Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927

www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc

Structural design of modern steam

turbine blades using ADINAe
Christoph-Hermann Richter *

Siemens AG, Power Generation, Department S322, Blading Design, Basic Engineering, Muelheim an der Ruhr 45466, Germany

Abstract
The present paper provides an overview of the structural design of modern steam turbine blades at Siemens power
generation using the finite element code ADINAe. The different types of blades are described in detail regarding their
geometry and loading. The modular building block approach of modelling is shown to be of essential importance. For
the different analyses a fatigue post-processor has been implemented as well as an optimization tool. Both of these in-
house codes will be briefly presented.

2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2. Types of blades

Blading design incorporates the disciplines thermo-/
aerodynamics and structural mechanics. While the first
ones strive for a design with maximum efficiency the
latter one is a restricting factor. And indeed, in an op-
timization process the thermo-/aerodynamics define the
objective function whilst the mechanics provide the
constraints. Designing a blade is an iterative process
with several levels of iterations. First, thermodynamical
boundary conditions are calculated on the basis of black
box models representing turbine sections, stage groups,
valves, pipes, etc. The second iteration level considers a
stage group with its geometrical data and takes into
account aerodynamic variables, as e.g. inlet and exit
flow angles, as well as structure mechanical variables, as
e.g. stresses and natural frequencies. On further levels
individual optimizations, as e.g. for blade fixations, are
carried out. ‘‘Individual’’ denotes they involve either just
mechanical or just aerodynamical variables. Since the
process is iterative and inter-disciplinary automated
simulation tools are appropriate. This philosophy is
strictly followed at Siemens power generation (PG).
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-208-456-2516; fax: +49-
208-456-2412.
E-mail address: christoph.richter@siemens.com (C.-H.
Richter).
Following the steam path through a turbine the
environment for the energy converging blades varies
strongly and, as a consequence, so do the mechanical
requirements. These requirements have a strong influ-
ence on the choice of material and the design with respect
to temperature, wetness and cleanliness of medium,
acting forces and other factors as i.e. hardenability and
oxidation. Therefore, different blade families exist which
can be categorized according to their use in the primary
three turbine modules as high, intermediate and low
pressure blades (HP, IP and LP).
The first two turbine modules, HP and IP, are char-
acterized by high temperatures and they contain compa-
rably small blades that have to sustain small centrifugal
forces but large steam-induced bending forces due to
relatively high static pressure differences and impulse
changes at the stage. They are equipped mostly with
statically determinate T-roots assembled in tangential
grooves around the rotor. The blades are tightly bound
to each other by integral roots and shrouds that ensure
high stiffness of the blade row and also introduce fric-
tional damping to the structure. Of course, the integral
shrouds also serve to seal the blade and hence reduce
the aerodynamic leakage losses. Fig. 1 (left) shows
an example of a rhombic and integrally shrouded HP
blade taken from the recent Siemens 3DSe blading
family. The 3DSe blade is characterized by a fully

0045-7949/03/$ - see front matter
2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0045-7949(02)00426-1
920 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927
three-dimensional airfoil shape aimed at reducing the
secondary flow losses that are dominant in the front
stages of HP and IP turbine components.
In contrast to these Ôhot-endÕ HP and IP blades the
LP blades operate in a lower temperature environment
down to about 30 C. Due to their size they have to
carry high centrifugal forces. For the last-stage blades
centrifugal forces are so high that bending by steam
forces is nearly negligible in comparison. The largest
rotating blades are equipped with fir-tree roots assem-
bled in axial grooves. These roots have three or more lug
pairs transmitting the forces portion-wise into the cor-
responding rotor lugs. They require high precision
manufacturing since they are not statically determinate.
Initial (and inevitable) gaps between certain rotor and
root lugs must be closed while increasing rotor speed.
These blades are built either free-standing or integrally
shrouded. Mechanically very flexible blades require ad-
ditional support by a mid-span locking device. This is
particularly true for titanium blades since they are the
Fig. 1. Images of a rhomboidic HP blade from the 3DS TM
series with a total length of 100 mm (left) and an LP blade
with integral shroud and snubber made of titanium with a total
length of 1200 mm (right).
largest and the YoungÕs modulus is round about half
that of steel. Fig. 1 (right) shows an example for an in-
tegrally shrouded LP blade with mid-span snubber. This
is the 4200 titanium blade operating at a rotational speed
of 60 Hz.
Also in the down stream stages––approximately the
last three, depending on the expansion of the steam––
erosion by water droplets becomes of interest since the
saturated steam can carry condensed water. This acts as
shot mostly on the outer third of the running bladeÕs
suction side inlet edges. In the LP section, where the
blades get very large, hollow welded designs are used for
stationary last stage guide vanes. Being hollow, they can
be used to reduce water droplet erosion on the last stage
moving blades by sucking off droplets, running along the
chord, to the condenser. Alternatively they can be
equipped with internal heating driven with extraction
steam vaporizing the droplets. These measures are es-
pecially of interest if the last stage moving blade cannot
be made of hardenable material. If hardening is possible,
blade leading edges are typically flame- or laser-hard-
ened in the tip region.
3. Geometric modelling
For an automated calculation in the frame of the
iterative design scheme, parameter based modelling
tools have been developed. They have an easy to use, yet
still file-based user interface. A driver routine, imple-
mented as a shell-script, cares for data flow and opera-
tion steps as i.e. IN-file generation, call of ADINA and
result preparation. The post-processing with ADINA-
PLOT is also automated but not embedded in this script
since the user has to set some placeholders with view to
the results themselves.
An analysis of blade topology yields the following
building blocks:
• airfoil,
• different types of root shapes, root plus rotor steeple
(T or fir-tree root),
• different types of shrouds (optional: rhombic, Z- or
V-shaped),
• different types of snubbers (optional: free-form,
conic, strut),
• wheel disc, shaft (optional).
These constituents are part of a modular concept in
which they are modelled with finite elements based on
parameter files. In order to get efficient meshes, that
display a reasonable compromise between speed and
precision, hexaeder elements are employed. The stress
gradients are highly different in different directions by
nature of the underlying problem. Therefore, mesh
density is desired to be respectively different in the spa-
 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927
tial directions. Nowadays, this can only be achieved with
mapped meshing techniques, utilizing the robustness of
hexaeder elements with respect to aspect ratio. This al-
lows to have minimum number of elements. However,
for some building blocks, not requiring this kind of
mesh gradation, a geometry import from CAD together
with free-form meshing is used, all in automated batch
mode [3,8].
The drawback of such mapped mesh building blocks
is that models have incongruent mesh faces since the
complicated and topologically inconstant blades cannot
be subdivided into (topological) hexaeders in the frame
of a generally valid automated process. Therefore, a
sophisticated coupling technique is used in which con-
straint equations are imposed on nodal displacements of
surfaces to be coupled. This technique not simply cou-
ples nearest nodes to each other but evaluates the shape
function of the master element face so that nodal dis-
placements of the slave node equal precisely the dis-
placements on the master face for the slave nodeÕs
position. By this treatment incompatibilities and artifi-
cial stiffness and inertia distortions are minimized.
Elaborate patch tests comparing compatible and cou-
pled meshes showed that secondary field variables are
within a tolerance of less than 5% if a distance of two
element layers from the constrained nodes is kept (20
node elements presumed). The coupling constraint
Fig. 2. ADINA model of a free-standing LP blade.
921
equations are generated by a program called ÔgluemeshÕ.
This accesses the finite element model of the input
structures via the ADINA dat file. Being restricted to 3D
solid element groups, within these it is quite general.
That is, it supports all types of elements and the element
face curvature is treated correctly. Important to note is
that highly stressed portions in the blade models are
apart from the chosen coupling faces. Therefore, the
drawback is only a small one. In the rare case that re-
sults are necessary in the coupling zones calculations are
done using tetraeder or hexaeder free-form meshes on
CAD models.
Fig. 2 shows an ADINA model of a free-standing LP
blade with incompatible coupling between airfoil and
root. A new modelling tool for fir-tree roots/steeples will
be available soon, allowing to change discretization and
automatically adapt the post-processing zones. This
program is designed to be generic with view to fir-tree
shape. So, it can have a variable number of lugs and can
easily be expanded to support new topologies.
4. Analyses of typical steam turbine blades
Due to the different character of the blades as out-
rlined above, different analyses are required for HP/IP
922 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927
blades and LP blades, respectively. Here, a general
overview is given for rotating and stationary blades [2].
4.1. Analyses of HP/IP blades
The HP/IP blades in a hot environment must be
analyzed concerning creep. So, first temperatures have
to be determined on the basis of steam temperatures and
convective heat transfer. The obtained temperatures are
input to a structural analysis of creep. This is done using
the Norton–Bailey creep law of ADINA. To judge creep
damage the equivalent creep strain is weighted using the
Cocks–Ashby factor to get the representative strain in
the frame of post-processing [4,6]. This is compared to
the allowable value including a safety.
For larger blades from the IP turbine fatigue may
also be of interest. However, then creep rates are usually
lower. The interaction of creep and fatigue is judged by
adding damage contributions of both according to the
rule of Miner–Palmgren [12].
The dynamics of HP/IP blades considers nozzle ex-
citation since these high frequencies are in the range of
natural frequencies of blade assemblies. Excitation by
remaining rotor imbalances is not of interest. The exci-
tation harmonics vary from approx. 60th at the inlet to
90th at the outlet for the HP turbine and approx. 80th to
130th for the IP turbine. From turbine inlet to outlet,
natural frequencies of the blades usually vary such that
they intersect the excitation frequencies somewhere in
the middle of the turbine. At this location either the
number of blades of preceding and following rows must
be chosen such that no resonances can occur or the
bladeÕs natural frequency must be modified by measures
of design.
4.2. Analyses of large LP blades
Operating in an environment below recrystallisation
temperature creep is no concern for the large LP blades,
however, plastic flow may occur during the over-speed
run in the test pit. Therefore, plastic material behavior is
modelled to grasp the load redistribution between the
root lugs and consequently in the notches. Although no
plastic shake-down is observed, strain ranges that enter
the LCF evaluation, are influenced by this re-distribu-
tion. Furthermore, the mean stresses being an input to
the HCF evaluation are influenced. Beside stressing of
the material some kinematic variables are derived from
this static model. For example, the untwist of the blade
under the action of centrifugal forces is determined. The
manufactured airfoil must deflect such that it becomes
the aerodynamically required airfoil at running speed.
The iterative process of defining the airfoil in its di-
mensions to be manufactured starting with its running
condition is called Ôun-runningÕ. Another kinematics
related variable is the so-called Ôclosing speedÕ. This is
the speed at which interlocking devices, having an initial
gap between their contact lands, come into contact and
start locking up. Furthermore, deflections at the blade
tip are calculated since they are input to clearance con-
siderations. For these calculations, the pressure and
temperature fields for the structural analysis can be
taken from a fluid flow calculation with structured or
unstructured computational grids.
In general, large slender LP blades are susceptible to
excitation and so they require special consideration of
their dynamics. Some typical sources of excitation are
the remaining imbalances of the rotor, steam pressure
variation due to leading and trailing edge wakes and
extraction steam creating streaks.
It is not possible to operate large rotating LP steam
turbine blades (last three stages) resonant in the lowest
modes. A certain number of the lowest modes need to be
tuned within operation speed range of rated speed
þ3%=  5%. These are typically modes up to the eighth
speed-harmonic. Higher harmonics do not yield excita-
tion that cannot be sustained in resonances. Similar is
true for the holding speed ranges that are required for
heating up the turbine. The challenge about tuning these
LP blades is that the excitation harmonics are dense.
Every single harmonic has sufficient energy to excite a
mode with respective natural frequency, at least up to
the eighth harmonic. This is opposite to HP/IP blades
where nozzle excitation dominates. For the LP blades
this means every low speed harmonic needs to be con-
sidered. In consequence the possible band for a fre-
quency is fairly narrow, requiring precise prediction and
precise manufacturing.
If free-standing blades are assembled on a (flexible)
wheel disc or if the blades are coupled by shrouds and/or
snubbers to each other the dynamics of the entire stage
needs to be considered. Even inter-stage coupling is po-
tentially possible if the stages are mounted on a single
disc. Therefore prediction of natural frequencies for in-
dividual and coupled blade vibration is required. For the
purpose of tuning evaluation, a program has been de-
veloped. It prepares ADINA analyses for geometrically
non-linear static calculation and frequency restart cal-
culations for different rotor speeds. After running ADI-
NA it evaluates the results and creates a Campbell
diagram showing the variation of frequencies vs. rotor
speed, the speed harmonics of excitation plus forbidden
frequency ranges in the operation speed domain. Fig. 3
shows an example of a Campbell diagram. The frequency
lines are equipped with a scatter band whose width is
defined on a statistical basis of already manufactured
blades. Based on this, synchronous resonance ranges can
be identified easily. This is also done by the program to
find potential holding speeds free of resonance.
The calculation of coupled modes of entire stages
requires special treatment. The ideal system is cyclic
periodic. This property can be utilized to reduce the
 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927 923

Fig. 3. Campbell diagram showing natural frequencies with their scatter band and rotor speed harmonics. The lock on the third
harmonic in the rotor speed range is just a forged visualization.

numerical effort to determine the eigenpairs. Then
complex arithmetics is required which is realized by
creating the model two times, one representing the real
part, the other one representing the imaginary part of
the complex response. Cyclic coupling conditions es-
tablished in ADINA with constraint equations need to
be imposed on the segmentÕs boundaries. These are real
for the static part of the analysis defining that all blades
behave the same in a cylindrical coordinate system. A
variety of complex (and real) coupling conditions must
be imposed in the ADINA restart analysis for the ex-
traction of the eigenpairs. These reflect the phase dif-
ference at the coupling faces of the segment. Indeed, the
whole segments behave with phase difference from seg-
ment to segment [7,9]. This relation is used to calculate
the deflections in the mode shapes in all other segments
than the one modelled with finite elements. This com-
plex-valued approach works with only one segment but
requires a sequence of analyses. All in all it is more ef-
ficient compared to a full model with the same discreti-
zation for each segment.
The above mentioned steps including special prepa-
ration for post-processing have been implemented in a
program which does not require the coupling boundary
meshes to be congruent. The aforementioned program
gluemesh is used to calculate ÔglueingÕ factors that are
taken over into the cyclic coupling equations. Vital for
the whole procedure is ADINAs capability to change the
definition of constraint equations from a non-linear
static run to restart runs. Results are written to a dummy
924 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927
model which has completely prescribed deflection, nam-
ely the mode shapes. A dummy calculation makes the
results accessible for post-processing with ADINA-
PLOT. ADINA, being widely used for turbomachinery
applications, will get an expanded algorithm with one of
its near future releases for this cyclic periodic solving
technique. This makes it much more convenient to cal-
culate such structures.
However, in the case of structures deviating rele-
vantly from perfect cyclic periodicity, may it be due to
natural imperfections or due to intended disturbation,
a whole model is required. In this case, a tool is used
that creates a model of the entire structure but without
the root and steeple details, instead just full material is
modelled. Hence, stresses in the notches cannot be
calculated, but for an estimation a relation to the single
but detailed model via tip deflection can be created.
This model allows to study mis- and mixed-tuned
stages. Due to the coarse discretization a calibration of
the model based on an individual blade with fine dis-
cretization is required. This calibration varies the
length of the airfoil down into the fixation with the
rotor (gluemesh). This is physically reasonable, since
the first bearing land, defining the actual vibratory
length of the airfoil, is below the rotors outer face. Fig.
4 depicts such a model showing a two nodal diameter
mode.
Fig. 4. Stage model showing a two nodal diameter mode. The
shading represents the modal displacement vector in scalar
product with the surface normal. On the nodal diameters zero
deflection can be verified.
In order to decide what modes need not to be tuned
with respect to harmonic steam excitation, a stimulus
analysis is performed. Its fundamental basis is the
quantification of excitation by steam. The dynamic
steam force is anticipated to be a fraction––the stimu-
lus––of the static steam pressure field, super-imposed to
the static field. The stimulus is indirectly determined
from experience and measurement. In addition, infor-
mation on the modal damping of the blade in operation
is required. Based on this empiric approach the dynamic
stresses in resonance are calculated for each mode. If
they are below fatigue limit including a safety factor the
mode needs not to be tuned.
Disturbances coming from the electrical network are
simulated with transient analyses. These disturbances
can be short-circuits. A first level analysis yields the
torsion angles along the rotor as a function of time.
These are calculated on the basis of an entire rotor
model reduced in its details. In the next level the angle
history is input to a detailed ADINA blade model. A
ground-motion excitation is used to calculate the time
history of stresses. These enter a rain-flow tool to count
and evaluate cycles. This tool yields the number of times
the event can be sustained.
In order to ensure an operation free of unwanted
dynamic fluid–structure interaction, a flutter analysis
can be performed. This is based on a criterion that
considers natural frequencies, geometric data and fluid
flow data. Flutter is predicted not to occur if this crite-
rion is below a certain number. This number is derived
from field test data.
4.3. Stationary blades
The stationary HP/IP blades are very similar to the
rotating blades except that they do not experience cen-
trifugal load. Usually they are not mechanically critical.
This, again, is different for the large LP stationary
blades, at least for the large last stage blades. They are
hollow welded structures. If used with heating they
operate under internal pressure. To withstand this in-
ternal pressure they are equipped with welded bolts in-
side. An ADINA model of these blades is used to
calculate deflections and stresses. The welds are evalu-
ated based on a German strength code issued by the
FKM [5].
5. Fatigue post-processor ANGELICA
For fatigue evaluations FEA results from different
calculations enter a strength criterion. In particular the
criterion depends on static and dynamic values at certain
instances of (quasi)time. As an example, the judgement
 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927
of a resonance-close vibration is performed by combin-
ing the static mean stresses and (scaled) modal stresses.
For the LCF calculation purely static results at different
instances of time are combined to yield the strain width
which enters the W€ ohler-curve representation to yield
the number of cycles. Calculation of sustainable number
of cycles is often non-linear and iterative. For the above
detailed reasons a post-processor capable of requesting
the necessary results via ADINA-PLOT and performing
calculations as well as preparation of models for pre-
sentation of the relevant results has been developed.
This program called ANGELICA is an environment for
the implementation of complicated post-processing ac-
tions. So far, an LCF criterion based on an equivalent
strain width and three HCF criteria are implemented.
Two of the latter ones are very similar, in particular PSWT
and PB according to Smith, Watson, Topper and Berg-
mann, respectively [12]. The latter of these two criteria
can be used if material data is available allowing to
characterize the mean stress sensitivity. The third HCF
criterion, also considering a mean stress sensitivity, is
according to Sines [10]. Fig. 5 shows an example for the
number of sustainable load cycles in the LCF regime for
the root notches.
ANGELICA is used with a simple command lan-
guage to control its operation. An input deck contains
the name of the model file (dat file) and result files (port
files). Furthermore, the criterion to be applied must be
named. Additional data such as instances in time be-
tween which evaluations shall be carried out are also
given amongst others.
For the implementation of a new criterion an AN-
GELICA user-subroutine for the data acquisition via
ADINA-PLOT has to be written. This routine creates
Fig. 5. Number of sustainable load cycles in the LCF regime for the radially outer root notches of pressure and suction side of a fir-tree
root. The notches are viewed in direction tangential to the rotor and they are stretched vertically for visibility. The shading code
represents the logarithm of number of sustainable cycles.
925
(or copies if possible) a plot file containing ADINA
commands that write the data to a plist file. After the
call of ADINA-PLOT the data can be used for calcu-
lation in another user-subroutine that implements the
criterion. ANGELICA will care for the correct node-
wise data supply to the subroutine and respective nodal
storage of the obtained result. In the end results are
written to a dummy model ADINA-IN file to be able to
perform post-processing of fatigue results with the as-
sociated port file.
6. Optimization tool dice
An ADINA based optimization tool has been created.
In its first stage it was merely intended to perform
parametric studies on the basis of predefined combina-
tions of design-variable values. However, already at that
stage an objective function plus constraints have been
evaluated to find the best feasible design among the in-
vestigated ones. This design-variable value combining
way of evaluation gave the program its name: Dice––
Design Parameter Combining Evaluator. Nowadays, it
has been expanded by means of implementing a numeri-
cal optimization algorithm from the NAG library [11].
Both functionalities, the combinatorial evaluation and
the numerical optimization, can be used independently
or in a two-stage approach. In the latter case the design
space is systematically investigated in a pre-defined and
automated way by a combinatorial evaluation. As a re-
sult, usually good start designs are obtained and are used
as the input to numerical optimization. In doing so,
the probability of finding the best minimum among dif-
ferent minima is increased, especially if in advance an
926 C.-H. Richter / Computers and Structures 81 (2003) 919–927
Fig. 6. Dice example for fir-tree root optimization showing major results for one design. In particular band plots of effective stress are
shown for root and steeple notches as well as graphs of these stresses. In addition bearing land pressure is shown. Target of the
optimization was maximum number of sustainable LCF cycles keeping a certain quotient between root and steeple cycle number.
Ôengineering feelingÕ has been gained by parametric
studies and hence the quality of start designs is good.
To build up an analysis with Dice a model has to be
created. This can either be an ADINA-IN file or a pa-
rameter file which is read by a program that creates such
an IN file. The IN file or the parameter file, respectively,
must be equipped with placeholders for the design
variables consisting of name and some reasonable value.
For evaluation of the designs an ADINA-PLOT file
must also be prepared containing commands to list all
entities required for objective function and constraints.
Beside these files, dice user-subroutines have to be pre-
pared. They control the model creation if an external
parameter-driven program is used and perform the ob-
jective function and constraint calculation. Dice has a
simple interface to control its operations, to define
variable-value combinations in design space and to steer
the numerical optimization. Furthermore, it offers the
functionality to present the results of the optimization.
In particular the n best designs of the parametric study
can be presented graphically with their most important
results on the basis of an additional ADINA-PLOT file.
Fig. 6 shows such a graphical evaluation that was per-
formed in the frame of a fir-tree root optimization.
The values of the objective functions and constraints
can be displayed. These single design evaluations can
be gathered on a canvas to give a real overview. Simi-
larly, the associated Ôafter-optimizedÕ designs can be
presented.
7. Conclusions
ADINA is used for the structural design of all dif-
ferent types of steam turbine blades at Siemens PG. A
building block approach is established in order to sup-
port an automated simulation process. The range of
application comprises static calculations including steam
induced forces, creep, frequency extraction of single
blades and entire stages, optimization as well as low and
high cycle fatigue. The latter two applications are rea-
lised using self-developed and customized programs
streamlined around ADINA.
Although not explicitly described in this paper, it
should also be mentioned that the results obtained with
ADINA were generally found to be in good agreement
with experimental evidence. Therefore, ADINA and its
predecessors can be looked at as basic design tools at
Siemens PG where they have now been used for over 20
years.
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