink the rasa of this Tandava'
and Nandikesvara He commanded,
'O buU, enjoy!'
And then all those sage-bulls who had been stupefied
were humble and said 'O Siva! O Sartkara! O God!'
They said, 'Glory to Uma's Husband,
to the Moon-crested God, to Sambhu!'
He gave them the eye of wisdom
so that they could see the Tandava.
Then Sambhu was splendid in the dance.
His eyes dancing with compassion,
purifying the forest with the lustre of His gentle smile.
Through the compassion of the God of Gods,
those ascetics saw the festival for the eyes
that is the divine Tandava Dance of Supreme B l ^ .
' When they had seen the supreme dance of Sambhu
they were filled with joy and wonder.
Taking their water-pots and staflfe
and holding them aloft,
thrilled to the depths of their being,
possessed by the rasa of Siva's bliss,
they danced, reddening the forest
with the shaking of their matted locks.
{Cidambara Mahatrrtya 13. 38-9; 54-7; 60-2)
T h e sages are stupefied by Siva's dance {Cidambara Mahatmya 13. 55),
they are given 'the eye of wisdom' {Cidambara Mahatmya 13. 56), and
'possessed by the rasa of Siva's bliss' they dance. T h e word for 'possessed'
is the standard term used for being possessed by a spirit. O t h e r references
to possession in relation to Siva's performance of the Ananda T a n d a v a
were noticed in chapter 3. When K i n g Hiranyavarman had moved his
court to Cidambaram and watched Nataraja dance, he lost his power of
speech, sight, movement. 'His heart lost its power. He fainted, overwhelmed
by his emotion {rasa).'' And in a rare variation from its source, the ^yil
Puranam describes the priests themselves first falling to the ground and
then dancing. It is very surprising for the priests to dance. It is also
interesting that they fall to the ground before dancing - is this not an
inversion of the more likely sequence of events?37
Saints, dancing girls, 'ganas' - and Apasmdra 225
In discussing A p a s m a r a a s f o u n d in b r o n z e s c u l p t u r e , I s u g g e s t e d t h a t
he w a s originally merely a supporting figure, a m e r e pedestal, such as
supported a variety of other figures. One of the earliest of such
a p p e a r a n c e s w a s b e n e a t h s t a n d i n g w o m e n o n t h e M a t h u r a stiipa r a i l i n g ,
where crouching creatures indistinguishable from A p a s m a r a s are clearly
not being crushed by Siva.
The w o r d apasmara means not 'evil', b u t 'forgetfulness', a n d also
'epilepsy':
The apasmara-puruM w a s . . . sent against S i v a . Smr is to remember; apasmara is the

forgetful epileptic fit. The man in an epileptic fit perhaps must have been
expected to effect murder much more easily and with supernatural forces. The
Tamil name for the epileptic fit is muyal va/t because the patient breathes like the
hare whilst foUowing a scent; it is also called muyalakan as is made clear by the
/Vrrya/>aranam.3®Therefore the apasmara-purusa is known in TamWzsMuyalakario^
which the colloquial form is musalakan as found in Tanjavur Temple inscripdon.
The unconscious epileptic demon has to be under control with great force and
the Lord pressesjiim down under His feet. The Tamil term muyalakan occurs for
the first dme in Arurar'[another name for Cuntarar] and that only once [7.2.3]
where he describes S i v a as the Lord of the burning ground. He calls the
Muyalakan Mutâ muyalakan, the idiodc epileptic.39
H e r e is t h e v e r s e , i n S h u l m a n ' s translation:
Foolish Muyalakan,
raging serp>ents,
demons swarming around
a sdnking skull,
howling ghosts,
a dger's skin,
goblins ignorant
of what is right,
richlyfloweringkortrai,
thick mJJcu blossoms,
the serpent with its great jewel
bound to your waist:
how wild
are your deeds,
great lord.
Master! We are afraid
to serve you^"
T h e r e f e r e n c e t o M u y a l a k a o is f a r f r o m e x p l i c i t . N o t e a l s o t h e t e r m s in
w h i c h S i v a ' s ^ f l ^ a r e r e f e r r e d to: ' h o w l i n g g h o s t s ' , ' g o b l i n s i g n o r a n t o f
w h a t is r i g h t ' .
M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t , p e r h a p s , is t h e o t h e r r e f e r e n c e i n t h e Tivaram t o
iâsmara:
He wears a crown of matted hair,

bears the waxing moon and the winding snake
on his head.
He wears the ringing anklet
and the sounding hero's band on his legs,
he cast defiant muyalaJaat under his foot.
In his right hand he bears the sharp batde-axe
and holds M ^ in loving embrace
in the left half of his frame.
He carries a bundle of bones on his shoulder,
and the tuti drum in his hand.
He cured my painful disease and took possession of me.-t'
Dancing Siva in t h e Tevaram is w i l d a n d d a n g e r o u s . A p a s m a r a is

m e n t i o n e d o n l y a c o u p l e o f t i m e s i n t h e Tevaram, b u t a n o t h e r d e m o n , o f
t h e v e r y g r e a t e s t f a m e ^ R a v a n a , w h o s t e a l s STta a n d is k i l l e d b y R ^ a in
t h e Ramâna, is r e f e r r e d t o v e r y m a n y t i m e s a s b e i n g c r u s h e d b e n e a t h
S i v a ' s f o o t . A t t h e e n d o f t h e Ramdyana it is m e n t i o n e d a s a n e a r l i e r e v e n t
that R a v a n a tried to u p r o o t M o u n t K a i l a s a w h e n h e f o u n d his p a s s a g e in
h i s a e r i a l c a r i m p e d e d b y it. H i s a r r o g a n t a t t e m p t a t d i s l o d g i n g the
d i v i n e c o u r t is s t o p p e d b y S i v a p r e s s i n g d o w n h i s t o e a n d c r u s h i n g t h e
demon. Ravana then sings Siva's praise and becomes a devotee.
T i r u f i a n a C a m p a n t a r a n d A p p a r r e f e r t o t h e i n c i d e n t in e a c h o n e o f
t h e i r h u n d r e d s o f h y m n s . C u n t a r a r r e f e r s t o it f r e q u e n d y . 4 ^ T h e m a s s i v e
presence o f the crushing o f R a v a n a , I believe, m a y well h a v e led to the
v i e w that A p a s m a r a , originally a s u p p o r t i n g figure, w a s also crushed b y
S i v a , a n d t h a t p a r t o f t h e C i d a m b a r a m m y t h i n v e n t e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e it.
I n t a n d e m w i t h t h a t p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f a
figure s p r a w l i n g o n t h e g r o u n d in t h e c o n t e x t o f d a n c e . D a n c e in I n d i a ,
p e r h a p s e s p e c i a l l y in S o u t h I n d i a , is b o t h t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d d a n c e o f t h e
court and temple, with its e x t e n s i v e textuality, and the dance of
p o s s e s s i o n , w i t h its loss o f c o n t r o l a n d o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e Ananda
T a n d a v a , by incorporating A p a s m ^ a , refers to b o t h f o r m s o f d a n c e . In
t h e l o g i c o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i m a g e , t h e g r e a t v i r t u e o f A p a s m a r a is
that he r e m o v e s f r o m S i v a all t h e l o w e r a s p e c t s o f d a n c e , t h e r a n d o m
m o v e m e n t o f limbs, the t w i t c h i n g , t h e loss o f c o n t r o l , a n d e x p r e s s e s t h e m
in h i m s e l f 43 T h e r e f i n e m e n t a n d p u r i t y o f N a ^ r a j a is a l l t h e g r e a t e r
because of A p a s m a r a . W h e r e a s with K a r a i k ^ A m m a i y a r a n d the writers
o f t h e Tevaram, S i v a w h e n h e d a n c e s i n t h e b u r n i n g g r o u n d is o f t e n l i t d e
Saints, dancing ^rls, 'gams' - and Apasmara 227
more than a very special goblin or ghost, a goblin among goblins, the
artistry of the bronze elevates him to a position of superlative mastery
and balance. There is beneath Nataraja and subsumed within the
Natoraja bronze a whole subterranean world of human experience that
is omitted from the discourse of anandatandava.
CHAPTER 10
Last words
A. K . Coomaraswamy concludes his essay, T h e Dance of Siva', with

these words:
It is not strange that the figure of Nauiraja has commanded the adoration of so
many generations past: familiar with all scepticisms, expert in tracing all beliefs
to primitive superstitions, explorers of the infinitely great and infinitely small, we
are worshippers of Natoraja still.'
Coomaraswamy's essay was first addressed to the Hindu readership of
the Madras journal Siddhanta Dipika, but when included in the volume of
essays given the same tide, its audience became the educated citizens of
the world. Coomaraswamy and his readers are knowledgeable in the
history of religion and in modem science, and Nataraja pertains both to
the distant past and to the present. T h e range of abilities Coomaraswamy
here credits to modernity might be seen as paralleled in scope by those
Umapati asserts for the DIksitas and himself amongst them.
He is worshipjjed
by the three thousand sages in the Sabha -
Patai^Jalis in the science of grammar,
so many venerable Kanadas and Ak^padas
in the discourses of logic,
embodiments of Vyasa in the Vedanta,
the equals of KumarilabhatU in Jaimini's MTmamsa,
Bodhayanas in the techniques of Vedic sacrifice,
veritable Brahmas in the Vedas -
... (89)
Umapati refers here to the mainstream intellectual preoccupations of

classical India. For both writers, Nataraja is a synthesizing image, an
image that encourages synthesis.
For the purposes of this book, U m ^ a t i ' s poem has been seen to
contain a kind of essay on the Dance of Siva. How did Umapati himself
see his poem?
228
Last words 229
U M A P A T I ' S O R I G I N A L I T Y
In the introduction to his most important work, the Civapirakacam^

Umapati does not hesitate in laying claim to a pioneering boldness. In
verse 11 of that work while worshipping the feet of his predecessors
Meykantar and Arulnanti, he collates them not only with the Saivagamas
but also 'with what was revealed by holy grace in m y mind'. H e
continues in verse 12:
Whatever is old cannot be deemed to be good [on account of its antiquity alone]
and whatever book comes forth today cannot be judged ill because of its
newness. Men pledged to seek good in everything will not mind the dust that
covere a beautiful gem but only appreciate its true worth. People of middle
calibre will investigate and welcome the beauty and antiquity of a work. Men
who have no capacity to judge of the faults, excellences and substantial work of a
production will praise it, if many admire it, and will in the same breath condemn
it on hearing others speak ill of it, because they have no opinion for themselves."
This is reminiscent of the well-known words of the Director in
Kalidasa's play Malavikagnimitra:
Not every old text is excellent
nor is every new fHjem to.be censured.
The wise make their selecdon
only after careful examination.
The mind of a fool
follows the opinion of others. {Malavikîmitra Prologue^
Umapati makes no claim for the originality of the Kuncitanghristava.
UMAPATl's LITERARY PERSPECTIVE
Umapati had a keenly developed literary sense. His Tiruvarutpayan has

been seen as an attempt to complete the highly venerated Tirukkural,
written in the same metre and style, and treating ofmoksoy the fourth and
final goal left unnoticed by Tiruvalluvar. Umapati calls Tiruvalluvar 'the
divine poet' in the NencuviMutu.^ In his Cahkarpa Mr^ranam he refers to
specific Tamil verses from the poets of the Tevdram, and also Karaikal
Ammaiyar. He had an intimate knowledge of the Tevaram, manifested by
his compilation of an anthology, and his listing of the places referred to
by the Tevaram poets. He wrote an account of the discovery of the
Tevdram hymns in Cidambaram. He summarized the lives of the
sixty-three saints, and wrote a life of Cekkilar, author of the Peirya Puranam.
In the Kuricitanghristavay there are several references to poets, Tamil
and Sanskrit. Umapati's work is a stotra, a hymn of praise. This is a genre
of great importance in Sanskrit literature, and indeed in the history of

Hinduism. Umapati was well aware of this tradition. H e refers to specific
texts - including the Mahimnastava of Puspadanta, the Vedapadastava of
Jaimini, and the poem in praise of îva attributed to the demon Ravana,
worshipp>cr of $iva and enemy of the G o d R a m a . Stotras such as these are
very much alive for Saivas who know Sanskrit. A verse from Jaimini's
hymn heads the programme for the Cidambaram festival in markali
(December) 1994.
Umapati's references to the great T a m i l poets, however, are more
detailed, and more significant.
T h e opening verses of the Kuncitaiighristava are dedicated to the
Cidambaram temple. A change is signalled in verse 27 which describes
Siva appearing in the lihga of fire before Brahma and Visnu. This image
commonly appears on the west outer wall of Cola Siva shrines, and thus
suggests a departure from the innermost part of the poem. Verse 28
refers the poet Manikkavaczikar, 'He whose words are rubies', whose
story is included the Madurai cycle of SivafiZos.sAs soon as Umapati has
finished dealing with the temple of Cidambaram he turns to his most
eminent predecessor: Manikkavacakar, who is still by many considered
the greatest of Tamil poets. Later than the three poets of the Tevaram, he
belongs probably to the ninth or the tenth century; too late to be
included in the list of the sixty-three saints, he is included with the
Tevdram poets in the group known as the Four, and is referred to as the
sixty-fourth saint.® His image, holding the manuscript of his collected
verses called the Tiruvacakam, is normally in front of the NaUiraja bronze
in Siva temples. He is said to have ended his days in Cidambaram, and
the matha near the Kali temple he is supposed to have occupied has
recently been renovated; what is said to have been the original
manuscript is now in Pondicherry.
Verse 28 neatly resumes Manikkavacakar's history. This is worth
giving, not just because Umapati mentions it, but because of M ^ i -
kkavacakar's admission into the standard Nataraja shrine. Siva took the
form of a guru and with his disciples sat beneath a K u n d a tree {trichilia
spinosa) at Tirupperunturai. Vatavurar, minister of Arimarttana Pantiyan,
King of Madurai, sent with money to buy horses, meets the sage, who
naturally looks like Daksinamurti, and w h o holds in his hand the
Civananapotam. Vatavurar is initiated, filled with wisdom, and begins to
sing the glory of his guru. Siva, delighted with his song, names him
Manikkavacakar (Skt. Manikyavacaka), Manikkavacakar spends the
money for the horses in honouring Siva. Ordered to return, he is first
spared royal displeasure by Siva promising Himself to bring excellent
Last words 231
horses to Madurai, and Siva becomes a horseman and does so. The
horses brought by Siva turn into jackals. Manikkavacakar is severely
punished, and prays to Siva for help. Siva causes the river Vaikai to
flood. The king orders a barrage to be built to protect Madurai. Siva
enrols as a labourer, but fails tofillin his section of the barrage. The king,
enraged, strikes him on the back with his cane. Siva at last throws his
load of earth in its proper place in the barrage and disappears. The king,
his wives, his ministers, and the whole world besides all feel the blow on
their backs. A voice from heaven explains all that has happened and
Manikkavacakar departs for Cidambaram.7
Once in the past He sat at the fcx)t of a Kunda tree
and taught true knowledge
to Manikkavacakar whose words are rubies;
and He became the horseman.
Once He received a blow
from the golden staff shining in the hand of the king.
Then, satisfied by the songs he uttered,
filled as they are with sweet emotion,
He gave salvation to him.
He is the Lord, a friend to all.
(28)8
'Sweet emotion' - Pope remarked in 1900, 'These poems [of
M ^ i k k a v a c a k a r ] . . . are daily sung throughout the Tamil country with
tears of rapture, and committed to memory in every Saiva temple by the
people, amongst whom it is a traditional saying, that "he whose heart is
not melted by the Tiruvacakam must have a stone for a heart".'9
Umapati shordy afterwards refers to all four of the great Saiva poets,
whose connection with the Cidambaram temple today is demonstrated
by stucco statues in the entrance of each of the gopuras, each of the four
being supposed to have entered by one of theô/>Mras- Campantar by the
South, Appar (Tirunavukkaracu, 'King of the Tongue') by the West,
Cuntarar by the North, and Manikkavacakar by the East. There is also a
shrine to the four poet-saints in the third enclosure.
Campantar, Cuntarar, blessed Manikkavacakar
whose words are rubies,
and he who is called the King of the Tongue,
with their own hymns of praise
rich in varied emotion won salvation;
all four praising Him, the Lord,
as present in their own respective places
though He is one, non-dual in form.
232 TTu Dance of $ioa
Him Who is the First,

Who has made the moon His crown,
Whose foot is bent,
lO
I worship. (43)
T h e sense of place features greatly in the religion of the South, and the
Saiva jKjets' experience was highly localized:
As the Saivite saints travelled through the countryside, they sang the praises of
the god and of the temples and shrines believed to be sacred to him. Each hymn
is said to have been composed at a particular place, and either the name of that
fJace or the name under which the god was worshipped there was usuaUy
mentioned in the text of the hymn."
Manikkavacakar did not roam from place to place in the same way as
the Tevaram trio, nor did he exalt Bhik^tana, the wandering form of
Siva. In both verses referring to the great T a m i l poets, Umapati
mentions Tosa. Manikkavacakar's poems are filled with 'sweet emotions'
{madkuTasd)\ the hymns of each of the four fx)ets are 'rich in varied
emotions'. Rasa, aesthetic emotion, the suggestion and creation of a
sustained and pure emotion, or a series of such emotions, in the reader or
audience, is a primary goal of Sanskrit f)oetry and drama.
In his Tiv&ra ArubnuTaiUira^, Umapati compiled ninety-nine verses
from the TevSram hymns under ten headings on the basis of the chapters
given in his TimvanUpayan.^^ Umapati's deep knowledge of the Tevaram is
often to be sensed underlying the KtmcUahghrisUwa, as for instance in his
verse 32:
Meru was Sambhu's bow.
And the Earth was His chariot.
His bow string was the Lord of Snakes.
Lotus-seated Brahma was His charioteer,
present as His horses were the Vedas,
and as His quiver He had the ocean,
when He wished to destroy the Triple City.
Him, the cause of the creation,
destruction, and preservation of the world.
Whose foot is curved
I worship. (32)'^
Tripurantaka, a form of Siva popular with the Coias, is dominant in
the imperial statement that is the Rajarajewara temple at Tanjavur. A t
Cidambaram it appears at the far right of the upper tier on the outer face
of each of the gopuras. This verse is reminiscent of one from a poem of
Cuntarar described as 'perhaps Cuntarar's most powerful expression of
the emotional and metaphysical state of separation {pirivu, Skt. w>flAa)'.'4
Last words 233
The mighty serpent was the bowstring,

the mountain the bow,
Agni the arrow's tip,
Hari the shaft,
when he drew back the bow
until it touched his breast
and set fire to the (Triple) City.
Fool that I am,
I failed to think of him
long ago;
why, then, do I bear this body,
why remain apart
from my lord of Arur?'5
Another example shows Umapati developing and going beyond a
verse of the Tevaram he quotes in his anthology - this time from Appar,
built on the counting out of numbers:
The Lord is of dazzling form.
He is as one sound in akma,
as two in air that blows abundantly,
as three in ruddy fire,
as four in water that flows,
as five in earth,
as the ever-abiding form that is our unfailing refuge,
as the tender shoot of the splendid coral creeper,
as the jjearl, as the light that ever grows,
as the diamond, as the form of pure gold
He abides in PuUirukku Velur.
I have wasted coundess days without adoring Him.'®
T h e numbers refer to the sensory qualities of the elements. Akma has
one, sound; air two, sound and touch; and so on to earth with all five.
As one He is Brahman
without a second,
but He is also threefold.
He comprises the four forms of sjieech.
The foe of five-arrowed Love,
He is praised by the foes of the six enemies.
The eye on His forehead has seven-tongued fire.
His crest is adorned with the one-eighth digit of the moon.
in His dance exemplifying the nine Tasa&,
His clothes wave to the ten quarters.
And at His feet constandy bow the eleven Rudras
along with the twelve Adityas.
(I82)'7
The Dance of
T h e great difference between the TamU verse and the Sanskrit is the
constant personal note in the former. According to T a m i l tradition, $iva
is supposed to say of the Tevaram poets, ' M y A p p a r sung of myself,
Campantar sung of himself, Cuntarar sung of women.' This brings out
the marked differences between the three, but from the Sansb-it
perspective all three sing insistendy of themselves, in addition to singing
of Siva. Yet, just as the two typical Tevaram T a m i l verses quoted here end
on a personal note, so too does Umapati's poem. Sanskrit poets often
include a personal statement to round off their work, but in the final
verses of the Kimcitanghristava, Umapati reproduces something of the
fervour of the Tevaram, a note made stronger by its oscillation between
personal and impersonal.
T H E C O N C L U S I O N OF T H E KUflCITAftGHRISTAVA
T h e finale of the Kuncitanghristava clearly begins at verse 300: People call

out to Siva, ' O Lord! I am drowning in sarnsdra.' Verse 301 is impersonal:
the Vedas say Rudra is the supreme God. Verse 302 is personal only in
the last line: my heart is aware of no G o d but Him. Verse 303 is personal,
and reminiscent of the Tamil manner: shamelessly intent on filling my
belly I flitted from place to place like a crow. Verse 304 defines the poem
itself and says that Siva accepts it. Verse 305 is personal and contains the
important statement that Siva confirmed in writing Umapati's rank of
guru, and empowered him to give release to Suta, the wood-cutter.
From verse 306 to verse 313 there is a marked change in style, for in
this last section three or all four lines of each verse begin with an
emphatic repetition, usually of the verbal absolute in am [riamul). T h u s
verse 306 begins hrosam krosam 'By wailing, by wailing' before Him, Rati
got back her husband, Upamanyu got milk. This repetitive and vivid
syntactic change tells us the end is coming. But at the same time, the
subject-matter becomes impersonal, in the sense I have been using it -
personal refers to Umapati, impersonal to others; but where people in
general are referred, as in the case of those w h o are drowning in sarnsdra,
Umapati is probably to be understood also. Note that this emphatic
section begins on a highly emotional note, with the wailing of a widow
and a baby boy crying for milk. Verse 307 is impersonal, with Suka and
other sages 'gently gently' worshipping the linga With Gaiiga water. Verse
308 is very powerful. Speaking of the 'lordly wise', it very probably refers
to the Diksitas and Umapati in their number. T h e y 'enjoy, constantly
enjoy' {bhqjam bhojarn) pleasure {bhogam) by worshipping Him; they 'cross,
constantly cross' {tdrarn tdrarn) the ocean of sarnsdra; they 'burn up.
Last words 235
constantly b u m up' {daham daham) the three bonds; they 'utter, constantly
utter' (japamjapam) His mantra. Verse 309, impersonal in that it refers to
the three great devotees of C i d a m b a r a m , Patafljali, V y ^ h r a p a d a and
Jaimini. T h e y 'are aware, constantly aware' [bodham bodham) of His
dance; they 'meditate, constandy meditate' {dhyâm dhycâr^ on H i m in
the lotus of their hearts; they 'carry, constantly carry' His foot in their
thoughts. These two verses begin each line with emphatic forms of
virtually all the key religious verbs. T h e next two verses are in a similar
vein, probably referring again to the DUcsitas and Umapati as one of
their number. Verse 312 is entirely personal: 'Bowing, constantly bowing
to the compassionate Lord of Dancers I obtained a good wife and a
handsome son.' So too is the final verse.
Siva's foot plays a large part in the conclusion. In verse 300, human
beings regret not worshipping Siva's holy feet; not until verse 303 does he
speak solely of himself in relation to the divine feet. Personal statements
oscillate for a while with verses about the devotion of others. In verse 311
devout Saivas end by mingling with Siva's foot. In verse 313 Umapati
declares that he continually drank in the wine of the lotus of Siva's foot in
the assembly; and as an afterword he declares that those who read his
verses will uldmately.attain the holy foot, the foot that has been present
throughout in the poem's refrain.
But let us return to rasa.
His wide eyes are bees
agitated by the river of sweet rasa -
the wine of love - coming from the mountains
that are the jutting breasts - golden pots -
of Gauri ever ready to play.
(•49)'®
T h e Tamil poets produce rasa\ Siva drinks rasa from ParvatT, the 'Golden
yellow lady' (Gauri). He is himself the first rasa, that is to say, smgdra, the
erotic rasa -
Conquering the circle of rays

from the young disc of the sun
with the colour of His lower lip -
for it was reddened
by the betel served with longing
by the Daughter of the Snow Mountain
in her eagerness for play -
in His keenness to display His skill in music
He's playing the veena
His moving hand never quits,
236 Dance of &va
Him who is made of the first rasa.

Whose foot is curved, I worship. (aia)'^
In this world of aesthetics, of connoisseurship, U m a p a t i too has taken his
place and played his part:
My hymn of praise in fine metre
for it is in the Sragdhara metre,
excellently adorned with many good qualities,
clearly excellent in style
for it brings great joy to the wise
with its sweet maturity and basic emotions, hjâ,
rasa and so on, excellent in its modes,
expounding the meaning of the Vedanta,
proceeding with meritorious words.
He accepts it and gives me great joy.
(304)'°
Umapati uses a variety of terms from poetics, not ail o f which are easily
determined in the present context. However, the mention of paka
('maturity') and sayya ('arrangement') suggests that he is following one or
other of two thirteenth-century poeticians w h o were the first to use both
terms. Both the t e r m s p ^ and sayya can be seen as especially significant,
given the deep complexity of the poem's composition, ^ a j a s e k h a r a in
discussing the varieties ofpdka says that nine types are to be found a m o n g
poets, each one linked to a particular fruit. T h u s some, like the raisin, are
at first not sweet but are sweet when they ripen, while those like the
coconut are sweet from beginning to end.
U M A P A T I C O N T R A S T E D W I T H § A I V A M O N I S M
Abhinavagupta, the greatest of Indian poeticians as well as being the

mastermind of Kashmir Saivism, speaks of consciousness itself as a
high-powered digestive process {hathapaka):
All existing things are hurled into the fire in the stomach of our consciousness,
where they lose all difference and become fuel for the fire. When the finite form
of all things is dissolved by this fierce digestion, Uien the All, which feeds and
sustains the divinities of consciousness [the senses and the intellect], becomes
the ambrosia of immortality. These divinities, once satisfied, become absorbed
in Bhairava, who is totally full, the sky of consciousness, the God who reposes in
the Heart and not elsewhere."
This is to switch from Umapati's technical statement of his poetics to the
core of the Northern theology of Bhairava, and yet this 'sky of
Last words 237
c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' [ddvyoman, cidambard), t h e G o d r e p o s i n g i n t h e h e a r t , is

reminiscent o f C i d a m b a r a m a n d the Git S a b h a , the 'sky o f consciousness'
a n d t h e ' h a l l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' . N o r s h o u l d it b e f o r g o t t e n t h a t t h e G i t
S a b h a contains a Bhairava o n c e c a p a b l e of turning c o p p e r into gold.
U m a p a t i t h e p o e t h a s t h r o w n i n t o his a n d t h e r e a d e r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s all
things r e l a t i n g t o t h e w o r s h i p o f S i v a in G i d a m b a r a m , a n d t h e y h a v e f e d
t h e fire t h a t is t h e p o e m . O n e d o e s i n d e e d n e e d a f o r c e f u l i n t e l l e c t u a l
d i g e s t i o n t o d e a l w i t h it. U m a p a t i d i d a s it w e r e h u r l a l l e x i s t i n g t h i n g s
i n t o t h e fire o f h i s o w n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a n o f f e r i n g f o r S i v a .
A b h i n a v a g u p t a says:
T h e wise o n e , in o r d e r to w o r s h i p p r o p e r l y should o f f e r b a c k into the highest

a b o d e that essence {rasa) w h i c h flows a n d trickles f r o m the multitude o f existing
things b e c a u s e they are h e a v y w i t h their n o n d i f f e r e n c e w i t h Siva . . . O G o d
together w i t h the G o d d e s s , d a y a n d night, I a d o r e y o u c o n t i n u o u s l y w a s h i n g
with the abfiixkas o f the essence o f m y a s t o n i s h m e n t . . . T h i s triple w o r l d , full o f
various tastes a n d flavours, is cast into theyantra that is the cakra o f the heart. I
squeeze i t . . . T h e s u p r e m e nectar o f consciousness, w h i c h r e m o v e s birth, old
age a n d death, gushes f r o m if. Of>ening m y m o u t h w i d e , I d e v o u r i t . . . a n d in
this w a y O S u p r e m e G o d d e s s , I g l a d d e n a n d satisfy y o u d a y a n d night.®'
F o r A b h i n a v a g u p t a h e r e t h e e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t o f w o r s h i p is a r e n d e r i n g
b a c k to Siva o f t h e e s s e n c e (rasa) t h a t f l o w s f r o m all t h i n g s . E x t r a c t i n g this
b l i s s f u l c o n c e n t r a t e f r o m r e a l i t y , o n e o f f e r s it b a c k t o t h e h i g h e s t a b o d e as
the o n l y truly w o r t h w h i l e gift that c a n b e o f f e r e d to Siva a n d the G o d d e s s .
D e s p i t e his f r e q u e n t p r a i s e o f t h e V e d a n t a , U m a p a t i ' s Siddhanta
p o s i d o n is f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e m o n i s m o f A b h i n a v a g u p t a , e v e n if his
s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s t o d r i n k i n g w i n e - ' D r i n k i n g , c o n s t a n d y d r i n k i n g tlie
w i n e o f H i s L o t u s f e e t in t h e S a b h a ' , in t h e final v e r s e o f t h e p o e m - h a v e
an almost K a s h m i r i a n ring. But these w o r d s o f the N o r t h e r n master, o f
w h o m U m a p a t i c o m e s not a million miles f r o m being a Southern
c o u n t e r p a r t , serve to point u p t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the t w o views. F o r
U m a p a t i t h e p o e t , t h e t e m p l e is t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e t r i p l e u n i v e r s e , t h e
t e m p l e is t h e u n i v e r s e . T h e p a r a p h e n a l i a o f t h e t e m p l e a r e in t h e m s e l v e s
a multitude o f existing things.
T h e y , the pure, w o r s h i p H i m with incense,

then with the lamps -
the snake-lamp, the m a n [ - a n i m a l ] l a m p ,

the bull-lamp, the pot-lamp,
the l a m p with five wicks,
the fire-sacrifice-lamp,
the star-lamp, the c a m p h o r lamp;
238 ^ Dance of $iva
a n d with ash, w i t h f a n ,
with excellent w h i t e u m b r e l l a
and chowry; with mirror,
with flowers sanctified w i t h m a n t r a s ;
with the c a m p h o r - t o p p e d l a m p .
Q u i c k l y they a b a n d o n i g n o r a n c e
a n d see H i m clearly e v e r y d a y .
H i m W h o s e foot is c u r v e d
I worship. (aO'^
A n d t h e d o m i n a n t rasa i n t h e t e m p l e is s h e e r m a t e r i a l l i q u i d :
Six times a d a y
every day
the lordly sages free f r o m sin
worship His lihga
with the five p r o d u c t s o f the c o w ;
with oil;
with milk, w i t h c u r d s , a n d w i t h g h e e ,
with h o n e y a n d p u r e s u g a r - t h e fivefold ambrosia;
with sweet lime j u i c e ;
with the w a t e r o f t e n d e r c o c o n u t ;
with b o i l e d rice;
with f r a g r a n c e s ,
with the w a t e r s o f the o t h e r G a f i g a , the ^ i v a g a A g a tank.
H e is the L o r d , the U n b o r n .
H i m W h o s e f o o t is c u r v e d
I worship.
In a m a n n e r a n a l o g o u s to the ritual, U m a p a t i îvârya heaped

t o g e t h e r all t h e g o o d t h i n g s h e c o u l d find, and showered them over
Siva's f o o t . It is o n l y fitting t o c o n c l u d e w i t h U m a p a t i ' s o w n w o r d s t h i s
presentation o f the D a n c e o f Siva o f w h i c h h e is t h e s o u r c e .
Listening, c o n s t a n d y listening
with full attention to H i s p u r e d e e d s ,
drinking, c o n s t a n d y d r i n k i n g w i t h m y t o n g u e
the w i n e o f H i s lotus feet in the S a b h a ,
remembering, constandy remembering

H i m the L o r d in m y h e a r t ,
seeing, c o n s t a n d y s e e i n g
H i m W h o is the c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e V e d a s ,
W h o , b e i n g pleased is the g i v e r o f e n j o y m e n t a n d s a l v a d o n ,
I am enlightened b y His great eye o f wisdom.

H i m W h o s e foot is c u r v e d I w o r s h i p . (313)'^
Last words 239
T h o s e mortals w h o r e a d e v e r y d a y
this h y m n , the p r o d u c t o f m y e l o q u e n c e ,
I who am Umapati,
in praise o f ^ a m b h u
W h o p e r f o r m s the D a n c e o f s u p r e m e bliss in the H a l l o f C o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
will first w i n all t h e y desire in this w o r l d ,
son, wife, a n d so o n ,
a n d at the e n d f o r sure
His foot, the state called p u r e consciousness.'®
I, U m a p a t i b y n a m e ,
in the forest-dwelling stage o f life,
w h e n I'd uttered
this royal h y m n o f praise o f the blessed c u r v e d foot
in three h u n d r e d a n d thirteen verses,
s a w w i t h m y v e r y o w n eyes
the D a n c e o f the L o r d o f the HaU.'7
Notes
I N T R O D U C T I O N
1 More accurately, 'The fierce dance {tandava) [modified to become the dance]
of bliss {ananddf.
2 A. K. Coomaraswamy, The Dance of $iva (New York: The Noonday Press,
'957). PP- 77^- This citation omits the final sentence, which is given at the
beginning of the final chapter of this book, p. 228.
3 Fritjof Capra, The Too of Hiysics: An Exploration of the Parallels between Modem
Physics and Eastern Mysticism (London: Fontana, 1976), pp. 258^
4 D. H. H. Ingalls, An Anthology of Sanskrit Court Poetry, Harvard Oriental Series
vol. 44 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), p. 69.
5 Beryl de Zoete, The Other Mind (London: Victor Gollancz, 1953), p. 44.
6 This is discussed at the close of chapter 9, p. 226f.
7 J^fya Nostra 8.53. A photograph of a dancer's foot in this p>osition is given in
Shveni Pandya, A Study of the Technique ofAbhinaya in Relation to Sanskrit Drama
(Bombay: Somaiya Publications, 1988), p. 35. Every bronze of Natoraja shows
the raised foot in this position.
8 'With his pupils he dwelt in the monastery built by the Cola called Vira in the
beautiful grove called Rajendrapuri that is splendid on the outskirts of
Cidambaram' [Rqendrapura Mahatmya 14).
9 Hermann Kulke, Cidambaramahatmya: Eine Untersuchungder religionsgeschichtlichen
und historischen Hintergriinde JUr die Entstehung der Tradition einer siidindischen
Tempelstadt, Freiburger Beitrage zur Indologie, vol. 3 (Wiesbaden: Otto
Harrassowitz, 1970).
I THE N A T A R A J A B R O N Z E
1 Douglas Barrett, 'The "Chidambaram" Natoraja', in Chhavi 2, ed. Anand

Krishna (Varanasi: Bharat Kala Bhavan, 1981), pp. 5 - 2 0 , p. 17.
2 This painting is discussed in chapter 4, pp. 85-7.
3 Barrett, 'The "Chidambaram" Nataraja', p. 17.
4 See, for example, Sivaramamurti, Matarâ in Art, Thought and Literature (New
Delhi: National Museum. 1974), p. 223, fig. 74.
5 For the musicians, see verses 9 and 151 and comment (pp. i9f.); for the flames,
see verse 9 (p. 19). /VaMai;a/i,'continuous line of light or radiance'; the Tamil
240
Notes to pages g8-ioi 241
term is tiruvaci, 'ornamental arch over the head of an image', 'ornamental

arch under which anything sacred is carried'.
6 yalRlarabdhanrttapras^varyaûUisammardavega-
prodyatsvargdpagambhqjanitakariagaTta yatra yatra prapetuh /
te 'py asan tatra tatra svtganimamukhard muTtayah ksetrarê
tarn devam noMimuldiyapramathagarnvrtam kunnlaiighnm bhtge'ham //i\\//
7 In major temples a separate shrine within the central courtyard is dedicated
to Nataraja. The earliest of such subsidiary shrines is probably the one in the
Brhadisvara in Tanjavur, though it was rebuilt by Sarfoji about 1802. In
Cidambaram temple, the lifiga is in the second enclosure, and is called the
Mulasthana, the original sacred place, for it predates the Cit Sabha (in this
world age, according to the sthalapurma). There exist a number of minor
temples dedicated to Nauiraja in imitation of Cidambaram, e.g. in Madras,
the Natoraja temple in Lingi Chetty Street, Muthialpet. A Northern version
of the Cidambaram temple has been built within the last ten years at Satara
in Maharashtra: see B. Natarajan, Tillai and Nataraja (Madras: Mudgala
Trust, 1994), chapter 27.
8 The linga is in fact of stone, but the sunken garbhagrha is regularly flooded by
an internal spring. In Cidambaram, in the Cit Sabha to the right of Nataraja
there is said to be a lihga made of space {akdJa), and consequendy invisible.
Umapati refers to this once, briefly, 246, but three or four times refers to the
Mula linga as the source of all lingas and the dkdsa liiiga seems not to be very
important to Umapati.
9 aiyavamanuabhusanavamaniganabhasarâvaivaTTryanSa^
gnvahkatisahldprasTtamabhayakrahladikpeUava^^ /
cuddcandr^trsddaraiiv^phariakuTidali^
gahgaJdHâmanasvasatavaravanam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham //163//
10 vedantod^taTupam jvalanadamanikau dkdrayantam karabhyam
axâbhyam dolamudram abhayam api sadapasmrtau daksapadam /
mnyaâhmcitena prariamadakhiladam vamapMena nityam
deiya sakam sabhayam racayati natanam kundtahghrim bhcge'ham //\o8//
11 See my paper 'The Dance of Siva', in Perspectives on Indian Religion, ed.
P. Connolly (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1986), pp. 87-98. Apasmara
receives further discussion and interpretation in chapter 9.
12 pkale bhasmatripuridram phamnam api gale padaptthe ca bhUtarn
bahvoT vahnih ca dhakkarn vadanasarasije suiyacandrau HkhTndram /
omkarakhyaprabhâm surabhuvanaganam parsvayor vddyakarau
yah krtvanandanrttarn svasadasi kurute kuricitahghrirn bhaje'ham 7/93//
13 dharmarn datva jandnam damamkaninadair artham apy agnina yah
kidmam datva 'bhayena svapadasarasijan moksarHparn pumartham /
bkdn samastdn avati natapatir nayakas citsabhayah
tarn devam nrttamurtirn visadriacarilam kuncitdhghrirn bhaje'ham //104//
242 -ôUs to pages 17-19
14 Coomaraswamy, The Dance of p. 70. ^ r j

15 According to M. li\i!iw2imony, Uve ofGod Accmding to
Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 252.
16 Dated as eariy as the sixth century in the new and generally authontaUve
Emyclopedia of Tamil Literature under publication by the Institute of Asian
Studies, Madras, but Graefe is more likely to be correct in postulating the
eleventh century (W. Graefe, 'Legends as Mile-Stones in the History of
Tamil Literature', P. K. Code Cammerrwration Volume (Poona, i960), vol. 11,
pp. 129-46, p. 145).
17 Trans, by B. Natarajan (slighdy altered), Tnumantiram (Madras: Sri
Ramakrishna Math, 1991), p. 430. All quotations from the Tirumantiram are
from Natarajan's translation. The relevant passage from the Urpnaiuilakkam
and further discussion are to be found in chapter 5, pp. lagf.
18 srstyai brahmanam adau hanm alha jagatam raksariâtmarupah
s<mhrtyai fudramOrtim to atha nikhilatirodhanahetor mahesam /
talbkaTUtgraharlham himagiritaruâsaktasadakhyamiirtiTn
yah srstvanandanrttam sadasi vitamte kuncitahghrirn bh<ge'ham //102//
Umapati always refers to Sadasiva as Sadakhya. This verse is further
discussed in chapter 4.
19 bhute sarnsthâ caikam caranasarasijam dakîiam vamapadarn
nrganmai^rasobham vidhimukhadiviMtpiijitarn bhakAbhqam /
dharmadis^ pradaturn dhamlipisahitarn kincid uddhrfya tiiyak
cakumyaTumdanrttarn kalayati varadam kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham //70//
20 The Cidambaram ritual text gives a list of ip'ôs for each of the letters of the
alphabet, the letters being distributed among the four arms of Nauiraja, and
nyasa being fjerformed on various parts of the worshipjjer's body in turn,
with reverence to particular saktis. Thus, to the hand holding fire (which
receives half the alphabet) there is included orn dham nam srutyai name
vamapadar^linmJe, orn rum thorn savityai namo vamapadafûfyagre, Gtsabhesotsavasiilra,
p. 243. However, when I asked G. Paramesvara Diksita about dhanalipi, he
paused and then informed me that his guru, the deceased K. M. Rajaganesa
Diksita, the learned editor of the Kuncitahghristava, was constantly present for
him and that Rajaganesa Diksita had at that moment informed him that the
true reading should be ksamalipi. This would app>ear to corresp>ond to the last
syllable in the alphabetic sequence just referred to, which concludes, still
directed towards Na^raja's agmhasta, orn ksarn morn mahalakmyai namo vamapade.
21 Harle declares, 'The impact is made almost exclusively by the human-divine
form', and adds in a note, 'To appreciate to what extent this is true one has
only to compare Cola bronzes to those of Kashmir, with their fascinating
iconographical diversity and inventiveness and frequently inferior crafts-
manship. Similarly, the elaborate surrounds of most Pâ and Western
Indian metal images tend to detract from the main figure.'J. C. Harle, The
Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986),
p. 302 and p. 519.
22 yasmin nrtyaty anadau nikatatatagatau bhmukampakhyabamu

sahkhadhvanair mrdahgadhvambhir mahanbhodh^sam jqyantau /
yaryorikaraprabhâm dkuammamisakUa rasmayas caikavirâ
viânte tarn sabhesam nataswranikaram hi^tdhgkrim bhaje'ham //Q//
Is a correspondance intended between the 23-syllabled dhvani mantra and the

21 flames of the tiruvaci? The dhvani mantra {sivasivasararimi sivanandarn siva siva
sivaya sivâ namah) is defined and described in the Cidambarakalpa.
23 rapesam bofâiâprarniMaganavaroddaiuladorbâvaiya-
kjvTodvegahatodyadghatadhimidhimitaksabdabha^ /
tanatanataneti hamtadasasaRtaTitrimnanugano-
rmododgrwahibhusavalqyam abfuâdam kuncitahghrirn bhtge'ham //iy>//
24 sahasrahwavaktraprabhavagurumarutptrahttrûrnbhabharnbh^
jhan^hVcrccharnkhasmgapramukhavaramd^ /
drshja hahahaheti bhramitasuragOTidbhTtisanul^parsad-
lyapte rangeya tso natnti tarn anagharn kuncitanghrirn bhaje'ham //151//
Line b. Bhanukopa. Both the Sanskrit text and the Tamil translation
(Panuk5pan) have this, but surely Bhanukampa is in question here, and I
give his name in my translation.
25 They are mentioned in .the Cidambaramahatmya (17.22-6), K^l Purariam
{Nataraja section, 6-7) and in the Cidambaresvaranifyapigasutra they are
included in the list of servants of the dance {nrttasevaka), p. 98.
26 Citrasena, son of VisVavasu, taught Aijuna music {Mahabharata, Vana Pawan).
27 T. Satyamurti, The Nataraja Temple: HisUny, Art and Architecture (New Delhi:
Classical Publications, 1978), p. 18. Siva is rarely shown in this way. An early
and perhaps unique instance of Daksinîirti as a drummer is found on the
Pandyan rock-cut temple at Kalugumalai - illustrated in C. Sivaramamurti,
Kalugumalai and Early Pandyan Rock-Cut Shrines, Heritage of Indian Art Series,
no. 3 (Bombay: N. M. Tripathi Private Ltd, 1961), p. 5.
28 padme masto adya lila phanipatisayanam vainatô 'pi ndlarn

bhOmi tuam sighram âhy aham api natane tillavanyam purareh /
hast^fârn vadayiâmy ahaha catutarani mardalarn cety udxrya
ptrâdyadrahgam adau harir api tam ajam kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham //230//
29 R. Dessigane, P. Z. Pattabiramin and Jean Filliozat, Les Legendes (îvaites de

Kahcipuram (Pondicherry: Institut Franâis d'Indologie, 1964), pp. 86f
30 Ibid.
31 satyam brahmaiva nanyaj jagad idam akhilam ceti mmarnsayitva

traiyantoktya budhendra hrdi ca yam anisam cidghanam duminkâm /
dipajvalasikhavat satalaparicayanandanrttarn vimayam
subhram paânti tatsatpadauisayam aram kuncitdhghrim bhaje'ham //i-ji//
Line d. arairy. cf rdrbabandhadhikasapalham ararn kuncitahghrm bh<^'ham //261 //

244 ^^^^ ^ ^ ^
32 phaU bhasmatrifmndram phamnam apt gale padapi^ ca bkutam
bahvor vahnin ca dhakkan vadanasaras^ smyacandrau Hkhmdram /
oiddarWiyaprabkay^ surabhuvamânam parsvqjwr vadyakarau
yah krtomumdanrttam svasadasi kumU ku^tan^mm bhqje'ham / /93//
33 dhrtvayah sarvadesah padtgcdtgamukhe sresUiamuktalim ahge

sauoamam kcmcukm ca praihitamamcitam bhusanam dijyaoastram /
nrttam krtoagaianam sahUalambhrtam dharmamuk/ân pumarthan
dattva raksaty anadir namik^ycganah kuncitah^mm bhqje'ham / /106//
Line d. It is to Him that sages conduct their sacrifice, mumJ^tganah. Far
from being excluded from the sacrifice, as he was as Rudra in Vedic times,
Siva is now seen as the object of the entire array of Vedic sacrifice.
34 itvnan bkrfi^murmdro mrgaparasukaram devam evaikam-isam
natva tatpdrh)agaya mjavimukharu^ caridikâs ca vaJyat /
saktam mamadivargam svatanuvaragaUm protstjan yatprasadcd
Ubhe dandatripadam svadhuri ca vasatim ^fwitahghrim bhqje'ham //i^//
Parvati is here called Candika, 'the Fierce Lady', a name often given to
Durga, slayer of the buffalo demon. P. Z. Pattabiramin summarizes M. R.
Dessigane's French translation of'the Tamil treatise? ivaparakkraman\ p. 162
('Notes d'iconographie dravidienne', Arts AsiaHqius VI (1959), pp. 13-16):
On Mount Kailasa Siva was seated with his wife Uma, amid his court, on a
splendid throne. Gods and fcis came to pay their respects and to receive
blessing. When Bhrtgi's turn came, he approached the throne of the Lord
and revered only Siva, without paying attention to Uma. Angered, she asked
her husband who the rn wzis. Siva said to her, 'My dear, it is a devotee who
firmly believes that I am all and that everything depends on me. His name is
Bhriigi.' Then Uma decided to repress the arrogance of Bhrtgi. She
withdrew from his body all the elements pertaining to vitality or energy
{sakti)-. blood, flesh etc. The rH began to sway without being able to hold
himself upright, having in his body only bones and nerves, the elements
f)crtaining to Siva. At this moment, Siva, in his compassion, gave him
another leg. Uma is led to demand that she and Siva share one and the same
body. [My translation from the French.]
35 R. Venkataraman, Rajaryesvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art Mudgala
Trust, 1985), p. 157.
36 For some details, see Anne-Marie Gaston, $iva in Dance, Myth and Iconography
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 131.
37 Always present in paintings of Siva dancing in Cidambaram are the two
sages, Vyaghrapada and Patafljali, and sometimes a third, Jaimini. These
three belong to the local tradition, and are discussed in chapter 2.
38 kalya sakam pura yah suramunisadasi svahghrim udyamya cordhvam
nrttam krtvatha kdltrn pasupatir qjayat tadbahiskarapurvam /
sarve deva munindrah prabhur iti ca vadanfy urdhvanrtUsamurtim
yarn devam pUjayanti pratidinam anaghah kuncitahghriTn bhqje'ham 7/46//
39 bimante nrnvayasmin rauisasihutabhuk tarakas capi vidyut

yasmM btufyendravajnanihiraidraiuô duratoyanti nityam /
yadrupam yi^vmya hrdtâsarasije cintayanty anvaham tarn
srvnantam citrarupam vasukaraJamedam kuncitari^tTim bhqje'ham 7/73//
E.g. TimmulaTjrefereto eight arms, Tmananbram 2728 trans. Natarajan, p. 119.
40 caksumy arkagmcandras caranam ahibhuvi jyomm kesas cayay^
as^ asas ca vastram nikhikbhuvanasanlagnahasto'dviâh /
hiknr varasijdlam natanasubhatalam rudrabhwnis ca nityam
tarn devam ciisabhesam smtiganauimtam kundtanghrim bhqe'ham //^"j//
41 avih smerananaâ dyutibhir abhinavaih panipadmantarala-
prodyatkantiprarohaiT nabhasi ca racayan jaUtm ahnam paSnam /
navyam ambhodamalam adhidharam ruca parsvagâh sivâs
citramyo nanaSti bhramaranatanakrt kundtanghrim btuge'ham //220//
42 ^ryat kaitabhareh paramam abhimaUm purmtam ed tavat
kalpoyaâ ksanardho bhavaH ca sugamah kindd arnsena hmah /
ity ahur vedavacah hm uta satadhiieh kindd dikpalakanam
tarn kalam kalabhaksam phaniphamnatam kundtar^hrim bhaje'ham . //2%2/ /
2 THE CIDAMBARAM MYTH
1 Dated by Kulke as early as the twelfth century; evidence from the

Kundlafighrislava throws doubt on that. See above, p. 44.
2 Cf. Shulman's review of this .literature, 'The Mythology of the Tamil
Talapuranam', unpublished PhD thesis, London University (1976), p. 30.
Subsidiary Sanskrit texts on Cidambaram include Tilvavana Mahatmya,
VyaghrapuraMahabnya, PundankapuraMahatrrâ, a n d HemasabhanathaMahatnâ.
3 The first published account in English is perhaps that of Pop>e: G. U. Pope,
The Tiruvofogam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1900), pp. Ix-lxvii.
4 For details see Kulke, Cvdambaramahatyma: Eine Untersuchung, p. 32.
5 puTvam mMândiniryacchivajanimavaram pigayan yatprasaddl
labdhva lyaghranghribhavam tcmeryam sivanugrahad dugdhasindhum /
dmyasmai pradatva sadasi ca paramam draslavan yaâ nrtlam
lam devam dlsabhesam nigamanutaguTiam kundlanghrim bhaje'ham //lo//
6 yannTpadhyanccyogadingumtatanubhrcchnsascmvahabhugna-
svangah sesah kadadd dharimukhakamalotpannqyadurttamadhvm /
patud taptvdhghoram Tcgata^nbUadvaramargerm yaâ
katram prapyamjapaân natanam adhisabham kundtanghrim bhaje'ham //ii//
7 Both are now substantial temples, having been extensively renovated. The
temple on the site of Patafijali's dsrama bears the oldest inscriptions in
Cidambaram (Vijayalaya, 870; Parantaka 907-57); see S. R. Balasubrah-
manyam, 'The Oldest Chidambaram Inscriptions', Journal of Annamalai
University XI1/2&3 (1943).
246 NoUs to pages 33-8
8 The only instance I have seen outside Cidambaram is in the BhikÛina

shrine (early twentieth century) in the Margasahayesvara Temple at
Virificipuram, 11 km west of Vellore.
9 adau mast mrgakhye suragurudivase fmâbhe purnimâm
bhiUau mcitsahhayam mumvdratapasa datlavakpuUrye j>ah /
nrttam krtvavasane phtmadharavapusam lyag/trapadam maharam
cahuyabiâm adMyo niyaUmivasatim kuOcildhghrim bhaje'ham / /
Line a. Read puâbhe for taâ bhe, which makes no sense. Umapati refers
to CidambaramaMtmya i5.56-58a: pumimeâm pausamase 'mrtayiîma sarrÛ
//56// vare cagaurave tatra pusârkse ca subhavahe / dinaya madhyamam bkagam
samprapte ca divakare /I'^'jlI toTidavam darsayiyami tapa tayapyamttamam/.
Line b. bhittau 'against the wall'. For discussion, see chapter 4.
10 antarvafyam svayajne divisadadhipatau samaganais tathoccair

ahult 'nagaU 'smin yadamalanatanam drstavantam surendram /
sadyobudhvatmabhus Urn svayam atitarasamya yaâddesad
vipraih sakam svayajnam suranutam akarot kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham 7/47//
11 anlarvetfyam mahatyam satadhrtir akarod abdasahasrasadhyam
yajnam tasmin munmdToh sadasi samabhavan lyaghTapadoktibhirye /
tatpigoTtham sikhindraprabhavamamna^ preatoyena modal
Ummurter mulabhutam navamanimakutam kuncitdhghrim bhaje'ham //16//
12 gaudesah simhavarma svatanugataruja lyakulah smyadesad

agatya svamapadmakaravarasalilasnmanimtJctarogah /
bhutva mhemavarma munivarasahitah sambhunrttam ca drstoa
yatprasadam vicitram manimayam akarot kundtdhgkrim bhege'ham //13//
13 The Cidambara Mahatmya says that he has the form of a lion, simharupadhara
(20.36). The Hemasabhanatha MMtmya calls him citrin (7.35), perhaps in the
sense of being motded. The appendix to the TilvaoamMahatmyas\xmm2inz\vig
the sthalapuTona says plainly that Sirnhavarman had leprosy (kustha).
14 amndye^ apy ananlew anitarasulabhdn bhimasamsthdn vidhin
apy ahrtya snphamndro nalayajanamahaproksandrlhan ca sutram /
Ttvadau dattavanyat taduditavidhind yam saddradhayanti
traisahasram dvijendrdh lam api natapatim kuncitdhghrim bhaje'ham //14//
Line a. anitarasulabhm: literally, '[precepts] which no one else could easily
find'. But Umapati would hardly suggest any lack of authenticity in the
temple ritual text, and the looseness of his style makes likely the adverbial
turn of my translation, 'in a way that none could emulate'.
15 adauyah^ karmakdridapravacanamahima jaiminir ndmayo^
yyôktya citsabhesam prabhuvaram urasa narrâ gatva sabhantah /
padante vedayuktarn stavavaram akarot svasaubhagyadarn yam
pafyann adyapi devarn sadasi vasati tarn kuncilahghrirn bhaje'ham //12//
Jaimini's 'excellent hymn of praise', the Vedapadastava, is a well-known stotra,

and is included in collections of stotra&. It continues to be read in
Cidambaram: the brochure for the 1994 Karttikai mahotsava at Cidambaram
is headed by a verse from the Vedapadastava.
16 devo yah pulkaS'â dvijahiUganuse valkalayatnugaya
nandabhikhyâ mukt^ kanatmasudhiye dattavan bhakHvaâh /
rdtyatvam vyagkrapMaprathitaphanipalistotrahâimiTdbhyah
tarns tan kanwms ca sarvam tarn qjaram amaram kundtanghnm bhaje'ham //ag//
line c. nifyatvam 'eternal presence [in Cidambaram]'.
17 purvam valkalyabhikhyan nihatatanuvaro devarad vimum aptva
coktva svodantam asmai saha muraripund prapya yatkxtram tsam /
aradhyaptva suvâm yadanaghakrpaya marayam dsa stUrum
tarn devam citsabhesam varanicivinutam kufui&hghnm bhaje'ham //41//
18 Kulke, Cidqmbaramahafyma: Eine Untersuchung, p. 182.
19 sardulahghTes ca dimbhah sukhataram abhajad dugdhakallolarasim /
stavam stavam varerâm gagamnatapatim ...
20 Kulke, Cidambaramahatyma: Eine Untersuchung, p. 222.
21 Anusasanaparoan, Part 1, p. xxxi. David Shulman has pointed out to me
(personal communication) that the Telugu Mahabharata is extremely selective
and often leaves enormous gaps.
22 As far as Cidambaram is concerned, precise details may be given. The
Tirupparkatol tank, the tank filled with Divine Milk for Upamanyu, is
believed to have been situated to the north of the great temple, and west of
the Tillai KaH temple. The site has been filled in to make a school
playground. Adjoining is a Mutt on the site where Manikkavacakar is said to
have written his two poems.
23 Tevaram III.282.2, trans. Peterson, Poems to îva: the Hymns of the Tamil Saints
(Princeton University Press, 1989), p. 271.
24 We should remember that names are easily changed. In the later
Hemasabhmatha Mahatmya, for example, Simhavarman's father is called
Nairrta, and rules in Ayodhya (8.32).
25 Kulke, Cidambaramahatyma: Eine Untersuchung, p. 224.
26 Ibid., p. 208.
27 yaddakse'dyapi visriur mariimayasadane dak^ne svanghriyugmarn

bpaârn cottaraârn saramukhaphamradbhogatalpe sayanah /
nityam nidram prakurvann api hrdi satatarnyat padarn dhyâSdyam
devya tarn citsabhesam sutagajavadanarn kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham 7/42//
28 Further evidence of the Vaisnava zeal of Acyutadeva Raya is provided by
the family history of a group of gurukkak now living in Kumbakonam,
namely that they were brought from Andhra Pradesh by Acyutadeva Raya
to serve as priests in Cidambaram, only to be later exp>elled by the DTksitas.
248 to 44-50
These people are Saivas, and there is no reason to suppose that they were
not so when brought in by the Vaisnava king. The presumption is that the
Diksitas resisted his reforms, and were for a time ousted. Under such
circumstances, it is only to be expected that the Sesasayana image would
have its feet towards Natoraja. There is evidence of Diksita resistance to a
Vaisnava king at the end of the sixteenth century. The Jesuit Pimenta
reports in 1597 a score of priests leaping to their deaths from the top of a
gppura rather than see Krishnappa Nayaka improve the Visnu shrine
(Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His PUgrinus, vol. x (Glasgow:
James MacLehose, 1905), pp. 2o8f).
29 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas, 2 vols., Madras University Historical
Series (University of Madras, 2nd edn., 1955), vol. I, p. 348. In addition to
inscriptions Sastri also notes the evidence of the Tamil court poetry of
Ottakkutton, the Kuldttuhgacolan Ula, and also the RqarqacoUm Uta and the
Takkayagapparam.
3 TEMPLE, PRIESTS, AND RITUAL
1 sanav asmin hm artham vasata suravara gacchatadyakhilesa

ksetradharam dharâ krdayakamalagam puftdankabhidharuim /
ksetram tatraiva devo dasasatakalqya ryaSti priyoktya
nandiyaddarsanmtham tvarayati ca gireh kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham //227//
2 yadrahgdsvarnakumbham dinakrd anudinam inkâ mmibhramena

rathyam samrudhya madhye ksanam api rdvasan yatsapaiya sujatam /
ghantabhahkaraghosam tmaUulasamaldiweddmmtrams ca bhuyah
srutva dllwandkhyam puram iti mamte kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham //289//
3 Ttllai, 'blinding tree', Excoecaria agallocha.

4 For the D M K (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, 'Dravidian Progress Party'),
and the anti-Brahman movement, see Franklin A. Pressler, Religion under
Bureaucraty: Poluy and Administrationfor Hindu Temples in South India (Cambridge
University Press, 1987), chapter 7.
5 Several major temples in Tamilnadu do not have four gateways. Sriraiigam,
the largest of Vaisnava temples, has entrance gateways on only one side.
Moreover, p>erhaps the majority of significant temples are asymmetrical and
atypical. SriraAgam, for instance, is aligned to the South.
6 Cf. S. R. Balasubrahmanyam, Later Chola Temples: Kubttunga I to Rajendra III,
(Madras: Mudgala Trust, 1979), p. 207: 'Kulottunga II continued to rule
from the old capital of Gangaikondasolapuram or Gangapuri. It is likely
that he had a secondary and well-frequented capital at Chidambaram'.
7 patale martyabke divi ca purariporyani priydni

ksetraiff asan tadantasthitim adhijusatarn lingaberadimandm /
hetuh snmUlandthah sivajanimavaro yatsabhodicibhdge
kak^c^dm bhdti nityarn torn akhilajanakarn kuncitahghrirri bhaje'ham 7/296//
8 The now extensive Ilamaiyakkinar temple. SeeJ. M. Somasundaram Pillai,

The University's Environs: Cultural and Historical, 4th imprint. (Annamalainagar:
Annamalai University, 1963), pp. lyji.
9 Kulke, Cidambaramdhatyma: Eine Untersuchung, p. 222.
10 Ibid.
11 yamrttam drashJ(ama ravisasimukharah svabhidhanair grhesa

lifigan samsthapya gahgatalavaranikate pujaj>itva sabhayam /
tgoTUparn ca laârn bahir iva krdaye samtatam cintayanto
vasam cakrus tarn isarn nikhilatanumayam kuncitanghrirn bh<ge'ham //119//
12 vimur brahma ramendro dahanapitrpaS raksasanam adhisah

pasi v^h kuberah tridrg arunamukha devatds candrasibyau /
nityam yatk^traraje pasupatinatanam drstavantah svanamna
Ungan sai^thapya natva sukhavaram abhajan kuOcitahghrim bhqe'ham /1"^/1
O f these, eight are the World-protectors, from Indra toTsana {tridr^. But w h y
the mention of Aruna?
13 yadgeharn pahcasalair disi disi vilasadgopurair vedasahkhyair

annadibrahmakosatvam upagatasabhapancakair bhati tirthaih /
mmulasthmadem harigcgavadanaskandagehais ca nityarn
tatratyanandakose viracitanatanarn kuncitanghrirn bhaje'ham //"jS//
14 T h e r e is one place at ground level from which all (ourg(ûras are visible from
within the temple. This jxjint is outside the entrance to the îvakamasundari
shrine.
15 Harle, Temple Gates in South India, p. 86.
16 An impKjrtant gppura in considering the development of form is the one
added to the Sembiyan Mahadevi Vriddhagirisvara temple at Vriddhachalam
around 1186 (see K . V . Raman, 'Gopura Sculptures from Vriddhagirisvara
Temple', in ^rvtidhih: Shri K. R. Srinivsan Festschrift ed. K . V . Raman et al.
(Madras: New Era Publications, 1983), pp. 203-12). But in fact its single and
miscellaneous tier throws into greater relief the majestic Saiva statement of
the second tiers at Cidambaram.
17 As Harle, Temple Gatew(^s, p. 21, and Susan L. Huntington, The Art ofAncient
India (New York /Tokyo: VVeatherhill, 1985), p. 531, both note. Harle, in his
The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1986), refers also to textual prescriptions: 'Prescriptions in the sastras for the
construction of multi-storey 5o/»ar(2s, moreover, appear to be litde more than
mechanical transp>ositions of those for vimanas,.' (p. 320).
18 Harle notes minor variations of position, Temple Gateways, p. 90.
19 'At first glance, the great gopuras would seem to have been purposely placed
in such a way as to avoid any symmetry whatsoever.' Harle, Temple Gateways,
P- 35-
20 Cidambara Mahatmya, 18.82-6.
250 Notes to pages 54-60
21 K^l Puranam, Nataracaccamkmi 50, trans. John Loud. Both paritam and kuti
resemble the goM, being dwarfish, malfonned, and multiple.
22 In the K^l Puranam KaE is mentioned again three verses later.
23 G. Vanmikanathan, Pathway to God through the Thtntvaachakam, Sri Kasi Mutt
Publication New Series, no. 4 (Thiruppanandal: Sri Kasi Mutt, 1980), p. 114.
24 The five sheaths are mentioned again in verse 105, but in another context.
See p. 92.
25 F. L'Hemault points out that the Nitta Sabha was not originally a Sabha,
since architectural features prove that it was not designed for a Sabha-type
roof, the roof being the defining feature (L'Hemault et ai, Darasuram., vol. i,
p. 6. fn. 17).
26 For an instructive comparison of this Sabha with the ratha-maiulapa at
Darasuram, see ibid., p)p. 6f.
27 Somasetu Diksita in the Sanskrit introduction to his edition of the
Citsabhesotsavasitra lists the five principal shrines as i. Nauraja, 2.
îvakamyum^bika, 3. ^rimulanatha, 4. Mahaganapati, 5. Subrahmanya,
called the ^riPandyanayaka (p. 3 of unpaginated sequence).
28 sraddhavantah srutgnah paraavdarpayMhStasastradividya

vyarthan vacamfyajantahpratidiium asahrt pigayantafi prabhumyam /
kurvantah srautakarmany anitaramlabhianyatmabodham labhante
viprendrah svamsabhUtah parahmrâdharam kuncitahghrim bhqe'ham 7/92//
29 Such restrictions on the wives of a caste are not unique in Tamilnadu;

another instance is the Kottai Pillai, a tiny Vellala subcaste that for
generations lived in a mud-walled fort in Srivaikuntham, practising
endogamy with the wives not allowed to leave the fort. See K. Ganesh,
Boundaiy Walls: Caste and Women in a Tamil Community (Delhi: Hindusthan,
'993)-
30 Transliated by John Loud.
31 Translated by John Loud.
32 Ecstatic dancing is well documented in the Tamil tradition. For its place in
Tamil culture of an earlier period see F. Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti: The Early
History of Krma Devotion in South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983).
Just how far ecsutic dancing was considered to be popular religion, to be low
as distinct from high religion, is a difficult question. As Yocum mentions in
his discussion of possession in Manikkavacakar, Umapati's predecessor in
the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta lineage, Arulnanti, says that those who attain
jnanasamadhi 'become like children and mad men and possessed persons, and
they may delight in singing and dancing also {Civamnacittiyar 3.8.32 trans.
Nallasvami Pillai)' (Glenn E. Yocum, Hymns to the Dancing $iva: A Study of
ManikkavacakaT's Tiruvacakam (New Delhi: Heritage, 1982), p. 192); and
Umapati himself in his Ttruvamlpcân compares samadhi to possession by a
demon (8.7). Dancing on the part of worshippers may well have been the
norm until modem times, perhaps until the ban on devadash: Gopinath Rao
wrote in 1916 that 'at the present time all Vaidika or Smarta Brahmanas are
worshipping the lihga and are even seen dancing and making hudukkara noise
[the noise Pasupatas were supposed to make] while worshipping in temples,
a strange survival of the Pasupata customs' {Elements of Hindu Iconography
(Madras: Law Printing House, 1914-16), vol. 11, Part i,. pp. 3if.).
33 sabde sastre phanindraih pramitibhaniHm snkanadaksapadair
vedante vyasarupair jindmsutahrtau bhattakaumaratulyaih /
kalpe bodhânais tais mttim vidhisamcdh pirate yo mmindrtdh
traisahasra^ sabhâm tarn api guruvaram kufidimghrim bfuge'ham //8g//
34 siânam vedabahyasthitim adhyusatam bodhanartham pathantas
cajy^(ânghTibhedaprakatitavibhavan kamikddyagamam tan /
bhudeva vâpâkratugatanâtiproddhrtoddamasukla-
cchatrayam pijayanti srutipathavidhina kuncitafighrim bhaje'ham //107//
35
bkaganam, Citsabhesotsavasutra, p. 88.
36 samadhttmakalavedataipojyavabodhasuvaakrtdiâsambhavandm. Ibid.
37 Jbid.
38 Verse 4 of the Kuncitdhghristava mentions this symbolism; see below, chapter
4, P- 93-
39 kalpe kalpe sva)ayaprabhavalayabhayam tyaktum adye parardhe
vedayam kdlakdlam bahuvidhatapasa tosayitva yadukfya /
traisdhasram dvijatvam divisadasulabham labdhavantah kramena
nityamyam pijayanti svasaraniuidhina kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham //176//
40 yesam vedoktakarmasv anadhikrtir abhud adrijatd prthityam
tesam dharmadim aptyai parasivaracitam kamikddiprabhedam /
sahgam siddhantatantraprakaram api catussastisanMyah kalas ca
yaâdesat prakasam tv anayad aganutarn kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham //146//
For discussion of the rest of this verse, see chapter 5, p. 118.
41 kuTvantah ksetravasam hrdayasarasije cintayanto japanto

vidyam sauvamarahge yam ajaharinutam svecchayavaptanrttam /
paântah sarvakdlam vibudhapanbrdha tabdhakamdh sukhitva
brahme saudhe ramante caramavayasi tarn kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham //147//
42 T h e root of Umapati's persistent use of the adjective vara is that the sragdhara
metre demands six consecutive short syllables in each line, and vara takes up
two of them. T h e choice of the word vara as filler- is an instance of
intensification in kaiya. See my Ratnakara's Haravijaya: An Introduction to the
Sanskrit Court Epic (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 147.
43 Translated by T. N. Ramachandran, Periya Puranam Part I (Thanjavur:
Tamil University, 1990), pp. 83-4. In his prose version of verses 355-6,
Arumuka Navalar (1822-76) adds, 'They undergo the four Diksas: the
Samaya-dik^, the Visesa-diksa, the Nirvana-dikM and the Abhiseka-dik^'
(trans. H. W. Schomerus, îvaistische Heitigenlegenden (Periyapurma und
252 JioUs to pages 66-g
Ttnu/aUwurar-Iâna) (Eugen Diederichsjena, 1925), p. 71). Mention must be

made of the view of Kulke: 'Entirely baseless is the often repeated assertion.
.. that by the Tillaivai-antamir whom Sundaramurti praises are already meant
the '3000 Brahmans'. TilUdval-ttntanar means nothing other than 'the
Brahmans dwelling in Tillai', (Kulke, Cidambaraniahafyma: Eine Untrrsuchung,
p. 211 fn. 162). KuUce takes the view that KulottuAga brought new priests to
Cidambaram from his Eastern Calukya homeland, noting that Kulottunga's
capital, Vefigi, was near the Godavari, and suggesting that the Cauda
region of which the Cidambara Mahatmya speaks got its name from Goda, the
short form of Godavari {ibid., p. 200). 'As the memory of the king began to
fade', both the new priests and the old priests, 'the whole priesthood of
Cidambaram, must have found the authority of the king in the legend
displeasing. Furthermore, the "3000" are likely to have become dissatisfied
with their legendary history. That left no doubt that their own tradition did
not reach back to the first anandaiandava, which in the meanwhile had moved
so much into the centre of the holiness of Cidambaram, that it must have
amounted to a lasting slight up>on them not to have participated in this
divine manifestation of Siva. In this situation the reworking of the legends of
Cidambaram may have begun.' Ibid., p. 212. [My translation from the
German.]
44 Rêndrapura Mahatmya 9. This is the prelude to his meeting with MaraiAana
Campantar, which will be discussed in detail in chapter 5.
45 Except the word ipig in verse 24, following the CitsabhesotsavasHtra, but this
expression has Vedic dignity.
46 Quoted above, chapter 2, p. 37.
47 nifyam satkdlapUjam natanapatimude kuTvatam bhUsuranam
tadbhaktanam dvijadipramukhalanubhrtam saukhyad^ bhrahansah /
svasthane lihgam ekam sphatikamanimayam rruânadmi karturn
yajvabhyodattavanyas tarn atisukhakaram kuncitahghrim bhqje'ham //15//
Line b. bkrakumsa - a variant of bhrukuTma, 'speaking with the brow'.

48 yo'dan ndijottamangamrtakiranasudhdmaTidapindi^
lôbhagnmduvahnidyunrnTOghanarucijyotisam harakalpam
nityam dedipyamanarn pratisamayam api svaâ pigam vidhatum
lihgam viprem modad bhavabhayaharamm kuncitanghnm bhaje'ham //276//
49 Trans. B. Natarajan, Tinmantiram (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1991),
pp. 27of.
50 The repeated use of'where' [kva) is a standard Sanskrit idiom, signifying a
p-eat difference between, usually, two persons or things; and thus here,
'There is a great difference between my humble self and the Cit Sabha, the
casket, and you . . But there is also the basic significance of/ba,'I do not
know where the casket is' and further perhaps the implication diat there is
no difference in anything in Umapati's state ofsamadhi, Umapati whom they
have just called 'the knower of the Great Self.
51 antarvedyam mahatyam satadkrtir akarod abdasahasrasadhyam

ytgnam tasmin mmmdrah sadasi samabhavan vyaghrap^Mbhir ye /
tatpigartham hkhmdraprabhavamamna^ pre^yena nunBt
tanmurter mulabhutam navamammakulam hmdlahgkrim bhqje'ham //16//
52 nityam putpafubn adau guruvaranamanam sosanaditrayam ca
bhmtim suddhim kar^tânavasurimukhMyasigatam ca hpa /
japtva mantran samastan chivamayatanams cantor aradfâyam prog
vipra bahyeyqanti. prabhuvaram api tarn kuncitahghrim bhtge'ham I/\'jn
53 It is also the case that Agamic temples introduce Vedic mantras. See
W. Surdam, 'The Vedicization of Saiva ritual', in S. S. Janaki (ed.) îva
Temple and Temple Rituals (Madras: Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute,
1988), pp. 52-63.
54 Pataigalipujasutra, p. 8.
55 The Umapatisivacaritrasamgraha composed by ^rimad Sricidambarabrah-
mayativarya, Paramaharnsaparivrajeika, bom in a Brahman family of the
Blessed Three Thousand - a brief life of Umapati prefixed to the published
Kuncitahghnstava, Preface pp. 3-6.
56 Patargalipujasutra, pp. lo-ii.
57 sthanadi prokâ pMyacamanam api sumair arcayitvatha samkham
gavyaT(yam kumbhapujamjaUryeyanavrsabhyarcane dvarapujam /
krtva vighnadipujdm sphabkajanimaratnesaydr mqjjanddyair
yanmurtm pigayanti pratidinam anaghah kuncitai^hrim bhqje'ham //18//
58 gaiyais tailaih payobhir dadhighrtdmadhubhih sarkarabhis ca sttddhaih
pascat pafkamrtidyaiT likucaphalarasaih kairapdthobhir annaih /
gandhair gangadbhir anyair amtdinam anaghayaâ lihgam mumndrah
saÛm pujayanti prabhum api tarn ajam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham // ^^f f
59 bhittau sruakrasanutharri tadanu natapatirn saivacakrantarastharn
tadvame yugmahaslam api ca sukakararn jndnasaktin cayasâ /
gobrahmadin athespd sakalavidhacarun arpayitva baUms tan
homarn krtva yajanti pratidinam api yam kuncitahghrirn bhqje'ham //20//
Note the rare gerund o f y q j , yaspd for the proper istvd.
60 Patafgaliphjasutra p. 99.
61 Ibid.. The verse is incomplete. The Goddess today also holds a lotus, and
Rajaganesa Diksita omits mention of the parrot in his Tamil translation of
Kuficitahghristava 20; he also quotes a verse from the Cidambarakalpa on
Sivakamasundari in her separate shrine which describes that form of the
Goddess as holding a Mynah bird {sarikS).
62 See Paiafgalipigasiitra, pp. 97f.
63 dhupair dipair athakhyaih phariipurusavrsaifi kumbhapancdgnihotrair
rksaih karpUrabhasmaiyajanavarasitacchatrakais camarais ca /
adarsair mantrapuspair uparitalasukarpicrakaih pranyayan drdk
tyaktva'vidyarn prapaânty anudinam anaghah kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham //21//
234 ^ 74-^
64 yadgefuânlabahye dasavrsabhasahitar^ abjafnAani mtyam

sakra£nam trikaUw api balihararu fntham uUimgam ar^ /
yadbihye dikm eagre navasikharisama bhanh danda dhxganam
ladgthmtah sabhâm aruBXtratamlam hmcitahghrim bht^'ham //ill!
It is not clear what the nine flagpoles were. See below, note 67.
6 5 Mtkalarcasu nityam sphatikamammaye linganâmurS
suddhais Srthaih kadadt svam api natapatim cabfti^ktum samantram /
mirdhalankarabhuta pravahati parammandaJa^ yaduktya
gqnga tarn cilsabhesam suravaravimtam kuncitaiighrim bhaje'ham //"J^//
66 yadvar^ manusanam tad api ca divasam demtmam prasiddham
prokiam Uucapakumbhaprathamayugdiaristn^ mase^ sa^ /
asan yarmrttamuTter udayamukhavaTobhyarcanas te tarn indra-
dyasâpalapuTvakhilasuravinutam kuncitanghnm bhtge'ham //202//
Hindu months correspond to the zodiacal constellations of Western
astronomy. The equivalent Tamil names of the months are mmkali, mda,
ciltirai, ani, avani, and puraitaci.
67 pTotyabdam jyeslhamase navavrsasahitah ketavo bhanti magke
mase pancadhvcgah ûr mrgasiTosi tatha ketur ekah pradhmah /
yaiya brahmotsavmam noDOsarasikhinas caikavahmh pradhmah
tarn devam cilsabhesam navanidhinilayam hmcilafighrim bhqe'ham //23//
Lunar months {jyestha, Tam. jesta\ mngha. Tam. makanv, mrgasiras, Tam.
markkaciram) are here referred to, which only approximately correspond to
the zodiacal constellations given in the translation.
It is not clear what is meant by the nine flagpoles. Several of the shrines
within the temple have their ownflagp>oles,but they consequendy have their
own rituals. Only the Na^raja shrine is in question. S. S. Janaki cites the
Uttarakamika Agama (6.62-3) to the effect that there can be one, five or nine
dhvegastambhas in a temple: 'The chief dhvajastambha should be at the outer
prakara in front of the îva linga and in line with Bali^Fâ and Nandi. In case
of five dhvtgaslambhas the other four should be allocated in the four directions,
ELast, West, South and North, presided over respectively by TatpuruM,
Sadyojata, Aghora and Vamadeva. If there are nine of them in a temple,
they should be placed in all eight directions and associated with the eight
Vidyesvaras, namely, Ananta, Suksma, Sivottama, Ekanetra, Ekarudra,
Trimurti, Srikantha and îkhandin.' S. S. Janaki, 'Dhv(ga-stambha\ Critical
Account of its Structural and Ritualistic Details', in S. S. Janaki (ed.), $iva
Temple and Temple Rituals (Madras: Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute,
'988), pp. 122-93, P- 130. Janaki also cites Aghora Sivacarya, who 'in his
Mahotsavavidhi [ed. K. Shanmugasundara Mudaliar, p. 97] points out that it
is best [uttama) to have nine dhvajas, for the conduct of dhvqjaroham-, with eight
it will be middling [madhyama) and with a single dhvaja it will be the least
desirable {adhamay {ibid.). She concludes her discussion of the number of
dhv(gastam.bha& by quoting Kuhcitdhghristava 22 and 23.
Notes to pcês y6-8o 255
At present two flags fly from the South Cidambaram gopvra throughout
the year. Perhaps in the past twoflagswere raised from each of the^/wras for
festivals? The Festival text describes the worshipping of a flag {dhvqja) and a
banner (patakd) in each of the eight directions (pp. 119-22).
68 yaâdye saptavimaty amaladinamahe ipigagiya nava yur
maghe panca rtvigagiya mâsirasi sivarksotsave caika eva /
nityarcasv eka ekoyajanakrta inu yajvavaêm suddhah
tam devam citsab/usam nirupamitatamm huncitahghrim bfuge'ham I /
Line b. June-July, ma^. Tamil, am.
Line c. February-March, mrgasirasi. Tamil, mad.
Line c. December-January, sivarksa. Tamil, markali.
69 adau hrtvoffoJiotram vapanapavanamantracamanani pascal
kusmarjdair dehasitddhim padayajanamukham vdstupaiyagnikarma /
nm£ misvairdcurma prattsaram rsabhaproksanam yanmahew apy
otM arohayanti dhvajapalam anaghah kurkitanghrim bhqje'ham 7/25//
acammani, incorrectly for dcamanani, to fit the metre.
70 Citsabhesotsavasutra, p. i. _
71 yad deva devahedanam etc. (l^.S. 20.14-16; TaitA.W.'^.i).
72 Somasetu Diksita, in the Tamil introduction to his edition of the
Citsabhesotsavasutra, pp. 4f.
73 SeeJanjiki, 'Dhvaja-stambha', pp. i34f.
74 mamce candrarkabhutew api vrsagajaradryatadriw aihasve
sorridskandasvaTupah svayam umnayane gorathe mdrgano yah /
slhitvd brahmotsavem tri^ ca natapatih pratyaham vTthiyatram
krtva snatva sodas svam pravisati sivaya kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham 7/26//
Line b. umnayane 'its eyes open wide'. Note that the Festival Ritual text, the
Citsabhesotsavasutra, refers to the of>eningof the eye {unmtlana) of Bhiksauna's
chariot, p. 214.
75 The guardian of the temple or, more particularly, the guardian of the
functioning of the temple, who is found in all South Indian Siva temples.
The role of Candesvara is clearly set out by Davis: 'Like Siva's own power of
reabsorption, the fierce Canda removes and absorbs a host of things: the
afflictions of his devotees, mistakes made in worshipping Siva, and Siva's
too-pure leftovers.' R. Davis, Ritual in an Oscillating Universe (Princeton
University Press, 1991), p. 157. The Hymn to the Deities of the Nataraja
Temple, the Devatastotra, says that it is by Candesvara's grace that worship of
Siva bears fruit (verse 120, PatargalipHjasiilra, p. 213). For Candesvara as a
Nayanar, see chapter 9, p. 209f.
4 t h e h a l l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e h e a r t o f t h e u n i v e r s e
1 'CitsabhanathadehamayacilsabhamandiTam', Citsabhesotsavasutra, p. 86.

2 David Dean Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee: The Tevaram of CuntaramUr-
2^6 -ôUs to pages 80-4
thn^m^ translated and annotated (Department of South Asia Regional

Studies, Univeraity of Philadelphia, 1990), p. 567^72. The 'refrain' varies
slighdy from verse to verse.
3 Since there is no evidence to suggest that Cidambaram was seen as the heart
of the world in Pallava times, why the hall was first given the Tamil name
'Litde' (or) is not apparent. Inscriptions at Cidambaram speak of a
perambaiam, a great hall 'opposite' to the Cit Sabha, and Graefe suggested
that Siva's hall was small in contrast to the great hall of KaE, the original
goddess of the site ('Legends as Mile-Stones', p. 139). But there is no
evidence of any such temple; and the provision of a separate shrine for the
Goddess within the precincts of a Siva temple began only in the late C51a
period. Perhaps the Cit Sabha was seen as small in comparison with a
regular shrine with vimana over a garbho^ha and an ardhamatidapa?
4 Trans, by Robert Ernest Hume, TTu Thirteen Principal Upanishads 2nd edn
(Oxford University Press, 1931), pp. 262f
5 And other Cidambaram texts, most notably the Daharaviifyakhanda of the
Cidambararahaya.
6 Sata Sarnhita, Jmmyoga kharâ ii.5ob-52, 62.
7 Trans. John Loud, with slight alteration by me.
8 CitsabhesotsavasHtra, pp. 302-3.
9 miiladharadisa^'py anavaratanatam yam virô hrdabje
sarpendravy^hTapâprarnukhamminutam satsu kû vedaih /
aradhyabhtstasiddhifmj dvijakuladlakah prapnuvanti prabhurn tarn
cicchaktyûktam adyarn kanakagirikararn kuncitahghrirn bhege'ham 7/65//
In the light of the passage in the Festival Ritual text just referred to, it might
be that the satsu kdUsu referred to here is six times a year rather than six times
a day, each of the cakras, once a year.
10 Somesethu Dikshitar in his introduction to the Festival Ritual text says that
there are fiveânfras in the Rahasya (p. 3 of unnumbered sequence).
11 S. Meyyapan, Chidambaram Golden TempU (Madras, 1992), p. 22.
12 Sivaramamurti, Nataraja, p. 383.
13 Harle, TempU Gateways in South India, p. 29. Again, Kane, in his long list of
pilgrimage sites (very weak on South India) in his authoritative study of
Dharmasastra, says that the Cidambaram temple 'contains the "air lihga"
i.e. no liiâ is actually visible but a curtain is hung before a wall and when
visitors enter the curtain is withdrawn and the wall is exhibited' (P. V. Kane,
History of Dharmasastra (Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1958),
vol. I V , p . 743).
14 tlvavanyarn trisikharamakute sarmlham akdsalihgam . . . //loo//
15 According to Somasekhara Dikshitendra, the akdsa linga is situated above the
bedroom of the Divine Couple (palU-y-arat) in the north-west corner of the
inner courtyard. Somasethu Dikshitar (ed.), The Histoiy of Chidambaram: Sri
NaUtrtga's Temple [A Guide to Sri Nataraja TempU), Part i L^^, Histoiy and
Architecture by T. Satyamurthy, Part 11 Descriptions of Shrines by Somasekharendra
Dikshitendra (translated by R. Sasikala) (Chidambaram: S. Somaraja

Dikshitar, 1987), Part 11, p. 36.
16 B. G. L. Swamy, Chidttmbaram and Natarâ: Problems and Rationalization
(Mysore: Geetha Book House, 1979), p. 76.
17 T. Ramalinga Dikshitar, 'A Study of Chidambaram and its Shrine as
Recorded in Sanskrit Literature', unpublished MLitt thesis, Annamalai
University, 1963", p. 94.
18 The threefold division has a natural logic, and is commonly found; only the
identification of the CandramauEsvara is worthy of remark, though that
identification also is entirely to be expected. An instance of the division into
formless, with form, and both together is Umapati's statement in his
^taratnasamgraha that Siva while his Sakti is inert is formless {niskala), when he
is about to act he is both formless and with form {sakalaniskala) as Sadasiva,
and when he is acting he has gross form {sthiila) as Lsvarri (Tanjavur edn., p. 88).
19 The Tanjavur painting of Natoraja within the Cit Sabha has already been
considered in chapter i. The circumambulatory is formed by the gap
between the double set of walls around the garbhagrha. The width of this
ambulatory or vestibule is a little over 1.5 m. The buttressing of both sets of
walls every 3 m or so provides boundaries to the paintings. These paintings
were discovered only in the 1930s, for they had been painted over in the
eighteenth century. According to Sivaramamurti there is a seconfl painting
jx)rtraying the Cit Sabha: 'One of the paintings shows the temple at
Chidambaram, Nateraja dancing in the anandatandava pose, in the sabha of
the temple, represented with the front porch approached by steps' {Mitarya,
p. 223). Sivaramamurti is followed by B. G. L. Swamy, who gives a rough
sketch of part of the structure. However, both authors ignore what is clearly
visible on the French Institute of Pondicher^y/^x;ole Frangaise d'Extreme-
Orient photograph of the painting (neg. no. 10393-7), namely a high uimana
rising from the left h<ilf of the structure. In my opinion, this is a
representation of the Tanjavur temple itself, with NaUraja in the mandapa
facing South. The alternative is that it is a visualization of the Cit Sabha
provided with a vimana, with iSiva dancing in the front, lesser, structure. The
staircase closely matches the staircase at Tanjavur.
B. G. L. Swamy attempts to argue that the Kanaka Sabha was built by
Kulottuiiga III (i 178-1216), on the grounds that it is the mukhamandapa (front
porch) for Sabhapati that the king mentions in an inscription in his temple at
Tribhuvanam enumerating his victories and temple-building activities (190
of 1907). But Swamy perversely makes no mention of the painting there that
clearly shows both Sabhas. Swamy, Chidambaram and Na^rqa, p. 36.
20 Sivaramamurti, Nataraja, p. 223.
21 Chamber no. 9 in the ground plan given by B. Venkatarainan, Rajarajesvaram,
P- '5-
22 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple 2 voh. (University of Calcutta, 1946), vol.
i , p. 163. Cf. Michael W. Meister, 'The Hindu temple constructs akasa\ 'The
Hindu Temple: Axis of Access' in Kapila Vatsyayan (ed.), Concepts of Space
258 -ôUs to pages 87-92
Ancient and Modem (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
/Abhinav Publications, 1991), pp. 268-80, p. 268. And SteUa Kramrisch,
'the edifice of the temple . . . is a reiteration in its own terms, a
re-construction of the all-filling akasa and of the waves of the flood prior to
creation', 'Space in Indian Cosmogony and in Architecture', ibid., pp. 101-4,
p. 103.
23 The opening verse of the poem is an obvious choice, stating as it does that
Siva dances in the heart of the world; the second verse is this:
By the grace of His Sakti
great Adisew incarnated on earth
as the lord of yogis
to remove from embodied selves
the extensive sin
in mind, speech and body
and to tell them how to worship Him
according to the correct procedures.
As Pataftjali he wrote those books named after him
on yoga, grammar, medicine and ritual.
I worship.
sakteryaâ prasadad adhuUiaram mahan adisesavataro
yo^ndro dehabhajam agham atiuipulam dttavakkâsamslham /
dunkartum cayastumyam akrlakapatha yogasabdausadkarca-
granthan patafgalakhyan svayam api krtavan Imndlahghrim bhtge'ham / /278//
24 There are all told more than fifty verses which refer to the Cit Sabha,
distributed throughout the poem, though with a large gap between verses
159 and 219. Siva is often referred to as Citsabhesa, 'Lord of the Cit Sabha'.
25 yasminn amulapT^vadhikanakaalamatrkdvaTimklpu
brahniasTviatharudrehmasaramtMiabhahambasadakhy /
bhutaih sastrais ca vedaih stutabahucariUm stambharupais ca hufye
nrtyanUm citsabhesam niravadhisukhadam kunciidhghrim bhaje'ham //s//
26 'akdrddyekapaTkasadvamamukhasaw(mantrasvarupddhist^^ Citsabhesvarotsvasutra,
p. 86.
27 V. Sudanthiran analyses the adhis^na of the gopuras and the shrines of
Cidambaram; the Nrtta Sabha seems to be the oldest {'Adhisânas of the
various structures of the Natoraja Temple at Chidambaram', Tamil
Civilization, 6/1-2, 1988, pp. 53-70); however, more detailed analysis of
Cidambaram and other temples is necessary before any firm conclusions can
be reached as to date.
28 srsîai brahmanam adau harim athajagatdm raksan^dtmampah
samhrtyai TudTomurtim tv atha nikhilalirodhanahelor mahesam /
tallokmugrahdrtham himagiTitanayasaklasaddkhyamiirtim
yah srsbjanandanrttam sadasi vitanuU kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham //102//
Umapati always refers to Sadaiiva as Sadakhya. This veree was also cited in
chapter i, p. 18.
29 andhahkose vidhata garudavararathah pranakose ca rudras
cetahkose mahesas tadam ca varamjmnakose sadakhyah /
anandabhikhyakose lasati ca satatamyaâ sambhor mdesat
tarn devam rqarêsvaravaTasuhrdam kuncitanghrim bfuge'ham //105//
Line b. Sadakhya: here Sadakhya for the metre.
30 The relation of these thrones to the actual building is not apparent. The
clearest exposition is that provided by Ramalinga Dikshitar ('Study of
Chidambaram'), but he is at times at odds with his one cited source, the
Tilvavana MaJiatmya, which itself is by no means clear. On occasion, even
where the Sanskrit is clear, as in the case of Rudra's five pillars, Ramalinga
Dikshitar differs, here assigning the pillars to Visnu's piiAa. Somasekhara
Dikshitendra, in his description of shrines in The HisUny of Chidambaram, ed.
Somasethu Dikshitar, p. 42, assigns them to Rudra. Another order of
complication is that the Tilvavana Mahatyma locates Brahma's throne {asana)
in the Cit Sabha, comprised of the twenty-eight pillars that are the Agamas
(5.52), and also in the Kanaka Sabha {brahmasarutmaym vedirn) (7.31)
comprised of the eighteen Puranas. The Festival Ritual text mentions the
sets of pillars without associating them with particular forms of Siva (p. 86).
31 yatsarâtpiavabhage disi disi vilasaipQrvabhaga nitantarn
svantarg^hottararmah sivamukhabhavarm cagamah kamikadyah /
astavirruarmsarnkfâ dhrtakanakamayastarhbhariâh stuvanti
stutyarn tarn nrttamiirtirn srudsatavinutarn kuncitanghrim bhqje'ham 11\l I
32 The mutual relations of these two types of revealed texts will be considered
in the following chapter. Natoraja being praised by sruii is also mentioned in
verses 67 and 78. In verse 36 Siva is said to have created Brahma and then to
have given him the whole collection of smti {srutigariam akhiUm).
33 yadgosthyarn dvarabahye rcgatagirinibharn paOcavarriasvariiparn
sopanarn dvarabhagani jayavijayamukhai rakatarn dvarapalaih /
lattvanarn sanrMvatya saha vidhimukharah parkadevas ca nityam
yaântar bhanti tasminn aviratanatanam kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham I f^/f
34 For Appar, see R. Nagaswamy, $iva-Bhakti (New Delhi: Navrang, 1989), p.
94. Tirumular refers to the 96 lattvas several times (154, 1155, 2027, 2146,
2438). The most commonly cited source of information on these tattva& is the
Tattuva-k-kattalai, trans, by Henry R. Hoisington, 'Tattuva-kat^ld. A Synopsis
of the Mystical Philosophy of the Hindus', {Journal of the American Oriental
Society I, 1853-4, pp. 3-30) but the list given in the Tilvavana Mahatmya,
5.35-51 differs considerably.
35 Meruuvi^tUtu, trans. T. N. Ramachandran, 'Menju Vidu Thoothu (Message
through the Heart)', $aiva Siddhanta, XI/3 and 4 (1976), pp. 101-6; 131-5,
p. 132.
26O ÔUS to pages 94-S
36 yatstupyah saktir^m Uuiadharauikisadnmuavpas ca fata

ucchimah svamapa^ taduranxhita dandarupai ca nadyah /
natfyantah sarvalok^ phalakatanugata hasUuiipah kalas ca
taâmyo mtyaGsas tarn ampamabmum kundlah^rim bhe^'ham //6//
Line b. taduranihita ? One short syllable is missing here.
37 They are Varna, Jyestha, Raudri, KaE, Kalavikarm, BaE, Balavikarm,
BalapramathanT, and ManonmanT, according to the Tilvavanamahatmya
7.25-27, which adds, as another possibility, the seven svaras, along with short
and long stress.
38 vighndaskaiulalakmmdhimukhasarara^Muka^^
jyotinrttasoarupair varunamukhtûM hataJcakarsamurfya /
svagre dakse ca varru parivrtasâsi msivanâkoyo
madfê nrtiam karoti prabhuvaram anagham kuncitahghTvn bhqje'ham I 111 /
39 slambhakaraih puranair dhrtakanakasabhd bhatiyaâgrabhage
yaâm dharmasvampo vrsabhapatir udagvaktrapadmo vibhdti /
yaâm isaâ deiyah sphatikavatuhô ratnamurtgr mmmdrah
kuTvanty adbhih prapigam tarn api natavaram kuncitangkrim bhaje'kam 111^11
40 Nagaswamy, perhaps unnecessarily, is concerned to separate the bull from
the 'human figure' ($iva-Bhakti, p. 200). He also stresses the importance of
Nandikesvara, 'a tremendous jjersonzdity': 'In the fields of philosophy,
literature, music, dance, medicine, K a m a ^ t r a and other fields, he is
claimed to be the very originator of these sastras' {ibid.).
41 adraknn mndUcesah kanakasadasiyam hy ardhanansvarUpam
pascan narayaridrdham punar api girijariipam akdrahmam /
taram tanmaâlanlaijvalanam anupamam saccidanandamUrtim
nrtUsanam muhurtam lam aparasugamam kuncitahghrim bhaje'kam Il-i^^lI
42 omkâsvamasarnsatprasriaparasiiHôtir anandanrttd-
lokad utSmam ugram bhavam ativipulam vardhikalpam muriindraih /
iihdpohadihmasvaUinugatajagadvmdam adhyatmaviâ-
bodhacaiyam pUTonam prasamitatamasam kuikitdhghrim bkaje'ham II111II
43 yadbhasa bkati hityam sakalam api jagat tatpararôtir eva
vairye hrtsarqje kanakasadasi vai sambanrttesamiirtih /
bhUtva nrttam karoti prabhur apijagatdm raksaru JdgarHkah
tarn devam citsabhesam vidhrtasumasmim kuncitahghnm bhaje'ham 11 1
44 brahmartdam yaâ deham ravijadisi pado vaktrabmdar^ uduyam
tadvairqantarange vilasati hrdayambhonJu daksinagre /
madhye samrrulanakhye munivaramanasa bhavite yantrarqe
yah sakfya nrfyaEsas tarn api na^patim kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham 11 \l I
4 5 P<^ncasatkoijârrd(hyapwnmiUidhaTav^
ekasvantdbjabhittisthitakanakamahântraTO^Tnikâm /
nrtyantam citsabhesam trisrbhir api soda saktibhih sevitdnghrim
nddante bhasamanam navavidhanatanam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham I 111 I
46 I have seen a coloured drawing of this cakra by Rajagane^ Diksita, now in

the possession of G. Paramesvara Diksita. A different version, without
îvakamasundan, is given on the frontispiece of S. V. Chamu's The Divine
Dancer (Mysore: Astanga Yoga Vijnana Mandiram, 1982), representing the
Sammelanacakra as understood by his deceased guru, Shri Ranga Guru,
with the form of Nataraja within the Sricakra, his head and limbs
circumscribed by apexes of the enclosure of fourteen triangles.
47 mcakradivisesayantraghabtam bhitUsvampam sada-

nandqjnanamayam naUsasivayoh sammelanam bodhayat /
styambunadabibapatraTOcitair malaganair lakntam
kasUtimasmam ddambaram idam sthmam rahaâm numah //iii//
lokads^vibhavam mahad aseve cidambararahaâm /
pancaksan ycuRya jivatuh sarvalokasubhadatn /
sakSh samagr^ grasate dinmie yasmims ca gauryavalate kapardi /
yasmat prage visvam upaiti saktim cakasti tatcetasi me cakastu //112//
48 Cf. Ramzdinga Dikshitar, 'A Study of Chidambaram and its Shrine', p. 72.
49 Rao, Hindu Iconography, 2.1, p. 233.
50 Coomaraswamy, The Dance of Siva, p. 68 and p. 70.
51 M. A. Dorai Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevaram, 4 vols
(University of Madras, 1958), vol. i, pp. 493^.
52 Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee, pp. 532f.
53 Trans. Shulman, ibid., p. 536.
54 Trans. Natarajan (slighdy altered).
55 There is a variety of f)0ssibilities. 'The Saivagamas state that Siva danced in
a hundred and eight modes but content themselves with the description of
nine modes only as it is very difficult to describe ail' (Rao, Hindu Iconography,
vol. n/i, p. 224). The Agamas Rao refers to distingfuish first the standard
form of Nataraja in the Ananda Tandava. The second, third, and fourth are
variations of this. The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth are varieties of
Urdhvatanc^va, where Siva has his right leg raised vertically. The ninth has
both feet on the ground. The Vyaghrapura Mahdtmya (17.70-2) mentions nine
dances, as Ramalinga Dikshitar notes ('A Study of Chidambaram and its
Shrine', p. 130), but they are all said to be performed in Svetaranyam
(Tiruvengadu); the same Mahdtmya also mentions Cidambaram as one of
nine sites of Siva's dance (17.73-5). ^^^^ Tandavas of Svetaranya are
shown in modern paintings in the temple's Nava-tandava maridapa. A
different nine are sculpted in stone in the Uttarapatisvaram temple,
Tichchengattangudi (S. R. Balasubrahmanyam, Middle Chola Temples:
Ri^cga I to Kulotbmga I (Faridabad: Thomson Press (India) Limited, 1975), p. loi).
Mention should also be made of the Saundaiyalahan, verse 41, where Siva's
tdridava is said to be the embodiment of the nine rasas,. This famous poem
attributed to Sai^kara is discussed in relation to the Kuficitahghristava in
chapter 8; see also chapter 6.
262 to pages 102-3
56 siUimat siUammtarar^ daharakuh^

antas cimiatrmipam racqyad ruUanam kumitah^trvn bfu^luxm //273//
The rest of this verse is discussed in chapter 5, pp. io6f.
5 SAIVA SIDDHANTA AND V E D A N T A
1 My understanding of the doctrines, philosophy and history of the Sanskrit

Saiva Siddhanta is based almost entirely on the authoritative work of
H. Brunner.
2 Sakti and her forms in the Kuncitan^mstaoa are considered in chapter 6.
3 This is the second sutra, the first being exhortatory. It is a muksutra, its
importance signalled by itsfirstword, atha, 'now'. Umapati says it is from the
Raurava Agcana, but it is not in the published edition. It is found in the
SvqyambhuvaAgama, in the part published as the Svâmbhuvasutrasamâha (ed.
and trans. P.-S. Filliozat, Le Tanira Svayambhu, VufyapMa, avec U commentaire de
Sadycjyoti, (Geneva: Droz, 1991), 1.2).
4 ^taratnasamffraha (all references are to the Tanjavur edn), p. 15.
5 svamin samaravdrdhav adhikab/uâkare dustare pasanakra-
cchanru magnantaram mam ancuUagatascuidcaravrttim iaAagtyam /
dmam tvatpadapigavimukham aghayutam raksa rakufy agasram
sarve bkdh sreârUeyam apt sadasi tarn hiiUilahghrim bhqje'ham / /300//
6 bhqjam bhqjam yadarcganitam anupamam bhogam adhyabruôg^
taram taram bhavabdhim vipulabhâkaram yaâ bhavat sudhtndrah /
daham daham hrdantargatam atijaratham pasavargam yadaniam
japam japam ramante paramahasipade h^tah^rim bhaje'ham / /308//
7 T. N. Ramachandran, 'Ne^ Vidu Thoothu (Message through the Heart)',
$aim Siddhanta, X1/3 and 4, 1976, pp. 101-6; 131-5, p. 106.
8 Sutra 73, from the Matahgaparamisvara Agama.
9 âtaratnasamgraha, ad sutra 73, p. 304.
ID bhogat prarabdhakaTTTiapy adhikabhayakare sancitagamike dve
jnanan ndsarn prayate iti nigamavacar^ ahur etat prasiddham /
t^ apy alokamatran nijanatanatanoh praninarn jatu distyd
nighnanyacchdn sukharnyah sadasi vijayate kuncitahghriTn bhaje'ham 7/268//
Nâma elsewhere in the Kundtanghristava is used in respect of the Vedas. The
first two padas, could of course apply to Advaita, e.g. ^hkarabhaya ad 4.1.15,
but the doctrine is not found in the Vedas and Upani^ds.
II This famous verse {Kirana Agama vp 6.i3b-i4a) is quoted by Helene
Brunner-Lachaux, Somasambhupaddhati, Text, Translation and Notes, 3 vols.
(Pondicheny: Institut Frangais d'Indologie, 1963,1968,1977), vol. in, p. xxiii,
where the topic is fully discussed. Note also Sanderson's comment that the
fact (ffksa does not deal with prarabdhakarman 'explains . . . why individuals
continue to live after initiation and indeed why the survivors generally
appear no wiser or better for having gone through it' ('The Doctrine of the
MMnwijayotiaratmira' in Ritual and SpecuUôn in Early Tantrism, ed. T .

Goudriaan (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), pp. 286f.)
12 vidyam agnau pratistham payasi ca dharamuyo nivrUm samTre

santyakhyam santyaStam mbhasi nijakalam yqjqyan hy apramâh /
suksmac chukmantarahge daharaJaiharadtpurânkakhyavesmat^
antas cinmâripam racayati natanam kuOcitanghrim bfuge'ham /li'j'^lI
13 Verse 17, chapter 3, p. 70.

14 Verse iii, p. 12.
15 Sataratnasarngraha, sUtra 54, p. 263.
16 ^laratnasanigraha, p. 267.
17 Civapirakacam, trans. Henry R. Hoisington, ^Siva-pirakmam. Light of Sivam. A
Metaphysictil and Theological Journal ofthe American Oriental Society,
IV/2 (1854), pp. 127-244, pp. i33f
18 Nor is there opening praise of Ganesa, unlike in his other major works.
However, it is now generally accepted to be the work of Umapati.
19 ^taratnasarngraha, p. 4. The claim in both the Sanskrit lives of Umapati that
he was an incarnation of Trilocana Sivacarya, presumably the author of the
Siddhantasaravali, is a tribute to Umapati's mastery of Sanskrit sources,
including the principal Paddhatis.
20 Ibid.
21 The fivefold mala comprises mala, karman, mdhamâ , the universe that arises
from maya, and the Sakti that obscures, according to a verse cited by
Umapati in the ^taratnasarngraha, p. 222; and the same in verse 33 of the
Civapirakacam.
22 See chapter 4, p. 94 and note 34.
23 Trans. T. N. Ramachandran.
24 Pomppahrotai, trans. T. N. Ramachandran, 'Poorip (Multiple Hymn
of Praise'), âiva Siddhanta, xn/3 (1977), pp. 100-8.
25 Irupavirupatu of Arujnanti and Urmaivilakkam of Manavacakam Katantar.
26 divandha esayuyarn manak paâta samyag eti /.
27 C f Arulnanti's description of the worthless rich: 'With spices smeared and
with garlands adorned, wearing cloths of gold and followed by attendants,
men of prosf>erity, speechless and devoid of understanding, lounging
proudly in the palanquin born by carriers, on either side fans swinging,
amidst the harmonious music of the instruments and the wild sound of the
clarion, are but corpses.' Civamm Cittiyar 3.2.95, trans. J. M. Nallaswami
Pillai, Sivajnana Siddhiyar of Arulnandi Sivachaiya translated into English
(Madras, 1913), p. 192.
28 The Parthavana Mahatmya gives circumstantial details of the physical process
of initiation. When Maraiflana sees Umapati, his body shakes and he is
tormented by hunger. It seems to be this hunger that leads him to drink a
weaver's rice gruel. The same hunger leads Umapati to do the same, careless
of his purity.
Nous to ptigtJ 113-15
39 C f Brunner't remark, apropdt the piipd'i right to w o f i h i p Siva on h » own

account after the lecond, tnk^, £ l u i , 'it h tofically at the end of t h a lecond
that he rixeive* fom the handi of hii|iini a peTK>naI
p r h b k (Mrpd/0^'. SomaiamhhtpadJkaH, vol. 111, p. 143 n. 45. [ M y translation
from t>M! French.)
-JO .See Brunner, tb^., pp. 477f. She concludes, 'Such a din (toUaman^ has for lO
avowed aim to block out all other noise and to proclaim to the
netghliourhood the highly important event thai is taking place ai that
moment' [My iransbtion from the French). T h a t in the case of Umapati's
ktory the crlebrationi continue beyond the lustration is not surprising, given
ihe encitement of the event and the numerous personnel assembled.
(hit befuddled aUa He clarified

By hu divine presence, but not content
With this, He did initiate us in th'path
Supreme of ^ i v a w u d o m infinite
Beginning with Samaya and ending
In abhittka-, liy his divine look. [P^ppahnkti 64)
Tran* T. N Ramachandran, 'Ptmp AfkaArotoi (Multiple Hymn of Praise)',

p. i<i6
y i 1'hr Cuimltara M a h a t n ^ docs oncc mention W h e n S e w is practising
aMfiit ism in order to see the dance, îva tells him in a passage that looks like
an insertion, ' O n e form of mine is shown in the A c a r y a w h o alone in his
compauiun can cut the mass of (wnds for men whose mala is npe through the
vO*ia JHu,a (i^.if) 16). T h r Kayil httmam omits this. T h e tide D i l w i a , it may
1 * nirntionrd, refen 10 the V'edic rather than A g a m i c tradition, referring to
ihr dtha \\\r ytâmana in the S4jma Sacrifice. For the use of D i k u u as a tide
and dien 4 name, w r C , (;. Kashikar and Asko Parpola, '^rauta Traditions
in Rrt rni T i m n ' , in F. Staal (ed.), (Berkeley; Asian Humanities Press,
M i ) . PP
ItnuHtn^H^ II, 8, trans, j . M. Nalla^wami Pillai, Tiruvantâj^ Cammmlay
and F.iy^kJt froiuktion, Jtntl edn. (Dharmapuram: Dharmapuram Adhinam,
K)fjH). p 14
i4 SaUifatmiiontgiaha, xutra -ji^ (misprinted 75), p. 309.
;<{<> yah \amhhuf nrUarm me ptahalataTamahignanbOiiddhtm pradaUva
gunw yi^sya xuidhtm jananamrtaharam catmahodham mafiantam /
iiiladw^ ttmuihfiradam apt mahtiagauraivm patanitam
it<am nrttam dari^tia iukhayab mtaram bdntanghnm Mtge'ham //305//
I hr l anul irxi of ihu chit is given in T B Siddalingaiah, Ongm and
iift*iopmtm o/ îatva Stddhmla upto/yrt i'jHtmfy(Madurai Kamaraj University,
•«>79). P • ^Hh the remark, l l u s poem u quoted in almost all Saiva
v^tirks • A unAll »hnne to Suu was being liuill in the groundi of the iwrila in 1992.
^^ U r SicRcl. Srt ofMagu ItWrri and Ihttpttam tn Indta |l)niNTr»»tv ol Chicago
P i r « , nun'
38 Ûtratnasamgraha, p. 339.
39 Parthavana Mahatmya, 113-15.
40 The actions said to have been peiformed by Umapati are the province of an
Acaiya, not a sadhaka, the latter not being able to confer diksd.
41 For a full discussion of this claim, see H. Brunner, 'Le §aiva-siddhantam
"Essence" du Veda', IndoUâ Taurinensia 8 (1980-1), pp. 51-66.
42 MatahgaparanusDara Vrtti, p. i; but see also Sanderson, 'Meaning in Tantric
Ritual', unpublished essay, p. 23. An instance of the strength of opposition to
the Vedas among some Siddhantins is Aghora Sivacarya's claim in his Dtpika
to Bhana Narayanakantha's Vrtti on the Mrgendra Agama ad ii.u, that the
Vedas had an author, namely Hiranyagarbha, and further an author who,
as Prajapati/Brahma, was not omniscient. Claims for Vedic credibility were
not of course limited to Saivas. Thus the Bhdgavata Purdna declares itself to be
'equal to the spiritual essence of the Vedas' {brahmasammitam, 1.3.40; 2.1.8;
2.8.28), the 'quintessence extracted from all the Vedas and the epics'
{sarvavedetihdsdnam saram sdram samuddhrtam, 1.3.42), 'the essence of the
Upanisads' {saTvavedantasaram, 12.13.12, 15).
43 The verse is quoted and translated by Nzdlaswami Pillai, îvajfidna Siddk^dr,
p. li. The attribution to Umapati is mentioned b y j . Jaswant Raj, Grace in the
$aiva Siddkdntam and in St. Paul (Madras: South Indian Salesian Society, 1989),
p. 497, citing the anthology Sivanencchejiyut tirattu edited by P. Ramanatha
Pillai (Kalagam, 1969), p. 4; Jaswant Raj points out the pun on vem^,
butter.
44 Civandm Cittiydr 3.11.13, trans.J. M. Nallaswami Pillai, SivajOdna Sid/dhâr, p. 229.
45 On the term iraivamul, 'revelations of God', see S. Arulsami, $mmsm: A
Perspective of Grace (New Delhi: Sterling, 1987), p. 15 and p. 152.
46 'Catvdro'pi vedd atha srotordpd eva\ $ataratnasamgraha, p. 31
47 Ibid., p. 29.
48 Ibid., p. 33.
49 Pauskaragama {Jnanapada) with the Bhaâ of Umapati Sivacarya, ed.
Ambalavana Navalar (Cidambaram, 1925), p. 10. In verse 177 Umapati
refers to an important Saiva philosopher, Haradatta, who took a position
similar to that of NilakanAa on the Vedic authenticity of Saivism.
Haradatta's date is uncertain. Umapati quotes from Haradatta's $rutisukbmdld
in the Pauskarabhdâ. In the Kuncitdhgkristava Umapati does not mention
Haradatta's name, referring only to his demonstration of his faith in Siva by
sitting on a red-hot plate, while at the same time 'explaining that Supreme
Siva is made known in the Upanisads' {smtyantavedyarn sivam api paramam
bodhayan svdm ca bhQtim). It was in this uncomfortable postion that he is said to
have composed his ^rutisiktimdld] see. S. Swaminathan, 'Haradattar', îva
Siddhanta vol. xv, 1980, pp. 17-25, p. 18. S. S. Suryanarayana Sastri lists
'doctrinal affinities' between Srikanâ's Bhdâ and Haradatta's SrudsUktimdld
(The $ivddvaita of ^nkariâ (University of Madras, 1972, first published 1930),
pp. 285f.).
50 Pauskarabhaâ, p. 10.
266 MtUs to pages 117-19
51 Hânam vedabahyasthitim adhâtam bodhanartham pathantas

catyqy(^m^bhed(âkabiavibhavan kamikadydgamam tan /
bkudeva v^pe)Htkratugatanâbproddhrtoddamasykla-
cchatrayam pânti srutipathavidhim kuiUitan^trim bh^'ham Uxorjl /
52 yt^ vedoktakarmasv anadhihrtir abhud adryata prihivyam

k^ dhamadim aptym parasivaradUon kamikadiprabhedam /
sangam siddhantaUmtraprakaram api catuuasÔf^yah kolas ca
yaâ^sat prakasam tv aruâd agamtam kuncitanghrim b/uge'ham //146//
Puzzling is the mention of the sixty-four arts in this connection; in Umapati's

CivapirakMom they are found in similar contexts. In his invocation to
Subr^manya he says that that god taught the true meaning of the limidess
arts, ahgas, and the Vedas {aranankal), and in verse i4ôf the same work he says
that 'the leading object of the many arts, the Agamas, and the Vedas
ipalakaltti akamavetani) is to explain the three eternal entities. Pad, Pasu and
Pasa'. A parallel may be found in the Tilvavana Mahatmya 4.17:
This holy place Cidambaram,

situated in the heart of Viraj
is the cause of the three Vedas,
the Siddhanta and the sixty-four arts.
catuluastikalanam ca traytsiddhantakaranam /
cidambaram idam ksetram viraddhTdayasamsthitam //4.17//
In verse 146 the ahgas, pertain to the Vedas; and the sense is probably 'the
Siddhanta as well as the Vedas with their constituent parts',
5 3 sadyojatadimanam vadanajalabhuvam pancakMyaya jatan
mantram traibfyavaâpramukhavaramahasiddhidan saptakoSn /
srutva gaunyadukfya jagadupak^ye saprayo^ sakalpan
tan lokan amnâ svqyam atulakrtim kundtdhghrim bhcge'ham //t.^^//
5 4 prakaU^svedam jnanam madbhaktmdm varanane /

raksantyam prayatnena taskarebhyo dhanamyatha //90//
This verse is from the Msvasakdrikd, an Upagama, quoted in the
Sataratnasarâha, p . 343.
55 $iva Purdna, Vû Sarîtd, vii.2.7.38. Umapati wrote a commentary on the
Vayu Samhiia, according to tlê R^mdrapura Mahatmya, verse 46. Appar also
refers to the teaching of the Agamas given by îva to the Goddess {Tevaram
5 6 kaiparambhe yadiyad varagalauivarad om atheti dvisabdau

siddhantarthapraboddhrpTavarasivakarav dvirastdm purastdt /
pascad vedadividyd vidhiharimtikhara devatah sarvaioka
jdtds tarn dakandâm dyutikaTanilayam kuMtahghnm bhaje'ham //251//
57 Vrtti on the first sloka of the Mrgmdra, vidydpada, Devakdtta edn. pp. 8-9, cited
Notes to pages 119-24 267
by N. R. Bhatt, Migmdragama {Knyapada et Cajyeipada) (Pondicherry: Institut

Franâis d'Indologie, 1962), Introduction, p. ii.
58 Brunner-Lachaux, introduction to Mrgmdragama: Section desriteset section du
comportement (Pondicherry: Institut Franâis d'Indologie, 1985), p. vii.
59 srspa brahmanam adau smtiganam akhilam dattaoanyo mahesas
tasmai nirmafyabkuktvam svasadasi vitasatpaiicapiAddkaratvam /
sutatvam svaâ mOrdhasthitamakutavarapreksane hamsabhavam
tarn devam citsabhâm sthitijusam amalam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham / /
60 yadbrahmocchvâriipa srutir api sakala tatsamana smrtis ca
kalpa gathah puranam vividhamanuvarah setihasas ca vidyah /
sarvatradyapi bhanti svayam api hpaya yatsabhâm naUso
bhatva lokan fomastan avati tarn asamam kuncitanghrim bhcge'ham /Z^"]//
Line b. gadhah emended to gathah.
61 The Sanskrit seems to say 'Their's is a release higher than sariipya' [sampyad
adhika muktis tesam), but this is against the logic of the passage, which demands
the meaning 'as high as sarupya.'
62 K^l Puranam, Iraniyavaimaccamkkam 2, trans. John Loud.
63 K^l Puranam, Irarjiyavarnnaccanikkam 5, trans. John Loud.
64 lokew advaitaoidyam prakatayitumarui yah svayam krttivâ
modal sarvcghapithasthitijusam amalam sahkarakhyam yatindram /
svarnsan naijahghripigaprasamitatamasam bhUsurartdrn kulabdhav
utpadyanvagrahU tarn sukamunivinuUm kumitahghriTn bhye'ham
7/295//
65 veddnte valârUpa upanisada ima brahmasamTpyabkâs
tasam mukhyd dasa ^ryativiracitamahabhayayuktd mahatyah /
stambhakardh stuvanti svaviditanaUmam sarvadd brahmarUparn
tarn devam citsabhesarn param atimahasam kuncitdhghrirn bhaje'ham
//88//
66 veddnte tydsarUpair . . .
tais irutim vidhisamaih . . . munmdraih
//8g//
This verse is quoted in full in chapter 3, pp. 62f.
67 My discussion of this text is based on N. Murugesa Mudaliar, 'Sankarpa-
Nirakaranam, Translation and Commentary', îva Siddhdnta968), 3 (1 and
subsequent issues.
68 dikkdlddyair vicinfyam svamanimananakrnmdnyam advaitasdram
madhyMyantddihmam sakalajanamanovrttidTstdram ddyam /
mc^dHtam prasdntam dyutikaram akhilajyotisdm isvardkhyd-
vdtyam tgomayam tarn param aparanatam kuncitdhghrirn bhaje'ham
//267//
69 satyarn brahmaiva ndnyaj jagad idam akhilam ceti mimdmsayitvd
tra)yantokfyd budhendrd hrdi cayam anisarn cidghanam dumirikâm /
dipajvdldsikhaijat satataparicaydnandanrttam vimdyam
subhram paânti tatsatpadauisayamaram kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham
//272//
70 Tal, 'foot', is Siva's foot which communicates Siva's grace to the devotees
who bow beneath it.
71 Gordon Matthews, îva-nana-bodham, A Manual of Saiva Religious Doctriiu,
trans, from the Tamil, (London: O x f o r d University Press, 1948), p. 10.1 have
substituted 'grace' for 'foot'.
72 Trans. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upamshads, p. 151.
73 Chandogya Upani^ S H-J. trans. Hume, ibid., p. 209.
sarasganayanas cagatam devasaukhya-

74 tyaktasoasvadhikarah
prapfyai govindam uktva hisalam api kardsUMpUrvarn pramodat /
vatsa team brahmatattvam krdi na vikalayan prarthyase duhkhaheturn
karmetyudbodhayantoyam api girivare kuncitahghrirn bhtge'ham //215//
Brahmasutra 3.2.21: brahmasvabh^ hi

75 For the phraseology here, cf. SaAkara on
prapamo na prapancasvabkavarn brahna tena rtamariâprapancapravilapanena
brahmatattvavabodho bhavah. {Brahmasulrasahkarabhaâ, ed. J . L. Shastri (Delhi:
Motilal Banareidass, 1980), p. 648.
76 bho bho brahmarûgdhah sadayam api maya sikntas capy qjasrarn

vedante tattoabodhe na bhavata vibudha yattato 'ifyapiyâm /
medhaprapfyai sabhesam vrajata iajanam ity adarad bodht^tva
dhatayaiksetrarqam munigariam anayat kuficitahghrirn bhqje'ham //216//
77 ^rvanMrirn kadacid vipularadanqyor antare svantarambha
bhrantya samdhâ vegad rgatagirivare kndqyantam garusam /
drstva premnadrâta yam api ca tarasahâ nirdiâ sinor
vrttam tustabhavat tarn divisadadhipatim kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham
//217//
78 ekmte jatuyaâ pramuditamanasa proktavedantatattvo-

peksarustaâ valg>ad dhimagiritanaya dhtvaradhisavan^ /
amrbhiiyambtuihisthapTabalaMpharasarâhit^yam varerârn
vâ tadvamabhage vasatim api gata kuncitanghrm bhtge'lum / / . 5 7 / /
79 sarvesarn sarvasattvaprakrtim ainkrtim sarvadam sarvabhiisam

saroMtarn sadakhyam sakarunanayanam sarvavedantasaram /
satyarn- sad lyomasarmtham sanakamunimukhair arcitam sama^tyam
utsaham sarnsadisarn sakalakavinutarn kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham
7/284//
80 vedaniod^rUpam jvalanadamarukau dharcântam karabfâm

//108//
81 vedantoktatmarHparn vidhiharitanujarn visvanatham sadastharn

//66//
82 yasmac candrardhacUdan mrduhasitamukhan nUakartthat tririetrad
vedantodfftavrttad vidhiharijanakM visvamayavilasat /
vamavamahgabhagat. . . //302//
83 dhavarn dhdvarn sada yatpriyakaranilayam bhutirudraksavargair
bhusarn bhOsam svak^drn tanum api carilamyaâ vedanta^tam /
kamam karnam nitmtam trisavamytganam InahmmdsthiyaSndrah

karam karam labhante bhavapadam abhaoam kuncitarigkrim bhqje'ham //311//
84 Trans.J. M . Nallaswami Pillai, UwnawUakkam (Dharmapuram Adhinam, 1946).

85 Timvaniy>a)>an 83, trans. G . U . Pope, TTu Ttruvofagam, p. xl.
86 Trans. Matthews, $iva-nam-bddham, pp. 22f.
87 Trans. Matthews, ibid., p. 24.
88 Tiruvaru^qj/an IX. i, trans. J. M . Nallaswami Pillai.
89 C . N. Singaravelu, Unmai VHakkam (The Exposition ofTnith) (Tellipazhi, 1981),
p. 72.
go See above, chapter 4, p. 93.
91 'In my view, the majority of Agamas, especially those dealing with the
temple cult, consisted originally of a continuous series ofpatalas, arranged
according to a logical sequence, but not distributed into four sections' - thus
Brunner summarizes the evidence she presents in 'Fourpadas of îvagamas',
Journal of Oriental Research, Dr. S. S. Janaki Felicitation volume, LVI-LXII
(1986-92), pp. 260-78, p. 275. Note also her statement, 'in the vast majority
of cases, it is the eminent position of the kriyapada which is striking: all other
teachings converge to make the ritual effective' ('The place of Yoga in
Saivagamas', in P.-S. Filliozat et ai. Pandit N. R. Bhatt Felicitation Volume
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1994), pp. 425-61, p.
92 I refer to Brunner's article, ' T h e Place of Yoga in Saivagamas'. She states,
'the Saiva ritual is through and through pjenetrated h y ( p . 452); and later
says, 'From the statement, by several Agamas, that the practice is the
sole affair of the sadhaka, we can easily infer the existence, in their time, of a
different kind of cult for the other Saivas. Such is the situation which has
probably prevailed for a rather long period. Then at a certain time and for
reasons that we may only guess, the jcgla-oriented cult of the sadhaka must
have been adopted by other kinds of private worshippers, whose motivations
and attitude were different, but who preserved the inherited model. Finally,
the same model was integrated into the common temple ritual, where it was
associated, not always harmoniously, with elements coming from the other
direction' (p. 456). [My translation from the French.]
9 3 yogan nirbyasamjmt samuditaparamanandakastasamadhi

. . . nifyanihsangaindyo
'py Myah siddhoyam antah kalayati nitararn kmcitahghrim bhaje'ham //185//
94 pratyaharadiyogair hrdayakamalato brahmarandhram sva/âm

praifan amya diiyam ganam api saradam vahayanto mahantah /
yogindrah siddhavidyausadhimanigulikasevaya vqfradehah
svatmanam yam bhajanti jvalanavaradrsam ku^tahghrim bhaje'ham //226//
95 yadrupam yogivaiya hrdayasarasije cintayanty anvaham . . .

//73//
96 sarvesam pramnamyah svapadasarasgam pigitwn pamyugmam

svam draspon beam dve svacarUam akhilam vakt^ liah suvacam /
sva^ pradaksinartfum caranqyugqm api d/ân^â cittam
dattod rakîgasram tarn udakamakuUm htncitangkrim b/u^'kam / /94//
97 lebheya^ prasadad anitarasulabham mrtyubfiiter abhavam /
kalpekalpe. . .
'py askyaddhyanayi^t kanaka^rivare . . . //168//
6 T H E G O D D E S S
1 For some details of contemporary practice, see Douglas Renfrew Brooks,

Auspicious Wisdom: the Texts am/ Traditions ofSnvidya âkta Tantrism in South India
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992).
2 R. Nagaswamy, 'Chidambaram Bronzes', LalitKalag{ig-jQ), pp. ^ 1 6 , p. 16.
3 Cf. Ramalinga Dikshitar, 'A Study of Chidambaram and its Shrine', p. 72.
4 Trans. T. N. Ramachandran, 'Sivaprakasam of Saint Umapathi Devanayanar',
$aiva Siddhmta 12 (1977), p. 155, slightly altered. Cf. Tirumantiram 1225.
5 gahga&'o^ pascad vilasati sadane saccidanandarupa
deinya sarvavidyalayamukhakamaia bhasate vedahasta /
yayaâ jnanasaktih sivapadasahita kamasundatyabhikhya
taddeiya drstanrttam srutimhitapadam kundtanghrim bhc^'ham //77//
Line d. srutirdhitapadarm pada here is both diva's foot, and the state ofbeing Siva.
6 It may not be by chance that the Hundred-pillared Hall adjoins the shrine.
The p>ower of the Goddess would have been adjacent to the place of
coronation; such considerations might have had less force by the time of the
building of the Thousand-pillared Hall on the other side of the tank.
7 Kuncitdngkristava, p. 33.
8 abalyad dravyam etat sumukhi lava mudeyan mayatUm tad adya
svikurvana nitantam madanasarahatam alihgya dorbhyam /
atraivasvasayeti tvaritagatim umam alibhir varito'pi
sjvnanyo hy amagacchann agata^bhuvi tarn kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham
Line a. Please, it's for you, lava made. Literally, 'to please you'.
9 keniadriprantabhagaslhalakamalavaTiakndanodyogahamsa-
vrdtdlokapadesdt savidhagalasivahastagadhopoffidham /
nandkardnubhillanupamaratisamulki^taâkucagra-
sparsonmrstdlikmtasthalasilabhasitam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham //200//
10 kelyam autsu/âbh^d tuhinagirijayd sasprham daltaviS-
sevdraktMharostluidyutijitadinakrdbdlabim^ /
^Sprdvinyasailiprakatanakutukdd dhastavdslavyalolam
mndm samvddayantam pralhamarasamayam kuncildhghrim bhaje'ham //212//
11 Kalhana, ^^'atoro^^'m rv, 427.
12 hndasa/makiagavnkanakaîa^
prodyatini^ramadhvmadhur /
bhuMnagpktasaul0âpTav(uanagh^
vâkrtsmavaktrapr<muUhapatmuUm kuncitah^rim bluge'ham //149//
13 kas&npahkdepam mâmadatilakam pusjMtmalam ca nutnam

drstva jato ambujakn dharamdharasutapy arâtha tarkqyanS /
mthedam laksma satyam mayi tava scmabhud bmhi kaâ made cety
^dntam mTbabandhMhikasapathamaram hmcitah^rim bfu^'ham //zGi//
The last line of this verse is not clear to me.
14 jnanecchabhyam sakhibhyam saha rahasi mudd naktam asrarUaESo
bkutva pratah sabhâm iha /dm u bhavatafi sahasam nandamyam /
y^ svargapagâ nikatata^ eyam narOwmyo jams cety
uktva saakrtdm anvaruâd agasutam hmcit^krim bhtge'ham 7/235//
15 ali tvam santvajiaiyam mayi kupitadhiyam darukararâvasi-
strmam kelwilisair haridhrtasuUmoh sahasat parvaUndre /
safigad diâpagâ madanadahamtas ceti sdkutam uktoa
kantagare jqyamyo'gamayad asulabham kuncitangkrim bhtge'ham //i^"]//
16 popedom svamasâm mama sadanavaram gauri kedarasaxrgmm /

kai^ kmdpunm apy anmaffrivaram svetakantaradeâm /
vedaraiffam ca setum muhur api vrsabhamyo 'dhitisthan priyâi /
mrdisyapnoti naijam nilayam anudinam kundtahghnm bhaje'ham //231//
17 katyânyah karalâm dinakaravadanadhtlavedarthabodhal
labdhmandantararâprasamitatamasas tapasaâsrame yah /
gdman samsaravardhav adhikabhayakare magnasatvaprapancam
rdtyam Toksann ajasram jayati sivapure kundtanghrim bhaje'ham . //180//
18 It has been suggested that this is the Edirambalam or 'shrine opposite [the Cit
Sabha]' ascribed in inscription No. 119 of 1888 to the time of Kulottunga I.
Built perhaps in the reign of C51a Kulottufiga III (1178-1216), it is similar to
the ratha mandapas of Tribhuvanam, Paiaiyarai, and elsewhere. The most
notable example of such stone chariots is in the Sun temple at Konarak,
which would seem chronologically to be due to Southern influence, though
the chariot is an integral feature of the Sun and more obviously appropriate
for him than for Siva. L'Hernault remarks that the stone chariot 'must have
served as the statue of the god's procession to symbolize his excursions {pour
ses sorties ymboliques)\ F. L'Hernault, et al., Darasuram, vol. i, p. 7. [My
translation from the French.]
19 Harle, Temple Gateways,figs.132,133. Neither figure is dancing; the erect hair
gives the identification.
20 kdlya sakam pura yah suramunisadasi svdnghrim udyama cordhvam
pasupatir ajayat tadbahiskaTapiiTvam /
nrttam hrtvatha kilim
sarve devd murimdrah prabhur iti ca vadanty Qrdhvan^samiirtim
yam devam pUjayanti pratidinam anaghah kunatafighrim bhqe'ham 7/46//
272 JôUs to pages 144-51
21 K. A. Nilakantha Sastri, A Hiskny of South Indiajram Prehistoric Tmus to the Fall of
Vânagar, 3rd cdn (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 213.
22 koBn candordhv<airttdvafuUarrtuJJuiganarn brahrruuaniwidikakhyarn

gnm kopdgngaiam ditisutabhqyadam arnsajntktan vidhatuh /
svagah santyai mtmtarn samdhakrtamtirn yoh krpafnartadrsfya
rak^ svaksetrapaiam akuruta parwnam hmntan^trim bht^'ham / /283//
23 kjpa padarn rasâm punar apt tatha padam ekam nabha/utharn, 14.22.
24 bhuktva halahalarmam yudhi mhataianum darukakhyarn surarirn
hrtva ghorasvakrtyapracalitabkuvanarri bhadrakaErn sivo yah /
prafyetyarumdanrttam pippatibhuvane darsayitva bândan
sarvan sarmaksaSsas tarn inavidhmutarn kuncitanghrim bhge'ham //192//
25 Liiiga Parana 1.106.
26 Ibid., 1.106.25.
27 R. C. Hazra, Studies in the Puranic Records (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973), p. 95.
28 Harle, Temple Gatewt^s in South India, p. iii.
29 R. Nagaswamy, Tantric Cult of South India (Delhi: Navrang, 1982), p. 179.
30 Ibid., p. 175. This identification was first suggested by J. M. Somasundaram,
CoUtT Kqyil Panikal, p. 6, according to P. R. Srinivasan ('Important Works of
Art of the ^ r l y Ch51a Period from near Tanjore', Transactions of the
Archaeological Society of South India, 1956-7, pp. 36-52, p. 38; Srinivasan himself
however, argues that this is a Pallava sculpture, and on p. 41 suggests as
Vijayalaya's NisumbhasudanI the Nisumbhasildanl sculpture in the
Ugramakî temple in Tanjavur; so also S. R. Balasubrahmanyam, Early
Chela Art (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1966), p. 43 and plate 8.
31 Nagaswamy, Tantric Cult, p. 175.
32 It should be noted that Srinivasan describes the sculpture in the Va^bhadrak^
temple as 'seated and trampling on five male figures', 'Important Works of
Art of the Elarly Ch51a Period', p. 37.
33 dakxyasbm pravrtte paramasivam anadrtya tatkanyakctyarn
gatva tatra svatatam natavadanam upekâindram agnirn visantyam /
gautyam kopMya iso dasasatavadanarn inram utpadya kalm
tabhyam daksMinasani lyaracayad atulam ku^tahghrim bhaje'ham //sa//
34 Another possible explanation for the form of Virabhadra is provided by
David Knipe's account of the VTrabhadra cult in Andhra. Writing of the
East Godavari District, Knipe says, 'it is clear that in this pan of coastal
Andhra, the wrathful Virabhadra, antithesis of establishment sacrifice and
its circulation of cosmic energies, is alive and well. He is one Virabhadra,
Siva's rage personified, and many mrabhadras, all the children of rage who,
even if they died after taking their mother's milk for a single day, are said to
be, like Virabhadra, the children of Siva.' David M. Knipe, 'Night of the
Growing Dead', in Alf Hiltebeitel (ed.), Criminal Gods and Demon DevoUes
(Albany: State University ofNew York Press, 1989) pp. 123-56, p. 139. There
is no reason to doubt that some such cult underlies the formation of the
iconography of Virabhadra, though it may be not be precisely this. Could
such a cult explain the boyish form of Virabhadra on the est gopura image?
Knipe's chapter is considered further in chapter 8, p. 200.
35 Kantapuranam, 6.20.38-49 as summarized in R. Dessigane and P. Z.
Pattabiramin La Legende ^ Skanda (Pondicherry: Institut Frangais d'Indologie,
1967), p. 211.
36 yuddhe bhagnomkâm naraharivapusam garidabherandariipT
bhutva gagantan agre sarabhakhagapatiryah svapfMlaksikuTidat /
tigrapratyah^rakhyam satasatavadanan kalikam asu srstva
ta^c^vagravahmm sucamvad an(ât kundtangkrim bh<ge'ham //126//
37 kdlinrttapramuditahrdqyam hmcitafighnm bhqje'ham 7/262//
Kali for kali for the metre. The Tamil form of Kali is Kali.
38 Pojje, The Timvafogam, p. 16.
39 kacin nalântti prathitamunisaS bhartur istanu/xta
maridaiyaproktasapajvalanasamanakrddurdinamvilâ /
yanmantradhyanayogad anitarasulabhm pancakmtdn narendran
lebhejanmadihmam sivapadam api tarn kuncitafighrim bhaje'ham //224//
Line d. janmadihtnam 'free from birth and the other [ills of life]'.
40 Citsabhesvarotsavasutra, p. 3 of unnumbered sequence.
41 amanvasram sudiptam nijatanum abhitah satyarupaprabhmtar
vameyuktam svasaktya vasudalakamalasvarnaJdigalkasobham /
yapUm sahasrakosthasthilasivamanubhir mohanoifyairyadfyam
cakram sampujayanti pratidinam anaghah kuncilarighrim bh<ge'ham //109//
42 Verses 18, 19, 21, 25, 46. Umapati speaks several times of the kMncitahghn
anagham, reinforcing the intimate connection of the DIksitas with the God
they worship.
43 traicatvarimsadasre vasunrpakamaU vrUabhucakramadhye
bindau santanakalpadrumanikarayute ratnasaudhe manqjne /
brahmadyakdrapade nvamayaphalake svamamance nisarmo
deiyay^ pijyaU tarn harimukhavibudhaih kundlafighrim bhaje'ham //no//
vrttabhucakramadhye is difficult. Clearly the verse moves from the outer to the
inner, though in the first line the constraints of metre prevent the linear
expression of this order, bhucakra must be the bhupura or bhugrha, the 'cijy' or
'house' 'of the earth', and there is no problem about the use of the word cakra
in respect of the square, since the several enclosures, including the polygons,
are often called cakras (e.g., Bhaskara writes of 'the eight cakras ^ginning
with the bhupura' (p. 109) but why vrtta 'round', unless we have avrtta, meaning
'not-round', 'square'?
44 For other parallels, see Madhu Khanna, 'The Concept and Liturgy of the
Sricakra based on Sivananda's Trilogy' (unpublished DPhil thesis, University
of Oxford, 1986), p. 98.
274 ^ ^ ^
45 sudhasinUtor madhye swraai^vi^Hxnmle
mamdd^ mpopavanaooH cintananiffhe /
iivakare mance p<xramaHvapaiy(mkamlajâm
btugarUx toam dhanyah katicana cidanandalahaivn//
Siva here is, of course, Sadaîva. Saandatyalahan 94 mentions that Isvara,
Rudra, Visnu, and Brahma are also present as the four supports of the couch.
46 mnathamair gumbhir api nutam. Rajaganesa Diksita oêrs no assistance,
repeating the Sanskrit, and not translating pirubhir. m natanrarkaUnal
tutikJu^>pattavalum.
47 yo ya^ jnanasaktim daharakuharaijm hrmahasodaiamam
viâm snnathavrrair gumbhir api mtam yoginidutiseiyam /
abnabhirmam sivam tarn hrdi paricinute sa svt^mm niwikalpo
bhutva yopndrapi^ bhavati tarn aguriam kunntahghnm bhtge'ham / liorjl /
48 The way temple paintings are taken for granted and not subjected to critical
attention is illustrated by the comment on the paintings in question by S.
Meyyapan, a university professor and long resident in Cidambaram, 'As
they ['Devi Mahatmiyam' paintings] were drawn long time ago they are in
decayed stage', Chidambaram Golden Temple (ChidaiYibaram: Manivasagar
Pathippakam, 1987), p. 67. Painted in fact in 1972 these central panels faded
rapidly, and were severely damaged by fire in 1989. According to Job
Thomas, earlier paintings of the 'DevTmâtmlya' were scraped off in 1972
(Isaac Job Thomas, 'Painting in Tamil Nadu A.D. 1350-1650', unpublished
PhD thesis (University of Michigan, 1979), p. 311). However, it is worth
noting that the central portion of the ceiling is visible in James Fergusson's
drawing of the marukpa (woodcut no. 221) in his History of Architecture Indian and
Eastern Architecture, 2 vols. (vol. i, London: John Murray, 1876; vol. 11, New
York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1891), and that section of the ceiling looks blank.
49 mcakraândanastkam gajaturagasamarudhasaktyagrabkagam
mtyavarahunmtrirffanucarasahitam drstabalastrauidyam /
sarvastraslistahastarn ranabhuvi vilasadyuddhavesarn bhavanim
drstvatusto'bhavat tarn dhanapatisuhrdarn kuncitanghrirn bhaje'ham // 12S//
50 Lilitasahasranama with the Saubheâbhuskara commentary of Bhaskararaya
(Bombay: Nirnaya-sagar Press, 1914), p. 46.
51 MfyaparaJcramatopanirâriasamutsuka, Lalitâhasranama p. 47.
52 visTUT amsavataran dasakararmkharairyuddharange srjanR
karrtesahkanodyadg<gavadaruikaradhvaslavighnesayantra /
yaâstrermu bhandarn sasutaganapuram nasayam asa daityam
devisncahrasamstha tarn api sivakârn kuncitanghrirn bhaje'ham //129//
53 mhiral labdhacintamanimanum anusandkâ niijivadehe
matur mamalladevya nisi vigatabhayo harsanamopaviâ /
viprah mrudrabhOmau yad adhikakrpayd mataram sarvavidyam
siddhh arâs ca lebhe karadhrtadamanan kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham //114//
Har», or §nhar», was one of the greatest Sanskrit poets, author of the
Naisadhacarita. The identification is beyond doubt, for he refers to his father
and mother at the conclusion of every canto of his poem. He also refers to a
Cintamam mantra, which with meditation on SarasvaU gives poetic
inspiration (14.88-90); and which he claims as the cause of his own poem
(1.145). At the conclusion of the twelfth canto he describes his head as a bee
attending the lotus feet of his mother, matrcmanrnibhtgalimauUr, But other
than what is stated here, nothing is known with regard to the events
described in this verse of Umapati's. (There is a passing reference, by no
means unusual, to bringing the dead to life:timyog^riâmrqaniraSsamye^vat
padmam amumuhac ca / 22.22 'Is not this night a Yogini, for she has brought
Love back to life and rendered unconscious the lotus.') In the Naisadhacarita,
Sarasvad concludes the gods' boon-giving to Nala with the gift which was
the armature of the ]x>em itself: 'King, reflect inwardly and meditate always
on my pure mystic formula, which, without any form, embodies Siva, and is
accompanied by the moon [ H R I N I ] , and represents the form that goes by the
name ParvaO and Paramesvara, universal, but twofold owing to the union of
two shapes, male in one half and female in the other. May this formula prove
effective to thee.' Naisadhacarita 14.88, trans. K. K. H?indiqui, Naisadhacarita of
Sriharsa (Poona: Deccan College, 1965), p. 214.
avamavamardhe sakalam ubhayakaraghatana-
dvidhabhutam rupam bhagavadabhidhâm bhavaHyat /
tadantarmantram me smaTaharamayam sendum amalam
nirakaram sasvtgjapa narapate sidhyatu sa te //1/^.88//
54 yaâhuT nrttamurteh smtihTdayaxndah saktim ekam aptdyam
kiixm hope ca durgam yudhi jagadavane vimurupam bhavdnim /
bhogejnanakriyecchamayavividhatanum sarvasamhmakaU
svantarlmam prasannam tarn ibhamukhasutam kuncitanghrim bhye'ham //ii^//
7 BHIKSATANA
1 On the second tier, on each side of the gateway are four niches. The grandest
of these is always the second from the gateway. It is the widest, it has a
pillared f>ortico immediately above it, and its outermost pilasters are the
farthest apart. It is the centre part of each side, with two figures on the outer
edge, one figure on the inner edge; but the innermost figure is powerfully
supplemented by the gateway, so that the balance is equal. (On thefirsttier,
the largest niche is not so clearly dominant, having four niches beyond it to
the outer edge, and two to the inner edge.)
2 Dorai Rangaswamy, Religion and Philosophy of the Tevaram, p. 387.
3 Tevaram vn 72, trans. Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee, pp. 465f.
4 Tevaram vii 45.5, trans. Shulman, ibid., p. 284.
5 Tevaram vi 58.7., trans. Nagaswamy, $iva-Bhakti, p. 236 (slighdy altered).
6 Nagaswamy, ibid., p. 236.
7 Shulman, ^ngs of the Harsh Devotee, p. li.
8 Teoaram vi 36 i, trans. Shulman, Md., p. 218.

9 svamin bhikso bhaved kva nu tava nagan panx^ vd vane m
vasah kasmad iha tvam carasi vada vibho kutra gantdsi bhiksam /
htrvann atraiva tisthan viraaâtu bhavdn kelim asmabhir evam
strait^yam cabfâdhavad vanabhuoi vivasam kuncUahghrimbfuge'ham //232//
10 dvatransalragcJmdha/yuUimakuâ^
samgai)dptasv<ânibujabluiv<u}<ulaiu)ddania /
stabdhibhuUnsinaânam adhivipinam sarvasmgararupam
yam drsbid vismmâ patxmatim atanot hmcitanghrim bhaje'ham //I'ô//
11 darukdrarâvdsistiviam keRvilasair haridhrtasulanoh sahasat parvatendre /
12 A version of the legend is given in the Kanta Puranam, 'which presents the
major myths of Siva in their authoriutive Tamil version', Peterson, Poems to
p. 343. Dessigane and Pattibiramam {La Legmde de Skanda, Pondicherry:
Institut Franâis d'Indologie, 1967, p. i.) date this text to the twelfth century,
but its account of the Pine Forest is clearly later than what we find in the
Cidambaram versions. Not only does Siva explicidy copulate with the wives,
the wives at once give birth to 84,000 boys who immediately undertake
asceticism; on Siva's advice. The sages recognize the divinity of the intruders
before commencing their magical assault. The products of their mane are
more numerous, and include two items essential to the p)ersona of Siva as
Bhikûna, his trident and drum. Lacking these, how could he have made a
prop>er entrance? The Sanskrit version of this text also includes the
instantaneous birth of sons to the rjis' wives {Daksakhanda 14.4), and it is
therefore highly improbable that it is, as Kulke thought {Cidambaramahitmya:
Eine Untersuchung, p. 151), earlier than the Cidambara Mahatmya. I am most
grateful to Kulke for sending me a copy of T. Ramalinga Dikshitar's
transcript of this text.
13 mohinya sambhur addv atinividavaru darukakhye caranyah
saundaiyod vipradaran mumganam api tarn mdyaya mofu^tva /
lyartHikrtyabfacarttm dvgakulavihitam sampradarâtmanrttam
uiprams canvagrahidyas tarn api girisqyam kundtdnghnm bhaje'ham //40//
14 'Bringing about rebirth for themselves', translates the briefônmano hetum\ a
pun may be intended on birth, in the sense of 'attempting to impregnate'.
8 B H A I R A V A THE TERRIBLE A N D O T H E R FORMS OF §IVA
1 Sivapuram 3.8.2 speaks of Bhairava as the pumarupa of SaAkara the supreme

self; Kramrisch paraphrases this as 'Bhairava is the total, complete Siva.'
Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of $iva {^nnctKon University Press, 1981), p. 265.
2 ^taratnasamgraha, p. 30.
3 yah sambhulilaya svam janima sukhakaram tdpasanam vacobhir
hastad utpafya devaih kim idam iti bhayad inknto 'ranyadese /
ciksepa brahmavimustutibhir api punas tan mumn jndtatattvan
krtvdpy antardadhe tarn pranataphaladharam kuncitwighnm bhaje'ham /li^^l/
4 Kancipura Mahatmyam 34 as summarized by Dessigane et ai. Lis Lêrules

QivaiUs de Kancipuram, pp. 44f. [My translation from the French.]
5 ahâ brahmasirsam sakaltganimaiam darsanâ svadakx
par toe samtKapya puwam srutivadanavidhim vamato'stl^tâd yah /
aârabhyatmayone madupakrtahavihsesabhuk tvam bhaveh
sv^napyakasanipas tarn api natapatim hmdlah^nm bhaje'ham //30//
Lines a and b. on His right side, svadakse parsve. That is, the Mukhalifiga,
referred to in verse 7.
Line b. on His left, vamato. That is, in the shrine Brahma shares with
Candesvara, to the left of the Cit Sabha.
6 yaâ ksetre mrtmam sakalttjanibhrtam samtadmi papany
abdaiukaprabhqjyany api ca nimisato bhairavah sulaghatat /
bkasmtkâh bhuyo jananamrtiharam tarakam yamidesat
tattvam sambodhayanyatsadasi vasati. tarn kmcitahghrim bhaje'ham //159//
Rajaganesa Diksita quotes the Pundar^pura Mahatmya 4.49-53 to the effect
that worshipping îva in Cidambaram means that Ksetrapala will destroy
all one's sins with his trident, Kuncitanghnstava, p. 79.
7 In the Cit Sabha to the left of Sivakamasundari and facing West. There is
also a Bhairava shrine in the first enclosure to the east of the Cit Sabha. The
shrines of Brahma Candesvara and Bhairava receive worship after Siva, in
the form of his sandals, has been placed in the bed-chamber.
8 {Cidambaresvaramnatardjadevdltâstha) devatdstotra in Cidambarakxtrasanasva, ed.
Somasetu Diksita (KadavasjJ: Sri Meenakshi Press, 1977), p. 212.
9 Somasethu Dikshitar (ed.), The HisUny of Chidambaram, p. 49.
10 'A Study of Chidambaram', p. 29. He also quotes the statement of the
Tilvavana Mahatmya that the Rahasya is worshipped by Svarnakar^nabhairava
along with the Eight LaksmTs (3.45). However this is that Mahattnya's sole
reference to those deities, and it is difficult to comment. Cf. Rao, Hindu
Iconography, vol. I. i, p. 398: 'An explanation of the worship ofJyesAadevi is
found in the îvagamas. The Siddhdnlasdrdvali of Trilocana Sivacarya and the
commentary on it give what follows: Para Sakti, in the form of Vama, is the
author of the paOcdcrtyas,, or thefiveacts called mti, sthiti, sarnhara, tirodhana and
anugraha. She, therefore, assumes the eight forms representing the eight lattvas.'
11 Maharlhamanjan of MaheivaraniLnda, with his commentary Parimala, ed. V.
Ehnveda, Yogatantra-Granthamala 5 (Varanasi: Varanaseya Sanskrit
Vishvavidyalaya, 1972), p. 188.
12 Alexis Sanderson, 'The Visualization of the Deities of the Trika', in Andre
Padoux (ed.), L'Image Divine: Culle et Meditation dans I'Hindouisme (Paris: Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1990), pp. 31-88, p. 55.
13 Maharthamafganparimala, p. 194.
14 Ibid., p. 195.
15 Maharthamanjan, p. 160:
vtârn tv imam visvataydvabhanam bahirmukha^dâ tavortmukhaâ /
svasamhitam visvavildpanodyatsvatantratdnandamaytni namamah / /
My translation is only an approximation: the verse is not fully understandable

in isolation.
16 Maharthamaigan, p. 163.
17 hUpante vrddhibhqam kabalitqjagatam saptavaran nid/mam

nuuU^ pilasast^ harir iha puruso msti maHo 'paro 'nyah /
evam darpavaSdho 'py anupadam uditam sulinam bhairavam yam
drstva bfafya nanama stubbhir abhinauaih kundtanghrim bhqje'ham 7/236//
18 ya^saâmsabhuiah hrabhavatukareidmabhadradidevah
kalpe kkpe'mbujaksadruhinamulJi(uIhrtaJ^ /
mghnantah sarvakalam jagad api sakalam palayanto'ntarahge
dhyayantoyam jayand prasmutramahasam kuncitahghrim bfuye'ham //203//
19 This is supposed to have happened at Tiruvaiyaru. I could find no

representation of the event in the temple, though there is a shrine to Sa^natha.
20 bfafya santrasam^ naraharivapuso devatanam samuhe

dhatra samtiâmanah sarabhavaratanuh saluvah paknrqah /
vegat tarn chedayitva svapadanakhamukhms tattvacalahhp'bhiid
daimtasaji^ptalokas tarn akhilavaradam kimcitangkrim bhqe'ham //125//
21 L'Hemault et al., Darasuram, vol. i, p. 88 [my translation from the French].

For ârabhe^, plate 41.
22 In the Kuncilanghristava, Umapati refers in passing to Siva destroying the
[Triple] Cities with a smile (smita) (90); and as epithet alone in 62, 103, 230.
23 For Satînatha at other sites, and for an interesting discussion of Bhairava in
Pallava and Cola art, see L'Hemault et al., Darasuram, vol. i, p. 90.
24 yacfialdiarvOartahgam bdimakhasadasi svarn tanwn vardhayitva

dyav dbhumisurarer maJcutam api padam anayitva trilol^ /
hmkarad bhisayantam suraganavinuto vamanamyo vinighnan
kahkdlam taâ dehatvacam api hrtavan kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham //127//
25 viû niijvalacahre bhramitahrdi vidhau bhaskare dantahme

sakre nirbhimagande hutabhuji visikhetyaktajwe'khiU'nye /
cchitva daksottamdngarn makhabhuvi sagariam vtrabhadram carantam
drspayo 'losayat tarn pramuditahrdayam kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham //240//
Line b. anye for anyasmin.

26 visTior laldtadesagiutarudhirajhansaTigamendpy apUrTiam
brahmarn haste kapalam damanan api vahan visvakadrun svapdrsve /
dan^pragrabhdpisafi^tavipulqjato bhairavah ksetrapdlo
visvarn raksann upadheryam api bhajati tarn kuncitdnghrim bhqje'ham //183//
Line d. upadhi is here used in the sense of the Tamil updti, 'torment'.
27 godavajyas latastho'n^vacanaparo dustakdrtdntikoyat-

Mtes to pages igy-200 279
kxtreffotlyamjanitva mjasukrtalav^ svâpatokddosam /

bhasrmkartum dram yam stutibhir abhimman sundaraitgp yaduktya
jatoyatkutrapab jayati tarn asamam kuncitangkrim bfuge'ham //191//
28 M. Biardeau, Hinduism: The Antkropologj^ of a Civilization (Delhi: Oxford

University Press, 1989), p. 135.
29 Dessigane etal., LesLegendes QivaiUsdeKmcipuram, p. 50, st. 2&-9; p. 63, st. 1-2.
30 Cf. Alf Hiltebeitel, 'DraupadPs Two Guardians: The Buffalo King and the
Muslim Devotee', in Alf Hiltebeitel (ed.), Criminal Gods and Demon Devotees
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989) pp. 339-71, p. 366.
31 Visnu 'the towering tall one, suggesting the Trivikrama form measuring the
world, often represented in the sculptures of this age'. Dorai Rangaswamy,
The Religion and Philosophy of Tevaram, vol. i, p. 357.
32 Tevaram vi. 9. 2, trans. Shulman.
33 Tevaram vi. 16. 2, trans. Shulman.
34 yah sambhuh kalahanta jaladharam asuram svanghricakrma hatva

tadduskrtyastrasastrair vinihalavapu^ sarvalokm araksat /
yarn svakrodhasvaruparn jaladharam asuram nasayantam vareriyam
sarve loka vadantipramathapatinutarn kuricitanghrirn bhqe'ham 7/48//
Lines a. and c. jaladharam. The usual form of this name is Jalandhara

(Calantaran in Tamil), here changed for the metre. The most imp>ortant part
of the story in the South is not mentioned here, though it is in verse 56,
namely that to win the cakra Visnu offeried a thousand lotuses to Siva, and
finding one missing offered one of his eyes in its place. One of Visnu's names
is Lotus-eyed.
35 This is an abbreviation of the summary ofKanta Purariam 6.13.198-270 given
by R. Dessigane and P. Z. Pattabiramin, La Legende de Skanda, pp. igsf
36 The same apotropaic face adorns the waist-bands of elegant bronzes.
37 kailasadrau kadadt pasupatinayanany adrijata pidhâ

kndarn cakre 'ndhakm^ suraripur udabhiid andhakdkhyo'tidustah /
iadduskrtyarn jagatyarri prasrmaram asahaih sarvalokaih stutoyah
tarn hatvaraksad etans lam ajaharinuiam kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham //^.g//
38 Dorai Rangaswamy, Religion and Philosophy of Tevaram, vol. i, p. 369. The list
of the eight heroic actions {astamrasthana) gives Tirukkovaiur (Tirukkoliyur)
in South Arcot District as the place where this deed took place. (Cf
Balasubrahmanyam, Early Chola Temples, p. 85.) There is a bronze said to be
Andhcikûrasarnharamurti (PI. xxin, fig. 2 from the Virattesvarar temple in
that place), but the downward directed trident is not the characteristic
Andhakasurasarnhara blow. Note that Cuntarar mentions Kovalur as one
of the places where Siva 'sprang at Death with his feet and knocked him
down' [Tevaram vn.12.1; Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee, p. 74.). It is not
mentioned in the Kanta Puranam, 'which presents the major myths of Siva in
their authoritative Tamil version' (Peterson, Poems to Siva, p. 343).
28O JÔUS to pages 200-5
39 See note 34 to chapter 6, above, p. 272.

40 maulau gan^ galarUargaralam ahitateh kahkanam doa phale
candram ti^Gyanetram jvalanasamasikham iulam gam kapalam /
bhulapretadisena nigamanuâsuno yaâ EUkxrala-
âgre drstoa kinii bhramitamatir abhut hmdtah^nm bhe^'ham //260//
41 parthaya svastradmam pasupatir akarodyah pura ryatadrau
yuddham tenaiva hrtva vanacaratanubh^ bhinnasir^ tathasit /
42 markand^ pura STV<^tagiripater lirâpyapraurUe
pasaih karsaty atharkau bhayakarauadane lingamadhyan maheiah /
agafy araksad etam murdm atha samanam marayam asa devo
yas tarn nityam naâm nikkilanrpanutam ku^tanghrim bhqje'ham //35//
43 Kulke follows P. R. Srinivasa in claiming that a Nauiraja is to be seen on the
northern face of the Dharmaraja Ratha at Mahabalipuram. Sivaramamurti
also takes that view, but I would follow K. R. Srinivasin who does not
hesitate to say that this figure is Kalari, Siva as the Toe of Death'. Kulke,
Cidambara-Mahatmya: Eiru Untersuchung, p. 115; K. R. Srinivasin, The
Dharmarqa Ratha and its Sculptures (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1975), p. 28.
44 Cidambara Mahatmya 23.32-7.
45 kailasodyanadesam saha ^risutayaptvaikada candracudah
sadyas tatrendirâdharabhuvi nivasanyah kapisarcito'bhut /
yas tasmai sarvabkaumatvapadam apt dadav astrasastraualih ca
tarn devam parijatadyakhilasumadhuram kuncitahghrim bhtge'ham //S?//
46 svargadhisah kadacit kapivadanarapan ndsayitva svasatrun
dattvasmaityagarajamsad api taditaran presayam asa ryne /
so'py Mh^Misaptasthalavarasadanex agrtgair arcate sma
tanmurtuiam ca mularn munigariavinutam kundtahghrirn bhqje'ham //^8//
47 There are two other indirect references to Tiruvarur in the Kuncitahghristava:
the story of the Nayanar Comacimarar, the main subject of verse 170 (see
chapter 9), is generally held to have taken place in Tiruvarur. Verse 270
refers to the original myth of Tiruvarur, concerning the Valmlkinatha liriga
/ anthill, wherein Indra in the form of an ant cuts through the bowstring that
cuts off Visnu's head. Ramalinga Dikshitar cites Kuncitahghristava 97 apropos
Somaskanda ('A Study of Chidambaram and its Shrine', p. 54). In this verse
Siva is said to be worshipped by the Pandavas, but is said to have five heads,
which does not fit Somaskanda.
48 R. Nagaswamy, 'Adavallan and Daksinameniviuiiikar of the Tanjore
Temple', Lalit Kola, 12 (1962), pp. 36-8, p. 38.
49 mamce candrarkabhutew api vrsagajarMrajatMrisv athasve
somdskandasvariipah svayam urunayane garathe margario yah /
sthitva brahmotsavem tri^ ca natapatih pratyaham mdhiyatram
krtvd snatva sadah svam pravisati sivaya kuOcitahghrirn bhcge'ham 7/26//
50 kaâkâ svaya sakfya sahakrtancâm kaâ Ersacchidantam

kalam kamam purdm svapadasarasijat phalanetrai mitac ca /
hatoa braJmarsisunum sakaladivisadas capi raksanUtm tsam
deve(fyam citsabhesam dasasatavadanam kuncitangkrim bhcge'ham //ô//
9 SAINTS, DANCING G I R L S , GANAS - AND APASMARA
1 Marie-Louise Reiniche, La Configuration du Temple Hindou, vol. iv of

Ttruoannamalai: un lieu saint sivaite du sud de t'inde (Paris: £cole Franâise
d'Extreme-Orient, 1989), p. 116.
2 For Nayanars, some write Nayanmar, using the Tamil plural; others add the
English plural s to the Tamil plural, Nayanmars. The singular, J^yamr, is an
honorific plural.
3 The exceptions are precisely the poets: ânacampantar, Appar, Cuntarar,
Karaik^ Ammaiyar, Manikkavacakar, and Tirumiilar, all of whom sing the
praises of Dancing Siva. However, their descriptions of the God predate the
canonical NaUiraja.
4 Cekkilar refers to the fact that his poem Tirumantiram has three thousand
verses, and it is likely that he was earlier than Cekkiiar.
5 balo vipraâ gpsthasthitapasunikaram dohayitva payobhir
nadyas Sreyadiyam janimasukhakaram pîhivan cabhinOcan /
dhyayan krodfiat svapigavikrtikarapitus chedayitva padamyam
stutvayatpoTsadanam adhipatir abhavat kunatanghrim bhaje'ham //145//
6 David Dean Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the
South Indian Saiva Tradition (Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 134.
7 See G. Vanmikanathan, Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar, Condensed English
Version (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1985), p. 487.
8 kas cil lubdho ginndre miganibidavaru lihgam aisam ycuRyam
drstva gandusatoyaih svakacadhrtasumair bhuktasesais ca marnsaih /
pigam hirvan kadacin nijanayanavararn carpayitvatibhaktya
Tutreyaânunipttm padavaram abhajat kuncitangkrim bhaje'ham f 1x^1 /
9 jc^Manaprakupyatsvajemak^rana vesakale prasannam
yam drspa netravarisnapitatanulataihogasaiahkakampah /
yayahghridhyanabhanuprakadtavibhauo vaiâjo bhaktavaryo
'pyadhyarvdho vrsendram rcgata^rim agat kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham //a 14//
10 jyoAsthomakhyasomakratusavanahavihpufgam atyantabhaktya
ffidhakararn yam tsam saganam api sivam y(âvatapravistam /
heramboktya prabudhva way am api mudito yâya yatkarabje
datva marabhidhogiyah sivanagaram agat kuncitanghrim bhaje'ham //170//
11 kalpe kalpe svafdyaprabhavalayabhayamtyaktumadye parardhe
veda yarn kalakdUm bahuvidhatapasa tosayitva yaduktya /
traisahasram dvijatvam divisadasulabham labdhavanlah kramena
nityamyarn pigeânti svasarariividhina kuOcitahghrim bhaje'ham / /
282 Notes to pages 212-ig
12 Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee, p. 239.

13 mrmaBtan ^tanam kuUgaUulhimamr nUakariâbhidhoyam
pasyan mtyam ntmmam nqjâvacanagamir yogiraâfy(ârtham /
svastiidandagrahastah sarasi sasapatham gahamanah prapede
tarunyamâtprasadat tarn anartum agururn haicitanghrirn bhaje'ham //298//
14 Vanmikanathan, Perij>a Puranam, p. 379.
15 bhaktas traisasârnJchâ dvijamukhakulyayatsapaâvisesaih
sarupyamya^ namnarn rrnthur api pathanadj>aâ samipyasiddhim /
salaam yaya bhaktiprakararânatasafigasambhas(madyaih
sayujyarnyaâ bhav^ anupamam abhajan kundtafighrirn bhaje'ham //292//
16 H. W. Schomenis, $ivaitische Heiligmlegenden, p. xxx.
17 Civapirakacam, verses 83 and 84, ed. and trans. K. Subramania Pillai
(Dharmapuram: Dharmapuram Adhinam, 1949), p. 130.
iS kas cid vipro ritakhyah svapatiniyarnavidhvarnsakarnpatarahfflrn
nartm dagdhva saSrn taccitigatabhasitair lepayan sambamurtim /
naivetfyam kartum icchann iha naya canon ify ahvayan yatprasadat
f^tarn bhge nânte sivapadam api tarn kuncitahghrirn bhtge'ham //155//
19 Skanda Purarta, Brahmottara Karida 17.
20 yogan mrbyasarnjnat samuditaparamanandakasâmadhi -
sthitya vabnikaffidharn tanum avanigatarn rutakalparn dharan svam /
sivnan chnmulasangno nipanutacarito nityanihsahgavidyo
'py Myah siddhoyam antah kalayati nitaram kuncitahgkrirn bhqe'ham //185//
21 ^taratnasamgraha, p. 4.
22 Siva wrote a letter to Umapati telling him to give final release to the
wood-cutter who served his asrama. See chapter 5, n. 33.
23 y<is sambhur rtrttaran me prabalataramahamantrasiddhirn pradattva
gurmrn yogaâ siddhirn jananamrtahararn cdtmabodharn mahantam /
sutadinarn vimuktipradam api mahitagauravam patramula[rn]
svam nrttam darsayitva sukhayati nitararn kuncitahghrirn bhaje'ham //305//
24 Karaikal Ammaiyar is, moreover, based in Tiruvalangadu, earlier a rival
site to Cidambaram; see below.
25 Arputa Tlruvanlati 20, trans, by Karavelane {Karaikkalammaiydr Chants devotimnels
tamouls. Edition and translation by Karavelane. Publication No. i of
L'Institut Franâis d'Indologie. New edition. Pondicherry, 1982), p. 26 [my
translation from the French].
26 ArJ)uta Tlruvantati 70, trans, by Karavelane, ibid., p.38 [my translation from
the French].
27 In verses 15 and 219 Siva is referred to as bhrakurnsa. Difficult to determine is
the extent to which dancing is intrinsically a woman's art. Were it to be seen
as essentially feminine in the Indian context, this would link with Siva's
incorporation of ParvatI within himself.
28 Gaston, îva in Dance, Myth and Iconography, plate 115, p. 200 ('This female
dancer is on the base of the fifty-six pillared hall' i.e. the Nitta Sabha.)
29 Marco Polo, The Description of the World, ed. A, C. Moule and Paul Pelliot, 3
vok. (London: George Roudedge and Sons, 1938), vol. i, pp. 393f. Is it purely
chance that this pose is associated with a quarrel between the God and
Goddess?
30 yatsamatsvarrfobhittim paritar ampamah svargaiwjyah karabjair
adarsadyastabhadrarn hmakarriammayam yaâ tustyai vahanfyah /
sevam kurvanti pancaoaranam adhigatair brahmavidyesapiirvaih
stutyarn tarn citraJdi^thitibhir atha suredh kuncitahghrirn bfuge'ham //291//
The eight auspicious objects are a metal mirror, a full pot, a bull, a pair of
chowries, a sjwatsam (here a name for an image of Laksmi), a svastika, a
conch, and a lamp. The Festival Ritual text describing the ritual for a
fire-offering pavilion states that the priest should imagine each of these being
held by a particular apsaras (pp. 115-19). Thus he must imagine that the
mirror is held by UrvasI, the full pot by Menaka and so on. See also Brunner,
SomasambhupaddhtUi, vol. 11, p. 331.
CitrakuU is the name used by Vaisnavas for Cidambaram.
31 Francois Gros, Tevaram: Hymnes $ivmtes du Pays Tamoul, ed. T. V. Gopal Iyer
under the direction of Francois Gros, 2 vols (Pondicherry: Institut Franâis
d'Indologie, 1984, 1985), vol. i, p. xxvii.
32 M. A. Dhaky, 'Bhutas and Bhutanayakas: Elementals and Their Captains'
in Michael W. Meister (ed.). Discourses on îva: Proceedings ofa Symposium on the
Mature of Reliôus Imageiy (Bombay: Vakils, Feffer & Simons Ltd, 1984),
pp. 240-56, p. 252.
33 Dhaky, 'Bhutas and Bhutanayakas', ibid., p. 253.
34 srstyartham brahmaria yah stutanyavibhavas taâ Idlatadesad
avirbhUya svatantro vikrtatanuvaran rudravargan garundran /
srsbja tan prerayitva jagadavanavidhau sarvada sa tv asarnstho
'raksad visvadhikam tarn natajanasukhadam kuOcitafighrirn bhaje'ham /I'Z'i&n
35 Dhaky, 'Bhutas and Bhutanayakas', p. 243.

36 Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, p. 344.
37 There is a parallel instance in the Siita Sarnhita. When the sage Saunaka has
seen the dance of Siva in the Dabhra Sabha, 'exceedingly happy, he sang
hymns with all his might. Through his devotion the great sage was for a
f>eriod of time in a state of ecstatic p>ossession (paravaso bhutva); and again
seeing the lord of the Gods, the leader of the Gods, dancing, in his joy, O
Brahmans, performed himself the stick-dance {dandanartana)' {Siita Samhitd
3.9.21-2). Madhava in his commentary on the SUta Sarnhita glosses this as
dandapranama. In the light of the passage from the Cidambara Mahatmya, it is
likely that Saunaka also dances holding his staff. In this case also, the real
sequence of dance followed by trance is inverted. •
38 Tirut\anacampantar cures a girl afflicted with epilepsy: manriu perumpimyakum
muyalakanvantamivuT_{Periyap. Tirunan. 311).
39 Dorai Rangaswamy, Religion and Phibsophy of Tevaram, p. 530.
40 Tevaram vii.2.3, trans. Shulman, Son^s of the Harsh Devotee, p. 8.
41 Tevaram, vi 310, Peterson, Poems to Siva, pp. 131 f.
42 A complete list of Cuntarar's references to Ravana is given by Dorai

Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosopf^ of Thmam, pp. 300-3.
43 For the conception of a controlled dancer (Nauraja) on top of an
uncontrolled, sprawling figure (Apwismara), compare the up and down in
social hierarchy noticed by Gombrich and Obeyesekere apropos the body's
temporary takeover by another spirit. 'This kind of ecstasy and enstasis do
seem prima facie polar opp>osites. In p>ossession awareness of the self is
obliterated and there is complete dissociation from normal experience, so
that the person is afterwards not aware of what has been going on. Enstasis,
on the other hand, is supposed to be a condition of control . . . Cultural
prestige attaches to enstasis, and . . . traditionally ecstasy, since it is an
extreme form of loss of self-control, was condemned and indeed not allowed
except for certain practical purjXKes. Our data show a strong tendency for
the lower classes to practice ecstasy, the middle classes to strive for enstasis.
But these two forms of escape from normal experience are not easy to
differentiate.' Richard Gombrich and Gananath Obeyesekere, Buddhism
Transfomud: Religious Changs in Sri Lanka (Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 453.
10 LAST WORDS
1 Coomaraswamy, Dance of $iva, p. 78.
2 Civapirakacam verses 83 and 84, trans. K. Subramania Pillai, p. 13.
3 Malmiikagnimitra of Kîdasa, ed. and trans. R. D. Karmakar (Poona: R. D.
Karmarkar, 1937), 1.2, p. 2 [my translation].
4 Nencuvitutu, verse 25.
5 The kings of Umapati's own time were Pandyas, from Madurai, and it was
one of them who built the small shrine to the Madurai forms of Siva and
Parvatl, Sundara and MinaksT, to the south of the Hundred-pillared Hall.
6 In his Tirukkwaiyar Manikkavacakar refers twice to a Pandyan king called
Varaguna who is probably one of two of that name who lived in the ninth
century. For a discussion of the poet's date, see Glenn E. Yocum, Hymns to the
Dancing îva: A Study of Manikkavacakar's Ttmvacakam (New Delhi: Heritage,
1982), p. 47.
7 Ttruvilaiyatarpuranam of Paraficdtimunivar 61.60-6.
8 purvam jnanopadesam manimayavacase kundavrksaâ mUle

krtva saditvam dptva nrj)atikaralasatsvamavetrapraharam /
labdhva tenoktaganair madhurasabkaritais trj>tim aptvatha tasmai
muktim pradadya tsas tarn akhilasuhrdam kuncitahghnm bhaje'ham Hi^//
9 Pope, The Tiruvagagam, p. xxxiii. The Tirnkkjovaiyar 'is ostensibly an erotic

poem, although it has traditionally been interpreted as an allegory of god's
love for the soul'. Yocum, Hymns to the Dancing $iva, p. 10. The Tirukkovaiydr
was extensively commented on by Peraciriyar in the thirteenth century,
whereas other, more important, parts of the Saiva canon were not
commented upon until modern times.
In the final chapter of the Timvatavurar Puranam, a biography of

Manikkavacakar by Katavul Mûnivar, probably of the fifteenth century,
as summarised by Yocum {ibid., p. 50), îva himself is said to have sung, and
transcribed, Manikkavacakar's f)C)ems:
One day, the god himself took the form of a guru and visited him,
requesting him to sing all of the hymns which he had composed. This the
poet did, while the guru wrote down the entire Tlruvacakam and Tirukkdvaiyar,
disappearing as soon as he had finished. Siva now assembled the gods and
sang Manikkavacakar's hymns to them. Then, he took the copy of the
hymns, which he had made with his own hands, and placed it at the
entrance of the Ampalam so that the whole world would know how
Manikkavacakar gained salvation. When the text was discovered and the
contents read, the devotees went to Manikkavacakar and asked him to
explain the hymns. There, jxjinting to the god, he said, 'This One alone is
the meaning of this garland of Tamil songs', and at that he disapp>eared,
having united with Siva.
10 sambandhah sundarah mmanimayavacano jihmkarqanama

catvaro 'py atmaganair vividharasabharaih stotraripairyam tsam /
stutva tattatsthalantah sthitijusam apiyam caikam advaitamUrtim
prapur muktim tarn adyam krtavidhumakutam kuncilahghrim bhqe'ham 7/43//
11 George W. Spencer, 'The Sacred Geography of the Tamil Shaivite Hymns',

Numen 17 (1970), pp. 232-44, p. 235.
12 Appar seems to be Umapati's favourite among the three, for he chooses 64
verses from Appar, as against 23 from Campantar, and 12 from Cuntarar.
13 asin merufi saraso dharanir api ralho jyabhavat sarparqo

'py astam cakre 'rkasomau saTosijanilayah sarathiryaâ sambhoh /
asannasvas ca veda jalanidhisaradhes traipuram hantum icchor
hetum tarn lokasrs^thitilayakararK kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham 7/32//
14 Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee, p. 324.

15 Tevaram 7.51.6, trans. Shulman, ibid., p. 321.
16 Appar, Tevaram 6.54.5, trans, by V. A. Devasenapathi, Ttruamlpayan &
Arunmuraittirath, with an English rendering (Thanjavur: Tamil University,
1987), p. 50; translation slightly altered.
17 ekam brahmadvitiyam trividham api caturvahmayam pancabana-

bhratnyam sadvipaksadvisadabhivinutam saptajihvalikaksam /
astamyenahkaciidam navaTosanatanalolavasodasdsam
Tudraih sMityavargaih satalanatapadam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham //182//
18 kndâmsaktagauj^Tiakaghalanibhottuhgavahqjasaila-
prodyacchmgaramadhvimadhuTaTasadhunôlabhâyataksam /
bhiisanagoklmaukhyapTavacanaghatajaslabdhagarv^dhitaTkâ-
vndakrcchvâvaktrapTamathapatinulam kuncitdnghrim bhaje'ham //149//
286 Notes to pages 236-g
19 hefyam autnikyabfi^ tuhinoffr^tâ sasprham dattaviS-

sevaraktadharostha^t^tadinaMba^^ /
^pravuâsaiâJuUanakutukad dhastaimtaiyalotam
vmam samvadayantam prathamarasamayam hirmtanghrim bftaje'ham //ziz//
20 sadvrttam sragdharahgam uipulagunavaralankrtim mai^paka-
stha^târasMyair vibudhaparib^hahladintim suvrttim /
ve(^tirthapraboddhTvn sugumpadagatim yo 'smadâm stutim tan
tthgOaiTvan sukham me pradisati guru tarn kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham / /304//
Line b. stkaj^ for sth^. Should we read s<âsthajnraseufyair?
21 Tantraloka 3.262-4. My translation is based on that of Paul Eduardo
MuUer-Ortega, Ttu Triadic Heart of $iva (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1989), p. 195.
22 Tantraloka 26.63-5, trans. Muller-Ortega, ibid., p. 194.
23 dhUpair dipair athakhyaih phanipurusavrsaih kumbhapaficagnihotrair
rksaih karpurabhasrriaiyegariavarasiUuchatrakais camarais ca /
adarsttir mantrapuâir upariialasukarpQrakaih prargiayan drak
tyaktva'vidyam prapaânty anudinam anaghah kuncitanghrirn bhaje'ham //21//
24 gaiyais tailaih payobhir dadhighrtamadhubhih sarkarabhis ca suddhaih
pascat pancamrlMyair lihicaphalarasaih kairapathobhir anrmih /
gandkair gahgadbhir arâir anudinam anaghayaâ lihgarn murundrcdi
satkalarn pigayanti prabhum api tarn (gam kuncitahghrim bhaje'ham //19//
25 sravarn sravam srutibhyam yad amalacaritarnyatpadambhqjamadhvm
pttyam pârn sabhâm mama ca rasanqyayarn prabhum manasena /
smaram smaram prasannam srutisikharagatam bhuktimuktipradamyam
darsam darsarn prabuddho 'smy atanubudhadrsa kuncitanghrirn bhaje'ham //313//
26 etat stotram pathanti pratidinam asakrdye mamomapater vag-
udbhutarn citsabhârn viracitapareanmandanrttaâ sambhoh /
agre labdhvakhiUs^ iha tanayakalatradiman atmayajndd
ante kaimlyasctrrgnam padam api manujah sarnlabhantam nitdntam //
27 umapatir noma vandsramo 'ham trayodasadhilyasatatrayanvitam /
h^ncitdhghristavarqam uktva saksad apaâm natanam sabhdpateh //
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Venkataraman, R. Rajarajesvaram, The Pinnacle of Chola Art, Madras: Mudgala
Trust, 1985.
Vyaghrapura Mahatrrâ, Adyar Library MS 771.
Yocum, Glenn E., Hymns to the Dancing $iva: A Study of Mariikkavacakar's
Tiruvacakam, New Delhi: Heritage, 1982.
Index and glossary
Abhinavagupta, 236-7 Arulnanti, 116, 122

abkueka ('consecration by anointing or Aruna, 51
inundating"), 35, 73, 75-6 AruMcala, 83
acayabhi^ ('initiation as ataiya\ 113 Aninagiri, 143
Acyutadeva Riya, 44, 57 asrama ('hermitage"), 8, 171
adhisthimtt ('base of a temple'), 91, 258 n. 27 Astradeva, 95
adJ^tnuyoga ('spiritual' - yoga), 106 aftfp^ ('slave', 'devotee'), 15 •
Adi&aAkara, see Âkaracarya abnan, 107-8, 122
Adiiaiva caste, 58 Atmarthapuja, ('worship for oneself), 18
Adiie», see êsa aUamraâm (shrines of diva's eight heroic
Advaita, 103, iai-4, 132 deeds), 186
Agamas, 58, 62, 64, 93,-106, 109, 116-20, 131, axialiTa, 7, 126, 158, 192
Agastya, 215 baU ('offering of grain or rice'), 74-5

Aghora îvacarya, 109, 112-13 fialinayaka, 89
agmhotra ('firc-oblation'), 70, 77 balifntha ('pedestal for offerings'), 74-5, 132
akasa ('ether', 'space"), 81, 84, 233 Bana, 19, 223
akasa lihga, LiAga of Space, 84, 241 n. 8 banaUnga ('pebble' lmg<t^, 113
Ak»pada, 62 Barrett, Douglas 12, 14
Aniba, 44, 97 Batukaraja, 191
Anahata caJcra,S'i betel, 140, 213, 235
anandatandava, Ananda Tandava, see Dance of Bhanda, 158
Bliss Bhadrakali, 145, 148-31
Ammdatmdmiavilasastotra, 190 Bhaga, 146, 187
aiuwamala, Anava Mala, no, 113, 122 Bhagaoata Purana, 265 n. 42
^dhaka, 198, 200 Bhairava, 7, 54, 186, 188-91, '95-7. 237
Andkra Bharalamu, 41 Bhairava tantras, 186
ar^ (gesture of respect and salutation, with the Bhanukampa, 20
two palms joined and raised), 13, 86, 112, Bhaskararaya, 158
209 Bhatu Ramakantha, 116
anklet, 18, 171, 182, 226 Bhatu Narayanakatha, 119
Antaka, 198 Bhava, §iva, 128, 146, 187
Antzuvcdi, 34-6, 69 BhavanT, ParvatT, 146, 158, 160
anugraha ('grace'), 17 Bhiksauna, 43, 79, 139, 161, 163-4, '66, 175,
Apasmara, 8, 15, 23, 25, 30, 177, 223, 225-6 186, 190, 197
Appar, 94, 100, 164, 201, 215, 226, 231, 233, 234bhtâ ('enjoyment'), 191, 234
ardhamandapa ('a hall adjoining a shrine'), 56 Bhnigin, 22-4, 244 n. 34
Aijuna, 121, 134, 200 Bhumi, 33
Arputa Tmivanlati, 217 Bhusunda, 133
artha ('material advantage'), 17 bkiita ('creature'), 15, 23, 25, 30, 34, 78, 107, 170,
Arudra Darsana, 76 '77. '83
295
296 Index and glossaiy
Apasmara, 18, 2 2 2 - 3 C 6 U bronzes,i, 3, 10, 13, 242 n. 21
Mwbk ('enjoyment'), 118 C o m a c i m a i a r , 211, 220
Biardeau, M . , 197 C o o m a r a s w a m y , A . K . , 2, 5, 7, 17, 100, 228
bmdu ('drop', material origin o f creation), 100, Crystal LiAga, 20, 50, 6 6 - 8 , 72, 7 4 - 5 , 85
103, 106-7 Cuntarar, 100, 198, 209, 211, 216, 226, 2 3 1 - 2 ,
Bodhayana, 62, 228 234
Brahma, 18, 35, 59, 6 3 - 5 , 67, 69, 74, 76, 84,
89. 9 2 - 3 . 95. " 9 . ' 2 6 - 8 , 145-6, 156, dabhrasabhi (Cit Sabha), 39
187-8, 191, 193, 230, 232 Dahara V i d y a , 81
Brahma Sutras, 103 Daharavufyakhanda, 256 n. 5
Brahmacamundika, 145 D a k u , 151, 186
Brahmacandesvara, 145 Daksakfumda, o f SarrJsarasaîta, 276 n. 12
Brahman, 15, 21, 39, 5 8 - 9 , 65, 69, 70, 75, 77, D a k ^ a m u r t i , 132, 166, 169, 197
III, 122-5, '28, 151, 159, 183, 211, 2 1 3 - 1 4 damaru, damanJsa (a type o f drum), 15, 20, 182,
Brahmmda Purana, 158 '89
Brahmananda, 8, 121
dance competition, 9, 24, 148
Brahmotsava, 63, 76, 78, 205
Dance oT Bliss, i, 4, 9, 15, 18, 21, 22, 24, 26, 31,
BHudirarryaka Upanisad, 125
33. 58, 60, 76, 92, 97, 100, 124, 147, 175,
B ^ d T s v a r a temple, 12, 23, 85, 232, 241 n. 7,
182, 222, 224
257 n. 19
dancing girls, 138, 207, 2 1 8 - 1 9
Brunner, H., 131, 262 n. i, 269 n. 91, n. 92 Dandekar, R . N., 41
bubhuksu ('one w h o seeks worldly enjoyment'), Darasuram, 166, 193, 217
"5 Daruka, a demon, 1 4 5 - 7
Daruka Forest, 40, 142, 147, 161, 166, 169, 171,
Bull-flag, III '75
Dasaratha, 131
Camakn, 76 Death the Restrainer, 28
Campantar, see TiruAaoacampantar D e v a Sabha, 56, 68, 195
Candesvara, 85, 95, 209-11 devadasi ('female temple dancer'), 207
Candika, 23 devakoslha ("niche in temple wall containing
Candramaulisvafa see Crystal Lihga image o f a deity'), 153
C a n d r a k k h a r a , 89 Devalaslotra, 98, 189, 195, 197
Cankarpa Mrakaranam, 109, 122-4 Devi, 15, 51, 57, 96, 141, 156
C a p r a , Fritjof, 2 Dedbniakatmya, 152
Cekkijar, 65, 209-12, 229 Devisukta, 76
Cekkilm Puranam, 209 dhakka (a type o f drum), 15, 20
Cfundogya Upani^, 81 dhanalipi ('writing dha and mi'), 18, 242 n. 20
CidmibaTa MBhdbr^ 9, 35, 39, 40, 41, 4 3 - 5 , 50, dhvajasUmbha ('flagpole'), 57, 74, 75, 78, 254 n.
5 8 - 6 2 , 64, 71, 80, 82, 120, 170, 175, 185, 67
222-4 Dhvani mantra, 19, 243 n. 22
Cidambarakalpa, 243 n. 22 Dhvani cakra, 154
Cidambaram cakra, 73 Dhyanayoga, 133
Cintamani mantra, 159, 274 n. 53 ('initiation'), 104-7, 113, 115
Cintamani cakra, 154 Diksita (priest o f Nataraja temple,
cinambalam (Cit Sabha), 80, 81 Cidambaram), 36, 55, 68, 84, 111-12, 139,
Cit Sabha, Hall of Consciousness, 5, 10, 12, 14, • 5 4 - 5 . '57
20, 47, 50, 5 5 - 7 . 64, 6 8 - 9 , 75, 8 0 - 1 , 83, diparadhana ('lamp-worship'), 76
8 5 - 9 . 9 ' . 9 4 - 8 , 102-3, " 3 . ' 3 ' . "42, 189, Dorai R a n g a s w a m y , M . A . , 100, 162, 198
190, 216, 237 DraupadT, 134, 153
Cilampara Mummam Kovai, 17 DraupadT Ratha, 85
Citrasena, a gandharva, 20 D u ^ h a , 39
CitsabhesoUavasutra, the Festival Ritual text, 9, D u r g h a u , 39
63, 80, 83, 91 Durga, 99, 135, 136, 142, 153, 160
Civan^ Cittijiar, 122 Durgasukta, 76
CivanariapdUim, 127, 230 Durmata, 39
CivapirakMom, 105, 108, 122, 138, 214, 229
Durvasas, 139 lyaqiakai, a Saint, 133, 211
dvadasanla (point of rcabsorption above
wonhipper's head), 71, 107 Jaimini, 37, 38, 62
Jalandhara, 186, 198, 200
ecsutic dancing,, 3, 224, 226, 250 n. 32 Jambukesvara, 14, 83, 135
ecstatic possession, 3, 224, 284 n. 43 Jaya, 142, 169
Ekimbara temple, 21 JayapT^, 140
enstasis, 3, 284 n. 43 Jftana, 73, 99, 102, 136, 138, 141, 157
Jflana Sakti, 99, 136
Festival Ritual text, see Citsabheiotsavasutra Jouveau-Dubreuil, G., 54
Five-Syilabled Mantra, see pancaksara
Kailasa, 46, 215, 226
Gangaikondacolapuram, 23, 24, 209, 217, 222 ka&, five Cportions' comprising entire manifest
Gartga, 1, 35, 36, 43, 76, 133, 160, 200, 234 world), 106-7
gmts ('multitudes', dwarf attendants of Siva) 8, kaJas ('portions' of Siva), 46
54. >66, 219, 222, 225 Kalari, 203
Ganesa, 23, 71, 74, 126 Kalasamharamurti, 202
garbhagrha ('womb-chambcr', innermost and Kalhana, 140
principal shrine), 12, 56, 67, 87 Kali ('fourth and last world age'), 65, 109, 192
G a n i ^ , 20, 21, 92 Kali, Tamil spelling of KalT, 54, 152
Gauii, 140, 151, 235 Kail, 21, 24, 54, 56, 135-6, 144-8, 150-2, 160,
Golden Mountain, see Meru .192-3, 217-19, 222, 230
Gombrich, R., 284 n. 43 Kali temple, Cidambaram, 135, 145, 160, 230
e i w a ('temple gateway*), 2 4 - 5 ; 48, 5 2 - 3 , 144, K a l i d ^ , 139, 145, 229
150-1, 161, 218 Kaliya, 30
Govindaraja, 44, 56 Kalkin, 192
Graefe, W., 256 n. 3 kalfta ('aeon'), 64, 212
Gros, F., 219 Kalugumalai, 243 n. 27
Kalyanasundara, 161
Hall of Consciousness, see Cit Sabha K ^ a , 132, 157, 173, 186
Haradatta, 265 n. 49 kima ('love'), 17
Hardy, F., 250 n. 32 KamaksT, 135
Hari, 18, 92, 191, 233 Kamalilaya, 82, 203
Hariscandra, 214 Kamasundari, see Sivakamasundari
Harlc, J. C . , 52-3, 148, 150 Kamika Agama, 63, 93, 117, 118, 119
H a ^ a yoga, 81 Kanada, 62, 228
Hayagriva, 139 Kanaka Sabha, 5, 10, 47, 50, 5 5 - 6 , 66, 69,
heart-lotus, 28, 46, 83, 133 75-6, 85-9, 93, 9 5 - 6 , 131
Hemasabhanatha Mahitmya, 9, 39, 213 KaAcTpuram, 21, 135, 143, 158, 188
Hemavitrman, 36 Kane, P. V., 256 n. 13
Heramba, G a n e » , 211 Kailkala, 161, 166
Himalaya, 81, 82, 83, 94, 181, 200 Kafikalamurti, 166, 197
Hinduism, i, 4, 6, 7, 69, 71, 80, 99 Kanappar, 38, 210
Hiranyavarman, 37, 54, 120, 224 Kanta Puranam, 151, 199
homa ('fire oblation'), 73, 77 Kapalikas, 188
Hundred-pillared Hall, 56 Kapalin, 162, 164 .
Karaikal Ammaiyar, 28, 148, 209, 217-18, 222,
Iccha Sakti, 99, 136, 141 226, 229
Ida, 82 karman, 104-6, 115
Ilamaiyakkinar, 212-13, ^<7 Kashmir, 5, 140, 236
Uamaiyakkioar temple, 213 KasI, 81, 83, 143, 203
Impure Maya, 204 K a u v u j MamuQivar, 285 n. 9
Indra, 34, 74, 119, 146, 147, 183, 199, 203 KacyayanT, 143
Ingalls, D. H. H., 3 koiya (classical Sanskrit 'poetry'), 19, 48, 52, 97,
T&ina, 51, 146 141, 214, 216, 232
298 Index and gbssary
Kedara, 61, 143 MahauuislaBa, 330

Kihimukha, 169, 199 Mahiumardini, 150
Knipe, D., aoo, 27a n. 34 Malulitamidki, 254 n. 67
Kcppcrunjinga, K5pperuflciAkaQ, 135, 144 mfl/l« Cttint'), 104-8, 113, 118, 122-3, '29. 138
Kovan Annamalai, 33 Afaimkagmmiin, 339
/I^Ctempie'), 1 . 4 8 Mamallapuram, 85
K^ Plemam, 9, 31, 35. 45, 54, 5 8 - 6 0 , 64, 80, Manali Mudaliar, 93
82-3, 120, 144, 224 Maoavacakam K a u n t a r , 139
Kramrisch, S., 87, 220 m a n ^ ('haU', 'pavUion'), 31, 37, 43, 45, 89,
K m h n a p p a Nayaka, 247 n. 28 138, 144, 158, 166, 190
Kriya S ^ t i , 99, 136, 142 Manikkavacakar, 116, 139, 148, 153, 163, 309,
ijTjtiknma^jntika, 95 315, 330-3
K n n a . 7, 30. 43. " 9 . '26, 134, 191 Manipura cakra, 83
K^trapala, 146, 196-7, 200 Man-lion, see Narasiinha
Kubcra, 51, 158 Mara, 311-13
Kulkc, H, 9 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 50, 51, 252 MacaiflaQa, Macaiflaoa Campantar, 17, 66, 68,
n. 43, 280 n. 43 108-13, '53
Kulotiurtga I, 43, 44, 50, 135 mirka^ (ninth solar month of Hindu calendar,
Kulonurtga II, 43, 44 Dec.-Jan.), 76. 230
Kulonufiga III, 193 Markandeya, 186, 201
Kumarakuruparar, 17 MaUutgfiparamesoaTa Agama, 363 n. 8
Kuinbhabhixka, 56 83, 103-4, '08, 120, 123, 125, 128-9, '38,
Kumirilabhana, fo, 228 ,46
bOcita ('curved', 'bent down'), 8 Mayavada, 123, 134-6
KuOcUm^trisUioa, 8 and passim Mayavadin, 133
K u n ^ i m , 135 M e m , 46, 136, 133, 142, 169, 188, 232
Kuma Purina, 151, 166, 168, 186-8 M e y k a n u r , 7 0 - 1 , loi, 108-10, 116, 124, 130,
339
K u n i k x t r a , 82
Kutralam, Tinjnclvcli Dist, 83 Meyyapan, S., 83
Milk Ocean, 33, 4 0 - 1 , 147
LaksmT, 20, 51, 95 MimaiTisa, 63, 338
Lalita, 154, 158 MTnaksT, 135
Lalilasa/uisranmuin, 1 5 8 - 9 MTnaksT temple, 48
Lalilopakkyma, 158 MohinI, form of Visnu, 33, 40, 139, 175, 192
Lartka, 8 1 - 2 moksa ('salvation'), see mukti
t a ^ (ball-shaped sweet), 76 Migmdra Agama, 119, 131
L'HemauIt, F., 193, 250 n. 25 mukhalmgt (Tace' lingd), 89
IHiga, i, 4, 5, 14, 21, 31, 32, 50, 66, 69, 72, 82, miito" ('salvation'), 15, 118, 120, 123, 129, 186,
84, H3. «2>. 184, 187, 201, 210, 230, 234 191, 214, 229
Linga ^rana, 70, 146-8, 200 Miiiadhara cakra, 83, 157
Lokcsavikrama, 36 Mula LiAga, see Mulanatha
Lokcndravikrama, 43 mulamutti ('primary image' of a temple's deity),
Lopamudra, 139 'o. 53
Loud, J., 9, 250 n. 21, n. 30, n. 31, 256 n. 7, Mulanatha ('original Lord', Uiiga of the
267 n. 62, n. 63 Mulasthana), 50, 132
Mulasthana ('original place', linga shrine,
Madhava, 119, 124 Cidambaram temple), 31, 5 0 - 1 , 57, 82
Madurai, 48, 127, 135, 230, 231 mirti (image, 'form' of a deity), 79, 89, 133, 145,
Mahabharata, 3, 41, 43, 151, 153, 200, 214
'52
Mahadeva (Siva), 7, 73, 170, 181, 195
MMnarayana Ufiani^, 128 Murugesa Mudaliar, N., 267 n. 67
Maharlhwnanjan, 190-1 Murukan, 205
Mahesa (Siva), 18, 92, 119, 174, 188 Muyalakao, see Apasmara
Mahesvara (Siva), 17, 91, 92, 189 nâ ('sound') l o o - i , 117, 129
Mahesvarananda, 190-1 Nadanta, 98, 129
Nagaswamy, R., 136, 150, 164, 260 n. 40 Pataiâlipiiiisulra, 9, 71, 74, 98, 112
Mauadhaearita, 159 pati ('Lord', Siva), 103, 214
Nalvar (the Tour' poet-Saints), 215 PauAara Sgma, 115
NalayanT, 153 Pauskam Bhai)ia, 109, 115, I3i
Naoacampantar, set TiniAaoacampantar Per^ Puraaam, 38, 41, 65, 66, 209, 211-13, 21B,
Nanda, set Nantaoar 229
Nandikesa, Nandikcivara, 12, 54, 61, 96, 224 Pine Forest, set Danika Forest
Nandin, 46, 75, 96, 127 PiAgala Nadi, 82
Nantaoar, a Saint, 38 Polo, Marco, 219
NaralSkavirao, 43, 44 Porrîpakmbii, 110, 113
Narasimha, 119, 192 pnUth^Boli, 12, 129, 155, 340 n. 5
Natarajan, B., 242 n. 17 prakara ('enclosure, enclosure wall of temple*),
Matya ^ t r a , 218 54,89
Jâvapahasukti, 76 pramathiB ('tonnenton', attendants of Siva), 219
Nayaoars, Saints, 38, 40, 207-17 Prayaga, 82
}{eikumtuti^, 105, 109, n o , 229 piga ('woiship'), 37, 44, 45, 57, 61, 77, H2, 113,
Nilakantha, Saint, see IjamaiyaiduQar 189, 202, 210
Nilakantha, îvadvaitin, 117, 124 PSgasuIra, see Pataigalipigasutra
Nirrti, 51 Puliyiir, 41
ntnima^J ('liberation-initiation'), 107, n o Pulkasa, 3 8 - 9
Nisumbhasudani, 150 Punda^pura Mahatmya, 9, 39, 46
JiRtyapi^pctaigala Sutra, see PaUu^pujasutra Puruu, 58, 81, 98
Nityas, 158 PuTusasukIa, 76, 98
Nivrtti kola, 107 Purva MTmamsa, 38
Nnimha, see Narasimha Puspadanta, 230
Nrtta Sabha, 20, 21, 24, 55, 56, 75, 85, 135, 143,
144, 152, 166, 193, 202, 218, 219 Rahasya, 83-4, 89, 98, 154
nrUasevaka ('servant of the Dance'), 74 Raja Sabha, 55
RajaganeM Diksita, K. M., 8, 68, 84, 139, 155,
Obeyesekere, G., 284 n.43 >57
OM, 15, 19, 22, 70, 71, 81, 96, 97, 119, 129, 155,
Rajaraja I, 23, 85
188 Rajaraja III, 144
Rajarajewara temple, see Brhadisvara temple
paduka ('sandal'), 89 Rajendra C5ia I, 150
pttUi-y-arjd ('bed-chamber' of deity and consort), Rajendrapura, 9
256 n. 15 Rêmbapura Mahaln^, 9, 44, 45, 66, 68, 69, 111,
PalUsa, 197 114, 114
pancakrtya ('five acts', the five cosmic functions Ramachandran, T . N., 251 n. 43, 259 n.35, 262
of Siva), 5, 17, 100 n. 7, 263 n. 23, n. 24, 264 n. 31, 270 n. 4
Paflcak^ra, 98, 101, 129-31, '53 Ramalinga Dikshitar, T., 84, 190
paraiyari ('drummer', 'untouchable'), 20 rasa ('liquid', 'aesthetic emotion'), 60, 140, 156,
Pararnjyoii, 108 157, 182, 183, 224, 232, 235-8
ParaAcotimunivar, 127 rat/ia ('chariot', temple car), 78
Parasurama, 139, 192 Ratnasabhapati, 35, 70
Parthaxma Mahatmya, 8, 112, 115, 121 Raurana Agama, 105
Parvati, 6, 18, 30, 73, 78, 92, 9 5 - 6 , 98-9, Ravana, 78, 226, 230
118-19, '26, 136, 139, 140, 142-3, 145-7, Reiniche, M.-L., 207
157, 161, 181-2, 199, 201, 203, 205, 212, Rudra, Siva, 17, 18, 28, 91, 92, 151, 188, 234
224, 235 rudrakanya, see devadan
ParvatT, wife of Umapati, 115
pasa ('bond, fetter'), 103-5, " 5 . '3°' 214 Sabhanayaka temple, 4, 5, chapters 3 and 4
paiu ('the bound self), 103, 123, 214 Sabhapati, the Naiarija bronze in the Cit
Pasupati, 24, 51, 144, 199, 201 Sabha, 73
Pataftjali, 9, 23, 31, 33, 36-8, 47-8, 50, 62, saccidanartda ('Being, Consciousness and Bliss'),
66-7, 70, 76, 131, 134, 139, 154, 228, 235 21, 96, 138
300 Index and glossary
Sadakhya, see Sadaiiva Sirkali, 195

Sadaiiva, 17, 18, 21, 68, 71, 91, 92, 94, 107, 117, Siipur Gupta image, 23
160, 186 Siva passim
Sadyojau (west face ofSadasiva), 118 Siva, see Parvatl
Sadyojyoti, 109 Sivadrsb, 191
Sahasrara, Sivadvaita, 103, 124
Saiva Siddhanta, 4 - 6 , 15, 17, 66, 92, 95, 99, Sivagamas, 116-17, " 9
,03-34 Sivanandanatha Diksita, 9, 43, 44, n o
^ v a c a k r a , 73 SivanandaniyakI, 78
&iivagainas, 116-17, Siva PradoM Statra, 99
saktin^mla ('dcsccnt oT diva's gracc'), 115, 159, Siva Purina, 43, 151, 187, 199
216 Sivacakra, 154
talofya ('being in the same worid' - salvation), Sivagartga, 43, 48, 51, 72, 135, 213, 238
120, 213-14 Sivakamasundan, 2, 6, 7, 31, 34, 54, 73,76, 78,
sainq)Mi£kM {^general initiation'), n o , 113 83. 87, 89, 95, 99, 135, 136, 158, 175, 218
Sama Veda, 34, 108, 127 Sivakamasundari shrine, 31, 135
Sambhu, Siva, 36, 59, 60, 114, 147, 171, 175, Sivapuram, 143
182, 183, 199, ai6, 219, 224, 232, 239 Sivaramamurri, C . , 10, 8 4 - 5
Sammelana cakru, 9 7 - 8 , 136, 154, 215 Skanda, 23, 51, 57, 70, 78, 95, 127, 154, 161, 203
samadhi ('completion', highest stage of yoga) 36, Skanda Purana, 214
84, 132, 215 Somasekhara Dikshitendra, 189
smafya ('promixity' - salvation), 122, 213-14 Somasetu Diksita, 55, 134, 203
Sanaka, 127 Somaskanda, 78-9, 161, 203, 205
Sanatkumara, 108 Sn", 21, 33, 67
Sanderson, Alexis, 190, 262 n. 11 Sricakra, 73, 83-4, 89, 98, 103, 135, 138-9,
Sartkara, Siva, 168, 180, 181, 182, 187, 188, 223, '52, >54-5. ' 5 7 - 6 1 , 192
224 Sriharu, 159-60
S a i ^ r a , Sai'ikaracarya, 103, 121-4, 128, 131-2, Srikanâ, 103, 132
•56 Srinatha, 157
Sanskrit poetry, see kaiya Srinivasan, P. R., 272 n. 30
Sarabha, 152, 191-3 Srfparvata, 81
SarasvaSsukta, 76. Sriraiigam, 32
siriifya ('similarity of form' - salvation), 120, Srividya, 84, 135, 137
213-14 smti ('revealed scripture', the Veda), 28, 69, 93
Sanadarianasahffalui, 124 sthalapuram ('traditional history of a shrine'), 9,
SarvqjnanoUama Agama, 107 3'. 33. 45. 46. '39. '43. '45. ' 7 °
Salaratrmaiâha, 104-7, '09. " 4 - > 5 . " 7 - > 9 , Subrahmanya, see Skanda
131, 186, 216 Sundara Pandya, 52, 144
Satamdâ, 76, 131 Susumna, 81, 82
Satunatha, 195 Suta, a sage, 39, 61, 147
Samdaiyalaha^ 103, 141, 154, 156, 157 Suta, wood-cutter initiated by Umapati, 114,
Savitn, 214 159, 216, 234
sojnâ ('communion' - salvation), 120, 122, 213, Suta Samhita, 9, 14, 39, 81, 82, 84
214 Svarnakalabhairava, 189
Schomerus, H. W., 214 Sveta, 70-1
Sesa, 31-3, 37, 81, 85, 133, 134, 170, 171, 175, Svetaketu, 70
182 Svetaranya, 143
Sesasayana, Visnu, 32, 44 ivelasvatara UpaniMd, 128
Shulman, David, 80, 100, 164, 166, 210, 225 Svetavana, 70
Siddhanta, see Saiva Siddhanta Svetavanapperumal, see Meykantar
Siegel, Lee, 115 Swamy, B. G . L., 84, 257 n. 19
Silver Mountain, see Kailasa
Simhavarman, 36, 43 Taittinya Brahmana, 71
Singarattottam, 153 Taittinya Upanisad, 76
Singaravelu, C . N., 130 Taittinya Samhita, 131
Tamil $aiva Siddhanta, loi, 116, I2i, 124, Uttarakamika Agama, 116
129-31
Tamil poetry, 94, 105, 116 Vaidikasiddhanta, 121
Tandu, 33 Vaikhanasa priests, 56, 77
Tanjavur, Tanjore, 12, 150, 166, 195, 218, 225, Vajapeya sacrifice, 63, 64, 117
232 Valampuram temple, 164
Taitmloka, 236-7 Valkali, 38, 40
U ^ ('power generated by austerity'), 61, 81, Vamana, 192
82, 119 Vanmikanathan, G., 55
tattca ('essential principle') VaranasT, see KasT
36 taUvas, 103, 106, 108, 125, 129 Varuna, 43, 51
96 lamrn, 93-4, 109 Vasistha, 32, 36, 131
Tharum, 28, 41, 51, 81, 100, 116, 148, 163, 205, Vastupuruu, 77
226, 229, 230 Vayu, 28, 51, 133
Thousand-pillared Hall, 56, 76 V^ SamJiita, 119
Three thousand (DBcsitas), the traditional Vedajftana Sambandha, see Maraiflana
number of âiva priests in Cidambaram, Campantar
37. 46, 57. 59. 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 69, i i i , Vedt^Mdastava, 230
145, 212, 217, 228 Veda, Vedas, 21, 30, 38, 40, 51-3, 57-8, 61-6,
Tillai, see Cidambaram 80, 82, 9 1 - 3 , 98, 101, 103, 105, I I I , 113,
Tibmana Mahitnya, 9, 47, 80, 91 116-28, 130-1, 138, 143, 145, 188-90, 192,
Tirodhana âkti, 138 200, 212, 228, 232, 234, 238
&1ha ('sacred site"), 75, 82 Vedanta, 6, 15, 62, 103-34, 228. 236-7
tinuiujambalofTi^ set iinuiiibulont Vedaranya, 143
Tmikkurid, 229 Vidyesvaras, 254 n. 67
Tinimular, 17, 84, loi, 102, 116, 121, 132, 155, Vijayalaya, 150
156, 186, 200, 209, 215 Vikrama Chola, 193
JinimmliTam, 17, 68, loi, 102, 117, 155, 157, 1&6 Vikramasolisvaram temple, 193
Thmittraikmdapuranam, 209 ptfnwui ('shrine and its superstructure'), 52-3,
TiniAanacampantar, 41, 51, 141, 201, 210, 215, 87. '93
226, 231, 234 yinivenfia, n o
Tininavukkaracu, see Appar Vinayaka, see Ganesa
Tirupati, 48 Virabhadra, 151, 191, 195-7, 200
TtniUotUaUokai, 65, 209, 216 Viraj, 83, 97, 98
TiruvalaAkatu, 24, 136, 150, 218 Virarajcndra, 43
Tinivanamalai, 84 lifMO^K:^ ('special initiation'), 110, 113
TiTUsarulpayan, 113, 130, 229, 232 Visnu, 5, 20-3, 31-33, 40, 43-4, 5 0 , 3 6 - 7 , 67,
Tu^vehkatu, 70 73. 8'. 84. 92. 119. «27, 147, 157, 160,
Tinivetkalam, 201 169-71, 187-8, 191-2, 195, 198
bruvaci, see prabhaoali Visnu shrine, 43-4, 57
Tinivariir, 82, 83, 203, 205 Visuddhi, 83
TmiBatavurar Puranam, 285 n. 9 Vnrasura, 119
trance, 8, 60, 134 Vyaghrapura, see Cidambaram
Tribhuvanam, 52, 193 VyaghrapuTa Mafiitmya, 9, 83, 145
Triple Peak, 84, 157 Vyaghrapada, 23, 31, 33, 35-8, 40-1, 43, 48,
Tyagaraja, 203 50, 59, 61, 69, 76, 87, 134, 235
VyaJutranoTruihibha^, 139
Uma, 41, 45, 70, 78, 119, 129, 139, 182 Vyasa, 38, 62, 71, 80, 122, 133, 228
Umipati divacarya passim
Umuuvdakkani, 17, 101, 129 Ti^neda, 76
Upamanyu, 32, 41, 43, 119, 141, 147, 14B, 234 Yama, 51, 97, 174
Upamu^bhakloBUasa, 43 Yantra, 69, 83, 97-9, 154, 157-8, 237
Upaniuds, 3, 15, 21, 120-2, 124, 128, 139, 147 Yoga, 21, 61, 65, 104, 106, 114, 117, 118, 120,
Ordhvatandava, 31, 34, 35, 56, 135, 143, 144, 131-4, 161, 185, 215-16
'52. '93 yiâiuuuta ('yoga-bliss'), 147
Dancing Siva has become a popular symbol in the West for
Hinduism and Eastern mysticism. T h i s book gives.a derailed
account o f Siva's Dance o f Bliss by explicating'â Sanskrit
fjoem written in the fourteenth century by Umapati Sivacarya,
Saiva theologian and temple priest. T h e bronze image o f the
King o f Dancers, the G o d s temple in Cidambaram, South
India, and its priests are all viewed in the light o f the poem.
Umapati s Saiva theolog)- is discussed in relation to his life,
and also in relation to Vedanta and yoga. T h e iconography
and mythology o f the Goddess and o f other forms o f Siva
provide ncccessary perspective. Art from Cidambaram and
neighbouring sites illuminates the text.
C o v e r illusrrarion: Smi Natardja. SffiPkarto.

S i v a p u r a m , c. AD 9 5 0 . C A i v i i 3 i i i i 3 G E
© Robert L. B r o w n UNIVERSITY PRESS
www.cambridge.org
ISBN 0 - 5 2 1 - 5 2 8 6 5 - 8

The Dance of Siva: Keligion, A N and Poetry in South India

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The Dance of Siva: Keligion, A N and Poetry in South India

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The dance of Siva

Keligion, a n and poetry in South India

Edited by John Clayton (University of Lancaster), Steven Collins

1. Religion and the individual: A Jewish perspective

© C a m b r i d g e University Press 1996

T h i s b o o k is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

First published 1996

A catalogue recordfor ihis book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

I S B N 0 521 48234 8 hardback

List of illustrations page x

^ivakamasundan mandapa, Cidambaram. Seventeenth

I am grateful to Steve Collins, Friedhelm Hardy, D o n Heald, Fran^oise

N A T A R A J A , THE KING OF DANCERS

embodies. He dwells in the heart of every person, and though he is to be

audio cassettes, and sung daily in the temples of $iva. T h e y will be

Although the temple was referred to and visited by the saint-singers of

Visnu Shrine '

Nrtta Sabha - '

preserved and then altered in Tamilnadu. Chapter 5 considers the

complemented by a S i v a k ^ a s u n d a n , and each pair is usuaUy made by

Siva is inherently ambiguous. Half human, half divine are the^anas w h o

PRINCIPAL TEXTUAL SOURCES

T h e primary source is The Hymn of Praise to [Na^raja's] Curved Foot, the

being a patronym of Aijuna. T h e other work is the Ryendrapura

The Matardja bronze

T h e metal image, the D a n c i n g G o d defined in iconography and

by the Cola paintings in the circumambulatory of the garbhagrha in the

When He playfully began His dance

centre of a universe modulated by and around Nataraja, and the poetry

the hoods of the snzikes that form His ear-rings

Placing His right foot ever on Apasmara,

He gives Dharma to people

N ' a t a r a j a . V ' i k r a m a K u l o u u h g a p e r i o d , c. 1150.

That God - embodied in dance,

Whether or not Umapati's failure to refer to this identification is

Placing one lotus foot, the right one,

powerfully exercised in the calling up of images in strictly defined order,

While HQ Who has no beginning

As the Lord dances Bhanukampa piays

'O Lotus Laksmi, don't let's play today

Him who is unborn,

Brahman alone is true,

the host of gods and worlds in the radiance called OM,

He is the Lord. He always wears

Whereas the Pallava poet-saints made their tireless pilgrimages across

BHRNGIN THE DEVOTEE

In addition to the Goddess standing beside him, representations of

The blessed Bhrtigin, chief of munis,

Bhmgin angered the Goddess by neglecting her in his exclusive

sculpture on the outside of the gaTbhag^. K ^ there is a diminutive figure

Another small figure often found by the feet of N a ^ r a j a is KalT. Her

Pasupati in ancient days once danced with Kali.

4. KalT d a n c i n g n e a r N a t a r a j a ' s feel (Bhrfigin partly visible to left). BrhadTsvara

The stylistic development of the sculpture of the gopuras is clearly

5. U r d h v a t a n d a v a m u r i i . W e s t gopura a n d East gopura, Cidambaram.

m a y be d e m o n s t r a t e d by contrasting the front a n d rear v i e w s o f a

6. Naiaraja. Vedaranyani, c. 1200.

the Tevdram refer to dancing Siva as eight-armed, and may therefore be

7. § i \ a d.incina; o n A p a s n i a r a w i t h a c o b r a bcnclinp; IK h o o d h c i i c a i h (lis raised l o c i .

Manifestly with the fresh rays of his smiling face

The Cidambaram myth

while awaiting the performance in this world age of the T a n ^ v a Dance.