CONTENTS

1. PAVEMENT 2
2. ELEMENTS OF PAVEMET 2-3
3. TYPES OF PAVEMETS 4-39

a) Flexible pavement

 Composition& structure
 Materials used in flexible pavement
 Preparation of layers
 Failures of pavement
 Testing of materials

b) Rigid pavements.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 40

 PAVEMENT:

1
 A highway pavement is a structure consisting of layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade or above the fill, whose primary
function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel
load are reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-
grade.

ELEMENTS OF PAVEMENT:

1. Camber or cant: it is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the

road surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road
surface. The objectives of providing camber are:

• Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage

• Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

2. Shoulders: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended
for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for
vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The

2
 shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded
truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for
giving working space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a
width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is
recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.
3. Width of formation: Width of formation or roadway width is the sum
of the widths of pavements or carriage way including separators and
shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting.
4. Right of way: Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land
acquired for the road, along its alignment. It should be adequate to
accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development.
5. Width of carriage way: Width of carriage way or the width of the
pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes.
Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.

3
TYPES OF PAVEMENTS:

There are two types of pavements based on design considerations

1.Flexible pavements
2.Rigid pavements
1. Flexible Pavements:
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of

asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted

granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the sub-grade. Water

bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic

toppings are examples of flexible pavements.

The design of flexible pavements is based on the principle that for a load of

any magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted

downwards from the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger

area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground through successive layers of

granular material.

4
 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT CROSS-SECTION

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of

materials used, the materials with high degree of strength is used at or near the

surface. Thus the strength of sub-grade primarily influences the thickness of

the flexible pavement.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS:

Flexible pavements support loads through bearing rather than flexural

action. They comprise several layers of carefully selected materials designed to

gradually distribute loads from the pavement surface to the layers underneath.

The design of flexible pavements ensures the load transmitted to each

successive layer does not exceed the layer’s load-bearing capacity. The

distribution of the imposed load to the sub-grade

1) Bituminous Surface (Wearing Course):

  The bituminous surface, or wearing course, is made up of a mixture of

various selected aggregates bound together with asphalt cement or other

bituminous binders.

This surface prevents the penetration of surface water to the base course;

provides a smooth, well-bonded surface free from loose particles, which might

5
endanger aircraft or people; resists the stresses caused by aircraft loads; and

supplies a skid-resistant surface without causing undue wear on tires.

Functions:

 To protect resistance against wear and tear due to traffic movements

 TO provide smooth ad dense riding surface to resist the pressure exerted

by vehicle and to resist surface water infiltration.

2) Base Course: 

The base course serves as the principal structural component of the flexible

pavement. It distributes the imposed wheel load to the pavement foundation,

the sub-base, and/or the sub-grade.

The base course must have sufficient quality and thickness to prevent failure

in the sub-grade and/or sub-base, withstand the stresses produced in the base

itself, resist vertical pressures that tend to produce consolidation and result in

distortion of the surface course, and resist volume changes caused by

fluctuations in its moisture content.

The materials composing the base course are select hard and durable

aggregates, which generally fall into two main classes: stabilized and granular.

6
The stabilized bases normally consist of crushed or uncrushed aggregate bound

with a stabilizer, such as Portland cement or bitumen.

Functions:

 To prevent horizontal shear stresses and vertical pressure produced by

moving are standing wheel load

 To provide density and resistance to weathering

 Distribution of higher wheel load pressure.

3) Sub base:

 This layer is used in areas where frost action is severe or the sub-grade soil is

extremely weak. The sub-base course functions like the base course.

7
The material requirements for the sub-base are not as strict as those for the base
course since the sub-base is subjected to lower load stresses . The sub-base
consists of stabilized or properly compacted granular material.
Functions:

 Act as a support for base and wearing course

 To improve drainage condition
 TO remove heave
 To project above layers from bad qualities from underlaying soils.

4) Sub-grade:
 The sub-grade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of the

pavement system. Sub-grade soils are subjected to lower stresses than the

surface, base, and sub-base courses. Since load stresses decrease with depth,

the controlling sub-grade stress usually lies at the top of the sub-grade.

The combined thickness of sub-base, base, and wearing surface must be great

enough to reduce the stresses occurring in the sub-grade to values that will not

cause excessive distortion or displacement of the sub-grade soil

Functions:

 To receive the stress generation from the above layers

 To receive the materials & it act as a bedding layer.

8
  MATERIALS USED IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

Bitumen Surface:
The bituminous surface, or wearing course, is made up of a mixture of

various selected (graded smaller) aggregates bound together with asphalt

or bituminous binders. Thickness is about 25 -50 mm. This surface

prevents the penetration of surface water to the base course; provides a

smooth, well-bonded surface free from loose particles.

Base Course:

The base course serves as the principal structural component of the

flexible pavement. It distributes the imposed wheel load to the pavement

9
foundation, the sub-base, and/or the sub-grade .The materials composing

the base course are select hard and durable aggregates, which generally fall

into two main classes: stabilized and granular. The stabilized bases

normally consist of crushed or uncrushed aggregate bound with a

stabilizer, such as bitumen. Thickness is 5-10cm.

Sub Base:

 The sub-grade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of

the pavement system. Sub-grade soils are subjected to lower stresses than

the surface, base, and sub-base courses. Since load stresses decrease with

depth, the controlling sub-grade stress usually lies at the top of the sub-

grade, Material used is natural sand, gravels, crushed stone, and thickness

is 100–300mm

Compacted soil
The natural soil is compacted to so that it can firmly hold the above
layers.

10
 PREPARATION OF PAVEMENT LAYERS:

11
  Surface Preparation:

Before a pavement is placed the surface to be paved must be prepared.

Adequate surface preparation is essential to long-term pavement performance.

Pavements constructed without adequate surface preparation may not meet

smoothness specifications, may not bond to the existing pavement (in the case

of overlays) or may fail because of inadequate sub-base support. Surface

preparation generally takes one of two forms:

 Preparing the sub-grade and granular base course for new pavement.

This can involve such activities as sub-grade stabilization, over-

excavation of poor sub-grade, applying a prime coat or compacting the

sub-grade.

 Preparing an existing pavement surface for overlay. This can involved

such activities as replacing localized areas of extreme damage, applying

a leveling course, milling applying a tack coat rubbed or cracking and

seating an underlying rigid pavement, and replacing localized areas of

extreme damage .Specific actions for each method depend upon the

pavement type and purpose, environmental conditions, sub-grade

conditions, local experience and specifications.

Increasing Sub-grade Support

Sub -grade support can be increased by following methods

12
 Compaction: Sub-grade should be compacted to adequate density before

pavement placement. If it -grade will continue to compress, deform or

erode after construction, causing pavement cracks and deformation.

Generally, adequate density is specified as a relative density for the top 6

inches of sub-grade of not less than 95 percent of a specified standard

laboratory density. In fill areas, sub-grade below the top 6 inches is often

considered adequate if it is compacted to 90 percent relative density.

 Stabilization: Lime, port land cement or emulsified asphalt can be mixed

in with the sub-grade soil to increase its strength and stiffness.

Construction geo-textiles can be used to help stabilize roadways with

early signs of sub-grade failure.

 Over Excavation: Poor in situ sub-grade can be replaced with better

load-bearing fill. Typically, 1 – 2 ft. of poor soil may be excavated and

replaced with high quality fill. Add a sub-base course over the sub-

grade. A sub-base course offers additional load-bearing capacity. Sub-

base courses are subjected to the same compaction and elevation

requirements as sub-grade soils.

13
Prime Coats:

The graded sub-grade or the top granular base layer can be prepared with a

prime coat. A prime coat is a sprayed application of a cut-backs (or)

asphalt emulsion applied to the surface of untreated sub-grade.

 Fill the surface voids and protect the sub-base from weather.

 Stabilize the fines and preserve the sub-base material.

 Promote bonding to the subsequent pavement layers.

Tack Coats:

A tack coat is thin bituminous liquid asphalt, emulsion or cutback coating

applied between HMA pavement lifts to promote bonding. Adequate bonding

between contr. lifts and especially between the existing road surface and an

overlay is critical in order for the completed pavement structure to behave as a

single unit and provide adequate strength. If adjacent layers do not bond to one

another they essentially behave as multiple independent thin layers – none of

which are designed to accommodate the anticipated traffic-imposed bending

stresses. Inadequate bonding between layers can result in de-bonding followed

by longitudinal wheel path cracking, fatigue cracking, potholes, and other

distresses such as rutting that greatly reduce pavement life.

14
 Sub base: it is the layer of aggregate material laid on the sub-grade, on which

the base course layer is located. It may be omitted when there will be only foot

traffic on the pavement, but it is necessary for surfaces used by vehicles.

Sub base is often the main load-bearing layer of the pavement. Its role is to

spread the load evenly over the sub grade. The materials used may be either

unbound granular, or cement-bound. The quality of sub base is very important

for the useful life of the road and can outlive the life of the surface, which can

be scrapped off and after checking that the sub base is still in good condition, a

new layer can be applied.

 FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

TYPES OF FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavement consist of different layers such as,

 Sub-grade
 Sub-base course
 Base course and
 Surface course

If any one of the above mentioned layers becomes unstable or weak then it will
result in failure of flexible pavement.

Therefore it is very important to design and construct each layer with utmost
care.

15
Different types of failure encountered in flexible pavements are as follow.

1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)

2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)
3. Shear failure cracking
4. Longitudinal cracking
5. Frost heaving
6. Lack of binding to the lower course
7. Reflection cracking
8. Formation of waves and corrugation
9. Bleeding
10. Pumping

1. Alligator or map cracking (fatigue cracking)

This is a common type of failure of flexible pavements. This is also known as

fatigue failure.

Causes:

 Relative movement of pavement layer material

 Repeated application of heavy wheel loads
 Swelling or shrinkage of sub-grade or other layers due to moisture
variation

16
2. Consolidation of pavement layers (rutting)

Formation of ruts falls in this type of failure. A rut is a depression or groove

worn into a road by the travel of wheels.

Causes:

 Repeated application of load along the same wheel path

resulting longitudinal ruts.
 Wearing of the surface course along the wheel path resulting shallow
ruts.

17
3. Shear failure cracking

Shear failure causes upheaval of pavement material by forming a fracture or

cracking.

Causes:

 Excessive wheel loading

 Low shearing resistance of pavement mixture

4. Longitudinal cracking

This types of cracks extents to the full thickness of pavement.

Causes:

 Differential volume changes in sub-grade soil

 Settlement of fill materials
 Sliding of side slopes

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5. Frost heaving

Frost heaving causes upheaval of localized portion of a pavement. The extent

of frost heaving depends upon the ground water table and climatic condition.

6. Lack of binding with lower layer (potholes & slippage)

When there is lack of binding between surface course and underlying layer,
some portion of surface course looses up materials creating patches and
potholes. Slippage cracking is one form of this type of failure.

Lack of prime coat or tack coat in between two layers is the primary reason
behind this type of failure.

19
7. Reflection cracking

This type of failure occurs, when bituminous surface course is laid over the
existing cement concrete pavement with some cracks. This crack is reflected in
the same pattern on bituminous surface.

8. Formation of waves & corrugation

Transverse undulations appear at regular intervals due to the unstable surface

course caused by stop-and-go traffic.

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9. Bleeding

Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface causes bleeding.

Bleeding causes a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be tacky to the
touch. Usually found in the wheel paths.

21
10. Pumping

Seeping or ejection of water and fines from beneath the pavement through
cracks is called pumping.

Pumping effect

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  TESTING OF MATERIALS :

DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGH OF COCRETE

(IS: 516-1959)

OBJECT: Determination of compressive strength of concrete

APPARATUS: Testing machine: The testing machine may be of reliable type

of sufficient capacity for the test and capable of applying the load at the

specified rate. The permissible error shall not be greater than 2% the maximum

load. The testing machine shall be equipped with two steel bearing platens with

hardened faces. One of the platens shall be fitted with a ball seating in the

portion of a sphere. The centre of which coincides with the central point of the

face of the platens. The other compression platen shall be plain rigid bearing

block. The bearing faces of both platens shall be least as larger as, and

preferably larger than the nominal size of the specimen to which the load is

applied. The bearing surface of the platens, when new shall not depart from a

plane by more than 0.01mm at any point, and they shall be maintained with a

permissible variation limit of 0.02mm. The movable portion of the spherical

seated compression platen shall be held on the spherical seat, but the design

shall be such that the bearing face can be rotated freely and tilled through small

angle sin any direction.

23
AGE AT TEST: tests shall be made at recognize ages of the test specimens,

the most usual being 7 & 25 days. The ages shall be calculated from the time of

the addition of water of the dry ingredients.

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS: At least specimen, preferably from different

batch, shall be testing at each selected age.

PROCEDURE: Specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on

removal from water and while they are still in the wet condition surface Water

and grit shall be wiped off the specimens and any projecting find removed

specimens when received dry shall be kept in water for 24h before they are

taking for testing the dimensions of the specimens to the nearest 0.2mm and

their weight shall be noted before testing

Placing the specimen in the testing machine the bearing surface of the testing

machine shall be wiped clean and loose sand or other material removed from

the surface of the specimen, which are to be contact with the compression

platen in the case of cubes the specimen shall be placed in the machine in such

a manner that the load shall be applied to opposite sides of the cubes as cast,

that is not to the top and bottom. The access of the specimen shall be carefully

aligned with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated platens. No packing

shall be used between the faces of the test specimen and the steel platen of the

24
testing machine. As the spherically seated block is brought to bear on the

specimen the movable portion shall be rotated gently by hand so that uniform

seating may be obtained the shall be applied without shock and increased

continuously at a rate of approximately 140kg/cm.cm minimum. Until the

resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no greater

load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen shall thebe

recorded and the appearance of the concrete and any unusual features in the

type of failure shall be noted.

25
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS AGES:

The strength 0f concrete after casting 28days

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%

26
Compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28 days:

Specified characteristic
Grade of Minimum compressive
2
compressive strength (N/mm2)
Concrete strength N/mm  at 7 days
at 28 days

M15 10 15

M20 13.5 20

M25 17 25

M30 20 30

M35 23.5 35

M40 27 40

M45 30 45

FORMULAE:
COMPRESSIVE STRENTH =Applied load/surface area of cube
RESULT:
The compressive strength of
M25 grade of concrete after 28days =24.5 N/mm2

FREE SWELL INDEX TEST

IS: 2720 (part 40)

27
OBJECT:

To determine the free swell index of soils

APPARATUS:

1) 425micron IS Sieve

2) Graduated cylinders-2nos 100ml capacity

3) Distilled water and kerosene.

PROCEDURE:

Take two 10grams of soil specimen passing through the 425microns sieve.
Two specimens are poured in a each separate cylinders of 100ml capacity. One
cylinder filled with kerosene and other with water up 100ml mark. After
removal of entrapped water each soil I cylinder shall be allowed to settle
.sufficient time (not less than 24h) shall be allowed for the soil sample to attain
equilibrium state of volume without any feature change I the value of the soil.
The final volume of the soils in each of the cylinders shall be read out

FORMULAE:

The level of the soil in the kerosene –graduated cylinder shall be read as the
original volume the soil sample, kerosene being a non polar liquid not cause
swelling (water) only causes the swelling

Free swell index = [V d  – V ]

k / V k x 100%

28
 V d = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder
containing distilled water.

V k = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder

containing kerosene.

Free Swell Degree of LL PL SL

Index Expansive
ness
<20 Low 0.50 0-35% >17%

20-35 Moderate 40-60% 25-50% 8-18%

35-50 High 50-75% 35-65% 6-12%

>50 Very high >60% >45% <10%

RESULT: FREE SWELL INDEX OF THE SOIL SAMPLE 45%

DRY DENSITY OF SOIL BY CORE CUTTER METHOD

AIM:

29
 Unit weight is the weight of soil per unit volume is called unit weight or

density. It includes the whole soil mass, the solid particles plus all voids with

or without moisture. It depends upon saturation ‘S’. Since the dry unit weight

of solids per unit of total volume of a soil mass is called dry unit weight.

Volume = Ws/v    gm/c.c.

APPLICATION:

Therefore density of soil deflects most of the properties of soil. Density of soil

in place is compacted soil and used as quality control measured of earth work

in embankment in place soil density of natural soil helps to determine bearing

capacity, calculation of settlement as well as for stability analysis of natural

slops.

APPARATUS:

1.     Cylindrical core cutter of steel 127.4 mm long and 100 mm in width a metal

thickness of 3 mm at one end.

2.    Steel trolley 2.5 cm high and 10 cm internal diameter with wall thickness 7.5

mm.

3.    Steel hammer.

4.    Steel rule.
30
5.     Straight edge.

6.    Balance.

7.     Container.

Field Density of soil =weight of soil take/ volume soil in sampler

PROCEDURE:

1.    The inside dimension of core cutter was measured accurately to 0.25 mm and

calculated its volume.

2.  The mass of the core cutter without trolley was measured accurately.

3.   Exposed the small area about 30 sq.cm for test level that surface put the trolley

on the top of the core cutter and driven the assembly into the soil with the help

of hammer with the top of the dolly about 1 ½ cm above surface.

31
 4.  Dry weight the container from the surrounding soil and allowed some soil to

project from the lower and of the cutter with the help of straight edge.

5.     The mass of cutter face of soil was measured.

6.   Kept some sample of soil for water content determination in the oven.

7.  Repeat the test of the 3samples neat by end get the average density.

APPLICATION:

Core cutter method is commonly used for to know the amount of compaction

achieved, in the pavement layers and its value compared, to the design density

values.

32
OBSERVATIONS:

OBS DETERMINATION NO. DETERMINATION

. NO. 1ST READING 2ND READING
01 Mass of core cutter wet soil 2645 gm 2580 gm
(gm)
02 Mass of core cutter (gm) 930 gm 970 gm
03 Mass of wet soil 1715 gm 1670 gm
04 Volume of core cutter (MR) 1021.0 cm3 1021.0 cm3
05 Bulk density P = ¾ g/cm3 1.68 kg/m3 1.58 g/cm2
06 Bulk unit weight Y = 9.81 P 16.48 kg/m3 15.5 kg/m3
07 Container no. A B
08 Mass of contain + wet soil 66 gm 37.3 gm
09 Mass of contain + dry soil 58 gm 34.5 gm
10 Mass of container 23 gm 23 gm
11 Mass of dry soil 35 gm 11.5 gm
12 Mass of water 2.89 gm 2.89 gm
13 Water contain 22.66 % 24.35 %
14 Dry density Pd =p/1+w  gm/cm3 1.37 gm/m3 1.28 gm/m3
15 Dry unit wt. Yd = Y/1+w kg/m3 13.41 kg/m3 12.46 kg/m3
RESULT: 1. Percentage of water content = 23.505 %
2. Dry density of soil sample = 1.325 gm/cm3
3. Dry weight of soil sample = 12.935 kg/m3

33
 FLAKINESS AND ELONGATION INDEX TEST

AIM: Determination of flakiness and elongation of the given aggregate

sample.

SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each
particle shape being preferred under specific conditions.

The significance of flakiness & elongation index:-

The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.

 Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky and elongated
particles lower the workability of concrete mixes.
 Flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse
construction as they may cause weakness with possibilities of braking down
under heavy loads.
 BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of
the aggregate size.
 Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate
sizes     2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’.
 Both Flakiness and Elongation tests are not applicable to sizes smaller
then 6.3mm i.e. ¼’’ sieve.

SHAPES OF PARTICLE: The usual shapes of the particles are:

34
1. Rounded (river gravel) Flakiness and Elongation Index
2. Flaky (laminated rock) Flakiness and Elongation Index
3. Elongated Flakiness and Elongation Index
4. Angular( crushed rock) Flakiness and Elongation Index

PREFERRED USE OF EACH SHAPE: Rounded aggregates are preferred

in concrete roads (rigid pavements) as the workability of concrete increases
due to the less friction between the surfaces.

Angular shape of the particles is desirable in granular base-coarse (flexible-

pavement) due to better interlocking and increased stability.

APPARATUS:

 
35
Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge

Length/Elongation Index Gauge

 Aggregate sample to be tested flaky.

 A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6
times the mean size.
 These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to
the other two dimensions.
 Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are
greater than 30% then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the
intended use.

FLAKINESS INDEX Flakiness and Elongation Index

It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample. Procedure

 Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample

 The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited
particle size groups -stored on the test sieves into a number of closely
limited particle size groups – 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
 Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate
opening of the thickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of
specified thickness along least dimension.
 The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each
fraction. This is the weight of flaky particles.
 The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky
particles as a percentage of total weight of the sample.

36
37
 Calculation for Flaky Particles:

Weight Individual Weighted

Weight Percentage of Flaky Flakiness Flakiness
Sieve Size Retained Retained Particles Index Index

Passing Retained (gm) (%) (gm) (%) (%)

(in.) (in.)

2 1½ 2007.8 22.52 80.5 4.01 0.9

1½ 1 2926.4 32.83 853.1 29.15 9.6

1 ¾ 2177.7 24.43 585.6 26.89 6.57

¾ ½ 1076.2 12.07 291.7 27.1 3.27

½ 8-Mar 460.2 5.16 155.5 33.79 1.74

8-Mar ¼ 211.8 2.38 88.3 41.69 0.99

¼ Pan 53.4 0.6

Σ=
8913.5 Σ = 23.07

ELONGATED PARTICLES

38
These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two
dimensions and it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean
size.

Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated

particles are greater than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for
the intended use.

ELONGATION INDEX

It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated

index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as
percentage of total weight of the sample.

Calculation for Elongated Particles:

Weight
of Individua
Weight Percentag Elongate l Weighted
Retained e d Elongatio Elongatio
Sieve Size (gm) Retained Particles n Index n Index

Passin Retaine
g d (%) (gm) (%) (%)

(in.) (in.)

39
2 1½ 2007.8 22.52 1561.5 77.77 17.52

1½ 1 2926.4 32.83 950 32.46 10.66

1 ¾ 2177.7 24.43 1113.8 51.15 12.5

¾ ½ 1076.2 12.07 467.5 43.44 5.24

½ 41341 460.2 5.16 185.5 40.31 2.08

41341 ¼ 211.8 2.38 80.9 38.2 0.91

¼ Pan 53.4 0.6

Σ=8913.
5 Σ = 48.91

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  RIGID PAVEMENTS:

A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete

slabs. Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.

The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement

concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid
pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over
a relatively wide area of soil.

Rigid Pavement Cross-Section

Minor variations in sub-grade strength have little influence on the structural

capacity of a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural
strength of concrete is the major factor and not the strength of sub-grade. Due
to this property of pavement, when the sub-grade deflects beneath the rigid
pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized failures and
areas of inadequate support from sub-grade because of slab action.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Terzi, Serdal. "Modeling the pavement serviceability ratio of flexible

highway pavements by artificial neural networks." Construction and
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