CHAPTER-II

CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction :

The concept of preventive maintenance, by which is usually

meant planning maintenance activities on the basis of trends in
machine condition, has been around for a long time in one form or
another. In last twenty years the preventive maintenance technique
began to crystallize out of what was variously called condition based
maintenance.
Over the many years different techniques have been used for
preventive maintenance of rotating machines. Secondary
parameters of machine such as vibration, noise, temperature, wear
debris etc, have been used by maintenance personnel to asses
machine condition on rotating equipments. In old days these
parameters were either observed and judged or measured crudely.
However, with consistent development of instrumentation and
technology, techniques of condition monitoring and maintenance
have been refined and became sophisticated.

2.2 Review of Literature:

2.2.1 Different methods of preventive maintenance:
Over the past many years wear debris analysis has been used
for on condition monitoring of machines. The analysis is concerned
with both quantitative and qualitative studies of particles generated
as a result of gradual removal of material due to interaction
between contacting surfaces. These particles are carried by
lubricants or hydraulic fluids and the concentration of wear particles
present in the sample of fluid yields information of rate wear.
Correlation between characteristics of wear particles and the mode

[6]
and severity of wear process can be used as a basis for diagnosis.
S.T.Seow and J. Mathew[2] have reviewed different methods of
wear debris analysis and their limitations. Determining the state of
a machine from wear debris analysis through different techniques
such as ferrography, spectrometry, image processing etc. is more of
an art than science because propped diagnosis relies on the
experience of skilled analysts. Moreover this technology can not be
used for machines making use of grease as lubricant.
B.T. Kuhnell and Mingfei Luo[3] have suggested the use of
'Grey system' theory for forecasting machine condition. A
mathematical model is set up and used for predicting the condition
of the machine by making use of past data. Many single number
indicator of damage (X(t)) such as bearing vibration displacement,
velocity, acceleration etc., can be used for setting up a prediction
model. Known data is used to intimate time series data. Predicting
values can be used to determine the time for corrective
maintenance action.
In recent years, modal analysis being used for detecting
failures of the machine components. The key concept of this method
consist in detecting abrupt changes in vibrating mass, stiffness,
damping factor and modal shape. Extent of changes of modal
parameters indicates indirectly the extent of the occurred facture in
the structure. Numbers of research papers have been published on
the application of this technique. M.Kujath and Jiansen Li [4]
have focused on the two approaches to detect fracture in vibrating
structure.
Dubey R.N and Chalhoud B.G [5]has developed analytical
technique and methodology which could be used in diagnosis of
imperfections in rolling bearings. In this technique it is considered
that rolling elements housed inside a uniform cylinder. As the
elements race around, they induce force on the cylindrical wall at
their point of contact. The nature and the magnitude of the forces at

[7]
each point of contact are expected to be identical provided the
contacting surfaces are all alike in smoothness and perfection. In
case of defects, type and extend of defect will determine the nature
and magnitude of the contact forces. At the point of contact Thus
forces induced at the point of contact are deterministic and periodic
as well.

Vibration monitoring and analysis is one of the important

predictive maintenance techniques currently available to rotating
machines in process industries. Because of the close relationship
between the shaft or casing vibration and the disturbing forces
acting on the machine's internal parts, vibration is sensitive
indicator of changes in machine condition. Information about a
machine condition obtained through vibration monitoring and
analysis is useful to those responsible for making decision
concerning the operation, maintenance, design and application of
machinery. Many process industries and general plants are looking
closely at this technique to improve the effectiveness of their
maintenance force and decrease their maintenance expenditures
Under the sever environment and tough operating conditions
such as in nuclear power stations the machines are damageable.
The serious damage of machine may result in the collapse of a
whole plant sub system so that life and property suffer heavy losses
and environment suffers pollution. In order to ensure the safety and
integrity of machines in such plants fault detection and maintenance
must be at regular intervals. Expert systems for detection of faults
are being used now days. Expert systems are intelligent computer
programs that use expert knowledge to attain high level of
performance in narrow problem area. Various computerized based
expert systems have been developed for different machines and sub
systems in process industries to provide a preliminary diagnosis of
potential problems and provide corrective action recommendations.

[8]
A combination of If-THEN rules and associative memory techniques
are used to represent basic knowledge of machinery vibration
analysis possessed by skilled technicians and engineers with many
years of experience. The corrective action knowledge base contains
a list of corrective actions for each possible fault and severity of the
vibration level.

2.2.2 Review of vibration monitoring and fault diagnosis

technique :
The technique of vibration monitoring to determine the health
condition of rotating machines and vibration analysis in the event of
abnormal condition to detect incipient failure is based on the fact
that whenever mechanical equipment rotates, it produces
vibrations. The strength and weakness of the vibration represents
the level of the faults, and different faults have different vibration
characteristics.
A good machinery vibration monitoring and analysis program
must have following objectives
1) To increase availability of machines and plant
2) To reduce maintenance cost
3) To increase personnel safety
4) To reduce extensive damage and
5) To increase efficiency and productivity
By making use of vibration monitoring and analysis data,
operation and maintenance department can plan the work to be
carried out for maintaining a high level of machinery availability. It
provides information about the fault being taking place in the
machine. Early detection of fault avoids catastrophic failure of the
machine which results in less damage, shorter repair time and
improvement in personnel safety.

[9]
Chhaya H. M. [6], in his technical paper has given the concept of
using vibration monitoring and analysis for preventive
maintenance. The concept is based on three simple facts-

1) First!y , it is normal for machines to vibrate. Even, machines in

excellent condition will have some measurable vibration because of
small minor defects. Therefore, each machine will have a level of
vibration which can be regarded as normal and acceptable.
2) Secondly, when machinery vibration increases or become
excessive, mechanical trouble is usually the reason. Thus,
monitoring of machine's vibration level will provide a warning about
trouble whenever increases are detected.
3) Finally, each mechanical defect such as unbalance, misalignment,
worn gears , looseness, etc. generates vibrations in its own way.
Therefore analysis of the vibration makes it possible to identify
machine faults.
The most thorough guide lines on the vibration measurement,
analysis and diagnosis methods of common rotating machines were
presented in series of application reports (Technical reports) by IRD
Mechanalysis, Inc Columbus-Ohio(7).
The first step in developing a preventive maintenance
program is to identify the machines which should be monitored and
decide their priority. The different machines in a plant may or may
not required the same amount of attention. Some machines are
considered as critical to production. These machines require more
attention than a machine, which is of little consequences to
production or is easily replaced. David E.Stouppe and others[8]
classifies machines in three categories
1)Un-spared critical machines-Very critical machines
2)Spared critical machines-Semi critical machines
3)Non-critical machines -Least critical machines

[10]
 Un-spared critical machines are those which are not spared
and whose outage would result in total or partial loss of production
for extended period of time. Example of these include steam turbine
generator, kiln in cement plant etc. Spared critical machines refer to
machines which are spare but whose outage would result in a
complete or partial loss of production for some period of time. FD
fans, centrifuges in sugar industries may fall in to this category.
Non-critical machines are defined as those machines whose outage
would not immediately affect production and which could be
replaced before production loss would occur.
Second step of the program is to list of the machines to be
monitored. Information about each machine is compiled. This
information includes operation speeds of machine, power rating, the
number of blades, number of teeth on gears, number of balls or
rollers in the bearings, type of foundation etc. Information given on
name plates of machine and its prime mover is used for this
purpose. This information is used to identify possible source of
vibration. On the vibration monitoring data sheet the information
related to a specific machine is noted. Table 2,1 represents one of
such data sheets. This data sheet is prepared by Researcher and
Prof M.G. Bhat,

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 VIBRATION MONITORING DATA SHEET

FACTORY: SECTION: M/C:

MACHINE SPEED Layout of machine

MOTOR SPEED:
HP/KW:
CURRENT:
OTHER DETAILS:

VIBRATION LEVEL

DATE/
LOAD/
SPEED
------- ►

PICK UP 1 DIS. VEL DIS VEL DIS VEL DIS VEL DIS VEL DIS VEL
POSITION | Microns mm/s Microns mm/s Microns mm/s microns mm/s microns mm/s micro mm/s

1 V

2 V

3 V

4 V

DIS. = Vibration Displaceme VEL. = Vibration Ve ocity

Table no. 2.1

The third step in the preventive maintenance program
involves establishment of measurement points on the machines and
selecting the vibration severity criterion for these machines.
Measurement points are normally located as close to a machine
bearing as possible. Bearing housings are the best locations for
vibration measurement. The reason of measuring the vibrations on
the bearings is that basic dynamic loads and forces created by
mechanical faults are applied at the bearings. Further they are also
critical components of the machines.[9]. Many a time's comparison

[12]
of the vibration readings in three directions -horizontal, vertical and
axial gives essential information for pinpointing specific mechanical
problem. Therefore each measuring point is clearly marked on the
bearing housing. It is also numbered and given orientation such as
horizontal, vertical or axial. If only one measurement orientation is
possible at a specific position, the plane of highest amplitude is
selected.*
Different agencies and scientists, based on their experience
and test results, have established different norms and vibration
severity criterion for bearing vibrations of different machines. They
have been established to decide satisfactory or unsatisfactory
vibration levels of rotating machines. Some well known of these are
Vibration criterion devised by Yate [10], VDI 2056 [11], ISO
2372 revised as ISO10816-3 [12]and IRD Mechanalysis
criterion [13].
Assessment of machine by Yate's criterion was based on the
correlation between subjective tests and vibration level
measurements on the machine bearing housing using relatively
crude instruments. VDI 2056 vibration severity criteria classify the
rotating machines based on the rated power and type of fixation of
machine to the foundation. Main limitation in working with VDI 2056
is that insufficient account is taken of the dynamic response of
different machines. Further this criteria recommends higher limits
for larger machines. But in actual practice the large machines are
generally supported with stiff bearings or massive casing at support.
Such bearing housing attenuates the dynamic forces generated by
imbalance, misalignment, damage bearing etc[14]. ISO :2372 is
used to evaluate the in situ performance of rotating machines very
parallel to VDI criteria. Revised ISO: 10816-3 also classifies the
machines in to groups based on their rated power, type of support
and height of shaft and specifies evaluation zones to allow a

[13]
qualitative assessment of vibration value. Table no. 2.1 represents
ISO:2372 criteria.
VIBRATION SEVERITY RANGES IN ACCORDANCE WITH ISO : 2372

R.M.S. Vibration velocity Class I Class II Class III Class IV

mm/s
0.28
0.45 A
0.71 A
1.12 A
1.8 B A
2.8 B
4.5 C B
7.1 C B
11.2 C
18 D C
28 D
45 D D

A = Good C = Steel Acceptable

B = Usable D = Unacceptable
Table No.2.1
Class I : Individual parts of engines and machines integrally
connected to the complete machine in its normal operating
condition (production electrical motors of up to 15 KW are typical
examples of machines in this category)
Class II : Medium size machines (Typically electrical motors with
15 KW to 75 KW output) without special foundations, rigidly
mounted engines or machines (up to 300 KW ) on special
foundations.
Class III : Large prime - movers and other large machines with
rotating masses mounted on rigid and heavy foundations which are
relatively stiff in the direction of vibration measurements.

[14]
Class IV : Large prime - movers and other large machines with
rotating masses mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in
the direction of the measurement. Another vibration criteria for
assessing the condition of machines is devised by IRD Mechanalysis
Inc Ohio and by Nicholls. Fig. No. 2.1 represents IRD criteria.

Fig. No. 2.1

[15]
 It is a general machinery vibration chart based up on the
information and historic records of vibration readings taken on
many machines .The horizontal scale of this chart is graduated in
cycles per minute (cpm) and vertical scale in vibration displacement
as well as vibration velocity.
It is remarkable fact that it is not possible to establish
absolute vibration tolerance for rotating machinery. In other words,
it is not possible to establish a vibration limit, which, if exceeded,
will result in immediate machinery failure. Experience can best
determine what the true vibration limits for a specific machine
should be. As a general rule, if the vibration increases to twice the
normal vibration; or if the vibration is in excess of the machinery
manufacturer's recommended limits, action should be taken to
identify and correct the cause [15 ]
Fourth step in preventive maintenance program is to select
proper time interval for periodic vibration measurement and
scheduling preventive maintenance. It is challenging procedure in a
process plant. Various philosophies have prevailed such as using
experience, past practice, mechanic's judgment, manufacturer's
recommendations etc. Narayanan S.N and Radhakrishnan [16]
have given following general guide lines

1) For all those un-spared critical machinery, it is preferable to have

permanently installed vibration monitors and the vibration levels
shall be continuously watched. This will facilitate to take appropriate
action in case of emergency and to shut down machine safely.
2) For all those spared critical and non critical machines ,it is not
necessary to monitor them continuously and measurements can be
made with portable vibration measuring instruments.

[16]
The frequency of vibration measurement is to be decided
depending up on criticality and past experience. Following schedule
can be followed

Un spared critical machinery — Continues or Weekly measurement

Spared critical machinery ........Fortnightly measurement
Non-critical machinery --------Monthly measurement
The above schedule is not a rigid one and review of schedule can be
made as per the situation.

2.2.3 Overall Vibration Monitoring:

Overall vibration monitoring is carried out by measuring
various characteristics of vibration by using various types of
instrumentation. It can be carried out either by using hand held
portable vibration measuring instrument with velocity or
acceleration pickups or by using permanently installed non contact
transducers like eddy current or proximity probes. Vibration of
bearing housing in either displacement or velocity or acceleration is
measured or relative vibration between shaft and bearing housing is
measured.. Fig. No. 2.2 shows directions and locations for the
vibration measurement on the bearings. Fig. No. 2.3 shows method
for phase measurement. Which of these methods of vibration
measurement to be used or what characteristics of vibration to be
monitored for any machine depends on various factors such as
machine type, design, operating condition, severity, foundation
stiffness etc.

[17]
 Fig. No. 2.2 Locations and Direction of vibration measurement

Fig. No. 2.3 Arrangement for phase measurement

Generally at low frequency vibration displacement and at high

frequency vibration velocity or acceleration are best suited
parameters for measurements. Some times machine it self will
determine what to measure and where to measure. When heavy
rotating mass supported on relatively light structure in stiff
bearings, the entire force generated by the rotor is dissipated as
structural motion due to high mechanical transmissibility. In this
case the displacement or velocity is measured with a contact type
velocity transducer on bearing. In other configuration where light

[18]
rotor mass supported on a stiff structure, entire force generated by
the rotor dissipated as relative motion between the rotor and casing
due to high mechanical impedance .In this case it is preferable to
monitor the relative shaft vibrations with non contact type
displacement transducer.
Some times the type of measurement and the transducer
itself may put limitations on the type of characteristics of vibration
to be measured. For example if natural frequency of a concrete
structure which may be as low as 1 Hz, to be determine by vibration
measurement, perhaps displacement may be the best suitable
parameter. [17]
Basically displacement tends to emphasis the low vibration
frequencies such those caused by unbalance, misalignment, belt
defect etc. Velocity gives equal emphasis to ail vibration
frequencies. Secondly vibration velocity gives best indication of
machine health. This is in accordance with the feeling that the
damage potential of vibration is proportional to dynamic energy
being dissipated which in turns is a function of velocity. Hence in
majority of cases , where it is desirable to monitor the vibrations to
detect any or all mechanical problems, velocity measurements are
generally preferred .Vibration acceleration gives emphasis for high
frequencies of vibration such as resulted from gear problems or
defective rolling element bearings.
In standard and good engineering practice, average peak-to-
peak values or average rms values of motion amplitude are used, as
it is virtually the only accepted criterion for evaluating machinery
health condition. In fact, current international and national
standards are still based on average peak-to-peak or average rms
values of vibration measurement. However, the details of machine's
instantaneous motion and short term behavior are lost when
vibration measurement are averaged with respect only to passage
of time.

[19]
 Instrument system for periodic vibration monitoring consists
of a transducer or pickup, signal conversion instrument and display
unit, Transducer is the device that transforms motion signal in to
electrical signal. Since output signal of a transducer is too small to
be recorded directly, a signal conversion instrument is used to
amplify the signal to the required value. The output from the signal
conversion instrument can be presented on a display unit for visual
inspection or recorded by recorder unit. In general signal conversion
instrument, display unit and recorder are assembled in a single box
to form the vibration meter. The simplest system utilizes a
straightforward pocket sized vibration meter, which measures
vibration level over a specific wide frequency range. Measurements
carried out with such system are compared with general standards
or established reference values for each machine. Machine condition
is thus evaluated in the field from a minimum data. If the
measurement locations are inaccessible and are in a remote or
hazardous area, the manual monitoring is not suitable. For such
cases, permanently mounted transducers can be fixed to the
inaccessible bearings and be hard wired to a convenient central
monitoring place.
Commercially available hand held vibration monitoring
instruments are capable to measure either one or all three
characteristics of vibration, viz. displacement, velocity and
acceleration. These instruments make use of seismic transducers
either velocity pickup or accelerometers. Velocity transducers
operate in frequency range above its natural frequency.
Accelerometers are lightweight covering low and high frequency
range and high temperature. They are sensitive to methods of
installation. Velocity transducers are robust in construction and
have strong signals in midway frequency range. They are best
suited because by single integration of signal they provide dynamic
displacement.

[20]
2.2.4 Frequency Analysis and Fault Diagnosis:
The main avenue of approach when employing condition
based maintenance through vibration monitoring of machine
involves the monitoring of the visual inspection of frequency
spectrum. Because, it is the frequency which will categorize what
component within the machine is causing the vibratory response.
The frequency peaks, usually occurring as multiple of the rotational
speed of the particular m/c, are used to determine what specific
anomaly is causing the machine to vibrate outside standard levels.
According to Singiresu S. Rao[18], the vibration response of a
machine is governed not only by its components but also by its
assembly, mounting and installation. Thus vibration characteristics
of any machine are some what unique to the particular machine;
hence vibration spectrum can be considered as vibration signature
of that machine. As long as the excitation force is constant or varies
by small amount, the measured vibration level of the machine also
remains constant or varies by small amount. However, as the
machine starts developing faults, its vibration level and hence shape
of the frequency spectrum changes.
Thus for the fault diagnosis purpose frequency analysis along
with phase analysis is most useful and common technique.
Frequency spectrum represents plot of the amplitude of vibration
versus the frequency. The comparison of frequency spectrum of
machine in damaged condition with that of in good condition can
help to detect nature and location of fault. Another important
characteristic of frequency spectrum is that the different parts of
machine vibrate at one or more identifiable discrete frequencies;
different malfunctions cause vibrations at different discrete
frequencies as shown in fig.no.2.4

[21]
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Fig. No. 2.4 - Schematic Representation of the Vibration Signature

Thus the change in spectrum at given frequency can attributed

directly to the corresponding machine component and its
defectiveness. The table no. 2.2[7and 9] lists the most commonly
encountered sources of vibration together with the amplitude,
frequency and stroboscopic characteristics for each cause. The'
remark' column in the table provides helpful information about any
unusual characteristic needed to pinpoint the trouble.

[22]
 VIBRATION IDENTIFICATION CHART

CAUSE AMPLITUDE FREQUENCY PHASE REMARKS

Unbalance Proportional to unbalance. IxRPM Single reference Most common cause of
Largest in radial direction mark vibration
Misalignment in Largest in axial direction, lx RPM usual 2 Single double or Best found by
coupling or bearing 50% or more of radial and 3x RPM sometime triple reference appearance of large axial
and bent shaft vibration mark vibration Use dial
indicator to check
alignment
Bad bearings anti Unsteady . Use velocity Very high , several Erratic Bearing responsible
friction type measurement if possible times RPM most likely the one
nearest point of largest
high frequency vibration
Eccentric journal Usually not large IxRPM Single mark
Bad gears or gear Low.- Use velocity Very high , gear teeth Erratic
noise measurement if possible times RPM
Mechanical Usually high 2xRPM Two reference Usually accompanied by
looseness marks. Slightly unbalance and or
erratic misalignment
Bad drive belt Erratic or pulsating 1,2,3 & 4x RPM of One or two Strobe light best tool to
belt depending on freeze faulty belt
frequency. Usually
unsteady.
Electrical Disappears when power is IxRPM or 1 or 2x Single or rotating If vibration drops off
turned off synchronous double mark instantly when power is
frequency turned off .cause is
electrical

Aerodynamic IxRPM or number of Rare as a cause of

hydraulic forces blades on fan or trouble except in case of
impeller x RPM resonance
Reciprocating forces 1,2 & hitter orders x Inherent in reciprocating
RPM machines can only be
reduced by design
changes.

Table no. 2.2

The Portable vibration analyzer with stroboscope or FFT

analyzer is used for obtaining frequency spectrum. The analyzer
typically includes provisions for measuring the amplitude, frequency
and phase characteristics of vibration. Since most machinery have
complex vibrations consisting of many frequencies, the vibration
analyzer includes a tunable filter, similar to the tuner in a radio,

[23]
which makes it possible to look at one frequency of vibration while
rejecting others. With the aid of the tunable filter, each significant
vibration frequency and its corresponding amplitude can be
measured. A high intensity stroboscopic light, triggered by the
vibration signal, is normally included with the analyzer and is used
to obtain phase measurement for analysis and in-place dynamic
balancing. Where there is need to obtain frequency analysis data
very quickly a quick -check analyzer or single cannel FFT analyzer
can be used. These analyzers are generally in the form of portable,
battery-operated unit with built in- printer. Usually, single channel
measurements have been used for both detecting and diagnosing
faults. The vibration is measured in 2 or 3 direction at each location
on the machine. A tachometer signal is used to measure machine
speed, trigger the vibration analysis or provide a phase reference.
Now, with the introduction of truly portable multi-channel spectrum
analyzers, it is possible to measure multiple signals simultaneously.
This capability helps to speed up data collection by allowing
measurement of vibration in multiple directions at the same time. It
also permits simultaneous measurement at different locations, for
estimating phase and amplitude relationship between points.
2.3 Critical analysis:
Amongst different techniques described above, vibration
monitoring and diagnostic technique is more practicable and cost
effective which adds to its attractiveness as a condition monitoring
technique. Measurement of overall vibration levels of rotating
machines is common way to evaluate machine health state. Overall
vibration monitoring serves many other purposes such as (1) To
evaluate effectiveness of maintenance intervention,(2) To
determine machine performance and (3) To detect abnormal
running condition . Therefore its use would not be limited only to
the needs of maintenance department, but also to all plant
personnel, production engineers and others, involved in many

[24]
aspects of decision making concerning the use of the machinery.
The frequency analysis in the event of abnormal condition helps
to diagnose almost all mechanical faults. Analysis of the frequency
spectrum has been emphasized as a means of detecting and
diagnosing machine deterioration. This is due to the availability of
high speed data processing packages and large amount of intuitive
information that is available from this type of presentation.
The application of this technique is straight forward of all the
methods of condition monitoring and fault diagnosis because other
methods have their own limitations such as wear debris analysis
could only be used for machines which make use liquid lubricants;
modal analysis technique to detect the faults is still far away from
being easily applicable and expert systems require sophisticated
computerized knowledge base system.
2.4 Closing Remarks:
One of the advantages of vibration monitoring and diagnosis
is the ability to detect and diagnose a broad range of faults in a
wide array of machine elements. The technique has consistently
produced good results because of the repetitive nature of vibration
signals generated by a particular type of fault.
The technology was originally one of comparing overall
vibration level with acceptable level of a machine, but this has been
considerably refined in recent years. Now, with the use of
sophisticated instrumentation like FFT analyzers, mechanical faults
can be diagnosed before they would outwardly become apparent.
Monitoring of overall vibration levels is commonly used to detect the
onset of condition deterioration while visual inspection of the
frequency spectrum has been emphasized as a mean of detecting
and diagnosing machinery faults
Periodic or continuous vibration monitoring adds considerable
depth to the preventive maintenance because a regular or
continuous watch is kept, not just on the general condition of a

[25]
machine , but for the emergence of particular fault as indicated by
change in spectrum characteristic. Thus emerging faults can be
detected before they would otherwise affect the overall vibration
levels, giving early warning of the fault. This is the predictive
capability of the technique.
The technique of vibration monitoring and diagnostic analysis
has considerable payback potential for process industries. Firstly it
reduces the maintenance cost on running equipments and secondly
eliminates possibility of running equipment failure which might
cause a loss or reduction of plant output and threaten the safety of
human life and plant equipments.
2.5 Need of the Industry:
To summarize on the importance of vibration monitoring and
diagnostic analysis, it can be stated that , the reliability and
availability of running equipments vital to production can be
increased to higher level by applying the this technique to process
industries. Experiences have revealed that there has been
immediate and obvious improvement in engineering standard of
industries where vibration monitoring and diagnostic technique was
used for preventive maintenance. Indian sugar industry being
second largest sugar producer in the world, playing vital role in the
Indian economy. For the success of this industry in today's
competitive technological environment vibration monitoring and
diagnosis system have become increasingly important.

[26]