Prepa

ring
the
right
mix

Depending on the application concrete mix design can be complex. The below table gives a basic indication of the mix ratios

Water/cement ratio theory states that for a given combination of materials and as long as workable consistency is obtained,
The lower the w/c ratio, the higher the concrete strength.
All materials used for a design including the water quality should be to a high standard. A general rule of thumb is, if the wa
Mortar Mix Ratios (Cement, Sand, Gravel)
Mortar Types and Uses
Page last modified on: 01/05/2020 19:34:15

Typically used as the compound for joining masonry, stone or ceramic units together, mortar is made by combining cement

Type M Mortar: Typically used with stone construction as it has the strongest minimum compressive strength of the mortar ty

Type S Mortar: A medium strength mortar suited to below ground applications such as shallow retaining walls and exterior pr

Type N Mortar: A general purpose mortar it is the most common type available with good all round characteristics. It is used

Type O Mortar: A low strength mortar intended for interior non-loading bearing applications such as aesthetic repair work to e

Type K Mortar: Having the lowest compressive strength of the traditional mortar types, this type of mortar does not provide a
Concrete Slump: What is it?

The slump test is basically a measure of the consistency of fresh concrete or its workability. Fresh concrete is pl

1. The slump cone mould should be thoroughly cleaned and coated with a thin film of oil.
2. The slump cone mould is then placed on a smooth, flat, rigid and non-absorbent surface.
3. The slump cone mould is then filled with four layers of the concrete mix, with each layer being tamped with a
4. Once the mould has been filled the concrete mixture is levelled with the top of the cone.
5. The slump cone is carefully lifted upwards, taking care not to disturb the concrete contained within.
6. Once the concrete subsides the difference in height to the original height of the slump cone is measured as th

More detailed specifics of the slump test are outlined in relevant standards dependent on the region.

Originally when used on the most basic of concrete mixtures the slump test would be a good indication of water

The following concrete slump heights have been provided as a guide only and assume the use of only the most
 basic indication of the mix ratios used for different purposes but should be used as a guide only. Some additional things to consider when finding a suit

workable consistency is obtained, the strength of concrete at a given age depends on the w/c ratio.

general rule of thumb is, if the water is palatable then it is suitable for mixing concrete.
ar is made by combining cement, lime and sand. Mortar typically has a higher water to cement ratio when compared with concrete which allows greater

pressive strength of the mortar types. It is ideally suited to below ground applications and areas where high vertical or lateral loads are present such as

w retaining walls and exterior projects where moderate loads can be expected. Type S mortar is also ideal for areas where masonry or other block work

round characteristics. It is used for above ground exterior applications and load bearing walls. Type N mortar provides lower bonding and lateral streng

such as aesthetic repair work to existing damaged mortar. It is easier to work with than the stronger type mortars and is sometimes used in conjunction

ype of mortar does not provide any additional strength or bearing capacity and is only adopted where very soft or fragile masonry or stone is required.
s workability. Fresh concrete is placed in to a hollow steel cone known as a slump cone or  Abrams cone and using the following procedure, the final slum

bent surface.
h each layer being tamped with a standard tamping rod.

ncrete contained within.

the slump cone is measured as the slump.

s dependent on the region.

uld be a good indication of water content, workability and expected strength. With modern concrete however, there are many additives which can affect

assume the use of only the most basic of concrete mixtures.

gs to consider when finding a suitable mix design include but are in no way limited to the following:
ith concrete which allows greater workability and is required to form mortars bonding properties. Typical mortar types are discussed below and a basic g

ateral loads are present such as retaining walls.

here masonry or other block work is in contact with the ground, such as pavers.

lower bonding and lateral strength when compared to Type S and M mortar types but has considerably more flex which prevents cracking of any block-w

is sometimes used in conjunction with low strength masonry units and sandstone.

le masonry or stone is required. It is used for historical preservation projects and is also suitable for minor repair work.
ollowing procedure, the final slump can be determined.

e many additives which can affect the slump, from add mixtures to different types of aggregates and even synthetic fibres for additional strength. Becau
are discussed below and a basic guide to mix ratio's and expected minimum compressive strengths has been provided.

h prevents cracking of any block-work or masonry units. A good all round mortar for general purpose applications.
res for additional strength. Because of this, the concrete slump test is used to check the quality of concrete from different batches of the same mix desig
nt batches of the same mix design but not to compare different mix designs. As a typical guide small slump values indicate that the mixture will be hard
cate that the mixture will be hard to place and to consolidate, while high slump values attract with them segregation and possible excessive bleed water
nd possible excessive bleed water.
Timber - Physical Properties

Modulus of Modulus of
Common Botanical Density Density
Rupture Elasticity
Name Name (kN/m3 (lbs/ft3
(MPa) (MPa)

Alder 3.73 23.7

Applewood
Pyrus malus 7.31 46.51 87.9 8770.14
or wild apple

Fraxinus
Ash / black 5.16 32.84 88 11046.06
nigra
quadrangula
Ash / blue 5.92 37.65 96.33 9653.04
ta

Fraxinus
Ash / green pennsylvanic 5.98 38.08 98.49 11477.7
a lanceolata

Fraxinus
Ash / white 6.26 39.83 108.01 12252.69
americana

Populus
Aspen 3.93 25.03 59.25 8220.78
tremuloides

PopuIus
Aspen /
grandidentat 4.04 25.72 62.59 9770.76
large tooth
a
Balsa
(Tropical Ochroma 1.52 9.675
America)

Tilia glabra
Basswood or Tilia 3.9 24.85 60.14 10094.49
americanus

Fagus
grandifolia
Beech 6.43 40.89 100.55 11575.8
or Fagus
americana
Carpinus
Beech / blue 7.03 44.76 83.19 7377.12
caroliniana
Betula
Birch / gray 5.42 34.46 67.49 7818.57
populifolia
Betula
Birch / paper 5.89 37.46 86.23 10977.39
papyrifera
Birch /
Betula lenta 7 44.58 115.86 14911.2
sweet
Birch /
Betula lutea 6.55 41.7 116.54
yellow
Buxus
Boxwood/Bui
semperviren 10.06 63.95
s
s
Buckeye / Aesculus
3.76 23.91 52.58 8132.49
yellow octandra
Juglans
Butternut 3.96 25.22 56.11 8142.3
cinerea

Cedar / Juniperus
4.83 30.72 59.55 6003.72
eastern red virginiana

Cedar /
Thuja
northern 3.09 19.67 44.73 5572.08
occidentalis
white
Cedar /
Chamaecypa
southern 3.45 21.98 46.79 6425.55
ris thvoides
white
Cedar /
Cedrela
(Tropical 5.25 33.4
odorata
American)

Cedar /
Thuja plicata 3.37 21.48 52.78 8034.39
western red

Cherry / Prunus
5.24 33.34 86.43 10261.26
black serotina
 Prunus
Cherry / wild
pennsylvanic 4.17 26.53 59.84 8750.52
red
a
Castanea
Chestnut 4.45 28.34 60.43 8534.7
dentata
Dalbergia
Cocobolo 10.79 68.6
retusa
Guilbourtia
Coralwood 10.79 68.6
spp.
Leitneria
Corkwood 2.03 12.92
floridana
Cottonwood Populus
4.25 27.03 60.23 9535.32
/ eastern deltoides
Cypress / Taxodium
4.73 30.09 72.99 9908.1
southern distichum
Dogwood Cornus
7.81 49.69 105.16 10643.85
(flowering) florida

Douglas fir Pseudotsuga

5.02 31.96 82.8 13312.17
(coast type) taxifolia

Douglas fir
Pseudotsuga
(mountain 4.38 27.84 65.92 9623.61
taxifolia
type)

Ebony /
Andaman Diospyros
9.59 61.06 76.52 12458.7
marble- kursii
wood (India)

Ebony /
Ebene
Diospyros
marbre 7.53 47.95 54.45 9878.67
melanida
(Maritius / E.
Africa)
Elm / Ulmus
5.43 34.59 82.8 9299.88
American americana
Ulmus
racemosa or
Elm / rock 6.45 41.08 103.5 10653.66
Ulmus
thomasi
Ulmus fulva
Elm /
or 5.57 35.46 91.13 10300.5
slippery
pubescens
Eucalyptus /
Eucalyptus
Karri (W. 8.13 51.75 119.29 18491.85
diversicolor
Australia)

Eucalyptus /
Mahogany Eucalyptus
10.38 66.05 112.82 15774.48
(New South hemilampra
Wales)

Eucalyptus /
West Eucalyptus
7.72 49.13 103.4 14342.22
Australian marginata
mahogany
Abies
Fir / balsam 4.06 25.85 53.17 8622.99
balsamea

Fir / Douglas
(See
Douglas Fir).

Abies
Fir / silver 4.07 25.91 65.63 10555.56
amabilis
Concalco
9.42 60
Alves
Greenheart
Nectandra
(British 11.24 71.485
rodioei
Guiana)

Grenadilla Dalbergia
12.02 76.45
(Mpingo) melanoxylon

Nyssa
Gum / black 5.42 34.46 66.9 8230.59
sylvatica
 Eucalyptus
Gum / blue 7.81 49.69 115.27 16510.23
globulus

Liquidambar
Gum / red 5.2 33.09 82.4 10251.45
styraciflua

Gum / Nyssa
5.14 32.71 67.2 8721.09
tupelo aquatica
Hemlock Tsuga
4.23 26.91 59.45 8299.26
eastern canadensis

Hemlock / Tsuga
4.71 29.97 68.18 7818.57
mountain martensiana

Hemlock / Tsuga
4.24 26.97 63.86 9957.15
western heterophylla

Hickory /
Hicoria
bigleaf 50.53 126.65 13096.35
laciniosa
shagbark
Hickory /
Hicoria alba 51.21 133.02 15401.7
mockernut
Hickory / Hicoria
51.21 139.79 15725.43
pignut glabra
Hickory /
Hicoria ovata 52.17 141.17 14960.25
shagbark
Ostrya
Hornbeam 7.48 47.57 100.26 11762.19
virginiana
Ironwood / Rhamnidium
11.66 74.17 177.56 20601
black ferreum
Jacaranda /
Dalbergia
Brazilian 8.34 53.07
nigra
rosewood

Larch / Larix
5.76 36.65 80.83 11654.28
western occidentalis

Guaiacum
officinale
Lignum
and 12.66 80.5
Vitae
Guaiacum
sanctum
Locust /
Robinia
black or 6.95 44.2 133.71 14204.88
pseudacacia
yellow
Locust Gleditsia
6.53 41.58 103.89 11428.65
honey triacanthos
Magnolia / Magnolia
5.06 32.21 87.41 12517.56
cucumber acuminata
Mahogany Khaya
6.55 41.7 121.45 10584.99
(W. Africa) ivorensis

Mahogany Swietenia
5.3 33.71 66.02 8014.77
(E. India) macrophylla

Mahogany Swietenia
5.3 33.71 69.65 8730.9
(E. India) mahogani
Maple /
Acer nigrum 6.08 38.71 91.92 11193.21
black

Maple / red Acer rubrum 5.36 34.09 91.72 11330.55

Maple / Acer
4.96 31.59 62.2 7897.05
silver saccharinum

Maple / Acer
6.63 42.2 107.62 12654.9
sugar saccharum

Mpingo Dalbergia
12.02 76.45
(Grenadilla) melanoxylon

Quercus
Oak / black 6.56 41.77 94.76 11310.93
velutina

Quercus
Oak / bur 6.58 41.89 70.73 7092.63
macrocarpa

Oak / Quercus
8.22 52.32 90.84 11271.69
canyon live chrysolepis
Quercus
Oak / laurel 6.61 42.08 92.7 10928.34
montana
 Quercus
Oak / live 9.58 60.99 127.04 13547.61
virginiana
Quercus
Oak / pin 6.64 42.27
pallustris
Quercus
stellata or
Oak / post 7.24 46.07 91.23 10428.03
Quercus
minor
Quercus
Oak / red 6.45 41.02 98.3 12497.94
borealis

Oak / scarlet coccinea 6.96 44.26

Quercus
Oak /
montana
swamp 7.42 47.2 95.45 12233.07
(Quercus
chestnut
prinus)

Quercus
Oak swamp bicolor or
7.77 49.44 121.25 14185.26
white Quercus
platanoides

Oak / white Quercus alba 6.97 44.33 104.77 12272.31

Diospyros
Persimmon 7.61 48.45 124.78 14155.83
virginiana
Pine /
Pinus
eastern 3.66 23.29 61.41 8809.38
strobus
white
Pinus
banksiana or
Pine / jack 4.52 28.78 55.92 8515.08
Pinus
divericata
Pine /
Pinus taeda 5.82 37.02 89.17 13282.74
loblolly
Pine / Pinus
6.26 39.83 106.93 14175.45
longleaf palustris

Pine / pitch Pinus rigida 5.32 33.84 72.59 9466.65

Pinus
Pine / red 4.97 31.65 86.43 12399.84
resinosa
Pine / Pinus
5.73 36.45 91.63 13194.45
shortleaf echinata

Populus
Poplar / balsamifera
3.25 20.66 46.7 7023.96
balsam or Populus
candicans

Poplar / Liriodendron
4.19 26.66 63.96 10378.98
yellow tulipifera
Sequoia
Redwood semperviren 4.28 27.22 74.16 9397.98
s
Rosewood /
6.97 44.3
Bolivian
Rosewood /
7.65 48.7
E. Indian
Sassafras
Sassafras 4.64 29.53 63.08 7749.9
uariafolium

Satinwood Chloroxylon
10.11 64.37 94.96 10800.81
(Ceylon) swietenia

Oxydendrum
Sourwood 5.82 37.02 80.83 10624.23
arboreum

Spruce / Picea
4.2 26.72 71.02 10486.89
black mariana
Picea rubra
Spruce / red or Picea 4.05 25.78 70.14 10506.51
rubens
Spruce /
Picea glauca 4.23 26.91 62.59 9819.81
white

Platanus
Sycamore 5.29 33.65 69.85 9829.62
occidentalis
 Larix laricina
Tamarack or Larix 5.47 34.84 80.74 11320.74
americana

Tectona
Teak (India) 5.78 36.33 88.68 11722.95
grandis
Walnut / Juglans
5.51 35.09 102.22 11624.85
black nigra
Willow /
Salix nigra 4 25.47 43.36 5032.53
black
 Material Combinations Coefficient of Friction μs

Material #1 Material #2 min. max.

Clean Sound
Concrete 0.6 0.7
Rock

Concrete Clean Gravel 0.55 0.6

Sandy
Concrete 0.55 0.6
Gravel

Concrete Coarse Sand 0.55 0.6

Clean Fine to
Concrete Medium 0.45 0.55
Sand

Silty Medium
Concrete to Coarse 0.45 0.55
Sand

Silty or
Concrete Clayey 0.45 0.55
Gravel
Clean Fine
Concrete 0.35 0.45
Sand
Silty Fine to
Concrete Medium 0.35 0.45
Sand

Clayey Fine
Concrete to Medium 0.35 0.45
Sand

Fine Sandy
Concrete 0.4 0.5
Silt
Non-Plastic
Concrete 0.4 0.5
Silt
Very Stiff
Concrete and Hard 0.4 0.5
Clay

Medium Stiff
Concrete 0.3 0.35
to Stiff Clay

Concrete Silty Clay 0.3 0.35

Dressed Soft Dressed Soft
0.7 0.7
Rock Rock
Dressed Dressed Soft
0.65 0.65
Hard Rock Rock
Dressed Dressed
0.55 0.55
Hard Rock Hard Rock

Static
Fricti
on
Coeffi
cient
s
Page last
modified
on:
01/05/202
0 19:34:11

The friction coefficients considered below are for static friction cases where two solid surfaces in contact with each other are
Amontons's Laws of Dry Friction

First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.

Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.
Third Law: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

1. Armstrong, Richard C. Engineering And Design: Revision Of Thrust Block Criteria In TM 5-813-5/AFM 88-10, Vol 5 Appen
2. Foundations And Earth Structures. Alexandria, VA.: Dept. of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 1982. Prin
3. Potyondy, J. G. "Skin Friction Between Various Soils And Construction Materials". Géotechnique 11.4 (1961): 339-353. W
4. Author Unknown. (n.d.). Coefficient of friction. Retrieved from http://www.supercivilcd.com/FRICTION.htm
5. Fine Software. (n.d.). Table of ultimate friction factors for dissimilar materials. Retrieved from https://www.finesoftware.
6. J. Gao, W.D. Luedtke, D. Gourdon, M. Ruths, J.N. Israelachvili, U. Landman. Frictional Forces and Amontons' Law: From t
7. J.R. Barber. Multiscale Surfaces and Amontons' Law of Friction. New York. 2012. Original Paper.
8. Scribd. (n.d.). Friction coefficients-slab on grade [uploaded by Jason Toralde]. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/do
ces in contact with each other are resisting relative lateral motion. It should be noted that there can be significant differences between static friction (typ
5-813-5/AFM 88-10, Vol 5 Appendix C. Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center, 1992. Print.
ngineering Command, 1982. Print.
chnique 11.4 (1961): 339-353. Web.
om/FRICTION.htm
from https://www.finesoftware.eu/help/geo5/en/table-of-ultimate-friction-factors-for-dissimilar-materials-01/
orces and Amontons' Law: From the Molecular to the Macroscopic Scale. Atlanta, Georgia. 2003. Feature Article, Print.

from https://www.scribd.com/document/360755586/Friction-Coefficients-Slab-on-Grade
ences between static friction (typically higher) and kinetic (sliding) friction
Metals/Alloys - Thermal and Electrical Properties
Electrical and Thermal Properties of Steels
Page last modified on: 01/05/2020 19:34:09

Because different materials can perform or behave dissimilarly to one another depending on not only their surroundings but also their p

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a materials potential to transfer heat under steady state conditions. Materials with a high thermal conductivity o

Electrical Resistivity

A materials ability to oppose the flow of electric current from a structural engineering perspective will be primarily be of importance for
Thermal Conductivity Electrical Resistivity

Material Imperial (Btu/(hr-ft-F°) Metric (WM/K°) Imperial (Ω.ft) Metric (Ω.m)

min. max. min. max. min. max. min.

Aluminum 118 144 204 250 0.81 0.86 2.66

Aluminum
44 44 76 76 3 4.17 9.85
Bronze
Beryllium 126 126 218 218 1.22 1.22 4
Beryllium
38 38 66 66 2.5 3.09 8.21
Copper
Brass
63 72 109 125 1.62 2.19 5.3
(60/40)
Brass
63 72 109 125 1.94 4.38 6.38
(Yellow)

Brass (Red) 63 72 109 125 1.42 1.42 4.66

Bronze 15 29 26 50 1.25 4.78 4.1

Cadmium 53 53 92 92 2.08 2.26 6.84

Cast Iron
32 32 55 55 2.92 2.92 9.58
(grey)
Chromium 52 52 90 90 5.97 5.97 19.59

Cobalt 40 40 69 69 1.9 1.9 6.24

Copper 204 232 353 401 0.51 0.52 1.67

Gold (24K)
181 184 314 318 0.72 0.72 2.35
Pure
Iron 20 46 34 80 2.93 2.96 9.6

Iron (Cast) 32 32 55 55 2.93 2.96 9.6

Iron
34 34 59 59 2.93 2.96 9.6
(Wrought)
Lead 17 20 29 35 6.28 6.68 20.6

Magnesium 90 90 156 156 1.36 1.36 4.45

Nickel 53 53 91 91 2.09 7.1 6.85

Platinum 42 42 73 73 3.23 9.56 10.59

Silver 235 248 406 430 0.48 0.5 1.59

Steel
21 31 36 54 3.05 5.49 10
(Carbon)
Stainless
9 14 16 25 21.02 21.02 68.97
Steel (304)
Stainless
9 14 16 25 22.85 22.85 74.96
Steel (316)
Tin 39 39 67 67 3.35 3.51 11

Titanium 9 13 15 23 16.95 23.89 55.62

Tungsten 100 100 173 173 1.67 1.72 5.49

Zinc 65 67 113 116 1.8 1.94 5.92

heir surroundings but also their purpose, it is important to understand how they will act and to what magnitude. Typical values for thermal conductivity,

with a high thermal conductivity or ones where heat will more readily transfer at a higher rate are widely used in heat sink applications while materials w

be primarily be of importance for safety reasons but can also be used as apart of the assessment for cathodic protection, insulation, earthing and potent
Resistivity

Metric (Ω.m)

max.

2.83

13.68

10.14

7.18

14.37

4.66

15.67

7.4

9.58

19.59

6.24

1.72

2.35

9.7

9.7

9.7

21.9

4.45

23.3

31.35

1.64

18

68.97

74.96

11.5

78.37
5.65

6.38
l values for thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and electrical resistance of some commonly encountered steels has been provided in the table belo

nk applications while materials who have a low thermal conductivity or transfer heat poorly are more suited towards thermal insulating applications. The

n, insulation, earthing and potential for temperature increases amongst others areas.
s been provided in the table below.

ermal insulating applications. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is thermal resistivity.