An Introduction to

Shell Structures
AN INTRODUCTION TO

Shell Structures
THE ART AND SCIENCE
OF VAULTING

Michele Melaragno
Professor of Architecture and Building Sciences
The University of North Carolina at Charlotte

~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD

~ _ _ _ _ _ New York
Copyright © 1991 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 90-41113
ISBN 978-1-4757-0225-5 ISBN 978-1-4757-0223-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-0223-1
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by
the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any
form by any means-graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,
or information storage and retrieval systems-without
written permission of the publisher.

Van Nostrand Reinhold

115 Fifth Avenue
New York, New York 10003
Chapman and Hall
2 - 6 Boundary Row
London, SEI BHN, England
Thomas Nelson Australia
102 Dodds Street
South Melbourne 3205
Victoria, Australia
Nelson Canada
1120 Birchmount Road
Scarborough, Ontario MIK 5G4, Canada

16 15 14 13 12 11 109 B 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Melaragno, Michele G.
Introduction to shell structures: the art and science of vaulting / by Michele
Melaragno
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Shells (Engineering) 2. Domes I. Title.

TA660.S5M445 1991
624.1'7762 -dc20 90-41113
CIP
"The vault never sleeps. . . "

-A Middle Eastern aphorism

 Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledaments xiii

Part I
WOOD AND MASONRY DOMES

1. Domes: Their Morpholoaical Sianificance 3

Origins and Symbolism of Domes 4
Superstitious and Sacred Forms 5
Mortuary Symbolism 8
Christian Symbolism 10
Notes 11

2. Domes: From Ancient to Islamic 13

Domes from Their Ancient Beginnings 13
Roman Domes and Vaults 26
Early Christian Domes 32
Domes in Christian Architecture 34
Byzantine Domes 35
Islamic Domes 41
Notes 55

3. Domes from the Romanesque to the Present 57

Romanesque Domes 57
Domes in Renaissance and Baroque Italy 57
Architects of the Renaissance and Baroque Periods 71
European Domes Outside Italy 73

vii
 Contents

Further Development 79
The End of an Era 86
Notes 88

4. Dome Technologies 89
Structural Systems 89
Domes: Basic Forces 90
Lanterns and Skylights 96
The Structural Characteristics of Masonry 96
Basic Vaulting 99
From Masonry to Concrete 100
Timbrel Vaulting 100
The Erection of Domes-Early Technology 102
Ceramic Domes for Developing Countries 105
Wooden Domes 106
Notes III

Part II
CONCRETE SHELLS: FUNDAMENTALS AND CASE STUDIES

5. Thin Shells 11 5
Shells and Surface Structures 11 5
Thin Shells and Space Frames 116
Curvature and Strength I 16
Shell Thickness 1I 8
Shells in Nature 120
The Origins of Man-made Shells 121
Overall Structural Equilibrium 122
Floating Concrete Shells for Boats and Ships 123
Prestressed Hulls 125
Ferrocement Hulls at Present 126
Notes 127

6. Selected Shapes of Shells 129

Geometric Aspects 129
Barrel Shells 130
Conoidal Shells 132
Cantilevered Shells 134
Hyperboloids 137

7. Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century 143

Buildings 143
Shells in Art 179

viii
 Contents

Experimental Shells 182

Shell Builders of the Twentieth Century 182
The Future of Thin Shells 193
Notes 194

8 . Construction Aspects of Shells 195

The Construction - Design Relationship 195
Supports 203
Hinges and Ribs 208
Precast Shell Technology 212
Double-shell Construction 2 14
Edge or Boundary Members 214
Prestressing 21 5
Posttensioning 2 19
Professional Guidance for Thin-shell Design Work 220
Notes 222

9. Computer AnalySiS of Shells and Domes 223

The Finite Method 223

Part III
PRACTICAL AIDS FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF THIN SHELLS

10. Empirical Desian of Masonry Vaultina 241

Empirical Rules 241
Shape Optimization 243
Empirical Rules for Buckling 243
Funicular Polygons Through Three Points 245
Wind Forces 246
Notes 247

11. Spherical Shells 249

Proportioning and Sizing of Concrete Thin Shells 249
Spherical Dome Design 249
Nonspherical Dome Design 255
Notes 255

12. Barrel Shells 259

Barrel Vaults 259
Barrel Shells 260
Short Barrel Shells 260
Long Barrel Shells 267

ix
 Contents

13. The Desisn of Hyperbolic Paraboloids 271

Saddle-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 271
Four-gable-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 278
Umbrella-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 283
Inverted Umbrella-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 289

Part IV
SKELETAL STEEL STRUCTURES AND MEGADOMES

14. Trussed Domes 297

Skeletal Structures 297
Geodesics and Space Frames 299
Trussed Domes and Their Builders 300
Trussed-dome Geometry and Technology 305
Types of Trussed Domes 308
Space-frame Domes 320
Cable (Tensegrity) Domes 322
Pneumatic Domes 324
Notes 325

15. Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes 327

Epiiooue 341
Appendix A ACI Buildino Code Requirements for Thin Shells and Folded Plates 343
Appendix B Excerpts from The Engineering Index Manual 1989 359
Selected Bibiiooraphy 407
Index 419

x
 Preface
The art of building dome shell structures has
been with us since ancient times. Current ex-
amples in the Astrodome, the Superdome,
the Kingdome, and the Florida Suncoast
Dome stand to remind us of the counterpoint
they play to the Pantheon, S. Sophia, S.
Maria del Fiore, and St. Peter. The latter
may be thought of by some as being ancient
history, but they are present in the twentieth
century and hence are a part of our present
and future. Why do scholars continue to
study them? What can they teach us? A re-
vival of interest in curvilinear structures is
under way, as the current examples just cited
testify.
At the beginning of this century, under
the influence of the art movement and the
dominance of industrialized building mate-
rials, any remnants of curvilinear architec-
ture were mercilessly banished. Within that
period avant-garde art emphatically pro-
claimed a total repudiation of the traditions
and classical revivals that in architecture were
symbolized mostly by arches and vaults.
Ready-to-use rectilinear steel beams and col-
umns and easy-to-build rectilinear concrete
forms struck a lethal blow to the curvilinear
approach in architecture. Rectilinearity be-
came synonymous with rationality, while cur-
vilinearity came to symbolize decadence. Re-
member, for instance, the negative stigma
xi
given to the baroque for its assumed pompo-
sity in glorifying curves. In practical terms
such an attitude in design is clearly mani-
fested in the present cityscapes that are to-
tally free of arches, domes, shells, and any
other form that is not rectilinear. Is this what
we really want-plans and elevations with
only straight lines, ninety-degree angles, or,
in some daring cases, forty-five-degree
angles? It does not seem so.
Similarly, the curricula in both civil engi-
neering and architecture in structures seem
to ignore intentionally arches and vaults, lim-
iting these subjects to graduate programs in
thin-shell design as being a specialized eso-
teric subject. This tendency does not present
a free choice but is rather a limiting rule
passively accepted that will be passed on to
students. Arches, vaults, and thin-shelled
structures must be rediscovered. As the mon-
astic orders of the Middle Ages protected the
remnants of classical culture, our schools
have the responsibility to preserve these fun-
damental concepts and theories of design
without regard to ephemeral trends. It is
helpful to remember that this approach has
always been the philosophy of higher educa-
tion. Furthermore, it is obvious that in practi-
cal terms this orientation will enrich the spec-
trum of design options that have been
restricted for so long. This concept is not an
 Preface
isolated observation but finds strong support
in the current philosophy of post-modernism
as defined by Charles Jencks.
This work is dedicated to those architects
and engineers who, in common practice and
without special expertise in shells, have be-
come interested in the practical design of
curvilinear forms, the origins of these forms,
and future applications of them. Masonry
domes, concrete shells, and large steel con-
temporary domes are presented in historical
terms as case studies and in conceptual terms
from the architectural and structural point of
view. The same topics are then covered again
in practical terms, to allow one to make pre-
liminary designs using concrete shells of any
configuration using the finite method
through a computer program outlined step-
by-step and to draw preliminary designs for
various types of domes, barrels, and hyperbo-
lic paraboloids, and to make initial designs
for steel domes. To achieve an architectural-
engineering approach, mathematics have
purposely been kept to a minimum, using
only simple formulas and a few numerical
sample problems. The mostly freehand illus-
trations focus on essentials by avoiding hard-
line renderings, to downplay technical
aspects and give free rein to the subject mat-
ter and reader creativity. The wide scope of
the material makes it necessary to omit such
aspects as analytical geometry, the classifica-
tions of shell forms, and an analysis of mem-
brane stresses.
Assimilating masonry domes, concrete
shells, and steel domes into one work makes it
necessary to combine the languages of archi-
tecture and engineering. An overview of
most literature currently available shows that
this is not a common practice. Masonry
domes are usually discussed in texts on archi-
xii
tectural history, concrete shell structures cov-
ered as case studies in the architectural press
and in scientific engineering texts from the
structural point of view, and large steel
domes usually described only in engineering
periodicals. However, these two disciplines
and professions should not be dissociated, in
either theory or practice. From the start, se-
lecting an architectural form implies having a
structural system, thus involving both the ar-
chitect and the engineer from the conceptual
phase. To exploit fully the potential that is
available in using curvilinear forms it is essen-
tial for the two professions to develop over-
lapping knowledge, an integration of under-
standing. This work combines architectural
history, conceptual design theory, and basic
engineering into one interwoven format. In
discussing architectural history we are not
studying history per se, but rather those ex-
amples of domes and vaults built in the past
that have survived to the present, from which
we may learn methods and designs for use in
current applications. The old adage of un-
derstanding the past to predict the future
applies here.
Why is there a revival of interest in shell
structures, and where it might lead? Cost fac-
tors, materials availability, labor supply,
housing crises, solutions to domestic and
Third World problems all playa part and are
examined here. With today's almost unlim-
ited computer technology and the knowledge
that can be gained from understanding the
domes and vaults built both in the past and
present, it is hoped that this work on the
practical aspects of designing curvilinear
forms will contribute to further exploration
and encourage the application of thin shells
by the engineers and architects to whom it is
addressed.
 Acknowlednments

With deep appreciation I wish to acknowl-
edge the contribution of my wife, Deborah;
in compiling the manuscript, she helped me
to overcome a limitation derived from the
onset of my visual impairment. Special grati-
tude is extended to my former student and
assistant Escandar Hadijizadeh, who pre-
pared most of the ink drawings, and to the
many others who contributed through tele-
phone discussions and by sending reference
materials. Among them are Dr. Anton Te-
desko, Dr. David Geiger, Dr. Stefan Medwa-
dowski (lASS), Jack Christiansen, Elwin C.
Robison (Kent State University), William
Mouton (Tulane University), Edward Allen
(Yale University), Charles Mitchell and Luz
Aveleyra (UNC, Charlotte), Mohsen Sefat,
Mrs. Felix Candela, D.]. Gross and James T.
Langman (Roberts & Schaefer), David Kulla
(Duke Power), and Donald Wright (Dow
Chemical). I would like to express my sincere
respect for Van Nostrand Reinhold editor
Gene Dallaire and my gratitude for his trust
in my work. I am very grateful to Joy Aqui-
lino, also of Van Nostrand Reinhold, whose
efforts made the completion of this book
possible.

ERRATA

The Publisher regrets that the following lines were omitted

from page xiii: Acknowledgments of
AN INTRODUCTION TO SHELL STRUCTURES:
The Art And Science Of Vaulting by Michele Melaragno.

A special word of appreciation to Professors Jerzy A.

Starczewski and Bruce Moore of the Hammons School
of Architecture at Drury College for their editing of the
final manuscript exclusive of graphics.

xiii
 Part I
Wood and
Masomy Domes
CHAPTER 1
Domes: Their MorphollJ8ica1 SiEJIliflcance
Is curvilinearity, as it is applied to structures,
a morphological abstraction employed by
only a few theoreticians, or is it a fundamen-
tal issue that needs to be explored by anyone
seriously committed to the full range of de-
sign? Eliminating the issue of any subser-
viency of one profession to another, no de-
sign practitioner can start from a position
that is not attached to a rational foundation
without risking a fall into exercises of mean-
ingless relevance. Shells and domes as build-
ing forms combine different roots that need
analysis to rationalize and connect their mul-
tifaceted aspects.
Two basically different roots stand at the
origin of vaulting, especially in its domical
application. One root stems from psychologi-
cal needs, the other from the technological
evolution of the art of building. These
aspects that merge to create man-made curvi-
linear shells constitute a common cultural
foundation shared by the creative, artistic
mind and its logical, scientific, technological
counterpart, which ultimately have the same
goal of designing structures for human hab-
itation.
Without having an inventory of the struc-
tural forms that centuries of architectural ex-
perience have actually produced, it is impos-
sible to conduct a meaningful search through
3
potential forms. Besides the obvious possibil-
ity of reinventing the wheel, it is ethically
unforgiveable to proceed without being at
least minimally literate in the development of
the morphology of the building forms that
have generated the present architecture and
constitute the rationale for the development
of the future.
The potential of forms outside the orthog-
onal Cartesian system of axes is so obvious
that it is hard to justify the coercive attitude
of twentieth-century architectural forms.
The exploration of form free of regimenting
rules can start right now, with the develop-
ment of a level of literacy that should involve
both architecture and engineering, at the
classroom level and in the professional office.
The structure of objects at whatever scale
one may conceive them includes in itself the
concept of essentiality, that is, the quality of
their being essential for their own existence.
The structure of the physical objects that
man builds, from utensils to buildings, consti-
tutes the very minimum of essentials in which
nothing is redundant or superfluous. With
this in mind, the idea of associating form with
structure acquires a definition of essentiality.
Structural form is therefore not an extrava-
gance, as often perceived, but becomes in this
structural context a pure, rational factor of
 Wood and Masonry Domes
existence. When man as creator uses his
hands and mind to shape the physical world,
he often finds a source of inspiration in the
breadth of creation manifested in nature. Ei-
ther by artistic intuition from physically ob-
serving nature as a scientist, man creates
structures realizing that he has two bases
from which to operate: form, and the reality
of materials.
In its basic state, a thin sheet of foil can be
seen as a starting point with no structural
capabilities. As soon as the foil is shaped
three-dimensionally, however, in some arbi-
trary form, it begins to have an element of
strength. Certain forms are, of course, better
than others, as experience demonstrates and
science validates. However, even before the
existence of science, man conceived by intu-
ition a structural concept derived from ra-
tionalization of form. This constituted the
beginning of his building endeavors. We
know, in fact, that in human evolution intu-
ition always preceded science, and daring,
amazing structures were built long before
science was able to justify them.
When masonry finally explored the curvi-
linearity of vaults and domes, the beginning
of shells acquired on a large scale the expres-
sions already evident in small applications.
The potter molding the first utensils discov-
ered early in his progress the necessity of a
turning wheel, in effect creating small-scale
domes. The goal of these forms was to attain
efficiency in these utensils by reducing their
thickness as much as possible. With reduced
thicknesses the potter could then increase the
sophistication of his artifacts, depending
more on their structural form than on the
amount of clay in them. Today plastic objects
surround us in innumerable forms that start
mostly from a thin foil of material molded
into various configurations that give struc-
ture and therefore essentiality to the various
artifacts.
A vivid contemporary example of shell
structures can be found in the classic Volks-
wagen that Germany produced in the 1930s.
For the first time, the body of a car was
molded from sheets of steel that then became
4
the structure of the whole automobile, elimi-
nating the need for a conventional chassis
and creating a revolutionary concept in auto
manufacturing. Similar examples further
illustrate the significance of thin-shelled
structures within the various structural possi-
bilities. Most eloquent are today's megastruc-
tures that use the structural efficiency of
shells to cover the largest column-free build-
ings in the world, such as the concrete King-
dome and the steel Superdome.
Masonry arches, vaults, and domes reflect
certain structural necessities, through their
characteristic thickness. Their thickness was
dictated by the coarseness of their constitu-
ent materials: stone, brick and mortar joints.
Their inability to resist tensile stresses re-
quired widening their cross-sections so that
compression would reduce the effect of po-
tential bending. Substantial thickness was
often intuitively felt necessary to prevent
buckling. Masonry vaults and domes thus
never attained the daring slenderness of
those in concrete.
When reinforced concrete came of age,
the reinterpretation then of the curved form
reached daring proportions, producing in
some cases shells with thicknesses proportion-
ately thinner even than the thickness of egg-
shells, so that the ingenuity of man proved to
be more advanced than that of nature itself.
Obviously, the ability of reinforced concrete
to carry tension as well as compression was
the main key to its success. The concrete thin
shell stemming from the parent masonry
vault was like a newborn with a great future
to be explored and exploited.
ORIGINS AND SYMBOLISM
OF DOMES
When it became desirable or necessary to
complete a masonry structure using only such
lapideous materials as fieldstone, cut stone,
or sun-dried or fired brick, without introduc-
ing into the structure any systems of wood
beams (known as ligneous trabeation) to
 Domes: Their Morpholoeica] Sienificance
cover the space enclosed by the walls, the
vault emerged as the only possible solution.
The vault, assumed to be a spatial extension
of the curvilinear arch, was born with the
arch itself, as can be seen when considering,
for instance, the barrel vaults of the ancient
world. These acted in fact as a series of adja-
cent arches structurally engaged by the
forces of shear to work jointly.
The English term vault derives from the
Old French vouter or vaulte, which in turn
comes from the Latin volta, a participial form
of volvere, to turn. As the etymology of the
word indicates, the curvilinear nature of this
ancient architectural feature is inherent in its
definition.
In Chaldea (Babylonia), on the Mesopota-
mian plateau, the earliest vault ever discov-
ered, dated at about 4000 B.C., was found at
Nippur. Its construction consisted of burnt
bricks and clay mortar. The earliest examples
of barrel vaults, found in Egypt at Requa-
quah and Dendera, are dated approximately
3500 B.C. These barrel vaults, only 6 ft (1.9
m) in span, covered the underground access
to tombs and were built of unburnt brick laid
in horizontal courses. Also in Egypt, at
Thebes, near a temple built by Ramses II, a
pharaoh of the XIX Dynasty, there are some
remnants of granaries built about the same
time (c. 1300 B.C.) with vaults of a 12 ft (3.8
m) span. In Egypt, however, a fully devel-
oped vault built with conventional voussoirs
of cut stone appeared only in the XXVI
Dynasty.
The Assyrian civilization of the second
millennium B.C. certainly had great knowl-
edge of and familiarity with vaulting, includ-
ing domical structures, as verified both by
their numerous bas-reliefs illustrating vaulted
gateways on a monumental scale and a vari-
ety of domes. However, there are no rem-
nants of Assyrian vaults. This seems to be
explained by the fact that the construction
methods of the time did not consider durabil-
ity to be significant. In fact, the Assyrian
kings built palaces that were not intended
even to survive their own reigns, totally op-
posed to the Egyptian concept of building for
5
eternity. The Sassanian culture that suc-
ceeded the Assyrian instead erected stone
masonry domes that have survived the de-
structive effects of time.
Although the dome is considered part of
the large family of vaults, it is a structure that
has acquired over several millennia a charac-
ter of its own, with a strong background of
symbolic significance. As is discussed later, its
symbolism had a powerful influence all the
way from ancient times through classic
Roman architecture to Christianity and the
Renaissance in Western culture, while the
Islamic world was also discovering the dome's
fascinating power and incorporating it in its
symbolism as well.
The English term dome seems associated
with the Latin word domus (house), which
probably derived from the strong symbolic
value associated with the dome in many an-
cient religious traditions. As discussed later,
these traditions considered the dome to be a
form that was of divine origin to represent
the concept of an ancestral house, which was
eventually used for constructing houses
for God (temples, churches, mosques, etc.)
throughout recorded history.
Another foreign word probably associated
with the English word is duomo, the Italian
term for cathedral. Considering the strong
influence throughout Europe of the Italian
language in architecture during the Renais-
sance, it is possible that the dome covering
the majority of the Renaissance churches in
Italy identified the concept of cathedral and
was then absorbed by another language for
what it represented, rather than being an
exact translation. In Italian, the word for
dome is instead cupola, which is often used in
architecture as a cognate in other languages.
SUPERSTITIOUS AND
SACRED FORMS
Primitive civilizations commonly considered
certain inanimate objects to be live entities
with inherent power over human events (fet-
 Wood and Masonry Domes
ishism). Most such objects were elements
commonly observed in everyday life, as, for
instance the roof of a house or other struc-
tural components of buildings that captured
viewers' imaginations. From the circular
shape of the dome more than any other form
derived purity, as did the power projected by
its monolithic configuration and the over-
whelming effect of a protective overhead
structure. These factors must have con-
quered the feelings of early humans and es-
tablished a tradition of associating religious
connotations with domes.
Superstitious and religious traditions
among various cultures gave supernatural
mystical significance to the shapes of primi-
tive shelters from which eventually evolved
the dome, with its extended religious symbol-
ism and overtones. As reported by Smith l ,
such sacred primitive forms of divine origin
included the following:
Teguriam (Roman)
Vinara (Indian)
Mapnalia (Libyan)
Qobba (Arabian)
Tent or Tabernacle (Hebraic)
Qubab (Syrian)
1-1 Qgbab dwellinas in a contemporary Syrian villaae.
6
Of these, the Qubab (Fig. 1-1) even at
present has left an impact of considerable his-
torical value. In Syria the Qubab is a circular
structure covered with a dome out of a tradi-
tion that could probably have started as early
as the fourth millennium B.C., but an Assyr-
ian relief from the eighth century B.C. proves
its certain existence by that time. The similar
present-day term in Turkish, kubbe, indicates
a domical structure.
Some terms used by Smith in the source
previously cited to describe the symbolism
associated with domes include the following:
Ancestral abode (given by God)
Celestial symbol over: altar, throne, tomb,
pulpit, baptismal font
Cosmic egg
Cosmic house
Divine form
Heavenly helmet
Divine heron
Heavenly bowl
Martyrium
Omphalos (sacred stone)
Parasol
Pine cone
Ritualistic sanctuary
 Domes: Their Morphological Significance
Royal baldachin
Sepulchral ciborium
Tholos (tomb)
Cosmic Symbolism in General
The house, the tomb, and the place of wor-
ship have often been considered by ancient
cultures to be shaped in a form that symbol-
ized the universe itself. The typical geometric
form for such a symbol was the dome. Associ-
ating the house with the universe let each
part of the house have a corresponding coun-
terpart in the cosmos, such as the ceiling rep-
resentative of the heavens, and therefore the
dome became associated with the concept of
house, tomb, place of worship, and universe.
THE COSMIC EGG
The dome's similarity in shape to the egg no
doubt reminded observers of that familiar
form. As a matter of fact, some domes whose
shape most resembles that of the egg are re-
ferred to as being ovoidal, from the Latin
ovum, egg. There is no wonder then that an-
cient men made a connection between these
forms of the dome and the egg and associated
a number of symbols with their common
shape.
The egg, the container of life, symbolized
the cosmos in many ancient traditions. Per-
sian, Indian, Egyptian, and even pagan
Roman religions shared concepts of a cosmic
egg.
In India, the Vedic cult considered the
universe to be an immense egg containing
God. This egg was divided into two parts as
made up of two domes: a lower one of silver
that was the earth, and an upper one of gold
that was heaven.
In ancient Greece and Rome, the Orphic
cult initiated by Orpheus visualized the uni-
verse as an egg whose upper half was heaven
and lower part was the earth.
The cult of the Dioskouroi,2 which orig-
inated in Sparta and became popular
throughout the Roman Empire, also held a
concept of the universe consisting of two
7
halves of an egg, representing heaven and
earth. Furthermore, the egg is present in the
legend of the origins of the Dioskouroi: the
children of Leda and Zeus were born from an
egg. According to this myth, such an egg was
the result of the union of Leda and Zeus
when Zeus transformed himself into a swan.
THE DOMICAL TENT OF ALEXANDER
THE GREAT
An example of a structure that passed to his-
tory for its cosmic symbolism is the Domical
Tent of Alexander the Great.
The dome-shaped tent of Alexander the
Great (356-323 B.C.) acquired a symbolic
value of divine nature that spread with great
impact to the culture of the Roman Empire.
Such a structure, described by Plutarch as a
tent of refined manufacture supported by
fifty gilded posts, symbolized the sky, heav-
ens, and cosmos, and furthermore repre-
sented the divine nature attributed to the em-
peror himself. The origin of this symbolism
can be traced from nomadic tribes in central
Asia who lived in round tents. For them the
spherical shape of their tent had a sacred
significance whose acceptance spread to
other populations as far away as the Middle
East and Mediterranean. 3 Persian kings used
the cosmic tent symbol to indicate their di-
vine nature when giving official audiences. It
was from them, following his conquest of
Persia, that Alexander received this idea.
THE PINE CONE
The shape of the pine cone, with its round-
ness terminating in a pointed crown, was as-
sociated with the symbolism of a divine entity
by the cultures of ancient Syria. Confirming
the existence of this religious belief, a sym-
bolic representation of this tradition ap-
peared on the face of a coin from the reign of
Caracalla. This piece, now in the British Mu-
seum, shows a conoidal shape similar to that
of the pine cone placed as a god figure inside
a temple. The temple represented is that of
Emesa in Syria, the divine form represents
the sky god (EI-Gabel) or Jupiter Sol (see Fig.
1-2).
 Wood and Masonry Domes
1-2 The conoidal shape represented the sky Bod
(El-Gabel) or Jupiter Sol. This divine form is
shown in the temple of Emesa, Syria.
THE HEAVENLY HELMET
Another form that the domical shape has
been associated with in many religious beliefs
is that of a heavenly helmet symbolizing the
universe. In India the Hittite culture gave the
helmet symbolic significance as a celestial
sign, and in Syria it had a similar association.
In the Roman Empire the cult of the Dios-
kouroi also used the heavenly helmet symbol,
which can be seen on the coins of Rome and
Palestine from the time of Augustus and
Herod. \ of emperors, the allegory of Alexander the
The pileus of the Dioskouroi, the pointed
cap crowning the heads of the legendary
twins Castor and Pollux, related the symbol-
ism of the dome to that of the religious be-
liefs of the Dioskouroi cult regarding the im-
mortality of the soul. According to legend,
Castor and Pollux were the twin sons of Zeus
and Leda, born from an egg, whose symbol-
ism we have already seen. These two mytho-
logical brothers of Clytemnestra were visual-
ized as intermediaries between humans and
the pagan gods. Greeks and Romans both
worshipped them, in a cult that became par-
ticularly popular in the Roman Empire. The
popularity of the cult is even confirmed by
the symbol of the Dioskouroi being found
even on Roman coins. Domical forms and life
after death became so strongly associated
8
1-3 The domical shape of the R.oman pileus,
which was the pointed cap of the Dioskouroi, a
symbol of the popular cult, represented the
immortality of the human soul.
through the symbolism of this cult as to pro-
duce new concepts in pagan beliefs (see Fig.
1-3).
The tradition was then absorbed by the
Roman culture when, with the divinification
Great's domical tent fit perfectly the need of
the new imperial architecture for symboliz-
ing this pagan trend. The dome appeared in
imperial houses from Nero's Domus Aurea
on.
MORTUARY SYMBOLISM
The connection of the domical form with the
design of tombs was a tradition that started in
prehistoric times. The dome was associated
with the cult of the dead among ancient pop-
ulations in many parts of the world since at
least the Stone Age and probably earlier, and
Christianity picked up the tradition and car-
 Domes: Their Morphological Significance
ried it on. The dome and the concept of
roundness symbolized a prototype house
given to man by God, with the implication of
being as old as the human species itself.
When the concept of the immortality of the
soul required an eternal house to be built for
the dead, it was natural that the inspiring
form of the round dome with its divine origin
be used as a model.
The Scythians built dome tombs in ma-
sonry after the previously used wooden types,
which were also domically shaped. Some Ger-
manic tribes used a circular tumulus for their
tombs and built the central space in a parabo-
loid shape resembling their typical huts.
Etruscan Traditions
The Etruscans from the eighth century to the
first century B.C. built domical tombs by cut-
ting into bedrock and covering the holes with
soil to form mounds. This tradition derived
from ancient practices of the Italic popula-
tions and others that had flourished through-
out the Mediterranean area since the second
millennium B.C. The earth mounds of the
Etruscan tombs with their characteristic do-
mical shape are still visible in archaeological
sites today.
The lower part of Tuscany approaching
the north side of the territory around Rome
continues to reveal thousands of under-
ground round tombs, which are clearly visi-
ble from the air. Aerial photographs show
these circular structures that are only a few
feet below the surface of the undulating ter-
rain. The Etruscan sites, covered by soil de-
posited over centuries, still contain innumer-
able archaeological structures, of which the
domical tombs are only the most evident. Es-
pecially around Tarquinia and Cerveteri
thousands of tombs have been located, only
part of which have been excavated. Over the
last century the impulse of escalating archae-
ological fervor has revealed through such ex-
cavations the domical structure of these
tombs prominent in the architecture of the
Etruscan culture. Probably the shape that
9
housed the soul for eternity was the more
significant and gave the domical shape a
higher value than other structural options.
The archaeology of the Etruscan necropolis
testifies to the great importance the Etrus-
cans gave to their houses for the dead in
comparison to ones for the living. The Etrus-
can tomb was in fact often large enough to
contain the bodies of an entire family, includ-
ing its servants, and it duplicated the concept
of the house itself as a shelter that should
protect the soul until the end of time. The
typical Etruscan structure had to be covered
with one continuous surface and carried a
large load consisting of a layer of soil. The
dome was thus the only structural alternative
available to them for such a task.
The number of Etruscan domes has
proven to be so large that archaeological ex-
plorations have been made without requiring
total excavation. Often, after identifying the
location of a given circular tomb an opening
would be cut at its center and through it a
camera would be introduced to document
photographically the contents of the tomb,
using artificial lighting. If photographs
proved the interiors to be of major archaeo-
logical value, the tomb would then be exca-
vated, reducing the overall amount of ar-
chaeological work needed. It is interesting to
point out that the same method has often
been used for archaeological thievery to
furnish Etruscan collector pieces illegally
throughout the world.
Roman Traditions
Of particular significance in the Roman mor-
tuary tradition is the Mundus, an under-
ground circular structure covered with a
dome. Used as tombs since prehistoric times,
the Mundi became most popular in the
Roman world. Such round buildings covered
with domical roofs were typical in the funer-
ary architecture of Rome. The dome, repre-
senting the sky and heavens, was the essential
component for structures designed to house
the eternal spirits of the dead.
 Wood and Masonry Domes
CHRISTIAN SYMBOLISM
The emergence of Christianity from within
the Roman Empire caused many Roman
values and traditions to become part of the
new religion. Among these was the venera-
tion of martyrs that was, in effect, similar to
the glorification of Greek and Roman heroes.
The circular, dome-covered rotundas built as
tombs or memorials for such heroes were
imitated by the Christians for their mortuary
chapels or martyria, which were erected over
the relics of the saints. The cruciform church
with a central dome over its martyrium be-
came an early tradition in Christian symbol-
ism that lasted for centuries. This concept
spread following the increasing divulgation
of the cult of the martyrs that flourished par-
ticularly between the fourth and sixth cen-
turies A.D. It is in this period that this particu-
lar architectural symbolism developed fully.
Also derived from the pagan culture of
Rome was the association of imperial power
with divinity. The Christian counterpart to
the deification of the Roman emperor was
the concept of Christ the king that lasted
throughout the Middle Ages. Christianity ab-
sorbed this concept from pagan Rome, along
with the symbolism associated with it. The
celestial dome representing the divine nature
of the Roman emperor as derived from the
cosmic tent of Alexander the Great became
part of Christian allegories. The result was a
prominent role for the dome in Christian
architecture.
Byzantine Traditions
The birth of the Byzantine Empire from its
Roman counterpart started Christian archi-
tecture with great vigor. Born in the fourth
century after a splitting of the Roman Em-
pire into eastern and western counterparts,
the Byzantine Empire produced a culture
that unified the Roman, Greek, and Oriental
traditions, resulting in a new entity that bor-
rowed from each of them. When Christianity
10
came to be proclaimed the official religion of
the state, Christians found the need for a
symbolic expression that could use the dome
in terms of their traditions.
The mystic significance of the dome in
Byzantine architecture was greatly in-
fluenced by the Christian traditions of Syria
and Palestine as brought out through their
theology. These schools of thought included
the cults of the dead and of relics, as well as
the domical symbolism associated with mar-
tyria. They also encompassed the cosmic idea
of the dome over the house of God to repre-
sent Heaven.
Modem Symbolism
The practice of attributing symbolic values to
geometric configurations applied to architec-
tural structures is not limited to ancient his-
torical traditions. For instance, the hyper-
bolic paraboloid, which is a relatively modern
geometric form, stimulated mystical feelings
in Antonio Gaudi (1852 -1926), who saw the
Holy Trinity in the generation of a surface
depending on three straight lines, the genera-
trix and two directrices. During his search for
a rational form to apply to the shape of the
I stone vault for the Sagrada Familia in Barce-
lona, Gaudi visualized the Father and Son in
the two infinite straight lines constituting the
directrices, and saw the Holy Ghost in the
straight-line generatrix.
Although architecture will always remain
strictly connected with human events, the
symbolic component that derives from
human passions will always manifest itself
through an allegoric language. The rational-
ity characterizing the twentieth century finds
in the simplicity of geometric forms a way to
express a surrealistic world symbolizing the
dominance of modern science over the des-
tiny of humanity in this era. It is from this
view that the serenity of smooth continuous
curved surfaces used for thin shells can be
visualized as the expression of placid celestial
bodies in the universe or in the microcosm of
the subatomical particles. This is of course a
 Domes: Their MorpholoOical Sioniflcance

possible interpretation that could be accepted allegory in whatever form they may be ex-
in the case of the curvilinear forms discussed pressed will always be at the root of any archi-
in this context which does not include other tectural work.
architectural developments. Symbolism and

NOTES

1. E. Baldwin Smith. The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971).
2. According to legend, the religious schools or cults of the Dioskouroi, founded by Orpheus, are assumed to
have begun by the end of the seventh century B.C. and possibly even a century earlier. Several cults were
popular in Athens at that time.
3. Various nomadic peoples settled in the area between the Black Sea, the Don, and the Dnieper rivers in
the eighth century B.C. These were belligerent tribes who interacted with the Assyrians, Phoenicians,
Persians, and Greeks. They were finally displaced by the Celts and dispersed in the fourth century B.C. See
Smith, op. cit.

11
CHAPTER 2

Domes: From Andent to Islamic

Much more meaning can be derived by con- DOMES FROM THEIR

sidering masonry domes as case studies ANCIENT BEGINNINGS
rather than testaments to architectural his-
tory. A bird's-eye view of the major city- Rock-Cut Tombs
scapes of Europe and Asia would show sil-
houettes of domical structures against the The constructionally simplest as well as earli-
skyline. To a lesser extent curvilinear shapes est example of the dome is the rock-cut tomb.
would not be foreign even to the New World. Such tombs have been found in many civiliza-
Scores of monuments to the Christian faith in tions, including the Aegean, Egyptian,
western cities and equally numerous Islamic Greek, Etruscan, Medean, Persian, and
mosques throughout the lands under Otto- Roman.
man rule are crowned by imaginative geo- Typically placed below ground level (see
metric compositions of various shapes that Fig. 2-1), the rock-cut dome used as funerary
combine to create an identity unique to each architecture is significant in the development
cityscape. The ages of these structures vary
widely from one another, but regardless of
their life span they are all part of the present.
Many of the monuments of our historic
centers are deeply incorporated within their
urban structures as part of living history.
Their physical integrity and fully operational
status keep such structures far from being
museum pieces in need of protection. Still
standing on their own, they form an organic
agglomeration of structures well suited for
contemporary living in harmony with their 2- 1 Rock-cut domes with a pointed domical
surroundings. shape, at CaitaOirone, Sicily.

13
 Wood and Masonry Domes
of the dome, especially considering the level
of importance the tomb had in ancient civili-
zations. The rock-cut tomb, definitely a mon-
ument, employed the domical shape as a dis-
tinct choice of geometric configuration,
under the influence of the symbolism asso-
ciated with an eternal house for the immortal
soul. The development of the technology
must of course have preceded that of the
mortuary symbolism. However, rock-cut
tombs are clearly among the first expressions
of the masonry dome, even if the dome's
structure did use the technique of concentric
corbeling. The most significant of the rock-
cut tombs discovered to now is the four-
teenth-century B.C. Mycenaean tomb known
as the Treasury of Atreus or the Tomb of
Agamemnon (see Fig. 2-2).
THE TREASURY OF ATREUS, MYCENAE
(c. 1325 B.C.)
The Treasury of Atreus or Tomb of Aga-
memnon, in ancient Mycenae in the Pelopon-
nesus Islands of the Aegean Sea, is a famous
example of corbeled domes in the Mediterra-
nean area. Following the traditions of rock-
cut tombs, this structure was built within a pit
2-2 The Treasury of Atreus, also referred to
as the Tomb of Aeamemnon, in ~cenae. The
upper part of the cylindrical stone structure,
built with thirtylour horizontal rines, is a
sieniftcant example of the corbeled (false) dome.
14
excavated on the slope of a hill, with one axis
running horizontally from the hill's slope to
the bottom of the tomb. The structure itself,
48 ft (14.6 m) in diameter and 44 ft (13.4 m)
high, is cylindrical, with a domical cover that
reaches the surface of the ground. The struc-
ture consists in the lower part of masonry
courses laid horizontally, continuing at the
top to form a dome consisting of concentric
rings whose diameter is gradually reduced.
The method of construction for the dome
requires no supporting centering. However,
the orientation of the horizontal joints drasti-
cally reduces the dome's load-carrying ca-
pacity.
Consisting as it does of thirty-four ma-
sonry courses crowned at the top by a single
stone fitted to close the dome, this structure
is particularly important to the history of an-
cient construction techniques, because it in-
dicates the level of understanding in that
epoch concerning the static equilibrium of
curvilinear structural forms. This example of
a so-called false dome marks a significant
stage in the history of the development of
vaulting.
Utilitarian Domes
Domes also appeared in early history in var-
ious utilitarian forms. In much of the world,
granaries, storage buildings in general,
ovens, kilns, ice houses, and cisterns were
often built using domical structures. The jus-
tification for adopting the dome for use in
such structures derives from functional con-
siderations and building technology factors.
Domical silos were used in Egyptian towns,
as shown by paintings found in the tombs of
Ramses III (late twelfth century B.C.) illus-
trating large dome-shaped silos and numer-
ous such ovens. Another painting in the tomb
of Ineny, an Egyptian architect, shows two
domed silos as part of his country house.
Dome-shaped kilns were also used in
China. They typically consist of several
domed structures interconnected at their
bases and located along a hillside or artificial
slope (see Fig. 2-3). In Iran, masonry domes
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-3 A cross-section of typical Chinese chamber kilns consistin8 of a series of interconnected domical
structures followin8 the slope of a hill or an artificial slope.

2-4 A sun-dried dome used as an ice house in Kerman, Iran. In this type of structure the ice is
packed between layers of straw, which allows it to be stored for a considerable time.

were used for ice houses. Inside the struc-

ture, ice was packed between layers of straw.
The masonry material used was usually sun-
dried mud brick (see Fig. 2-4). Beginning in
the Middle East, underground cisterns for
water storage were usually covered with ma-
sonry domes. The example in Figure 2-5
shows one of these structures, in Yazd, Iran.
Notice the wind towers around the dome,
which provide cooling action on the water
stored in the cistern. Dome structures for
pottery kilns are also found in California. Fig-
ure 2-6 shows examples of domical kilns at
the San Antonio de Padua Mission there (c. 2- 5 A masonry dome used to cover under8round
1800). In Mexico, pottery kilns are often cov- cisterns for water stora8e, at Yazd, Iran. The
ered with heavy stone domes. An example of wind towers around the dome cool the stored water.

15
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-6 Domical pottery kilns at San Antonio de Padua, California (c. 1800).
one such kiln may be seen in Figure 2-7. The
structure shown, at Metepec, Mexico, con-
sists of a cylindrical chamber built of regular
masonry courses crowned by a dome of ma-
sonry rubble.
Primitive domes were built to cover
structures used for habitation, defense, and
burial. The sophisticated Neolithic civiliza-
- - -=- -- ---=--
2 -7 Masonry rubble covers this pottery kiln at
Metepec, Mexico.
tion, which discovered the corbeled stone
dome, used it extensively as a building form
for dwellings (see Fig. 2-8). The Egyptians
also discovered and used the dome on small-
scale dwelling units, even though their philos-
ophy of building excluded vaulting in general
from their formal architecture. A domical
mud hut prototype in the British Museum
shows the application of the dome to lower-
class dwelling structures (see Figure 2-9).
The names identifying the various local
traditional forms vary. On the island of Pan-
telleria, between Sicily and Tunisia, the
structures in question, the sesi, were used as
tombs. In Puglia, in southern Italy, the struc-
tures referred to are called trulli. Some of
them are still standing, such as the typical
ones at Alberobello, used for habitation. The
specchie, also in Puglia, near Salento, are meg-
alithic structures of the same character as the
trulli but preceding them. In Sardinia they
are called nuraghi. These powerful structures
built with megalithic blocks were used in an-
cient times as dwellings but are today only
ruins left by the thousands all over the island.
The Balearic Islands have talayots that follow
the same building criteria as the other
megalithic structures around the Mediter-
ranean.
For an overview of where ancient domical
~ structures with primitive characteristics are
to be found in the Mediterranean region, see
the map in Figure 2-10.
Primitive domical structures with their or-
16
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

~.

2-9 A prototype of primitive mud huts from

ancient E8Ypt showine a circular floor plan and a
well-developed domical roof structure. Courtesy
the British Museum.

Igms in ancient times are by no means re-

"" ..... ..
'.:~.~~~:.~.::
;
stricted to the Mediterranean coast. Exam-
ples can also be found inland in France (see
2-8 A reconstruction of a Neolithic villaee at Fig. 2-11) and Ireland (see Fig. 2-12). How-
Khirokitia on the island of Cyprus, showine ever, the Figure 2-12 illustrates a stone barrel
houses with mud-brick domes over circular stone vault on a rectangular plan, rather than a
walls. From Mellart, 1965. circular do mica I vault.

2-10 The distribution of primitive domical structures found throuehout the Mediterranean.

17
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-1 1 A primitive stone dwellinn in France,
based on the rubble-masonry vaultinn technique.
2-12 A primitive stone hut in Ireland.
Primitive Domes
SESI
The ancient tombs of Pantelleria called sesi
were constructed in the shape of tall domes
with a typical elliptical plan, although circular
configurations have also been observed.
These structures consist of crude stones
whose sizes at times are on a megalithic scale.
The interior is usually subdivided into several
circular cells connected by a corridor.
Approximately fifty such structures have
survived the destructive action of time. They
are located on a promontory called Mursia,
near the remnants of a fortified village. The
culture that built the sesi and the village must
have been at the level of the Neolithic Age,
18
because no metal objects have ever been
found in either the sesi or the village. How-
ever, it is possible that this Neolithic society
existed apart on this island while the rest of
the world might have been ahead of the
Stone Age by millennia. Furthermore, some
correlations seem feasible between the domi-
cal sesi and some megalithic monuments in
North Africa.
NURAGHI
The nuraghi, which are megalithic structures
typical of Sardinia, consist of heavy walls en-
closing circular spaces covered by elongated
domes or truncated cones that give them the
aspect of powerful towers. These prehis-
toric structures seem to have originated in
the Neolithic Age and to have developed
through the Bronze and Iron ages until the
Roman conquest of the island. What is left of
the nuraghi today is only ruins (see Fig.
2-13), but they number over six thousand.
Their great numbers over a relatively small
island made them heavily concentrated in
certain areas. At one time the nuraghi were
thought to have been tombs, but there is no
doubt now that they were dwelling struc-
tures.
The general layout of a nuraghi consisted
of an entrance door with a heavy lintel and a
corridor with niches. The corridor led to a
main circular chamber, over which a dome
extended vertically (see Figs. 2-14 and 2-15).
The dome itself was of the corbeled type (see
Fig. 2-16). This major characteristic ties the
nuraghi to the other primitive domes that
extended this construction's typology from
Mesopotamia through Asia Minor to the
Mediterranean.
The nuraghis' large, heavy stone blocks
that were laid in courses without mortar
joints suggest that it must have required an
organized effort to quarry the blocks and lift
and position them from the ground up to
their sometimes considerable height. Some
nuraghi include more than one story, with a
spiral stairway inside the thick walls, demon-
strating a well-elaborated building concept.
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-13 Nuraghi at Paggaggiu di Castel Sardo, Sardinia.

2-14 A longitudinal cross-section of a large multistructure nuraghi at St. Barbara di Villanova, Sardinia.

2-15 The plan of the nuraghi shown in Figure 2-14.

19
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-16 An interior view of a nuraohi lookino at
its domical vault from below.
The locations of the nuraghi on the island
of Sardinia include the most logical sites for
habitation, effective working conditions in
agriculture, stock raising, and exploitation of
the sea. Nuraghi are thus found along the
coast wherever the coastline offers access for
landing and along the valleys that allow pene-
tration from shore to interior. Some nuraghi
had the clearly defensive function of protect-
ing special areas, using fortifications and stra-
tegic siting.
The architectural typology of the nuraghi
did not remain constant but evolved over the
long period that saw nuraghi usage. Their
multistory concept that produced structures
up to three stories high is one indication of
the evolutionary process that these primitive
domical structures underwent.
SPECCHIE
The specchie of the Puglia region are rem-
nants of ancient megalithic structures similar
to the nuraghi of Sardinia, the sesi of Pantel-
leria, and others found elsewhere in the Med-
iterranean. Specchie are found specifically in
that area of the Puglia called Salento that
includes the provinces of Taranto, Brindisi,
and Leece and are numerous along the Ionic
coast. Their particular use is not absolutely
20
clear, but they might have been defensive
towers and parts of fortified villages.
Their construction characteristics are
equal to those of the trulIi that followed the
specchie up to the present.
TRULLl
Trulli are stone structures typical of the Pu-
glia region in southern Italy whose morphol-
ogy and construction features are still used
today. These prehistoric descendants of the
specchie followed the same techniques used
in other megalithic structures around the
Mediterranean.
From father to son, the tradition of build-
ing this ancient type of structure continued
uninterruptedly over millennia. Trulli are
square or circular stone structures covered
with conical stone domes built with corbeling
techniques. The rings of stones are jointed
not horizontally but by being efficiently in-
clined toward the inside, and they are
crowned by a keystone cut in certain charac-
teristic shapes that are either pointed or
spherical.
There are basically two types of trulli:
those built in the fields as rough shelters for
storage, and those intended for habitation in
settlements. The first type was built with field
stones collected while clearing the land. The
area where these trulli are found has a sub-
stratum of limestone that deteriorates from
atmospheric agents to produce fragments
that periodically have to be removed to be
able to farm. The domestic type of trulli is
usually a combination of several trulli con-
nected to a main one. The stone courses are
"dry" (do not include mortar), and in dwell-
ing trulli the walls are covered with a stucco
in some shade of white. Particularly interest-
ing are the niches cut into the thick walls in
which utilities, furniture, and even beds
could be placed.
A dwelling-type trulli used in the context
of contemporary living may create quite an
interesting architectural composition. Trulli
may be complemented, for example, by a
surrounding extension with a roof that
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
blends with its dome. A more typical arrange-
ment of trulli today is to combine a major one
and several smaller ones to form one family
dwelling.
The work of Edward Allen I has clarified
the configuration of typical trulli as being
built with a square floor plan having horizon-
tal courses, rather than being radially in-
clined, as in dome construction. The final
construction is then a false dome, with its
lower efficiency. Allen further describes the
imaginative technology that makes the transi-
tion between the square portions of the
buildings and the circular shape of their
domes in which pseudopendentives are
employed.
TALAYOT
Talayot is a term used to identify the mega-
lithic structures of the Balearic Islands,
whose ruins are estimated to date back to the
second millennium B.C. in the Bronze Age.
Similar to the nuraghi of Sardinia and other
megalithic structures in the Mediterranean,
talayots were powerful stone structures cov-
ered with conical corbeled domes. Their use
is not certainly known, but they could have
been funerary monuments, although this hy-
pothesis does not seem probable. They were
more likely defensive towers or buildings for
worship. They are particularly numerous on
the island of Majorca, where approximately a
thousand are still visible. On Minorca an-
other three hundred or so of these ruins can
be observed.
Vaulting in the New World
The techniques of vaulting were well under-
stood in the New World before any Euro-
pean introduction of them. Examples of bar-
rel-vault roof structures covering communal
houses have been recorded from centuries
ago. The earliest examples, known as long- __. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
houses were sited in the primitive fortified
villages of the Tunbinamba along the Brazil-
ian coast. First discovered by the Italian ex- with a conical dome-shaped thatch roof
plorer Antonio Pigafetta in 1519, they were
later recorded by Hans von Staden, who
made a woodcut illustrating fortified villages
with longhouses and characteristic barrel
vaults.
DOMES IN THE PACIFIC
Conical wooden huts built with tree
branches, bamboos, or other ligneous mate-
rials are found in many parts of the world
where the weather is not dominated by rain
or low temperatures. Roofed with thatch,
such huts as the Ethiopian one shown offer
little shelter from rain and cold (see Fig.
2-17).
On the other hand, on the Pacific island of
Samoa a domical structure built with the
same materials becomes a much more sophis-
ticated structure classifiable as a true dome.
Its structural members bend along curvilin-
ear shapes to form a trellis of interwoven
arches intersecting each other at almost
ninety-degree angles. Figure 2-18 shows such
a dome built for a Samoan chief.
MASONRY DOMES IN NORTH AFRICA
Domes typical of the Islamic tradition in ver-
nacular architecture are still constructed
today by local masons throughout North
Africa and the Middle East. Without plans
or engineering specifications, these masons
build domes based on empirical rules passed
down from father to son. Figure 2-19 shows
Ifi....--
2-1 7 A primitive circular Ethiopian hut covered
21
 Wood and Masonry Domes

courses of compacted snow blocks, becomes

2-1 8 This primitive wooden dome in Samoa
consists of a spheroidal trellis of interwoven
bamboo built accordino to an indioenous ancient
technoloBJ. This structure is the house of a
Samoan chief
the construction of a characteristic brick
dome in Morocco. Such domes are found in
the Moslem countries of Africa as expressions
typical of their culture, which seeks to distin-
guish itself from the rest of the continent.
IGLOOS
The igloo of the Inuit or Eskimo tribes is a
significant example of primitive dome con-
struction that emerged spontaneously from
experience and survived for centuries be-
cause of the soundness of its structural princi-
ples. An igloo dome, built from consecutive
monolithic when its blocks are cemented to-
gether by becoming ice. Igloo construction
follows the same rules as the corbel dome.
The blocks that are cut from banks of com-
pacted snow with a typical ivory knife usually
measure from 3 to 4 ft (1 m to 1.2 m) in
length, 2 ft (.6 m) in height, and 8 in (20.3
cm) in thickness. They are arranged in a
series of concentric circular layers. The top
of each layer is sloped inward by shaping the
top surface with a knife to prevent the blocks
from sliding inward after each course is com-
pleted. The typical igloo has an average di-
ameter of 15 ft (4.6 m) and an average height
of 12 ft (3.7 m), adequate for a single-family
dwelling. Smaller igloos built by travelers are
usually 7 ft (2 m) in diameter by 5 ft (1.5 m)
high (see Fig. 2-20). A number of intercon-
nected small domes or one barrel vault con-
stitute the entranceway. A block of clear ice
or a membrane of intestinal tissue from a seal
are used for windows.
It is particularly interesting to underline
the special property of this structure that,
although it starts from individual blocks, it
becomes monolithic at the end. This brings
to mind that clay structures in the Mid-

2-19 In the Islamic tradition of vernacular architecture, typical domical

structures are still constructed by local masons in North Africa and the
Middle East without plans or enoineerino specifications, from empirical
rules passed down throuoh father to son.

22
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-20 The Eskimo ialoo is a sian!ftcant example of primitive dome

construction that oriainates from corbeled courses of compacted snow blocks
that become a solid monolith when they turn into ice.

die East have recently been converted into
strong, monolithic ceramic units by firing the
clay at a high temperature with oil burners.
Domes of the Ancient East
STUPAS (PSEUDODOMES)
The monumental ancient structures known
as stupas were built all over Asia as Buddhist
shrines. Their inclusion here has been deter-
mined not from their structural character,
which is of covered rock mounds, but for
their typical domical shapes.
Shrines of the Buddhist faith were estab-
lished in North India in the fifth century B.C.
by its founder Prince Siddartha (Sakyamuni
Gautama, the first in a series of Buddhas that
will reoccur forever). Stupas derived from
the traditional old burial mounds built up of
earth. The first stupas were simply hemi-
spherical structures of solid masonry that
contained a small chamber in which the holy
relics of the Buddha were preserved. Later
they evolved into new domical forms, of
which the most characteristic was in the
shape of a bulb.
As Buddhism expanded, the architecture
of its stupas migrated to the Asiatic countries
that embraced this new faith. In the process,
it evolved in complexity from the original
Indian concept of the burial earth mound.
The stupa did not solve the structural
problem of static stability but rather was built
of almost solid masonry. Its importance in the
history of the dome is that it reinforced the
significance of the domical shape that had
attained such important meaning in the reli-
gious context.
In Afghanistan, numerous ruins of ancient
stupas can be found near Kabul and along the
Kabul River. The most significant examples
are the stu pas of Hadda and of Bamian. In
Burma during the so-called pagan period
many stu pas were built. There were more
than five thousand stu pas and temples within
the area of the capital. In Pakistan, especially
in the northwest, numerous stupas can be
found, particularly at the Khyber Pass and in
Taxila and Mankiala.
In India the most important stu pas are in
Sanchi, in north-central India. Of these, one
of the most important, the Great Stupa, dates
to the third century B.C. Built of solid brick, it

23
 Wood and Masonry Domes

2-21 The quat stupa (second century B.C.) at Sanchi, India.

measures 106 ft (32 m) in diameter and 42 ft

(12.8 m) in height. A significant example is
the Stupa of Amravati. The Quat Stupa in · f

Sanchi, erected in the second century B.C., is

shown in Figure 2-21.
In Laos, as in many other countries under
the influence of Indo-Chinese culture, reli-
gious architecture was easily absorbed from
neighboring countries. The architecture of
stupas came in particular from Thailand and
Burma in the sixteenth century. The Luang
Stupa is the most famous of these.
Buddhist stupas in Nepal are typical struc-
tures that derived directly from the cultures
of India and China. The most well known are
the Bodnnath Stupa and the Swayambhunath
Stupa, both in the vicinity of Katmandu.
Buddhist architecture in Thailand as in-
spired by its neighboring countries is re-
flected mainly in stupas. Some have a rectan-
gular configuration, but those in the so-called
Ayhudhya style of the Thai period (from the
thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries) in-
stead have a circular plan and are bell
shaped. Prachedi or Siamese bell-shaped
stupas were used here more as royal tombs
than shrines. An excellent example of Pra- 2-22 The stupa of Nakhon Pathom in
chedi is the stupa at Nakhon Pathom, with its Thailand. The main portion of the structure is
typical bell-shaped dome surmounted by an bell shaped (prachedi). A tall conical spire
elongated conical spire (see Fig. 2-22). extends over its top.

24
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
Near East Traditions
The history of vaults and domes seems to
have roots extending farther back in the
Near East than in any other part of the
world. The area of earliest development is
the Mesopotamian plateau between the
Tigris and Euphrates, where the fertility of
the land flooded annually by these two rivers
made the area the most desirable on earth.
Here where human civilization began is
where the Garden of Eden might have been,
if it indeed existed, and where men discov-
ered the stable effects of curvilinearity in
arches, vaults, and domes.
The first settlers in this region were the
Sumerians, who invented writing. In the
fourth millennium B.C. their architecture
included vaults and domes. The tomb
chambers in the Royal Cemetery at Ur in
southern Mesopotamia were characteristi-
cally vaults and domes built of stone rubble
masonry. Following the Sumerians in this
area came the Babylonians, who acquired
power in the twenty-first century B.C. The
Babylonians or Chaldeans knew arches and
vaults. In the city of Nippur, unburnt brick
masonry has been used to build arches since
4000 B.C. In the necropolis of Mugheir, for
instance, corbeled vaults built with unburnt
brick show courses laid horizontally to make
false vaults. Another example is the half-cir-
cle arches in the harem at Khorsabad.
Following the Babylonians, the Assyrians
come to control Mesopotamia by 1210 B.C.,
followed in 612 B.C. by the Neo-Babylonian
period that lasted until 538 B.C. when the
Persians came to power.
The complexity of the Persian influence
on Mesopotamia can be simplified into its
basic historical periods. The Achaemenid
Empire lasted from 549 B.C. to 330 B.C.,
when it capitulated to the Macedonian Alex-
ander the Great. The Seleucid Empire ruled
the area from the death of Alexander to the
rise of the Romans in 64 B.C. overlapping it
was the Parthian period, from 250 B.C. to A.D.
226, during which the Parthians claimed to
25
have restored the Old Achaemenid Empire.
Finally came the Sassanian period from A.D.
226 until A.D. 640, when it was overrun by
Arab invaders.
Under Persian rule the architecture of
Mesopotamia continued its tradition of vaults
and domes. For example, the palace at Feruz-
Abad, south of Persepolis, contains three
domes covering three square halls. This
structure was built with rubble masonry cov-
ered with plaster in A.D. 250. A circular dome
with elliptical cross-sections made of rubble
stone masonry that was covered with plaster
roofed the central part of the palace of Shah-
pur at Bishapur, west of Persepolis. Built in
A.D. 260, this Sassanian dome springs right
from ground level.
In the palace at Sarvistan, near Persepolis,
a vertically elongated dome pierced by nar-
row openings for lighting and ventilation ex-
tends over a central part of the building.
Built in A.D. 350, this Sassanian dome is car-
ried by squinch arches that span across the
corner angles (see Fig. 2-23).
An ancient example of elliptical barrel
2- 23 The Palace of Sarvistan, near Persepolis
(c. 350 A.D.), had a diameter of apprOXimately
42 ft (12.8 m) and included a central dome
shaped like a beehive with hiBh barrel vaults
coverinB its exterior porches.
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-24 The palace at Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia, built under the reion of Khosrou I (A.D. 531- 579).
A structure of mud brick masonry, it contained a laroe barrel vault over the banquet hall.
vaults with exceptionally large dimensions
can be seen in the vault over the hall in the
palace at Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. Built of
brick masonry, this vault spanned 83 ft (25.3
m), rose 120 ft (36.6 m), and was 24 ft (7.3 m)
thick at the base (see Fig. 2-24).
ROMAN DOMES AND VAULTS
The development of domes and vaults in
Roman architecture grew out of Etruscan
traditions that included arches, pseudo-
domes, and pseudovaults covering large
tombs. The Roman dome also inherited its
circular planimetric form from the Etruscans,
who favored domical roofs. Some examples
of such early Roman domes include the tem-
ple of Venus at Baalbek and the mausoleum
of Caecilia Metellus on the Appian Way.
The concrete mixture and method that
the Romans developed and used was a unique
material essential to the success of Roman
vaulting. A mixture of lime and pozzolana
gave them a hydraulic cement that created a
monolithic mass.
The further development of the Etruscan
arch and vault by the Romans to cover larger
26
spans proceeded gradually through trial and
error. The early examples were fairly short
in span, although even before the empire
Roman technology was able to span up to 80
ft (24 m) as in Pons Fabricius.
The geometry of the vaults used by the
Romans included the barrel vault, cross-
vault, hemispherical dome, and semidome.
The barrel vault was a direct extension of the
arch. The cross-vault, which results from the
intersection of two barrel vaults, was used for
covering square areas. The intersecting
arches between the two barrels in a cross-
vault are known as groins. Rectangular
spaces were subdivided into squares, then
covered with square cross-vaults. Hemispher-
ical domes were used to cover circular spaces,
semidomes to cover semicircular ones.
The confidence that Roman builders had
in geometry as a major factor in structural
strength is dramatically demonstrated by the
number and sizes of the vaults and domes
they built. Their preference for circular
forms over all other shapes indicates their at
least partial understanding of structural anal-
ysis as it is known today.
The complexity and articulation of
Roman circular vaults go beyond the proto-
typical structures visible in buildings. Hidden
 Domes: From Ancient
applications in bridge construction reveal a
relatively unknown aspect of the structural
use of the vault (see Fig. 2-25).
Significant Examples
of Roman Domes
THE STABIAN BATHS, POMPEII
(c. 120 B.C.)
The frigidarium (cooling room) in the Stabian
Baths at Pompeii was covered by a concrete
dome that is the oldest of its type to have
survived. The intrados and extrados are both
conical surfaces. The internal diameter at the
base is approximately 20 ft (6 m). At the top,
the dome was discontinued by a circular
open mg.
THE FORUM BATHS, POMPEII
(c. 80 B.C.)
In the Forum Baths the frigidarium was cov-
ered with a conical dome similar in shape and
construction to that of the Stabian Baths, also
including a central eye at the top.
SEMIDOME THERMAE OF AGRIPPA,
ROME (c. 20 B.C.)
The partial dome incorporated in this struc-
ture represents an early example of this spe-
cial domical form in Roman architecture that
came to be used profusely in later centuries.
2-25 Roman technoloBJ in masonry vaultinB as applied to bridBes.
27
to Islamic
BATHS AT BAIAE
In the famous resort town of Baiae near Poz-
woli in the Naples area there was a complex
of public baths among the patrician villas.
The present remains include three separate
buildings that were originally covered with
domes. These buildings have been identified
as the temples of Diana, Venus, and Mercury.
Two of these domes had octagonal extrados
and the third a conical exterior profile, but
all three had circular intrados. Their con-
struction dates are later than those for the
baths in Pompeii. More specifically, the three
structures can be described as follows.
The Temple of Diana. The dome over the
structure is 96 ft (29.26 m) in diameter. It
was built with sandstone (tufa) that is typical
of the area and in fact is still used in construc-
tion. Mixed with the tufa were masonry brick
courses running horizontally to tie together
the less regular tufa courses.
The Temple of Venus. A 60 ft (18.28 m) di-
ameter dome built with the same construc-
tion characteristics as those of the dome over
the Temple of Diana and Temple of Mercury
is used in this building. It consists of tufa
masonry laid in horizontal courses. Courses
of brick and concrete tie together the ma-
sonry with structural rings of a material more
dependable than soft sandstone.
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-26 The dome over the Temple of Mercury at Baiae, Pompeii. It was
built with tufa masonry and horizontal brick courses over a diameter of
66 ft (20 m).
The Temple of Mercury. This dome 66 ft
(20.11 m) in diameter is built with the same
construction characteristic of the other
domes at Baiae. However, since part of this
dome has collapsed, it is possible to observe
its cross-section. These domes at Baiae could
have covered the frigidaria of the baths
rather than the temples, as has been pro-
posed, because the openings in the domes
were systematically placed according to cri-
teria used for frigidaria (see Fig. 2-26).
THE DOMUS AUGUSTANA, ROME
The Domus Augustana, located near the
Circus Maximus, included an octagonal hall
in the domestic wing of this palace. Hidden to
exterior view, a dome covered this interior
space. Most Roman domes were mainly in-
tended to complete the interior space, with
little concern for making a statement on the
outside. Many domes were indeed covered
on their exteriors with a secondary roof (see
Fig. 2-27).
THE DOMUS AUREA
The Domus Aurea of Nero includes a dome
over the main hall, with an octagonal base
contained within an inscribing circle 48.2 ft
28
(14.7 m) in diameter that encloses an inner
circle 44.3 ft (13.5 m) across. The shape of
the dome varies gradually from polygonal to
spherical in its upper part until it culminates
in a circular opening at the crown. This
structure is all-concrete, with brick rings
around its openings (see Fig. 2-28).
A passage from Suetonius ("Praecipua
cenationum rotunda, quae perpetuo diebus
ac notcibus vice mundi circumageretur") has
led to the deduction that in this building the
hall for banquets and audiences was covered
with a wooden dome decorated with astrolog-
ical signs that constantly revolved night and
day as the sky did above the earth. This may
have symbolized the belief in the divine na-
ture of the Roman emperor after the im-
ported Eastern tradition of the domically
shaped tent of Alexander the Great that sym-
bolized his cosmic power. Nero's intention to
incarnate the sun god and his resulting deci-
sion to build the Domus Aurea as sun palace
seems to support the actual existence of this
wooden dome. Historical accounts of similar
wooden domes in the Parthian Empire rein-
force the possibility that when the Romans
conquered the Parthians they imported this
architectural feature. The writings of Philos-
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
B
2-27 The Domus Aunustana, Rome. a) A floor
plan showinn the octanonal hall. b) A cross-section.
tratus describe the ceilings of Parthian impe-
rial audience halls like this: "The ceiling of
which once was constructed in the form of a
dome like the heavens, covered with sapphire
stone, these stones being intensely blue and
of the color of the sky . . . . And in its
heights are the images of the gods in whom
they believe, and they appear golden." 2
THE PANTHEON, ROME (A.D. 120-124)
This dome is the most important of all those
built before the advent of scientific engineer-
ing. Empirically designed and capitalizing on
all the engineering techniques of its time, in-
cluding such materials as Roman concrete
29
and a general understanding of the statics of
vaults, the dome of the Pantheon is the result
of both daring design and good judgment.
These qualities have been proven over the
two millennia of its existence and its apparent
ability to endure indefinitely. If nothing else,
just by the fact that such a structure could be
built to last the Pantheon's dome has inspired
many great domes that succeeded it.
In addition to the engineering features
that make the dome viable, this structure has
unique, inspiring design qualities. Its simplic-
ity of geometry and the feeling of power and
strength that the overall admirable composi-
tion gives can readily influence designers of
other domes. The volumetric composition of
the Pantheon consists of a vertical cylinder
containing a sphere. The cylinder extends
for one-third its height above the equator of
the sphere. The sphere is actually built for
just half its surface, to form the hemispheri-
cal dome. The lower part of the sphere is of
course purely imaginary but could be per-
ceived.
The extension of the cylindrical body
above the equator of the sphere (i.e., above
the springing level of the hemispherical
dome) is primarily for structural reasons, al-
though it also minimizes the exterior domi-
nance of the dome. Structurally it was neces-
sary to counteract the horizontal thrust at the
bottom of the dome. The weight and mass of
the extended portion of the cylinder acted as
a tension ring. Visually the extended cylinder
concealed part of the dome, because the inte-
rior surface of the dome is what is most
important.
The Pantheon derives its name from the
dedication of this temple to all the pagan
gods of ancient Rome. The divine symbolism
of the dome as seen from inside reflects the
religious feeling in this pagan temple. Histo-
rians explain that the present Pantheon con-
tains two combined structures: a front por-
tico that once belonged to the Temple of
Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, and a ro-
tunda, with a dome added later by Hadrian.
The first temple, of Agrippa, was completed
 Wood and Masonry Domes
, ...........
................
J dome's weight. Both the coffers and the ocu-
.. .. ". ..
A
B VILLA, TIVOLI (A.D. 124)
2-28 The Domus Aurea of Nero, Rome. a) A
floor plan showina the main hall with an
octaaonal floor plan, covered by a dome. b) A
cross-section facina north.
in 25 B.C. but burned in the first century A.D.
The second temple, now called the Pan-
theon, was built between A.D . 120 and 124
over the remnants of the first one.
The theoretical sphere that could be in-
serted into the cylindrical body of the Pan-
theon would have a diameter of 142.5 ft
(43 .5 m). In other words, the diameter of this
sphere is the diameter of a cylinder equal to
the diameter of the dome at its base and to
the height of the top of the dome above the
floor.
The materials used for the Pantheon in-
clude masonry of bricks and tufa found be-
tween Rome and Naples and conventional
mortar using the local pozzolana instead of
sand, a practice still followed today because
of the abundance of this soil in the area.
Particularly important in the Pantheon
dome is the lightening of it that reduced the
horizontal thrust at the base of the dome.
This paring down was accomplished by
removing some of the materials within
30
the thickness of the dome, thus generating
coffers. Having a central opening on the top,
the oculum, contributes also to reducing the
lum were not only structurally expedient fea-
tures but also architectural elements. The
oculum is in fact the only source of illumina-
tion, but it is particularly effective.
The never-ending interest in the dome of
the Pantheon continues to inspire scholars
around the world for the many lessons that
we can learn from the structure - not only
for its architectural morphology but also for
its engineering interpretation of statical sta-
bility and building technology.
THE HALL OF STATE IN THE HADRIAN
Another dome of significant importance is
the one that once stood on the Hadrian Villa.
The basic configuration of this no longer
standing dome is hypothetically illustrated by
the reconstruction drawings in Figure 2-29.
THE TEMPLE OF VESTA, ROME (A.D. 205)
Destroyed and rebuilt several times, this
round little temple in the Roman Forum is
surrounded by a colonnade and has an inte-
rior only 18.5 ft (5.6 m) in diameter. Crown-
ing the main body was a dome in its latest
reconstruction by Septimius Severus.
VAULTS OF THERMAE OF CARACALLA,
ROME (A.D. 212-217)
A dome over the calidarium here was similar
to that of the Pantheon. The central hall was
covered with three concrete vaults combined
into one 183 ft long by 79 ft wide and 108 ft
high (56 m X 24 m X 33 m) on eight piers.
MINERVA MEDICA, ROME (A.D. 260)
This dome covered a circular temple (see Fig.
2-30), more precisely a nymphaeum, in the
luxurious Licinian (Pleasure) Gardens. The
concrete dome covers a decagonal structure
80 ft (24.4 m) in diameter. The walls of the
temple consist of semicircular niches open to
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

~1
-_....... .........._.. •
• • I
•.. • • I
•,.". . "'" • • I

rr.:l:~··~~
· f···· . . ................................... · J
~·t :: ~ : A

2-29 A reconstruction of the Hall of State in the Hadrian Villa, Tivoli,

near Rome. a) The plan. b) A cross-section.

the outside, creating vertical ribs that stiffen

the walls. Buttresses on top of the ribs coun-
teract the forces acting to spread the bottom
of the dome. In addition, a stepped, circular
ring at the bottom of the dome acts as a
structural tension ring. In the construction of
this dome can be noted for the first time the
use of pendentives to go from a decagonal
plan to the circular base of the dome. This
method was first picked up by Byzantine
architecture and then used extensively
thereafter.
An important feature of this dome is the
use of brick ribs along its meridians, and the
parallel hoops that create a secondary struc- 2-30 The dome of the Temple of Minerva
ture. This method of construction stiffens the Medica in the Licinian Gardens, Rome (c. A.D.
dome, limits potential cracks, and simplifies 260).

31
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-31 The restored Temple of Venus, Baalbek
(A.D. 273) with a circular floor plan that was
probably covered by a dome whose inside
diameter was 32 ft (9.8 my.
construction. This technique had previously
been used in barrel vaults of the Colosseum
(A.D. 70-82) and in Roman groined vaults of
the first century and domes of the second
century A.D.
THE TEMPLE OF VENUS, BAALBEK
(A.D. 273)
Located in Baalbek, Syria (called Colonia
Julia Augusta by the Romans and Heliopolis
by the Greeks, because of the sun worship-
ping prominent in that city) this small, circu-
lar temple dedicated to Venus was covered
with a stone dome. Its interior diameter was
only 34 ft (10.4 m). The present remains (see
Fig. 2-31) do not include the dome, which
has collapsed in the course of time.
VAULT OF THERMAE OF DIOCLETIAN,
ROME (A.D. 302)
The vault over the vestibule of what is now
the Church of St. Maria degli Angeli was
converted in 1563 by Michelangelo. The
32
space covered by the vault in this central hall
of the Thermae of Diocletian is 200 ft by 80
ft (61 m X 24.5 m). Springing from high col-
umns, the vault is a cross-vault type 90 ft
(27.5 m) in height that includes intersecting
arches.
EARL Y CHRISTIAN DOMES
The term Early Christian generally refers to
that period in architectural history from
Constantine to Charlemagne. With the Edict
of Milan (A.D. 313) Constantine gave Chris-
tianity equal rights in the Roman Empire,
and in A.D. 326 he named Christianity the
official religion of the empire. With the coro-
nation of Charlemagne in A.D. 800 the old
Roman Empire ended and the Holy Roman
Empire began.
At the beginning of the early Christian
period, the splitting of the Roman Empire
into eastern and western counterparts oc-
curred, followed by the gradual decline and
fall of the western empire, which led to a
standstill and eventual regression in the de-
velopment of the dome. Few domes were
built in this period, and those that were did
not compare in scale with previous ones.
Contrary to the declining West, the em-
pire's eastern provinces were protected from
barbarian invasions. There the Byzantine
culture preserved much of classic tradition
and revamped the dome into anew, magnifi-
cent architecture. Let us consider first exam-
ples of domes built in Italy during this period
and then some of the basic concepts that con-
nected these domes to the architecture of the
Christian churches of the time.
Even though Byzantine architecture coin-
cides in time with early Christian architec-
ture, it is considered separately, because of its
own characteristics. It should be noted that
the Byzantine Empire extended in Italy to
Venice and Ravenna, so that the domes of
this period in those areas are unquestionably
Byzantine.
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

Significant Examples gonal first floor and a circular second story,

of Christian Domes
ST. GEORGE, SALONICA (c. A.D. 300)
This 80 ft (24.5 m) diameter dome over a
circular structure is covered on its exterior by
a low, conical roof supported by a timber
frame .
ST. COSTANZA, ROME (A.D. 330)
The dome covering the central area of St.
Constanza is hemispherical, with a base diam-
eter of 40 ft (12 m) in the interior. On the
exterior the dome is concealed by a low
wooded framed roof. The original structure,
built by Constantine for his daughter Cos-
tanza, was converted into a church.
THE TOMB OF GALLA PLACIDIA,
RAVENNA (c. A.D. 425)
This cruciform structure, of small dimen-
sions, has its square central part covered by a
square tower supporting a small dome. This
dome is covered by a low pitched roof that
conceals it on the exterior. The dome is car-
ried by four pendentives that make the tran-
sition from the circular base to the square
tower. It is particularly interesting that the
pendentives and the dome are all part of the
same sphere.
covered by the dome. Of particular signifi-
cance are the quarrying operation needed to
produce the huge block, the transporting of
it from the quarry to the site, the manual
carving of it, and how this 470-ton block was
lifted into position. All these processes were
carried out in times characterized by a low
level of technological expertise.
Even in terms of our engineering technol-
ogy, lifting 470 tons approaches the highest
limits of the largest crane now available.
Large crawler-mounted cranes, with their
angle booms, cannot even attempt such lifts.
Only a few of the largest tower cranes we
now have could be used for such a task, and
then only by using a close radius of opera-
tion. The handling of such astonishing
weight becomes even more impressive when
compared to the largest monolithic architec-

THE TOMB OF THEODORIC, RAVENNA

(A.D. 530)
The dome covering this structure is a master-
piece of building technology. This dome, 35
ft (10.5 m) in diameter, is a monolithic struc-
ture weighing 470 tons, made from a single
block of stone that was hoisted on top of the
two-story building so that the crown of the
dome is 46.5 ft (13 m) aboveground. (see Fig.
2-32). The dome is relatively shallow, which
is perhaps understandable when we recog-
nize that the entire concavity was attained by
carving the stone mass by hand. The carved 2-32 The dome of the Tomb of Theodoric,
stone handles along the external perimeter, Ravenna (A.D. 530). Carved out of a sinole block
which were used for lifting the dome into of stone, the dome was lifted to the second story
place, are also astonishing. of the mausoleum. A unique masterpiece in
The main body of this mausoleum of the buildino technoloBY' this 35ft (10.7 m)
king of the Ostrogoths consists of a deca- diameter dome is in a perfect state of preservation.

33
 Wood and Masonry Domes
tural masses ever recorded. For instance, in
northern Europe the large monolithic blocks
at Stonehenge, which were either placed ver-
tically or lifted horizontally to lay across their
top, weighed only twenty-five tons. Even the
largest of obelisks transported from the Tem-
ple of Ammon at Karnak, Thebes, to the
Piazza of St. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome,
weigh just 230 tons, less than half the weight
of the dome of the Tomb of Theodoric. This
structure can hardly fail to leave an indelible
mark on the minds of architects and engi-
neers sensitive to the struggles of humanity to
overcome the impossible.
DOMES IN CHRISTIAN
ARCHITECTURE
As early as the fourth century A.D., Christian
churches were either rectangular in plan or
focal, focal ones usually being cruciform in
shape with a focal point at the center roofed
over with a domical vault. Churches of the
focal type were usually dedicated to the cult
of certain Christian martyrs and referred to
as cemetery churches or houses of martyrs
("martyria"). Some were actually built over
the tombs of sanctified martyrs and were usu-
ally small in early times. Later, as cults of
martyrs and relics gained acceptance in the
Christian world, these small sanctuaries or
chapels became large churches with central
domes inspired by some powerful symbolic
significance.
A classification of these domed churches,
with examples, includes the following: 3
Circular Domes
Such domes derived from the classical (ro-
tunda) tradition of Greece and Rome.
The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem
Church at Beisan fifth or sixth century
Church at Fa'lul (A.D. 526 - 527)
34
Church of the Virgin at Antioch (fifth
century)
Polygonal Domes
These domes were inspired by Roman me-
morials and tombs and were in a sense an
extension of the circular type. Of all poly-
gonal forms the octagon was the most pop-
ular.
The Domus Aurea of Antioch (fourth cen-
tury): originally covered with a dome,
and reroofed with a wooden gilded
dome in the sixth century
Polygard Church of the Nativity in Bethle-
hem: built by Constantine over the site
where Christ was believed to have been
born, destroyed A.D. 529, rebuilt by
Justinian
Church of the Ascension in Jerusalem:
built c. A.D. 378, partially destroyed
A.D. 614 by Persians, rebuilt by Mo-
destus, octagonal originally, rebuilt as
circular
Church at Tel Hem: octagonal, built
fourth century, covered with wood Syr-
ian-type dome
Tomb of Hierapolis: octagonal, with ma-
sonry dome; built fifth century for the
apostle Philippus and his daughter
Tomb of the Virgin in Jerusalem: octago-
nal domed Roman structure, fifth cen-
tury; converted to oratorium during
Islamic rule
Church of the Theotokos on Mt. Garizim:
octagonal domed structure; built c. A.D.
484 by Emperor Zeno and dedicated to
the Virgin as Mother of God as pro-
claimed by the Council of Ephesus; said
to contain fragment of the rock of
Calvary
Baptistry Kal'at Sim'an: fifth-century oc-
tagonal structure assumed to have been
covered by a dome
Baptistry Der Seta: hexagonal; building
data not known; presumably covered
by dome
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
Church at Midjleyya: small octagonal
church, sixth century
Martyrium of St. George at Zor'ah: built
A.D. 515; covered with 33 ft (10.15 m)
diameter dome
Chapel at Mir'ayeh: small octagonal
structure
Square Domes
These domes derived from the shape of
tombs and had the additional symbolism of
cosmic houses. They were popular in Egypt
between the fourth and sixth centuries A.D.
The pattern of a square structure with a cir-
cular dome also spread to Asia Minor.
Hagia Sophia at Badessa: originally built
A.D. 313; rebuilt by Justinian; square,
covered originally by wood dome, re-
built in masonry
St. John the Baptist at Jerash (Gerasa):
built A.D. 531; covered with a wooden
dome
Martyrium of St. George at Shakka
Cruciform Domes
Because of the unique significance of the
cross in Christianity, the cruciform plan of
Christian churches introduced a unique ex-
pression distinct from earlier cultures' plan
configurations. Cruciform geometry rein-
forces the idea of having a focal point at the
intersection of the two arms of the cross, thus
emphasizing the cruciform concept with
more intensity than were the previously men-
tioned shapes.
BYZANTINE DOMES
Domical roofs over churches, baptistries, and
tombs were the major elements in which By-
zantine architecture expressed itself, starting
from the fifth century A.D.
35
In typical churches with floor plans in the
shape of a Greek cross the main dome is at
the center, while small domes often cover the
four arms of the cross. The great tensile
forces at the bottom ring of the large central
dome are counteracted by the mass of the
four volumes surrounding the dome. Con-
trary to Roman domes, which were built over
circular or polygonal structures, Byzantine
domes were built over square bases and be-
came circular by means of pendentives.
Byzantine technology does not seem to
have employed centering for the construc-
tion of its domes, in which large, flat bricks
were used. Byzantine domes were usually
built over high drums and, contrary to
Roman vaults, which were often covered
with protective wood roofs, these domes
were exposed directly to view.
The shapes of Byzantine domes can be
classified into the following three different
categories:
Simple domes in which the pendentives
and dome are part of one single sphere;
see the tombs of Galla Placidia (above)
Compound domes that can be subdivided
into situations where a) the dome itself
is not part of the same sphere with the
pendentives but rises above them, hav-
ing no geometric relationship to them;
and b) the dome is supported by a high
drum pierced by openings.
Melon-shaped domes such as St. Theo-
dore's or Sts. Sergius and Bacchus in
Constantinople. The variation of the
bulbous, onion-shaped dome typical in
Russia has the functional effect of re-
ducing snow loads.
Byzantine construction was typically brick,
with thick mortar beds. The mortar was
made of sand and lime mixed with crushed
brick and tile and pottery fragments. Interior
surfaces were often covered with marble
slabs, mosaics, or frescoes. After the mortar
had set, the mason laid special brick courses
either horizontally or inclined, so as to form a
 Wood and Masonry Domes
herringbone pattern visible also on the ex-
terior.
Byzantine domes were built with special
techniques intended to make the structure as
light as possible. Doing so would of course
reduce stresses in the masonry, a concept the
Byzantine builders obviously understood.
Light materials were often used for the pur-
pose, such as the pumice and even pottery
incorporated into the masonry of St. Vitale in
Ravenna.
Significant Examples
of Byzantine Domes
Domes in Byzantine architecture are exem-
plified by some of the following structures.
THE HOLY SEPULCHRE, JERUSALEM
(A.D. 326-335)
This church was originally built by Constan-
tine as a memorial over what was.believed to
be the tomb of Christ. Little is known of this
first structure and its dome because it was
destroyed and rebuilt several times, first
being burnt by the Persians in A.D. 614. Be-
tween A.D. 616 and 618 it was rebuilt by the
Roman prefect Modestus, then destroyed in
1009 by the Fatimite caliph and rebuilt by
Constantine Monomachus in A.D. 1048. De-
stroyed again by the Moslems, it was rebuilt
the last time by the Crusaders in the twelfth
century. Several hypotheses have been pro-
posed for the type of dome likely to have
been used in previous structures. Some as-
sume the dome to have been hemispherical
and made of masonry, others that it might
have been of wood. The reconstruction by
Modestus between 807 and 820 included a
wooden dome, according to the historian Eu-
tychius (A.D. 876-940). Cedars and pines
from the island of Cyprus were in fact used
for the restoration of some parts of that
wooden dome. Eutychius specifically de-
scribed the dome as being made of two
woo'den shells (see Fig. 2-33).
ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE (A.D.
532-537)
Called Hagia Sophia, or Divine Wisdom, this
36
2-33 A representation of the Holy Sepulchre in
the Seal of Baldwin V (A.D., 1183 - 1186.
Contrary to earlier illustrations on similar seals,
such as those of Baldwin I, Baldwin II, and
Amaury (Amabric) I, this seal depicts the Holy
Sepulchre at the right of the Tower of David. To
the left of the Tower is the Templum Domini, the
converted Dome of the Rock. Notice the Arab
crescent over the bulbous dome of the Holy
Sepulchre and the cross over the Templum.
structure was built by the architects Anthe-
mius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus
under Justinian. The original church of St.
Sophia was built by Constantine in 335 and
rebuilt by Theodosius II in 415. The dome,
which is 107 ft (32.5 m) in diameter and 180
ft (51 m) above the floor level at the crown,
dominates the entire space (see Fig. 2-34).
Although this lofty structure imposes itself
on the whole space below, it suggests great
lightness, as of a structure suspended from
heaven, as wrote the historian Procopius of
Caesarea, Palestine (c. A.D. 500-555).4
The dome at the center of the church
covers a square floor area, from the corners
of which four large piers extend vertically.
These piers each have a cross-section of 25 ft
by 60 ft (7.5 m by 18 m). On top of them four
semicircular arches connect the piers to con-
stitute supports for the dome. These arches
create four pendentives 60 ft (18 m) high that
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

~
---.--'-
, ..
(- -~~~~-~;:.=-.~>, .\
, -

. _oJ'_-_ __ ~_::::.

DlAGIAM- 9iwc It'YflJftD (jell

rIOt ~ 111'016' 'UllUTMl

2-34 a) The dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople, northeast elevation. One of the more important
domes in the world, it is built of brick masonry to a thickness that varies from 24 to 27 inches. The
larne dome, supported by hune pendentives, seems to be very linht. b) Floor plan, St. Sophia.

37
 Wood and Masonry Domes
make a transition from the square floor plan
to the circular base of the dome. The height
of the dome from its springing to its crown is
50 ft (15 m). Since its diameter is 107 ft (32.5
m), the dome is hemispherical as observed
from inside. On the outside, a ring pierced
by forty windows encircles the base of the
dome, partially concealing more than one
dome, even as many as five, and occasionally
more.
The dome of St. Sophia is built of brick
masonry laid in courses whose gradually in-
clined beds do not radiate from the center of
the dome but have a lower slope. The thick-
ness of 27 in (70 cm) in the lower part of the
dome is attained with square bricks-more
properly called tiles-each 27 by 27 in (70
by 70 cm) and 2 in (5 cm) thick, laid down flat
with mortar joints that are also approxi-
mately the same thickness. The upper part of
the dome, which is only 24 in (61 cm) thick,
consists of square bricks 24 by 24 in (61 by 61
cm), again with a thickness of 2 in (5 cm).
When the bricks are laid down flat they form
a wall 24 in (61 cm) thick.
These values for dome thickness contrast
remarkably with the thickness of the Roman
domes that preceded St. Sophia, emphasizing
the increased efficiency of Byzantine building
technology. By capitalizing on the techniques
developed for Roman monuments, the By-
zantines carried empirical engineering even
further.
Of all the major domes from the ancient
past that still exist today, St. Sophia holds the
record for having survived the most earth-
quakes. This achievement is not just a statisti-
cal fact but underscores its extraordinary ca-
pacity for survival. Domes, vaults, and arches
are not ideally suited to resist horizontal seis-
mic forces, yet this structure never gave in,
even after many partial collapses. Repaired
after each earthquake, the dome of St. So-
phia has been exposed over and over to ex-
traordinary earthquake forces, which are
directly proportional to the weight of a struc-
ture and are therefore considerably high in
masonry buildings.
38
To illustrate the frequency of earthquakes
in Istanbul, notice that thirty-six major ones
were recorded in the period from A.D. 366 to
1894. There were many partial failures in the
structure of the dome, but there are few ac-
counts of it worth mentioning. A notable
one, in 558, saw a portion of the central
dome collapse, together with part of an adja-
cent semidome. According to the structural
configuration of the dome, the masonry ribs
extending along its meridian lines could have
contained a partial collapse of the dome
shell's surface between the ribs, sparing the
integrity of the whole dome but suffering
partial failure. One account of this event re-
ports the dismantling of the dome and recon-
struction of it within a higher structure that,
though it maintained a spherical configura-
tion, increased the curvature and thus re-
duced the horizontal thrust. The rebuilt
dome raised the crown an additional 20 to 26
ft (6 to 8 m) higher than that of the original,
shallower dome. Later, during the ninth cen-
tury, earthquake damage necessitated exten-
sive repair work to be done to the dome, and
in the next century a major quake destroyed
the western semidome and supporting arch,
which definitely affected the major dome as
well. Another major earthquake, in 1346,
also produced severe damage to the central
dome and certain adjacent ones. Finally,
after many seismic attacks, in 1847 the dome
received a major tension ring at its base-an
iron structural member to absorb horizontal
thrust at the base and relieve the masonry.
That this dome could have been designed
intuitively to withstand earthquake forces is
extremely doubtful. Nevertheless, its exis-
tence today shows a remarkable quality of
endurance that contradicts beliefs about the
vulnerability of vaulting to undergo lateral
forces. We have seen how Egyptian architec-
ture, dramatically concerned with eternal
survival, had purposely avoided arches and
vaults as well as domes, considering these
forms as if they were affected by a seed of
death. In this light then, Santa Sophia, with
its amazing history of survival, disproves the
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
Egyptian belief that had mistrusted the
strength of the dome.
ST. VITALE, RAVENNA (A.D. 526-547)
Built by Justinian and modeled on the Min-
erva Medica in Rome, this dome was partially
constructed of clay pottery to attain a lighter
mass. Such a unique feature, found in only a
few Byzantine domes, definitely indicates the
confidence that Byzantine builders had in
their knowledge of construction. This early
Byzantine dome is covered on its exterior by
a wood structure supporting a roof. In the
tradition of Roman prototypes, the main role
of this dome was to complete the interior
space, rather than to make a statement about
the exterior mass. Byzantine domes later de-
parted largely from this philosophy, produc-
ing compositions with more than one dome.
ST. IRENE, CONSTANTINOPLE (A.D. 740)
Among the first Byzantine domes in Constan-
tinople, this dome built by Constantine was
destroyed and rebuilt several times: in A.D.
532, 564, and 740. The dome is partially
hidden on the exterior by a tall drum that
extends high above the springing of the
dome itself (see Fig. 2-35).
2-35 The dome of the Church of St. Irene, Constantinople.
39
KAPNIKAREA CHURCH, ATHENS (A.D.
875)
The dome covering the Kapnikarea Church
in Athens springs over an octagonal drum. Its
small size allows one dome alone to cover the
structure below.
CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, ATHENS
(c.
A.D. 1020)
The dome at the center of this cruciform
church is supported by a tall octagonal drum
pierced by windows. The top of the drum
consists of the extrados of eight arches. The
dome that sits over these arches thus has an
undulated base that follows the profile of the
arches themselves. This type of edge support
for a dome is a characteristic repeated in
many Byzantine Greek domes.
CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES,
CONSTANTINOPLE (fourth century A.D.)
Crowning the roof of this church are five
domes of special importance in that this
church inspired the design of St. Mark's in
Venice. This church was originally built by
Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, then de-
stroyed in A.D. 1463 and finally rebuilt as a
mosque.
 Wood and Masonry Domes

ST. SOPHIA AT NOVGOROD (A.D. 1052)
Shaped as bulbs, the domes of this church are
supported by five tall drums arranged sym-
metrically with one in the center and the
others at the four corners.
NEA MONI CHIOS (A.D. 1042-1056)
The dome of this church is supported di-
rectly by its external walls. Eight squinches
support the drum, which in turn carries the
dome. The original dome, which collapsed in
1881 during an earthquake, was rebuilt in
concrete, as it is today.
ST. THEODORE, ATHENS (A.D. 1060-1070)
Similar to the dome of the Kapnikarea
church, the dome of St. Theodore is a small
central structure supported by an octagonal
drum below. Eight arches clearly visible from
the exterior carry the dome at its base. In-
filled with masonry, they are each pierced by
two arched windows.
ST. MARK'S, VENICE (A.D. 1063 -1085)
The present church was erected over a pre-
vious basilica built in 864 that had burnt in
976. Crowning the church are five wooden
domes arranged with one main dome at the
center and four others at the ends of the arms
of a cross. The central dome has a diameter
of 42 ft (13 m) at the base. All the domes
include two shells with a wooden framework
between, leaving a large dead space enclosed
by the internal and external shells (see Fig.
2-36).5
THE CHURCH OF KOIMISIS, DAPHNI
(c. A.D. 1080)
This dome is carried by an octagonal drum
supported by squinches that are in turn sup-
ported by columns.

II m u

2-36 The domes of St. Mark's in Venice. One dome is at the center,
and four are around it at the ends of each arm of the cross. The five
wooden domes were added in the thirteenth century. The diameter of the
central dome is 42 ft (12.8 my.

40
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
ST. THEODORE'S, CONSTANTINOPLE
(c.A.D. 1100)
The Church of St. Theodore in Constantino-
ple is crowned by three domes in the front
and one at the center. The central dome,
which sits on a drum, has a diameter of only
13 ft (4 m) at its base. Meridian flutings
enrich its surface. Carrying the drum are
four pendentives, in turn carried by columns.
ST. FOSCA, TOR CELLO, ITALY(c. A.D. 1108)
This church, constructed by Byzantine Greek
builders who had worked also on the recon-
struction of St. Mark's in Venice, is on the
island of Torcello in the Venetian lagoon.
The church includes a central dome sup-
ported by eight columns. Only part of the
dome is still standing, and few vestiges are
now visible.
ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX, FRANCE (A.D.
1120)
Built on the same basis as St. Mark's in Ven-
ice, this church includes five domes. It is the
only prototype of Byzantine-domed structure
in this part of Europe to have been in-
fluenced by Venice. At its center the dome
has a diameter of 40 ft (12 m) at the base.
ST. THEODOSIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
(c. twelfth century A.D.)
This structure, presently the Gul Djami, con-
sists of a central dome over a church with a
typical Greek-cross floor plan. The original
church has now been converted to a mosque.
LITTLE METROPOLE CATHEDRAL,
ATHENS (c. A.D. 1250)
This church is the smallest cathedral in the
world. It has a floor plan of only 38 ft by 25 ft
(12 m by 8 m) and includes a dome only 9 ft
(2.8 m) in diameter that is supported by a tall
octagonal drum.
AGHIA PARlGORITISSA, ARTA, GREECE
1282-1289)
(A.D.
The Aghia Parigoritissa is a church consisting
of a cubical overall configuration that is
crowned by five domes.
41
CHURCH AT GRACANICA, YUGOSLAVIA
1321)
(A.D.
This church, which represents the most im-
portant example of Byzantine churches in
Yugoslavia, is roofed by a series of domes
arranged symmetrically around a central
one. The exterior of the structure shows a
typical pattern of combined courses of brick
and stone masonry.
ST. BASIL, RED SQUARE, MOSCOW (A.D.
1554)
Located in the present-day heart of Moscow,
the Church of St. Basil dominates Red
Square. No fewer than eight domes complete
the top of this church. They are all shaped in
a typical bulbous configuration, but each
dome differs somehow from the others. The
shiny, bright finishing of the domes' surfaces,
painted with various colors, is particularly
striking. The vivid colors combine with the
elaborate design to generate an imaginative
architectural composition that cannot fail to
leave an impression.
ISLAMIC DOMES
With the advent of Islamic architecture, the
historical development of the dome split into
two currents: the Western tradition that pro-
gressed along its original direction through-
out Europe; and an Eastern modification of
Western models that was produced by the
new Islamic culture searching out its own
symbolic expression.
The Islamic architecture that developed
to express the homogeneous religion is var-
iously referred to as Moslem, Muslim, Mo-
hammedan, Saracenic, Moorish, and Otto-
man. The religion originated in the seventh
century A.D. with Mohammed the Prophet,
who died in A.D. 632. By this time the dome
had reached an apex during the Roman Era
and had been fully embedded in Christian
architecture. The dome's symbolic values-
expressed as imperial power and majestic
 Wood and Masonry Domes
splendor, or in its ability to house the immor-
tal soul and honor the relics of the martyrs-
had already given it preeminence in architec-
ture. It is thus understandable how deeply
the Moslems admired it and how far they
went to make it the most powerful expression
of their architecture.
The use of the Moslem dome spread
throughout Asia and North Africa, following
the expansion of the Islamic faith. At its peak
the Moslem world was quite widespread, in-
cluding the entire present Middle East and
Mediterranean Africa as well as Afghanistan
and Turkey, the African countries of Mauri-
tania, Nigeria, Somali, the Spanish Sahara,
and Sudan, and, later, Mongolia, northern
India, Pakistan, and ultimately even Indone-
sia and the Philippines.
The territory over which the Islamic dome
developed is so large that although the basic
underlying concept was the same, several spe-
cific types came to characterize the various
local influences on the dome. For instance,
Persian and Egyptian domes are more
pointed than others. Turkish domes are
mostly hemispherical, Indian ones usually
covered with marble sheeting. Persian domes
are often covered with polychrome ceramic
tiles, as was followed in Iraq. In Asia Minor,
however, domes were roofed with lead in the
European tradition.
Among the numerous factors that must
have influenced the development of the
Islamic dome, one small dome on a Christian
tomb had a surprising impact. The Tomb of
Bizzos, in Ruweha, Syria, was a Christian
structure from the late fifth century A.D. that
included a cut-stone masonry dome over a
cubical masonry structure of heavy walls that
became even thicker at their corners to form
square piers. These massive walls were un-
doubtedly justified by the need to resist the
horizontal thrust at the springing line that a
heavy stone dome produces at its base. This
dome, which is almost hemispherical except
for a slightly pointed vertex, seems to have
inspired the typical configuration of the
Islamic dome that followed it in time (see Fig.
2-37).
42
Significant Examples
of Islamic Domes
The examples of Islamic domes that follow
have been selected as only a few out of many
interesting structures that cover the vast Ot-
toman Empire and the even wider area under
Islamic influence. These domes, which are
presented in chronological order, are merely
indicated to draw attention to them, without
entering into detailed descriptions.
QUBBAT AS-SAKHRAH (DOME OF THE
ROCK), JERUSALEM (A.D. 685-692)
This dome, one of the first Islamic ones, fol-
lowed soon upon Mohammed's death in A.D.
632. This dome was actually inspired by the
dome of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
The original dome has been rebuilt, but
without changing its structure, format, and
technique. The basic structure consists of a
double shell of a timber framework. The
original dome was covered with gilded cop-
per sheathing (see Fig. 2-38).
THE TOMB TOWER, LAJIN, IRAN (A.D.
1022)
This conical structure is in Lajin, in the re-
gion of the Elburz Mountains in Mazandaran
Province, Iran. This dome of brick masonry
is similar to two other structures built in the
same area (see Fig. 2-39).
ARSLAN JADHIB TOMB, SANGBAST,
IRAN (c. A.D. 1028)
Of most interest in this structure is its transi-
tion from a square plan to a polygonal drum,
then to a circular dome in which the three
parts of the structure have similar volumes
(see Fig. 2-40). This structure exhibits a sim-
plicity and harmony of design that avoids any
pomposity.
DAVAlDAH IMAM MAUSOLEUM, YAlD,
IRAN (A.D. 1036-1037)
The dates of construction for this mausoleum
can be interpreted from an inscription on the
structure. Supporting a circular dome is an
octagonal drum connected by squinches.
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-37 The Tomb of Bizzos, Ruweha, Syria. a) Plan. b) Cross-section. c)

Perspective.

2-38 The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (A.D. 685 - 692). The diameter
of the dome is 140ft (42 my.

43
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-39 The Dome of the Tomb Tower, Lajin,
Iran. (A.D. 1022).
This drum in turn surmounts the square plan
of the building (see Fig. 2-41).
THE JAM! MOSQUE, ARDISTAN, IRAN
1072-1092)
(A.D.
This dome was erected after the main body
of the mosque had been built in a previous
period (see Fig. 2-42).
2-40 The Dome of the Arslan Jadhib Tomb,
Sanobast, Iran (A.D. 1028).
44
2-41 The Davazdah Imam Mausoleum, Yazd,
Iran (A.D. 1036-1037).
THE JAMI MOSQUE, GOLPAEGAN, IRAN
1104-1118)
(A.D.
This dome was built as part of an original
small mosque to which the extension was
added only a century ago. The typical transi-
tion from circular dome to octagonal drum
to the square body of the structure is clearly
exposed by its exterior configuration. The
volumetric relationship between the main
body, the drum, and the dome, expressed in
the overall composition, is of particular inter-
est (see Fig. 2-43).
THE JAMI MOSQUE, ZAVAREH, IRAN
(c. A.D. 1135)
The harmonious relationship of this dome
with its drum and main body produces a vol-
umetric composition of particular value that
is simple yet complex at the same time (see
Fig. 2-44).
THE JAMI MOSQUE, QAZVIN, IRAN
(c. A.D. 1100)
This dome was built within the twelfth cen-
tury with the rest of the structure being
added later. The diameter of the dome mea-
sures 49 ft (15 m). The tile covering the
dome was added in later periods (see Fig.
2-45).
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-42 The Jam; Mosque, ArJistan, Central Iran. (A.D. 10 2 - 1091).

DOME OF JABAL I SANG (MOUNTAIN ished, has received special recogmtIon. Of

OF STONE), KERMAN, (probably c. twelfth
century A.D.)
This whole structure in the southern part of
Iran, which seems to have been left unfin-
particular interest is the gradual transition
from the main polygonal body to a superim-
posed polygonal drum that continues to a
similar, smaller drum and extends to the
crowning dome (see Fig. 2-46).

2-43 The jami Mosque, Golpaeean, Iran (A.D. 2-44 The jami Mosque, Zavareh, Iran (c. A.D.
1104-1118). 1135).

45
 Wood and Masonry Domes

2-45 The Jami Mosque, Qgzvin, Iran (twelfth century A.D.).

DOME OF THE IMAMZADA SAYY/D
ISHAQ TOMB, SAVA (A.D. 1277-1278)
(See Figure 2-47).
THE IMAMZADA YAHYA MAUSOLEUM,
VARAMIN, I RAN) (A.D. 1261-1307)
The main dome, built in gradual concentric
steps, rests on an octagonal drum over a
square plane structure below (see Fig. 2-48).
THE HARUNIYYA TOMB, TUS (presently
Meshed, Iran; probably fourteenth century A.D.)
The main dome consists of a two-shell struc-
ture that seems to lose its prominence be-
cause of the massive exterior walls that domi-
nate the building (see Fig. 2-49).
THE JAMI MOSQUE, ASHTARJAN, IRAN
(c. A.D. 1315)
This structure located in Ashtarjan, a small
village in the area of Isfahan, includes the
central area covered by a dome which was
originally built between 1299 and 1312. The
exterior parts were added later and rebuilt
several times (see Fig. 2-50).

2-46 Dome of Jabal i Sane (Mountain of 2-47 Dome of the 1mamzada Sayyid Ishaq
Stone), Kerman (probably twelfth century A.D.). tomb, Sava (A.D. 1277-1278).

46
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-48 The Imamzada Yahya Mausoleum. Varamin (A.D. 1261 -1307).

2-49 The Haruniyya Tomb. Tus (presently Meshed), Iran (probably

fourteenth century A.D').

2-50 The Jami Mosque. Ashtarjan. Iran (c. A.D. 1315).

47
 Wood and Masonry Domes

THE JAMI MOSQUE, VARAMIN, IRAN
(c. A.D. 1322-1326)
This structure dates from the Mongol period
(see Fig. 2-51).
THE BABA LUQMAN MAUSOLEUM,
SARAKHS, IRAN (A.D. 1356)
The date of construction has been derived
from an inscription in the building. Of special
interest is the double body of the dome itself
(see Fig. 2-52).
THE DARDASHT MINARETS, ISFAHAN,
IRAN (c. fourteenth century A.D.)
This dome is covered with both glazed and
unglazed brickwork (see Fig. 2-53).
THE KUH-I BANAN TOMB (probably
fourteenth-fifteenth centuries A.D.)
This type of structure crowned by a dome
does not reflect a corresponding architec-
tural trend (see Fig. 2-54).
THE TOMB OF SHAH FIRUZ, SIRJAN,
IRAN (end of fourteenth century A.D.)
This brick dome covers a kiosk structure of
great simplicity and elegance. Although the
tomb was damaged by vandals, the dome,
supported by piers, is still in good condition
(see Fig. 2-55).

2-51 The Jami Mosque, Varamin, Iran (c. A.D. 1322 -1326).

I~

2-52 The Baba Luqman Mausoleum, 2-53 The Dardasht Minarets, Isfahan, Iran (c.
Sarakhs, Iran (A.D. 1356). fourteenth century A.D.).

48
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-54 The Kuh-i Banan Tomb (probably fourteenth -fifteenth century A.D.).

GUR-E AMIR MAUSOLEUM,
SAMARKAND, U.S.S.R. (c. A.D. 1405)
This dome itself consists of two shells with a
large dead space in between, raising the
outer shell much higher above the interior
one. A timber framework within the space
between the two domes supports the exterior
shell, typically shaped in a bulbous form (see
Fig. 2-56).
MOSQUE OF GA WHAR SHAD,
MASHHAD, IRAN (c. A.D. 1418)
Simple yet ornate, this dome is one of the
first to show the heavy decoration that char-
acterized the later Safavid domes (see Fig.
2-57).
ily decorated raised pattern enriches the ex-
teriors of the domes (see Fig. 2-59).
THE SHRINE OF SHAYKH
NI'MATALLAH, MAHAN, IRAN (fifteenth
century A.D.)
Decorations were added to this structure
until the nineteenth century, because of the
importance of this shrine, which became the
object of many pilgrimages. Blue tiles and
black and white decorations enrich the exte-
rior of the dome (see Fig. 2-60).

THE SHAH MOSQUE, MASHHAD, IRAN

(c.
A.D. 1451)

An ornate drum featuring a flowering motif

supports a dome covered with blue tiles. In
the interior, rich green tiles cover the space
(see Fig. 2-58).

DARB I IMAM, ISFAHAN, IRAN (A.D.

1453-1694)
The major dome, part of an earlier structure, 2-55 The Tomb of Shah Firuz, Sirjan (end of
was followed by a second added later. A heav- fourteenth century A.D').

49
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-56 The Gur-e Amir Mausoleum, Samarkand,
U.S.S.R. (c. A.D. 1405). The innerdome's
diameter 35 ft (10.7 mY, the outer, 55 ft (16.8
my.
THE JAMI MOSQUE, SA VEH, IRAN
(c. sixteenth century A.D.)
This dome is covered with turquoise, which
has a geometric design over it in dark blue
and white colors (see Fig. 2-61).
2-57 The mosque of Gawhar Shad, Mashhad,
Iran. (c. A.D. 1418).
50
2-58 The Shah Mosque, Mashhad, Iran. (c.
A.D. 1451).
THE SHRINE OF FATIMA, QUM, IRAN
(c. sixteenth century A.D.)
The major dome is covered with blue tile and
decorated with a rich geometric pattern of
interconnected five-pointed stars. A minor
dome built in the nineteenth century is also
part of the structure. This second dome is
gilded, adding richness to the shrine (see Fig.
2-62).
THE GREAT MOSQUE OF THE SHAH,
ISFAHAN, IRAN (c. A.D. 1612-1630)
This splendid dome consists of two shells.
The exterior one, with a bulbous shape, is
2-59 The Darb i Imam, Isfahan, Iran (A.D.
1453 and late seventeenth century A.D.).
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

2-60 The Shrine of Shaykh Ni'Matallah, Mahan, Iran (fifteenth to

nineteenth centuries A.D.).

2-61 The Jami Mosque, Saveh, Iran (c. sixteenth century A.D').

over 30 feet (9.1 m) above the inner one.
Supporting the exterior dome is a wooden
framework totally concealed in the space be-
tween the two domes. The exterior shell,
built of brick masonry, is covered with ce-
ramic tiles (see Fig. 2-63).
MASHHAD-I MIR BUZURC SHRINE,
AMUL, IRAN (A.D. 1623)
This dome, built over the tomb in the center
of the shrine, has recently been restored (see
Fig. 2-64).
THE MAUSOLEUM OF SULTAN
MUHAMMAD ADlL SHAH (COL
CUMBAZ), BIJAPUR, MYSORE, INDIA
(c. A.D. 1636-1659)
Carried aloft by structurally interlaced
arches, this impressive dome crowns the main
body of this structure, described by Bannister

51
 Wood and Masonry Domes

2-62 The Shrine of Fatima, Qym, Iran (c. sixteenth century A.D.).

2-63 The Great Mosque of the Shah, Isfahan,

Iran (c. A.D. 1612 -1630) The inner dome's
diameter is 68 ft (20.7 m), outer one 87 ft
(26.5 m).

2-64 The Mashhad-i Mir Buzura Shrine, Amul, Iran (A .D. 1623).

52
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic
2-65 The Mausoleum of Sultan Muhammad
Adil Shah (Gal Gumbaz) , Bijapur, India (c. A.D.
1636-1659) The dome's diameter is 125 ft
(38 my.
Fletcher as "boldly proportional. "6 At the
base of the dome the span measures 125 ft
(38 m) (see Fig. 2-65).
DOMES OF MUSHTAQIYY 'ALI SHAH,
KERMAN, IRAN (c. nineteenth century A.D.)
These two domes cover the tombs of two
holy men, creating a unique monument. Bold
geometric patterns cover the surfaces of the
two domes (see Fig. 2-66).
DOMES OF THE TAJ MAHAL, AGRA,
INDIA (A.D. 1630-1653)
This mausoleum built by Emperor Shah
Jehan over the tomb of his wife Mumtaz
Mahal has a central dome consisting of two
shells whose diameter is only 58 ft (17.7 m).
The inner dome is 80 ft (24.4 m) high, the
outer dome 200 ft (61 m). The outer one,
shaped in typical bulbous configuration,
dominates the center of the structure, while
four smaller domes complete the exterior
composition around it. The Taj Mahal is one
of the most elaborate and precious monu-
ments of Islamic art in India. With its mauso-
53
2-66 Domes of Mushtaquiyya'Ali Shah,
Kerman, Iran (c. nineteenth century A.D.).
leum surrounded by kiosks, a gateway pavil-
ion, and elaborate gardens enclosed by a
perimeter wall, the Taj Mahal is an outstand-
ing monument with its dome the main fea-
ture (see Fig. 2-67).
Mimar Sinan's Contributions to the
Islamic Dome
The history of the dome developed, as did
the history of architecture in general, for
centuries with a peculiar absence of individ-
uals' names in association with the many arti-
facts. A solemn silence seems to have envel-
oped pre-Renaissance architecture, giving it a
character different from that of other forms
of art such as literature and the visual arts,
where artists were usually recognized and
routinely honored. It was only with the birth
of the Renaissance that architects finally
came to be heard of by name throughout the
Western world. In the East, however, the Ot-
toman tradition continued a silence that has
never ended. On only one occasion was this
silence broken, with one name that emerged
to give official parenthood to scores of struc-
tures. The majestic mosques of Mimar Sinan
(1489 -1587) glorified the symbolic value of
the Ottoman dome at its fullest expression.
 Wood and Masonry Domes
2-67 Domes over the raj Moho} (A.D.1653) in Aero, India.
Born a Greek Orthodox Christian in Cae-
sara, Palestine, in his early youth Sinan was
forcefully conscripted and converted by
Islamic forces in Turkey, as was then com-
mon. A carpenter and self-trained architect,
late in life, after completing his military ca-
reer, Sinan became the most prominent ar-
chitect in the Ottoman Empire. Sinan pro-
duced the astonishing number of more than
three hundred buildings and a thousand
domes, new or restored, at a time when de-
sign and construction techniques were less
efficient than today.
Sinan's major contributions to the devel-
opment of the Islamic dome give him a high
level of recognition. It thus becomes neces-
sary here to distinguish the Ottoman inter-
pretation of the dome, from that of the rest
of the Moslem world, because Sinan's influ-
ence was particularly focused in the territory
of the Ottoman Empire.
Although Sinan was most active during a
time when there was great activity with domi-
cal structures in Italy, cultural exchanges be-
tween East and West then were minimal, ex-
cept for the Venetian trade, it is improbable
for any such Western influence to have oc-
curred.
54-
The most significant source of inspiration
for the domical architecture of Mimar Sinan
no doubt came from St. Sophia in Istanbul
(see Fig. 2-34). The overpowering grandios-
ity of its dome had affected the culture of the
world and must have had even a deeper im-
pact locally.
Sinan's first masterpiece was the Mosque
of Sciahzadeh in Istanbul. This structure dra-
matically expressed the theme of the dome
by a unique composition of four cupolas
crowning the top of the mosque. Contrary to
the typical melon shape of common mosques,
these domes had a pure spherical profile. Of
particular significance is also Sinan's great
cupola over the Suleimanye in Istanbul.
Sinan's astonishing architectural career
did not start until he was forty-eight, when he
was appointed chief imperial architect. Then,
a self-educated architect under the pressure
of scores of commissions, he exhibited a Ren-
aissance personality. "In a short time, Sinan,
with the strength of his self-acquired skills
was soon able to claim mastery of and experi-
ence in the fields of: Structural Engineering,
Soil Mechanics, Statics and Strength of Mate-
rials, Building Physics, Hydraulic Engineer-
ing, Surveying, Bridge Construction, Urban-
 Domes: From Ancient to Islamic

ism, Architectural Design, and Interior
Design." 7 In the first year of his architectural
career he built his first dome, cautiously, with
a diameter of only 37 ft (11.3 m), for the
Haseki Hurrem Sultan Mosque. Gradually,
his dome designs became larger and more
complex as he gained experience. With the
Selimiye Mosque he reached his highest ac-
complishment in dome construction. Com-
pleted in 1574-1575, this mosque was
crowned by a dome 103 ft (31. 3 m) in diame-
ter that was supported vertically by an octag-
onal base and laterally by eight buttress
towers connected to the dome by buttress
arches.
Sinan combined architectural composition
and structural design in such complexity that
he eventually accomplished in dome con-
struction what no other architect could yet
claim. Of major relevance in this regard
is the uniqueness of his designs for dome
supports. The systems he used are of three
types: square, hexagonal, and octagonal. The
square support further includes four differ-
ent options: 1) each of the four sides of the
square supported either by walls or arches; 2)
all four sides carried by walls only; 3) two
sides carried by walls, the other two being
supported by semidomes; and 4) three sides
supported by semidomes, the fourth by a
wall. In general, to make the transition from
polygonal supports to a circular dome base
Sinan used pendentives and squinches, while
he counteracted horizontal thrust with but-
tresses and buttress towers in a variety of
designs.
The basic dichotomy between the tradi-
tions of the Western and Eastern cultures has
prevented much of the architecture of the
Islamic world from finding adequate cover-
age in the Western architectural schools. The
astonishing production of Ottoman architec-
ture, which is extremely rich in its detailing
and grandiosity of expression - especially
through its magnificent domes-represents
an invaluable endowment that remains
largely intact in its original territories.

NOTES

1. Edward Allen, Stone Shelters (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969).

2. E. Baldwin Smith, The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
1971),82.
3. Ibid.
4. Bannister Fletcher, A History of Architecture, 5 ed. (1905), 199.
5. Ibid., 206.
6. Bannister Fletcher, A History of Architecture, 18 ed. (1975), 445.
7. I. H. Gungor, "The Dome Tradition in Sinan's Works." Proceedings, symposium on Domes from
Antiquity to the Present, IASS-MSU, Istanbul, May 1988.

55
CHAPTER 3
Dome5 from the Romane5que to the Pre5ent
ROMANESQUE DOMES
Italian Romanesque builders' interest in the
architecture of domes led to their creating
specific forms of domes with original struc-
tural values.
Among the typologies that characterized
the Italian Romanesque dome one particu-
larly stands out for its originality. This typol-
ogy exhibits a hemispherical dome pene-
trated at its center by another dome shaped
like a truncated cone. This conical dome
starts at the same springing level as the hemi-
spherical dome but then extends through
and above it. The cone's surface is thus the
one that is visible from the inside. On the
exterior, however, the observer sees instead
the hemispherical dome surmounted by the
upper part of the truncated cone, which is in
turn surmounted by a small hemispherical
surface.
One example of this typology is the dome
over the baptistry of Pisa (1153-1265), de-
signed by Dioti Salvi. The central, conical
domes has a diameter of 60 ft (lS.3 m) at its
base and is supported by eight columns and
four piers. The hemispherical dome has a
diameter of approximately 116 ft (35.4 m).
Another common typology of the Italian
57
Romanesque dome is one that consists of a
polygonal drum supporting an ovoidal dome
crowned by a small bulbous dome. A typical
example is the dome over the Cathedral of
Pisa (1063 - IllS). The elliptically cross-sec-
tioned dome is located over the crossing of
the nave and transepts. It is supported by a
polygonal drum and includes a fretwork area
that serves to make the transition from the
drum to the dome itself. A small bulbous
dome supporting a cross completes the struc-
ture.
DOMES IN RENAISSANCE AND
BAROQUE ITALY
The Renaissance may be subdivided into
three periods: the Early Renaissance (fif-
teenth century), the High Renaissance and
protobaroque period (sixteenth century), and
the baroque (seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries).
The whole of the Renaissance in Italy is
geographically subdivisible into three major
zones of influence. The Florentine zone
started in Florence with the Early Renais-
sance and extended to all of Tuscany and
 Wood and Masonry Domes
Genoa and Milan in the High Renaissance
and protobaroque as well as baroque periods.
The Roman zone included the Papal State.
Its influence was, curiously enough, rejected
by southern Italy. The Venetian zone, late in
absorbing the Renaissance, was strongly in-
fluenced by the Byzantine architecture of the
Near East. Such geographic distinctions,
which were strongly recognizable in the Early
Renaissance, gradually disappeared toward
the baroque period.
Two domed structures stand out as major
engineering works of the entire Renaissance:
the dome of the cathedral of Santa Maria del
Fiore in Florence and the dome of St. Peter's
in Rome. The dome for Santa Maria del
Fiore became a worldwide prototype for the
design and construction of domes. Several
generations with many people involved par-
ticipated in the long process of conceiving,
designing, and building these two cathedrals,
but the actual conception of the two domes
and the solution of the architectural and en-
gineering problems they raised rested upon
just two unique individuals: Brunelleschi and
Michelangelo.
The Florentine Zone of Influence:
Significant Examples
As noted, the Florentine zone of influence
started in Florence with the Early Renais-
sance period and expanded to Genoa, Milan,
and Turin. Florence contains mostly struc-
tures of the Early Renaissance, with very few
from the High Renaissance, protobaroque,
and baroque eras. The opposite is true, how-
ever, of Genoa, Milan, and Turin.
A number of significant domes were built
within this zone, among them being those
that follow.
SANTA MARIA DEL FIORE, FLORENCE
(1420-1434); CATHEDRAL (1417-1446)
Among all the prototypes of Brunelleschi's
work this masterpiece best combines his ar-
chitectural and engineering genius with his
58
Gothic master-builder philosophy. To erect a
dome on the magnitude of Santa Maria del
Fiore was completely unprecedented. Domes
of this size had not then been built for many
centuries. Although Gothic techniques of
vaulting could suggest much about the design
of vaulting in general, to design such large
domes raised many unknowns that had to be
resolved.
Brunelleschi designed the dome of Santa
Maria del Fiore (Saint Mary of the Flower)
for a supporting drum that had already been
built. The octagonal shape of this drum thus
imposed limitations on the dome built over it.
The eight exposed ribs that spring from the
corners of the drum seem to follow the
Gothic concept of slender arches. In any case,
the ogival shape of the dome, in conjunction
with the ogival-shaped ribs, is reminiscent of
Gothic forms. Structurally, these forms al-
lowed Brunelleschi to reduce hoop forces
and the tension in the bottom ring. This solu-
tion avoided a major problem that would
otherwise have required using buttresses.
The reduced tension that resulted at the bot-
tom of the dome could now be successfully
resisted by using iron chains. This method
was used in most of the domes built af-
terward.
Another structural feature of this Brunel-
leschi dome was its adoption of a double-shell
system. Two domes are rigidly connected
along the eight ribs and as well at the bottom
and top rings. The external shell, the lighter
one, was considered to be an exterior protec-
tive skin easily repairable from outside when
necessary. The inner shell, which is less acces-
sible for repairs, is stronger and thicker. The
two combine into a single structure that
offers a system that is much more rigid but
lighter than a similar single-shell dome would
be (see cross-section in Fig. 3-1 ).1
One of the most important problems
Brunelleschi encountered was the need to de-
vise a construction method that would allow a
span of 138ft (42 m) in diameter to start
from a springing plane at 151 ft (46 m)
aboveground. The committee for the con-
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present

3-1 a) Plan, elevation. b) Loneitudinal cross-section throueh the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore,
illustratine the drum, the double shell, and the sheathine. Erected without centerine, the dome has an
eliptical shape. Its interior diameter is J 38 ft (42 mY, and its sprineine plane is at J 5 J ft (46 m)
above eround.

59
 Wood and Masonry Domes

struction of the dome examined an astonish-

ing number of proposals from international
inventors trying to meet the challenging en-
gineering difficulties of erecting such a
dome. The engineering genius that Brunel-
leschi manifested amazed his contemporaries
and has been deeply admired by subsequent
generations.
Brunelleschi's innovative, unique con-
struction system dismissed the traditional ap-
proach of building a temporary centering on
scaffolds to support the tremendous weight
of the dome before it was completed. The
falsework for supporting workers and their
Elevation
tools was hung from construction already in
place. Imaginative hoisting machines of
Brunelleschi's design and built under his su-
pervision constituted an amazing achieve-
ment integral to that of the dome itself. In
Brunelleschi's methodology design and con-
struction went hand in hand so harmoniously
that this aspect of his work remains a splendid
example of how to combine these two compo-
nents of architecture.

SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE (1421-1460)

Centrally located over the plan of the church,
this dome was originally designed by Brunel-
leschi and completed after his death by An-
tonio Manetti.

THE PAZZ1 CHAPEL, FLORENCE Floor plan

(1429-1446)
This dome by Brunelleschi is of the ribbed
type. The dome is carried by pendentives and
crowned by a lantern. On the exterior, the
dome is purposely hidden by a high drum
that enclosed it (see Fig. 3-2).2 On top of the
drum is a low-pitched conical roof that covers
the dome completely. Two other, smaller,
domes complete the covering of the chapel.

SAN SPIRITO, FLORENCE (1445-1482)

This dome was also designed by Brunelleschi
and completed after he died. The major
Section
dome is located at the center of the cruciform
plan, with smaller domes covering the roof of 3-2 The dome over the Pozzi Chapel in
the aisles. Florence.

60
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
THE PORTINARI CHAPEL IN SAN
EUSTOGIO, FLORENCE (1462-1466)
This dome by Michelozzi is often compared
to the dome of San Lorenzo by Brunelleschi.
SANTA MARIA DELLE CARCERI,
PRATO, TUSCANY (1485-1491)
This dome designed by Giuliano da Sangallo
includes meridian ribs with vaults between
them. Carried by pendentives, the dome sup-
ports a central lantern on top. The dome is
totally concealed by a drum pierced with cir-
cular windows and by a conical tiled roof
above.
THE NICCOLINI CHAPEL IN SAN
CROCE, FLORENCE (1585-1609)
This dome by Giovanni Antonio Dosio was
probably designed in 1579, although it was
not constructed until six years later. Particu-
larly important is the elliptical plan of the
dome, which is one of the first examples that
such other architects of the Roman baroque
as Francesco Borromini fully explored later.
SANTA MARIA IN CARIGNANO, GENOA
(1552-1603)
This dome of the protobaroque period was
designed by Galeazzo Alessi, an enthusiastic
admirer of Michelangelo's art. The dome
over the center of the church is supported by
a high drum pierced by a series of windows of
alternately equal size. The small, hemispher-
ically shaped dome carries a lantern on top.
At the four corners of the church tall, slender
towers are crowned by small domes comple-
menting the larger one in the middle.
SAN SEBASTIANO, MILAN (1527-1596)
The dome of San Sebastiano in Milan was
designed and built by Pellegrino Tibaldi,
known as Pellegrino de' Pellegrini. This
church, inspired by Giacomo da Vignola, has
a circular floor plan that includes eight pilas-
ters around its perimeter. These pilasters
support a coffered, hemispherical dome sur-
mounted by a lantern. Completely covering
the dome is a drum that supports a conical
roof over the upper part of the dome.
61
SAN GIUSEPPE, MILAN (1607-1630)
This dome was designed by Francesco Ric-
chini in the early baroque period. The dome
covers an octagonal structure, from which it
springs by means of pendentives.
THE SUPERGA, TURIN (1717-1731)
Designed by Filippo Iuvarra, this dome is typ-
ically baroque. Ornate and vertically elon-
gated, it dominates the cityscape of Turin
from its hilltop location.
SAN SEBASTIANO, MANTUA (1738-1782)
This dome was an addition to an existing
church designed by Leon Battista Alberti
that had been erected between 1472 and
1494. The architect for the dome was again
Filippo Iuvarra.
The Roman Zone of Influence:
Significant Examples
The Early Renaissance began in Florence
and only slowly propagated to Rome. There
the architectural movement combined with a
literary revival that made Rome the world's
center for classical studies. Here alone was it
possible to find vast documentation on classi-
cal culture and see great numbers of proto-
types of classic architecture so well preserved.
Roman Empire domes were still there to in-
spire construction of a new generation of cu-
pule, or rounded vaults.
It should be noted that most of the domes
of the Italian Renaissance, baroque, and ear-
lier periods are located in the historical
centers of present-day cities. There the urban
scale makes it virtually impossible to have a
free view of the domes, so that the magnifi-
cence of individual architectural exteriors is
lost in their totality. Only when cityscapes are
observed from rooftops or city parks can they
reveal the exteriors of domes. These domes
are more accessible to an observer from in-
side than out, making it difficult to correlate
the appearances of interior and exterior.
There are a number of prime examples of
Renaissance domes still extant that exhibit
the influence of the Roman zone.
 Wood and Masonry Domes

SAN SATlRO, MILAN (1482-1494)

This dome from the Early Renaissance pe-
riod was designed by Donato Bramante. Al-
though located in Milan, this dome and the
one following are classified as part of the
Roman zone of influence because of Bra-
mante's role in the architecture of Rome.
The dome is erected over the center of the
church and carried by pendentives. The
dome's exterior is concealed by a high drum
and covered with a conical roof of tiles, fol-
lowing the example of the Pazzi Chapel in
Florence by Brunelleschi (see Fig. 3-2).

SANTA MARIA DELLE CRAZIE, MILAN

(1492-1497)
This dome, also by Bramante, is a later addi-
tion over an existing church. Its diameter is
65 ft (20 m). Concealed on its exterior by a
...•
Elevation
high drum that terminates in a gallery, this
dome has a sixteen-sided polygonal plan. A
shallow roof covers the top of the dome,
which is pierced in its middle by a protruding
lantern. Fenestration through the dome and
drum illuminates the interior of the dome.

THE TEMPIETTO IN SAN PIETRO IN

MONTORIO, ROME (1502-1510)
Bramante designed this small chapel to be
built over the spot where, it was believed,
Saint Peter received his martyrium. The
chapel's circular plan, built in the style of the
High Renaissance, resembles a Roman tem-
ple. The drum, which extends over the cylin-
drical structure, has a diameter of only 15 ft
(4.6 m). The dome exhibits a series of ribs on
its exterior. Although it is small in overall
size, this chapel is impressive for its sober
elegance.

SANTA MARIA DELLA CONSOLAZIONE,

TOD!, UMBRIA (1508-1604)
This dome by Cola da Caprarola is a hemi-
spherical, ribbed structure springing from a Cross· section
high drum and surmounted by a lantern (see
Fig. 3-3).3 Four smaller domes cover the rest
of the church. These four additional domes 3-3 The dome of Santa Maria Della
are only partial, however, with their peaks Consolazione, Todi, Umbria. By Cola do Caprarola.

62
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
reaching just to the bottom of the drum for
the main central dome.
THE MADONNA DI SAN BIAGIO,
MONTEPULCIANO (1518-1529)
This dome by Antonio da Sangallo the Elder
is a notable example of High Renaissance ar-
chitecture. It covers the center of a cruciform
church and is supported by a high drum sup-
ported in turn by pendentives.
THE MEDICI CHAPEL,
FLORENCE (1521-1534)
This chapel is the new sacristy of San Lo-
renzo, designed by Michelangelo to house
the tombs of Giuliano and Lorenzo de Me-
dici. Although it is in Florence, this protoba-
roque dome is included here in the zone of
influence of Rome because of Michelangelo's
major activity in Rome.
SAN ANDREA, ROME (c. 1550)
This dome designed by Giacomo Barozzi da
Vignola has an elliptical, horizontal cross-sec-
tion, which marks a new trend in dome de-
sign. Like the Pantheon's dome, this one is
partially concealed by a high drum whose
weight is used also to counteract horizontal
thrust at the base of the dome. The rectangu-
lar floor plan covered by the dome circum-
scribes the ellipse, whose semiaxes are, re-
spectively, 32 ft (10 m) and 26 ft (8 m).
THE GESU CHURCH, ROME (1568-1584)
Also designed by Vignola, this structure was
completed after his death by Giacomo della
Porta. The spiritual revival of the times made
this church an inspiring example for other
churches throughout Europe. The large, un-
obstructed space in the main nave could be
used for processions or large audiences at-
tending functions and sermons. Above it all
the dome dominated, inspiring those attend-
ing. Of special note is the lighting effect that
was produced by reflected sunlight as it en-
tered through large windows in the support-
ing drum.
63
THE SISTINE CHAPEL IN SANTA
MARIA MAGGIORE, ROME (1585)
This dome, by Domenico Fontana, covers the
chapel shaped like a Greek cross that forms
part of Santa Maria Maggiore.
SAINT PETER'S BASILICA (1585-1590)
The story of the dome of Saint Peter's Basil-
ica goes back to 1506, with the idea for a new
basilica commissioned by Pope Julius II. The
first of several architects to participate in its
design and construction was Bramante, as-
sisted by Giuliano da Sangallo and Fra Gio-
vanni Giocondo. At Bramante's death, in
1514, Raphael Sanzio was appointed as de-
signer, and for a short time Sangallo and Fra
Giocondo assisted, until their deaths in 1516
and 1520, respectively. Raphael also did not
live long enough to have much impact on the
project. After his death, in 1520, Antonio da
Sangallo the Younger was nominated to di-
rect the project, with Baldassare Peruzzi as-
sisting. However, the political unrest of the
times, which included the sack of Rome in
1527, did not allow much work to take place.
In 1546 Michelangelo was appointed to
continue the work, but the construction of
the dome he designed began only after his
death, in 1564. In 1588 Giacomo della Porta
and Domenico Fontana were commissioned
by Pope Sixtus V to begin constructing the
dome by following a wood model left by Mi-
chelangelo. Of particular importance in this
work was the proven engineering skill of
Fontana, who had previously moved the obe-
lisk in St. Peter's Square in Rome.
Michelangelo's original design had to be
altered as the dome was actually built, be-
cause his initial dome, inspired by the dome
of the Pantheon, was lower and hemispheri-
cal. The modifications by della Porta and
Fontana included, first, raising the springing
line 15.66 ft (4.8 m) and changing the dome's
profile to a more pointed configuration to
follow more closely the funicular shape of the
loads on the dome. This tapering of the shells
was increased even further toward the top, to
diminish the dead load and reduce the tensile
 Wood and Masonry Domes
forces in the hoops. The thickness of the ribs
was also diminished so that they projected
less on the exterior than they had in Michel-
angelo's original design. One comparative
analysis4 reports improved performance in
the della Porta-Fontana dome from reduc-
ing the tensile force to 60 percent of what it
would have been in Michelangelo's version.
As finally built, the dome measures 137 ft
6 in (41.9 m) in diameter at the base, 250 ft
(76 m) above the floor. The base is supported
by four huge piers with square cross-sections
60 ft (18 m) on a side. In order to understand
the huge scale of this dome it is helpful to
know that the cross on top is at an elevation
of 452 ft (137.8 m) above the floor of the
church, and the top of the dome supporting
the lantern is 365 ft (Ill m) above the floor.
The dome itself consists of two separate
brick shells each with a thickness of 46.85 in
(1.19 m) at the springing and an overall
thickness of 9 ft (2.7 m), including the inner
space (see the cross-section in Fig. 3-4). The
two domes are interconnected by sixteen
stone ribs that create a monolithic structure.
3-4 Cross-section through the dome of St.
Peter's in Rome.
64
The tension in the bottom rings of the
dome is absorbed by ten chain reinforce-
ments. The chains include two of the ones
originally installed during construction and
five more added by Giovanni Poleni in 1740
when he was commissioned to repair crack-
ing in the dome. A discrepancy exists be-
tween Poleni's accounts, which mention only
two chains, and the Vatican's, which suggest
a third hoop, documented by the ordering of
the material necessary to construct a third
hoop. It is interesting to note that the first
chains originally installed were not adequate
to resist tensile forces in the hoops and actu-
ally broke. The hoop reinforcements con-
sisted of iron bars with eye terminals con-
nected by pins acting as chains. Their
placement, near the extrados of the interior
dome, awaited the warmest possible day so
that the thermal contraction of lower temper-
atures would guarantee there being adequate
tensile forces within the chains.
Michelangelo Buonarroti was basically a
sculptor and painter, as Sangallo pointed out
when Michelangelo was commissioned to de-
sign fortifications for Rome. Michelangelo's
actual engineering experience was quite lim-
ited, being no match for his knowledge of art.
He had worked on fortifications for Florence
and had some experience in bridge design
and repair, but he lacked the expertise to
design and construct such a gigantic engi-
neering project as the dome of Saint Peter's.
Nevertheless, confident in himself and with a
personality typical in Renaissance man, Mi-
chelangelo undertook to design the dome
having as a model the dome of Santa Maria
del Fiore which served as proof that it could
be done. What Michelangelo produced was
in fact just an idea represented by a wood
model showing no specific construction de-
tails. He did not conceive of all the complica-
tions the dome job required and did not
create full engineering plans. The real engi-
neer was Domenico Fontana, although the
dome is usually credited to Michelangelo.
The massive, robust architectural charac-
ter of this dome was typical of Michelangelo's
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
style. The interior of the dome is without
doubt spectacular. Sixteen huge window
openings within the drum admit a quantity of
sunlight that makes the dome appear to be
very light (see Fig. 3-5). Mosaics decorating
the interior surface that catch the light com-
ing from the lantern above contribute to the
apparent loftiness of the dome (see Fig. 3-6).
A bird's-eye view from the dome is shown in
Figure 3-7.
Far from having become just an historical
example, the dome of St. Peter's still retains a
major place among masonry megastructures
that calls for its being more fully explored. A
recent paper5 describes a computer structural
analysis performed on Michelangelo's pro-
posed dome and on the actual design version
by della Porta and Fontana. This axisymmet-
ric finite element analysis (ANSYS analysis
code), which analyzed only one radian of the
dome, used the profile configuration of the
actual dome as given by Poleni and Di Ste-
fano. The support conditions assumed for
the dome include a fixed hinged connection.
This analysis concluded that the heavy lan-
tern over the dome generates strong vertical
deflections near the top of the dome, creat-
ing shear forces that tend to separate the two
shells, thus forming cracks between the ribs
and outer shell. Such cracks as were also ob-
served in 1742 by Poleni remain as they
were, unaffected by repairs to them.
THE CHURCH OF MADONNA Dl
LORETO, ROME (1573-1592)
Designed and built by Giacomo del Duca, this
major dome and the little one next to it cover
a church that was the work of several succes-
sive architects from 1507 to 1592. The origi-
nal project, approved in 1505, was by Bra-
mante, but Antonio da Sangallo actually
began the construction. Sansovino continued
his work and del Duca completed it. The
dome, crowned by a large lantern, is sup-
ported by an octagonal drum pierced by four
rectangular windows. The dome includes
eight ribs protruding on both the exterior
and interior (see Fig. 3-8). Round windows
65
are cut at the base of the dome, between the
ribs. Frescoes by Cesare Mariani decorate the
interior of the dome and its drum (see Fig.
3-9).
THE PAOLINA CHAPEL IN SANTA
MARIA MAGGIORE, ROME (1605-1611)
The dome designed by Flaminio Ponzio is
over the Paolina Chapel, where Pope Paul V
was buried. This work is considered by many
to be Ponzio's masterpiece.
SAN ANDREA DELLA VALLE, ROME
(1608-1628)
This dome crowns the church at Corso Vit-
torio Emanuele, near the Piazza Argentina in
Rome. The church and dome are by Carlo
Maderno, with only the lantern over' the
dome being by Francesco Borromini. The
dome surmounting the drum shows the ma-
turity and complexity of the baroque style,
with its intricate design dominated by pro-
truding exterior ribs that merge smoothly
toward the lantern. The young Borromini
was the most logical choice to complete such
a complex dome, commissioned by Maderno
in his later years.
The interior is decorated with fres-
coes painted by Giovanni Lanfranco between
1621 and 1625. The four pendentives sup-
porting the dome are also decorated by fre-
scoes, which represent the four evangelists.
These four paintings, by Domenico Zampieri
(II Domenichino), were executed between
1621 and 1628.
SAINTS MARTINA AND LUCA, ROME
(1637-1647)
Designed by Pietro da Cortona, a contempo-
rary of Francesco Borromini and Giovanni
Lorenzo Bernini, this dome covers a church
located in the Roman Forum on the side of
the arch of Septimius Severus. The dome is
supported by a high, heavy drum, and is of
the ribbed type, with eight of them being
visible on the exterior. On top of the dome is
a lantern that features two tiers of windows.
 Wood and Masonry Domes

3-5 An interior view of St. Peter's dome at the sprinoino level. Below this
point a spacious walk protected by an inconspicuous baluster allows
inspectino the dome at its base. Sixteen huoe windows like these pierce the
drum at the base of the dome.

3-6 An interior view of the dome of St. Peter's. The liaht from the
lantern on top does not really contribute sianificantly to illuminatina the
dome, which is instead flooded by liaht from the sixteen larae windows in
the drum.

66
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present

famous for its precious dome. At the time of

its completion, the news about this unique
piece of architecture spread throughout Eu-
rope in just a few months. The dome can be
admired only from inside the church, not
being visible from street level. The plan of
the church is that of an ellipse (see Fig. 3-10)
contained within an orthogonal structure
that circumscribes the curvilinearity of the
church. The entrance, which is along the
major longitudinal axis of the ellipse, repre-
sents one of several possible solutions to an
elliptical floor plan. The dome over the ellip-
tical space is part of an ellipsoid: a rotational
surface with a horizontal axis differing from

3-7 A small cupola on the left side of the

main dome of St. Peter's faces the cathedral.
Desioned in 1564 by Vionola, this cupola is one
of the two twin ones over the Greoorian and
Clementine chapels that were lost from view from
the square when CarIo Maderno lenothened the
nave and added a hiBh facade, in 1606 - 1612.
This photooraph was taken from one of the small
windows in St. Peter's dome's external shell that
can be reached throuOh the two shells of the dome.

The drum is also pierced by windows, to add

more sunlight to the interior.

SAN CARLO ALLE QUATTRO FONTANE,

SAN CARLINO, ROME (1638-1641)
Francesco Borromini is the architect of this
church "at the Four Fountains," so called
because of the fountains at the four corners
where two streets intersect near the church. 3-8 The baroque dome of the Madonna di
This small elliptical church, usually known as Loreto at the Roman Forum (1573 -1592),
the San Carlino because of its size, is world desioned and built by Giacoma del Duca.

67
 Wood and Masonry Domes
3-9 An interior view of the dome of the Madonna di Loreto.
that of a conventional dome, which has a ver-
tical axis of rotation.
The exceptional fluidity of this design ex-
tends with particular success from the floor
plan to the three-dimensional dome. Of
major significance is the effect achieved by
the natural lighting at the base of the dome ,
which makes the dome appear to float in
space and apparently detaches it from its
supports.
Despite its small scale, the significance of
this dome in the development of domes can-
not be overemphasized. Contrary to that of
the large-scale domes that had preceded it,
the dominant role of this work is in the virtu-
osity of its architectural form rather than its
engineering and construction.
SAN IVO DELLA SAPIENZA, ROME
(1642-1650)
This dome was designed and built by France-
sco Borromini. As is typical of his designs, the
dome has an exterior configuration different
from that of the interior (see Fig. 3-11). The
interior reveals a tall, slender dome, whereas
the exterior shows an undulated drum in a
pattern that consists of a series of three circu-
68
lar and three hexagonal half-cylinders.
Crowning the dome is a tall hexagonal lan-
tern that is topped with a spiraling steeple
that resembles a corkscrew. Unlike most cu-
polas, which typically are suffocated by their
surrounding buildings, this dome can easily
be admired from the outside, when the ob-
server enters the cortile of the Sapienza, and
even from some of the side streets.
SAN TOMMASO VILLANOVA, CASTEL
GANDOLFO, ROME (1658-1661)
This dome by Bernini crowns the middle of a
Greek-cross floor plan and is supported by
pendentives. Castel Gandolfo is the summer
residence of the popes.
SANT' AGNESE, ROME (1652-1666)
This dome by Borromini covers the church
of Sant' Agnese in the Piazza Navona directly
in front of the Fountain ofthe Four Rivers by
Bernini. Borromini's work on the church in-
cludes not only the dome but also the facade
and the two campanili that dominate the
well-unified design. The original work on
this church was initiated by Carlo Rainaldi
(1611-1691).
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present

differed, requiring some adjustments to be

made. The dome of the Santa Maria di
Monte Santo is elliptical in plan, whereas the
other is circular. The dome, designed by
Rainaldi, carries a lantern on top. The dome
is supported by a polygonal drum and delin-
eated by meridian ribs protruding over the
surface of the dome that extend from the
lantern to the top of the drum.

SANTA MARIA DEI MIRA COLI, ROME

(1662-1679)
This dome, also designed by Rainaldi, is simi-
lar to the one just described. Notice, how-

3-10 The plan of San Carlino, showing the

complexity, articulation, and extraordinalJ' fluidity
of Borromini's design.

SAN ANDREA AL QUIRINALE, ROME

(1658-1678)
A short distance from the San Carlino and on
the same street is another precious elliptical
dome on an equally small church, this one by
Bernini. The dome here covers a floor plan
that is also elliptical, with its major and minor
axes being only 80 ft and 55 ft (24.4 m and
16.8 m), respectively.

SANTA MARIA DI MONTE SANTO,

ROME (1662-1679)
This church, located between the Via del
Babbuino and the Via del Corso, is the twin
of the Santa Maria del Miracoli Church, be-
tween the Via del Corso and the Via Ripetta.
These two churches are crowned by domes
that are designed to look equal but are not
perfectly identical. The shapes of their sides
3-11 The dome of San Ivo della Sapienza,
Rome (1642 - 1650), by Francesco Borromini.
This Significant example of Borromini's virtuosity
lift an indelible mark on the histolJ' of domes.
Shown is the exterior of the dome as seen from the
cortile of the Sapienza.

69
 Wood and Masonry Domes
ever, that its plan is circular rather than
elliptical.
SAN CARLO AL CORSO, ROME
(1668-1672)
Dedicated to Carlo Borromeo, after his beati-
fication in 1610, the church, initiated in
1612 over the remnants of a previous
church, was originally designed by Onorio
Longhi. The dome in the Roman baroque
style is by Pietro da Cortona (1569-1669), a
painter and architect contemporary with
Borromini. A high drum pierced by eight tall
windows supports the dome, which carries a
lantern on top. Both the cupola and the lan-
tern are decorated on their interiors with
frescoes by a painter named Brandi. Archi-
tectural critics consider this to be one of the
most harmonious domes in Rome.
SAN CARLO AI CATINARI, ROME
(1612-1620)
Located at the Piazza Benedetto Cairoli, near
the Piazza Argentina, this church by Rosato
Rosati features a dome supported by a high
drum that is pierced by ten windows framed
by exposed ribs between them. The four
pendentives that support the dome aloft are
decorated with frescoes. The dome sits on
the drum and is decorated with numerous
hemispherical niches carved into the thick-
ness of the dome. Crowning the dome is a
lantern to complete the traditional outline of
the cupola.
SAN CLAUDIO E SAN ANDREA DEI
BORGOGNONI, ROME (1728-1731)
Built by Antoine Derizet over the remnants
of a previous church, this church was de-
signed for a French colony in Rome consist-
ing of members from the region of Burgundy
as indicated by the name. The church at Pi-
azza San Claudio, near Piazza San Silvestro, is
covered by a dome that includes a shallow
drum. The dome, which is pierced by four
circular windows near its base, includes me-
ridian ribs that form four window groupings.
Topping the dome is a typical lantern that
culminates in a cross.
70
THE CHURCH OF THE SS. NOME DI
MARIA, ROME (1737)
This church in the Roman Forum is next to
the Church of Madonna di Loreto, with the
Trajan Column in between. Although the
two churches differ slightly their two domes
are almost identical.
Erected by the Confraternita del Santis-
simo Nome di Maria (Brotherhood of the
Holy Name of Mary) this church was the pay-
ment of a deed to the Virgin for the victory
over the Turks by Giovanni Subieski in the
battle outside the gates of Vienna. Named
after the brotherhood, the church was
erected where the small chapel of St. Ber-
nardo stood, forcing its demolition for the
new church. A precious image of the Virgin
contained in the chapel from the eleventh
century, became the focal point in the new
church. Built according to the drawings of
Antonio Desret, the church with its elliptical
floorplan is covered by a lofty circular dome.
The Venetian Zone of Influence:
Significant Examples
The Renaissance in Venice, and in the area
that it controlled on the mainland, developed
differently than it did in the rest of Italy. Its
independent political stature and its distinc-
tive Venetian character both made it hard for
Venetians to accept art movements from out-
side. The different philosophy that the Ren-
aissance presented was not readily accepted
in Venice. For one thing, Venetians had an
instinctive aversion to Rome as the represent-
ative of the dominant church. For another,
the early Renaissance philosophy reached
Venice later than it did Florence and Rome.
Furthermore, when it did arrive, Renaissance
architecture adapted itself to the locally
strong Venetian tradition already strongly in-
fluenced by the Near East. The domes that
follow are important examples of this distinc-
tively Venetian style.
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
3-12 The dome of Santa Maria dei Miracoli
(1489) in Venice, by Pietro Lombardi.
SANTA MARIA DEI MIRA COLI, VENICE
(1481-1489)
This dome by Pietro Lombardo covers the
sanctuary of a small church in Venice (see
Fig. 3-12). 6 The dome consists of two shells, a
hemispherical one of masonry and a taller
wooden dome supported by a wooden frame-
work. The exterior wooden dome carries a
lantern. The two domes are supported by a
shallow drum pierced with windows. This
drum is carried by pendentives that distrib-
ute the load over a square plan, as in earlier
examples.
DOMES OF SAN SALVATORE, VENICE
(1506-1534)
Three identical domes, by Tullio Lombardo
and Giorgio Pietro Spavento, cover the main
71
body of this church. One is at the crossing
and the other two are over the nave, 10 a
layout that recalls a Byzantine trend.
VILLA CAPRA (VILLA ROTONDA),
VICENZA (c. 1552)
This classical hemispherical dome over the
rotunda of the villa is one of the most famous
structures by Andrea Palladio. Such a classi-
cal Roman dome was a logical architectural
expression that Palladio used often in his
work. This dome followed his studies and
research in Rome that produced his treatise I
Quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books
on Architecture).
VILLA TRISSINO, MELEDO, VICENZA
(1553)
For this villa Palladio covered the rotunda
with a classical spherical dome that speaks of
order, symmetry, and placidity.
THE CHURCH OF IL REDENTORE,
VENICE (1557-1592)
The Church of II Redentore is on the island
of Giudecca in the Venetian lagoon. This
church designed by Palladio is roofed at its
center by a hemispherical dome supporting a
lantern.
THE CHURCH OF SAN GIORGIO
MAGGIORE, VENICE (1565-1610)
This church stands on one of the little islands
in the Venetian lagoon. It is crowned by a
hemispherical dome over the center of a cru-
ciform plan. The dome, designed by Palla-
dio, supports a lantern curvilinearly shaped
like that of the church of II Redentore.
ARCHITECTS OF
THE RENAISSANCE AND
BAROQUE PERIODS
Only with the Italian Renaissance did the
popular conception of the architect become
one that combined the geniality of the artist
 Wood and Masonry Domes
with the practicality of the master builder. As
with historical focus transferred from the
mysticism of the Middle Ages to the human-
ism of the Renaissance, buildings came to be
associated with the architect who conceived
and built them, a tradition that has continued
to the present. The history of the dome can
now be discussed in terms of the men who
built these structures.
Filippo Brunelleschi (1372-1446)
With the contributions of Filippo Brunelles-
chi to the development of the dome, the
dome entered a stage characteristic of what
might be called the new Renaissance ap-
proach. The Gothic technology that had pro-
duced the elegant, slender arches and vaults
typical of the great northern cathedrals had
left a heritage of building technology upon
which Renaissance architects could capitalize.
Brunelleschi was the first in the large group
of recognized architects whose names have
come to be associated with their artistic pro-
ductions. Before this point, buildings gener-
ally resulted from the cooperative efforts of
many rather than from any specific individ-
ual associated with them.
Although Brunelleschi began as a sculp-
tor, in the tradition of the multitalented Ren-
aissance artist he soon abandoned sculpture,
as his love for rediscovering classical architec-
ture motivated him to go to Rome to study
firsthand the remnants of its classical monu-
ments. In his move from Florence to Rome
(accompanied, incidentally, by Donatello), he
established a pattern followed later by other
Renaissance architects. Mostly self-taught,
Brunelleschi attained direct experience of
Roman building traditions from his sojourn
in Rome. He combined this empirical knowl-
edge with the latest Gothic technology to
achieve a high level of engineering genius.
Among Brunelleschi's number of works,
the Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral
in Florence remains a superb masterpiece
that marks the beginning of a new domical
architecture that inspired much later work,
72
including, for instance, the dome of St.
Peter's. When Brunelleschi was commis-
sioned to take over the design and construc-
tion of this dome he started with a prelimi-
nary study of the necessary machinery
(basically hoists) needed for it, which he then
personally designed from his own mechanical
engineering knowledge.
The dome Brunelleschi built was unprece-
dented. He conceived of it as two structural
shells, one inside the other, interconnected to
act as one under load. Of great importance
also was his new idea for absorbing horizontal
thrust at the base by using metal chains
rather than buttresses. Another important
innovation was the construction method he
devised to avoid using supporting scaffolds.
Domenico Fontana (1543 -1607)
The major contribution that makes Domen-
ico Fontana significant in the history of the
dome is his fundamental role in constructing
the dome of the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome,
although such a superb masterpiece is usually
referred to as Michelangelo's dome by the
architectural literature and the public at
large, it is in reality the result of Fontana's
engineering conceptions. As noted earlier,
upon his death Michelangelo left only a
wooden model as a guide for constructing
this monumental structure. It is obvious, of
course, that a tremendous gap existed be-
tween the small model and the realization of
the engineering project by Fontana. The
wooden model failed to resolve all the prob-
lems that came up during its construction.
One should remember also that in conceiving
his design Michelangelo had a brilliant exam-
ple to follow in a model left by Brunelleschi.
The Renaissance architect-engineer Do-
menico Fontana is particularly famous for his
work on the noted obelisk in St. Peter's
Square. Although he created several build-
ings of major importance his work, in con-
junction with that of Giacomo della Porta for
St. Peter's dome, places Fontana unforget-
tably in the history of dome development.
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
Francesco Borromini (1599-1667)
Born in Como, Francesco Borromini moved
early on to Rome, where he apprenticed
under Maderno and Bernini. Brilliant, yet
intense and moody, he lived a dramatic life
that terminated in an accidental suicidal act.
Early in Borromini's career he observed a
workman on a construction site mistreating
some material. When Borromini reported
him to be reprimanded, the corporal punish-
ment inflicted caused the man's death, which
remained on Borromini's conscience for the
rest of his life. In another episode, in a mo-
ment of desperation he struck his forehead
with his own sword and languished for
months until he eventually died as a
consequence.
Borromini the architect benefited from
the new attitudes prevalent in the baroque
period. Dramatic new concepts then came
to envelop the world of the visual arts,
especially architecture. Out of the Renais-
sance revival of classicism the baroque
evolved into an articulation of totally new
forms with cerebral compositions exhibiting
great complexity. With these new opportuni-
ties Borromini's genius emerged trium-
phantly. Certainly in the design of domes,
Borromini did not take second place to
Bernini.
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini
(1598-1680)
Born in Naples of a Neapolitan mother and a
Florentine father well known as a sculptor,
Bernini moved to Rome, where he became
the dominant figure in the artistic circles of
papal Rome. Like his father, the creator of
the famous Barcaccia sculpture in front of the
Spanish steps, Bernini was a sculptor first,
and only then an architect. The focal point of
his art is his dynamic contribution to the ba-
roque dome development in its departure
from preceding Renaissance prototypes. Ber-
nini explored a whole new geometric vocabu-
lary that made baroque architecture a dis-
73
tinct, powerful new art form. Although the
baroque was long discredited for its complex
articulations of geometric forms, it has re-
cently been reinterpreted and finally came to
be understood for its inherent values. The
intricacy of its design and the power of its
curvilinear shapes had never been used be-
fore and were for a long time overlooked as
being merely an expression of pomposity and
verbosity. The idea of complexity as a devel-
opment out of simplicity is indeed a logical,
positive process. Now that this concept has
finally been understood, the baroque and its
masters like Bernini have been accorded
their rightful places.
The interpretation of dome design that
Bernini ventured into was a departure from
the traditional circular plan. With his work
the dome shape transgressed the typical geo-
metric arrangement resulting from rotating a
generatrix around a vertical axis. For the
first time, the dome was produced from a
portion of a solid surface generated as a
shape rotating around a horizontal axis. Such
domes' elliptical plans resulted from having a
horizontal plane intersect a paraboloid.
EUROPEAN DOMES
OUTSIDE IT AL Y
Renaissance domes in Europe outside of Italy
typically exhibit one or two centuries of de-
velopmental delay behind their Italian proto-
types. When Italian architecture was well into
its Baroque period, Renaissance-inspired
domes were still being built outside Italy.
The Renaissance spread first to central
Europe, with numbers of important domes
built especially in Germany and Poland. The
examples that follow of domes in other coun-
tries illustrate how the Renaissance concept
of dome structures spread in the period
beyond the Italian Renaissance.
SIGISMUND CHAPEL, CRACOW, POLAND
(1517-1533)
Known as a pearl of the Renaissance, this
chapel and its dome are outstanding exam-
 Wood and Masonry Domes

pIes of Renaissance architecture in Poland.

Built by an Italian architect from Florence,
Bartolomeo Berecci, called also Bartolomeo
Florentino, the chapel is part of the Wawel
Cathedral, the traditional burying place of
Polish kings. The chapel is crowned by a
dome supported by a cylindrical drum that
provides natural light at the base of the
dome, through a series of circular windows
piercing the drum itself. The lantern topping
the dome completes the domical structure in
the Renaissance style typical of Italian proto-
types. The chapel is also famous for its sculp-
tural decoration and marble royal tombs.

LES INVALIDES, PARIS (1680-1691)

The dome of Les Invalides was built by Jules
Hardouin-Mansart to complete the Hotel des
Invalides begun by Liberal Bruant in 1670.
This structure represents one of the most
significant domes of the French Renaissance.
The dome of Les Invalides consists of three
concentric shells forming a dome centered
over a Greek-cross floor plan. It is supported
by a high drum on four piers. The dome's
internal diameter at its base is 90 ft 9 in (27.7
m). The inner dome terminates quite low,
3-1 3 The dome of Les Invalides, Paris (1680-
leaving a large opening on top that affords a
full view of the painted middle dome. The
1691), by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. Like the
dome of St. Paul's in London, this dome includes
outer dome, which carries a lantern on top, is
three concentric shells.
a timber structure covered with lead (see Fig.
3-13).7

ST. CASIMIR'S CHURCH, WARSAW
(1688-1692)
Built by Tylman of Gameren, this church in
Warsaw is a significant example of baroque
architecture. On a Greek-cross floor plan,
this church is crowned at its center by a dome
resting over an octagonal drum. It has a lan-
tern on top.
ST. ANTONY OF PADOVA CHURCH,
WARSAW (1687-1694)
This church was built by Izydor Affaita ac-
cording to Tylman of Gameren. It was deco-
rated and furnished by painter Francesco
Antonio Giorgioli and sculptor Andrzej
Schluter. This church is considered the best
example of the high baroque in Warsaw.
ST. PAUL'S, LONDON (1675-1710)
Rebuilt after the Great Fire of 1666 on the
site of the original cathedral, the new St.
Paul's Cathedral marks the beginning of the
Late Renaissance period in England (see Fig.
3-14).8 Saint Paul's is generally regarded as
the masterpiece of Christopher Wren. It is
surmounted by a striking dome that stands
out against the cityscape. A tall drum sup-
ported on eight piers carries on its top three
concentric shells that together constitute the
dome. The inner dome, a shell of brick ma-

74
 JZI~l[M'!'~~

A B

3-14 The dome of5t. Paul's Cathedral (1710) , London, by Sir Christopher Wren. a) Exterior view. b) Cross-section.
 Wood and Masonry Domes
3-15 The dome of La Clerecia Church,
Salamanca, Spain. This example of baroque
domes in Spain has a diameter of only 42 ft (13
my. The dome sits on a high drum and carries a
large lantern that is disproportionately large in
comparison to the dome.
sonry 18 in (45.7 cm) thick, is painted by Sir
James Thornhill. The interior dome, shaped
as part of a spherical surface, has its eye at
214 ft 3 in (65.3 m) above the floor. A second
structural dome is conical in shape, is built of
brick 18 in (45 cm) thick above the inner
dome. This intermediate shell carries the lan-
tern above it. The third dome consists of a
timber structure covering the second shell,
thus providing a weatherproof skin with its
lead cover. Iron chains and bands are pro-
vided as required on each shell to absorb any
tensile stress that might develop.
76
LA CLERECIA CHURCH, SALAMANCA,
SPAIN (1750-1755)
This church designed and built by Andres
Garcia de Quinones is partially roofed by a
tall dome that is 42 ft (13 m) in diameter and
sits over a high drum. The dome carries a
large lantern on top (see Fig. 3-15).
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH, WARSAW
(1777-1781)
Built in the last part of the eighteenth cen-
tury in the heart of a Catholic country, this
church is usually referred to as the Protestant
Church of Malachowski Square. Designed by
Szymon Bugumil Zug, this church with the
large dome crowning it is considered an out-
standing example of neoclassical architecture
in Poland.
DOMES IN RUSSIA
The development of domes in Russia follows
the history of Russian architecture in its frag-
mentary course. The first architectural phase
started with the religious Byzantine tradition
in the 900s when Russia embraced the Chris-
tian Orthodox faith. This period ended in
the 1230s when Russia was conquered by the
Tartars and cut off from Western culture for
one and a half centuries.
The second phase started when Czar I van
III (1440 - 1505) invited Italian architects to
Russia to reconstruct the Kremlin, in Mos-
cow. This marked the importation of the Ital-
ian Renaissance which blended well with
local Russian traditions. The Italian influence
led also to a rediscovery of local craftsman-
ship that had been lost under the Tartars.
Some of the Italian architects involved were
Alevisio Novi, Pietro Solaro, and Marco
Ruffo.
The third phase started with the founding
in 1703 of the new city named St. Petersburg
by its founder, Peter the Great. The Italian
Renaissance and baroque influences that
had already encompassed Europe came to
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
dominate completely the architecture of St.
Petersburg. Some of the architects who con-
tributed the most to its architectural develop-
ment were Domenico Tressini, Carlo Barto-
lomeo Rastrelli, Antonio Rinaldi, Carlo
Rossi, and Giacomo Quarenghi.
The dominant role of the dome in the
religious architecture of the Renaissance and
baroque eras found equal acceptance in Rus-
sia. There, however, the Italian models blend
with local influences to generate new forms.
Some of the major examples of Russian
domes are briefly mentioned as follows:
ST. THEODORE STRA TELA TES,
NOVGOROD (c. 1361-1362)
This domed church, built in Novgorod in the
middle of the fourteenth century under the
urging of Semjon Aandrejevitch, the mayor,
exemplifies the bourgeois architecture typi-
cal of the times. This small dome supported
by a circular drum perforated by several nar-
row apertures tops the center of the main
portion of the church. At its pointed crown it
3-16 The dome of St. Theodore Stratelates,
Nov8orod (c. 1361-1362).
77
terminates in a traditional Orthodox cross
(see Fig. 3-16).
THE CHURCH OF THE NATIVITY OF
OUR LADY IN THE KREMLIN (1393)
See Figure 3-17.
THE CATHEDRAL OF THE DORMITION
IN THE KREMLIN (1475-1479)
Five previous domes cover this splendid
church in the Kremlin that was intended to
be the setting for important official ceremo-
nies, including the coronations of the czars.
The Italian architect Rudolfo Fioravanti,
known as Aristotele F., was invited to Russia
by I van III through the offices of the Russian
ambassador to Venice to design and oversee
the construction of this structure. After de-
molishing the original two-year-old structure
that had partially collapsed from an earth-
quake, Fioravanti redesigned the building,
following the model of Vladimir Dormition,
according to Ivan Ill's wishes. Following
Russian medieval traditions, this church does
not reflect the new architecture then flour-
ishing in Italy.
The symmetrically organized five domes
are supported by individual drums arranged
so that the larger central dome dominates the
others (see Fig. 3-18).
THE CATHEDRAL OF THE ARCHANGEL
MICHAEL, MOSCOW (1505-1509)
This structure designed by Alevisio Novi as
part of the Kremlin is covered by five domes
(see Fig. 3-19).
THE BELFRY OF IVAN THE GREAT,
MOSCOW (1508-1600)
This belfry is in the Kremlin, completed in
the sixteenth century. This church is shaped
with an octagonal floor plan and rises in
three tiers crowned with a dome, as illus-
trated in Figure 3-20.
THE CHURCH OF THE INTERCESSION
OF THE VIRGIN, FILI, MOSCOW (1693)
Five domes crown this church. The small bul-
bous domes are gilded. The central dome is
 Wood and Masonry Domes

3-17 The Church of the Nativity of Our Lady

in the Kremlin (1393).

3-18 Top right: The dome of the Cathedral of

the Dormition in the Kremlin (1475 -1479), by
Aristotele Fioravanti.

3-19 Bottom right: The domes of the Cathedral

of the Archangel Michael in the Kremlin,
designed by Alevisio Novi.

78
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present

3-20 The domes over the belfry in the Cathedral of Ivan the Great in
the Kremlin, started by Marco Bono in 1508 and completed in 1600.

mounted over a tower, with the others sym-
metrically arranged much lower.
THE CHURCH OF THE
TRANSFIGURATION, KIZBI (1714)
See Figure 3-21.
THE SMOLNY CONVENT, ST.
PETERSBURG (1748-1755)
These domes designed by Carlo Bartolomeo
Rastrelli include a high central dome with
four small ones around it placed over four
lower towers.
smaller domes around the central one repeat
the motif from the top part of the central
dome (see Fig. 3-22).
ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL, ST.
PETERSBURG (1818-1858)
A gilded dome at the center dominates this
massive, rich structure.
A general view of the domes over the
churches of the Kremlin can be seen in Fig-
ure 3-23.

ST. ANDREW'S CATHEDRAL, KIEV FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

(1747-1773)
Again designed by Rastrelli, the domes here
include a central one having a unique bul-
bous form surmounted by a small bulb that
terminates in a pointed extension. Four
The baroque period represented the apex in
the historical development of domical archi-
tecture. The rediscovery of the Roman dome

79
 Wood and Masonry Domes

- -- -<==:.
- --
3-21 The Church of the Trans.finuration, Kizbi (1714).

80
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present

- -l---
-J(j~-
I }

3-22 The domes of St. Andrew's Cathedral, Kiev (1747 - 1773) by Bartolomeo Rastrelli.

81
 Wood and Masonry Domes
3-23 A general view of the Kremlin domes.
by the Renaissance was one theme the ba-
roque developed to its fullest design virtuos-
ity so that the tradition of the dome could
decline only gradually. There are two basic
reasons identifiable as the main causes of this
decline: a decline in masonry structures in
general, and a widespread declaration of war
against past traditions.
The advent of improved technology grad-
ually reduced the continued use of masonry,
because of the new excitement generated by
building in steel and reinforced concrete. Ex-
cept for a new generation of domes with steel
frames, the traditional masonry dome has
now vanished as a significant form for archi-
tectural expression. The anticlassical cur-
rents that swelled against the dome and cur-
vilinear traditional architecture resulted
from new philosophies of art that emerged
with the end of romanticism from just before
World War I to the years that followed it.
The development of the dome has fluc-
tuated, because between one peak of popu-
larity and another were various levels of ac-
ceptance. For example, the steel dome that
emerged in the nineteenth century has been
82
variously popular from the late 1800s to its
current great revival.
Several classical revivals followed that of
the baroque, but their minor scale resulted in
only limited, sporadic applications in domes.
Domes built after the baroque era were usu-
ally inspired by Renaissance domes. The Lu-
theran church built between 1777 and 1781
in Warsaw by Szymon Bugumil Zug is a good
example of a classical revival. The interior
under this dome became famous for its flaw-
less acoustics. Now the church serves not only
as a religious center but as a concert hall for
recitals, particularly of organ and chamber
music. Also in 1781 Jacques SoufHot com-
pleted the Pantheon in Paris (see Fig. 3-24).9
Some innovative domes were built in the
1800s. For example, Alesandro Antonelli
(1798-1888) designed the dome ofthe Basil-
ica of San Gaudenzio in Novara and the
dome for the Mole Antonelliana in Turin.
The exceptionally tall profiles of these domes
with their cuspidate configurations was
mainly to make them easily recognizable
from their exteriors and to dominate their
cityscapes. Another example of a domical
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
structure from the same period is the dome
of San Carlo in Milan, designed and built by
Carlo Amati in 1840. It has a diameter of
105 ft (32 m) and height of 120 ft (36.58 m)
and was built with unreinforced horizontal
courses.
By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
the domical structure was no longer a roofing
system exclusively for churches. Galleries, li-
braries, railroad stations, and government
buildings were now among the structures
covered with domes. The vernacular archi-
tecture of this period often indulged in re-
vivals of Renaissance and baroque proto-
types, particularly in cities where the domical
tradition was strong. In Rome, for example,
in the Via Veneto, over the corner of the
Excelsior Hotel, there is an elegant baroque-
revival small but graceful dome. At the
square in front of the Ponte Milvio the 1933
church the Gran Madre di Dio is roofed by a
3-24 A cross-section of the dome of the
Pantheon (1781) in Paris by Soujjlot.
83
classic dome and drum, both octagonal. And
at Ostia, which is now practically part of
Rome, a cathedral designed by Magni in the
1930s is covered by an octagonal dome. It is
supported by an octagonal drum that clearly
represents a nostalgia for the domes of the
past.
Domes of the U.S. State Capitols
The wide acceptance of Palladian architec-
ture throughout Europe was exported to the
United States, where it met with astonishing
enthusiasm that led to a classical revival.
Among the various elements of neoclassical
architecture, the dome emerged supreme as
a major feature in public buildings.
THE STATE CAPITOL, BOSTON
(1795-1798)
This early example of U.S. masonry domes,
on the state house in Boston, was designed by
Charles Bulfinch. This neoclassical building
is crowned by a precious guilded dome whose
vivid reflection merges nicely into the city-
scape of Boston.
THE U.S. CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D.C.
(1793-1867)
The present dome of the U.S. Capitol build-
ing in Washington, D.C. is the work of
Thomas Ustick Walter (see Fig. 3-25). This
dome replaced the original one destroyed by
the British in the War of 1812. Inspired by
classical Palladian architecture, this building
was originally designed by Dr. William
Thornton to imitate the Pantheon in Rome.
The design and construction of the original
building continued until 1811 under the
guidance of E. S. Hallet, assisting Thornton,
and later by B. H. Latrobe, who rebuilt it
after its destruction.
The elliptical dome is basically of cast iron,
surmounted by a lofty drum. The drum is in
two parts; a lower portion encircled by a col-
onnade on the outside and with an interior
surface pierced by windows, and an upper
 Wood and Masonry Domes
3-25 The dome over the U.S. Capitol in
Washinoton, D.C., by Thomas Ustick Walter. A
cast-iron structure replaced the orioinal
hemispherical dome.
part also pierced by windows. The ribbed
dome is completed on top by a lantern
crowned with decorative statuary.
COLORADO STATE HOUSE, DENVER
(1890-1900)
Built to resemble the U.S. Capitol building in
Washington, D.C., this structure by E. E.
Myers, architect, is crowned with a dome
standing 270 ft (82.5 m) above the ground.
Sheeted with copper, it was then covered
with gold leaf donated by the miners of Colo-
rado, where gold but not copper is mined. In
1950, a second coating of gold leaf preserved
the luster of this precious dome.
Some of the other domes that can be seen
84
on state capitol buildings include the fol-
lowing:
Main Statehouse, Charles Bulfinch:
1828-1831
Indiana, 1878-1888
Texas, E. E. Myers: 1882-1888
Georgia, Edbrooket Burnham: 1884-
1889
Minnesota, Cass Gilbert: 1895 -1905
Rhode Island, McKim, Mead & White:
1895-1905
South Carolina, 1853 -1907
Montana, Frank Andrews: 1898 -1902
Colorado, E. E. Myers: 1886 - 1908
Mississippi, Theodore C. Link: 1901-
1903
South Dakota, C. E. Bell: 1907
Pennsylvania, Joseph Huston: 1909
Kentucky, Frank Andrews: 1910
Arkansas, George R. Mann, Cass Gilbert:
1900-1917
Utah, Richard Kletting: 1913 - 1916
Wisconsin, George B. Post & Son:
1906-1917
Idaho, John E. Tourtelotte, 1912 -1919
Other U.S. Domes
THE LIBRARY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
VIRGINIA (1823 -1826: Rebuilt 1896-1898)
This dome over the library building at the
University of Virginia, near Charlottesville, is
significant not for its engineering and con-
struction but for its history. This dome over
the Rotunda, as the building is usually called,
stands out delightfully to crown the building
that is the focal point of the campus. To-
gether with the rest of the campus, this build-
ing and dome were designed by Thomas Jef-
ferson during his retirement years, when he
dedicated himself to architecture. Inspired
by the Pantheon, the Rotunda followed its
proportions, reduced to half its scale. The
library building was originally designed with
three stories: two with oval lecture and as-
sembly rooms, and a third crowned by an
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present
almost hemispherical dome, which was in-
tended as a grand space for the library.
When the library burned in 1895, the
university commissioned the McDonald
Brothers architectural firm of Louisville,
Kentucky, to draw up plans for its recon-
struction, but after controversies with faculty
and students the commission was withdrawn
and offered to Stanford White of the New
York firm of McKim, Mead & White. The
building was eventually rebuilt, not as an ex-
actly perfect replica of the original one, but
with modifications reflecting intentions Jef-
ferson had had that could not originally be
applied for economic reasons. Subsequently,
several further modifications have been
made on the building and dome. In 1938,
alterations were made to remove the library
from the Rotunda, and in 1939 and 1940
further modifications took place while refur-
bishing the building. Between 1973 and
1976 additional changes were made to the
building and dome, by Louis W. Ballou, an
architect from Richmond.
3-26 The dome over the library of the University of Vir8inia (I 826),
Charlottesville, by Thomas Jefferson.
85
During the course of these various alter-
ations the dome underwent substantial
changes, such as the removal and reconstruc-
tion of the stepped rings around its base, a
change in the copper sheetings, as well as the
addition of cupolas over the skylight and the
like.
This dome, only 77 ft (23 m) at its base,
remains a major monument as part of the
American heritage. Its Palladian neoclassical
architecture adopted by Jefferson to create a
prototypical model for future American uni-
versities, remains a source of inspiration (see
Fig. 3-26).
Other significant domes in the United
States are mentioned as follows:
The University of Virginia, Charlottesville
(1897); McKim, Mead & White; base
diameter 70 ft (21.3 m)
New York University, New York, N.Y.
(1897); McKim, Mead & White; base
diameter 56 ft (17 m)
The Institute of Arts & Sciences, Brooklyn
 Wood and Masonry Domes
(1901); McKim, Mead & White; base
diameter 64 ft (19.5 m)
The Bank of Montreal, Montreal (1903-
1904); McKim, Mead & White, base di-
ameter 69 ft (21 m)
Madison Square Presbyterian Church,
New York, N.Y. (1904); McKim, Mead
& White, base diameter 46 ft (14 m)
McKinley National Memorial, Canton,
Ohio (1905-1906); H. Van Buren Ma-
gonigk; base diameter 56 ft (17 m)
St. Paul's Chapel, Columbia University,
New York, N.Y. (1905-1906); Howells
and Stokes, base diameter 52 ft (16 m)
Rodef Sholem Synagogue, Pittsburgh
(1905 -1908); Palmer and Hornbostel;
base diameter 90 ft (27.4 m)
Smithsonian Museum, Washington, D.C.
(1906 - 1910); Hornblower & Marshall;
base diameter 80 ft (24.4 m)
Girard Trust Co., Philadelphia (1907);
McKim, Mead & White and Allen
Evans; base diameter 101 ft (30.8 m)
The Cathedral of St. John the Divine,
New York, N.Y. (1908-1909); Heins
and La Farge; base diameter 132 ft
(40 m)
St. Francis de Sales Church, Philadelphia
(1908-1911); Henry D. Dagit; base di-
ameter 61 ft (18.6 m)
The Church of St. Barbara, Brooklyn
(1909); Helmle & Hubert; base diame-
ter 43 ft (13 m)
Tile Domes in the United States
Late nineteenth-century Spanish prototypes
of Catalan masonry timbrel vaulting reached
the United States through the initiative of
Rafael Guastavino. Using his unique system
of tile vaults laminated in layers, scores of
domes were built throughout the United
States. From 1897 to World War II this
method proliferated.
Brick-tile vaulting became practically ex-
tinct in the 1940s in the United States, but
the art of working with tiles lived on wher-
86
ever strong cultural traditions of using ma-
sonry existed. Around the Mediterranean
various countries still continue to use ma-
sonry vaulting techniques with lightweight
clay products. Hollow-brick tile remains a
popular building block for partition con-
struction and light vaulting throughout the
world.
THE END OF AN ERA
With the discovery of Portland cement and
the concrete derived from it, masonry fell
into disuse. Unreinforced concrete might
sometimes have been considered a better
building material for masonry structures, but
practical applications took different ap-
proaches by creating a new technology that
bypassed traditional masonry forms. The use
of concrete in its unreinforced state failed to
gain momentum. Only when it was combined
with steel reinforcement did concrete suc-
ceed in being fully utilized.
The technological development of the ma-
sonry dome can be seen in its inherent con-
struction characteristics. Domes were used as
a practical building typology to cover large
spaces with a permanent, durable material
instead of short-lived wood trabeation. Much
can be seen by observing the spans that his-
torical domical structures have covered.
Large and small domes have served their role
through a large spectrum of applications (see
Table 3-1) that testifies to the flexibility of
domical morphology.
Recent design demands for truly large
spans have proceeded beyond the capabilities
of masonry, passing the task directly to rein-
forced concrete, and indirectly to steel and
wood. For reinforced concrete, the most sig-
nificant example is the Kingdome in Seattle
(1975) with a diameter of 660 ft (201m).
Tables 3-2 and 3-3 detail significant steel and
wood domes.
 Domes from the Romanesque to the Present

TABLE 3-1 Spans of Historical Masonry Domes

DIAMETER AT BASE
DOME OF DOME

Treasury of Atreu, Mycanea 48 ft (14.6 m)

Stabian Baths, Pompeii 20 ft, internal (6 m)
Temple of Diana, Baiae 96 ft (29.3 m)
Temple of Venus, Baiae 60 ft (18.3 m)
Temple of Mercury, Baiae 66 ft (20.1 m)
Domus Aurea 44.3 ft, internal (13.5 m)
48.2 ft, external (14.7 m)
Pantheon, Rome 142.5 ft (43.4 m)
Temple of Vesta, Rome 18.5 ft, internal (5.6 m)
Minerva Medica, Rome 80 ft (24.4 m)
Temple of Venus, Baalbek 34 ft, internal (10.4 m)
S. Costanza, Rome 40 ft, internal (12.2 m)
The Baptistery, Nocera 80 ft (24.4 m)
Tomb of Theodoric, Ravenna 35 ft (10.7 m)
Martyrium of St. George, Zor'ah 34.5 ft (10.5 m)
S. George, Solonica 80 ft (24.4 m)
Church of Sts. Gergius and Bacchus, 52 ft (15.8 m)
Constantinople
St. Mark's, Venice 42 ft (13 m)
St. Sophia, Constantinople 107 ft (32.6 m)
St. Theodore's, Constantinople 13 ft (4 m)
St. Front, Perigueux, France 40 ft (12 m)
Little Metropole Cathedral, Athens 9 ft (2.7 m)
Jami Mosque, Qazvin, Iran 49 ft (15 m)
Taj Mahal, Agra, India 58 ft (17.7m)
Baptistry of Pisa 60 ft (18.3 m)
Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence 138 ft (42 m)
Tempietto in San Pietro in Montorio, 15 ft (4.6 m)
Rome
Saint Peter's, Rome 137ft6in (41.9 m)
San Giorgia dei Greci, Venice 36 ft (11 m)
La Clereca, Salamanca 42 ft (13 m)
Les Invalides, Paris 90 ft 9 in, internal (27.7 m)
San Carolo, Milan 105 ft (32 m)
San Andrea al Quirinale, Rome 80 ft, major axis (24.4 m)
(elliptical dome) 55 ft, minor axis (16.8 m)
San Andrea, Rome 64 ft, major axes (19.5 m)
52 ft, minor axes (15.8 m)
Typical igloo 15 ft (4.6 m)

TABLE 3-2 Steel and Wood Domes' Sizes

DIAMETER AT
BASE
DOME OF MAJOR DOME
Kaiser Aluminum, Honolulu, 1957; geodesic 145 ft (44.2 m)
Dome, Vienna, 1974; Schwedler 210 ft (64 m)
University Field House, Wichita, Kansas; Lamella 250 ft (76.2 m)
U.S. Pavilion, Expo, Montreal; geodesic 250 ft (76.2 m)
Charlotte Coliseum, N.C., 1955; Schwedler 332 ft (101.2 m)
Union Tank Car, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1958; geodesic 384ft (117 m)
Astrodome, Houston, Texas, 1956-1965 642 ft (196 m)
Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1971-1975; geodesic 680 ft (210 m)
Florida Suncoast Dome, St. Petersburg, 1990; cable 690 ft (210 m)

87
 Wood and Masonry Domes

TABLE 3-3 Wood Dome Sizes In this dramatic sequence can be seen the
DIAMETER AT ancient masonry tradition being forcibly
BASE ousted by the new technologies.
DOME OF MAJOR DOME
University of Portland, 1984; 305 ft (93 m)
Varax
University of N. Arizona, 1978; 502 ft (153 m)
Varax
Tacoma Dome, 1983; 530 ft (162 m)
Varax
University of N. 533 ft (163 m)
Michigan, 1990; Varax

NOTES
1. From Bannister Fletcher, A History of Architecture, 5 ed. (1905), 409.
2. Ibid., 153.
3. Ibid., 452.
4. Elwin C. Robison, "A Structural Study of the Michelangelo and Della Porta Designs for the St. Peter's
Dome." Proceedings, symposium on Domes from Antiquity to the Present, IASS-MSU, Istanbul, May 1988.
5. Ibid.
6. Fletcher, History of Architecture, 482.
7. Ibid., 508.
8. Ibid., 570.
9. Ibid., 508.

88
CHAPTER 4
Dome TechnolO[Jies
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
The layman's definition of shell brings to
mind the vision of a thin continuous surface
enclosing an object. The surface of a seashell
or of an egg are obvious examples. Likewise,
when we talk of structures enclosing build-
ings, what comes most readily to mind is the
continuous surfaces of vaults and domes that
have become the major expressions of classi-
cal architecture with the evolution of ma-
sonry.
Underlying these building morphologies is
the idea of having smooth, continuous shapes
where the angularity of a skeletal frame is
totally absent and in net opposition. As ma-
sonry progresses vertically from foundation
through walls to roof, it necessarily flows into
curvilinear surfaces. This is the only possible
alternative for roofing over an interior space
with one continuous construction medium.
The vault became the key to opening up
spaces that were crowded by columns carry-
ing short lintels.
When light, manageable bricks replaced
stones as media, the great vaults of the an-
cient world became possible. Large spans
were the goal in the architecture of great
cultures. They found their most triumphant
89
expression in Roman monuments. From the
early barrel vault to the sophisticated dome
of the Pantheon, Roman vaulting exploited
materials and forms through the intuitions of
anonymous builders. Through seemingly
spontaneous growth vault technology
evolved over millennia until the twentieth
century. So even though the concrete thin
shell has now totally replaced the old tradi-
tion of masonry vaulting, that tradition still
retains its historical value through the innu-
merable monuments extant throughout the
world. From the Pantheon to St. Sophia and
from Santa Maria del Fiore to San Carlino,
many hundreds of masonry domes are still
magnificently preserved in the Western
world, as are thousands of domes covering
the mosques of the Muslim world.
To speak in this context of structural
shells requires consideration of the dominant
materials used to construct shells-first ma-
sonry and then concrete and steel. For all
these materials it is logical to assume that the
material reacts as a homogeneous mass when
considering its overall behavior. Masonry
shells are the product of a continuous mate-
rial that can be molded into curvilinear forms
in the construction process. With centering
and falsework, usually made out of timber,
master masons prepared forms to support the
 Wood and Masonry Domes
heavy mass of the masonry during the slow
construction phase. Masonry vaults and
domes must be dealt with differently from
masonry walls. During the construction of
masonry walls, the structure is always in a
state of stable equilibrium, under the action
of dead loads, but structural shells never
achieve equilibrium until being totally com-
pleted. For this reason, falsework is an abso-
lute necessity for erecting structural shells.
Another major factor in the definition of
structural shells is the degree of curvilinearity
in the shape that manipulates the flow of in-
ternal forces throughout the form. A ma-
sonry shell's external forces, its live and dead
loads, flow through it to its supports in pat-
terns such that the stresses produced at any
given cross-section are either ones of com-
pression or of shear, these being the only two
stresses that masonry is capable of absorbing
efficiently. Consequently, the pattern of the
internal forces is conveyed through a shell in
accordance with a specific geometry that will
allow the generation of only compressive and
shear stresses. Compression does not neces-
sarily occur uniformly throughout any partic-
ular cross-section. It is necessary, however, to
stay within positive compressive stresses,
without going into negative values (tension).
As the theory of elasticity illustrates, tension
is avoided when the resultant of compressive
forces at any given section is contained within
that section's middle third. Structural shells
therefore must capitalize on the geometric
configurations that will allow this internal
condition.
To visualize this effect, imagine a simple
piece of cloth hanging from various points
that acquires a certain shape under the
weight of sand superimposed on it. This cloth
is nothing other than a membrane under ten-
sion. Now imagine this membrane inverted,
without undergoing a change in shape by
freezing. The structure becomes a thin shell
and its state of stress is pure compression.
The extraordinary variety of pure tensile
structures now available furnishes a valid in-
ventory of forms for structural shells, if one
can imagine them as being inverted.
90
DOMES: BASIC FORCES
For a better understanding of the develop-
mental background of domical structures it is
necessary to examine the basic forces and re-
actions on and within domes. The design and
construction of masonry domes can be easily
carried out by following some basic design
procedures.
The first step toward a general under-
standing of domes as structures is to acquire a
mental picture of the structural behavior
common to all domes. To do so requires
identifying the basic forces that travel
throughout a shell. First are the internal
forces generated by loads that by definition
produce membrane forces that travel within
the shell all the way to its supports. Because
they are planar elements, only those forces of
compression, tension, and shear that are con-
tained within the shell's thickness itself are
allowable. The following discussion analyzes
and describes the forces for various configu-
rations of load conditions and geometric
forms, limited to spherical and conoidal
domes.
Spherical Domes with No
Central Opening
Many kinds of circular domes are structurally
possible, since they can be attained by rotat-
ing any shape of generatrix around a vertical
axis. For simplicity's sake this discussion is
limited to spherical domes, implying any por-
tion of a sphere, from its minor circumfer-
ence up to a hemisphere and on around. A
minor circumference will produce shallow
domes with a low rise, whereas the diameter
of a sphere will of course produce a hemi-
spherical shape having a high rise. A move-
ment to circumferences farther around a
sphere will produce a higher rise, but with no
increase in diameter.
The best way to visualize the geometry of
the dome may be to refer to the terrestrial
globe, with its subdivisions in parallels, or cir-
cles of latitude, which are also referred to as
 Dome Technologies
hoops or hoop rings, and into meridians. The
forces and stresses within spherical shells can
thus be named after the hoops and meridian
lines.
Under vertical live or dead loads, hoop
forces and stresses will be found to be under
compression in the upper portion of a dome,
but in tension in the lower part. If a dome is
shallow enough, it may happen that for its
entire surface the hoop forces and stresses
are those of compression only. At the bottom
of a dome, regardless of whether or not it is
shallow, there is always a tension force, which
is usually absorbed by a tension ring at the
base. Under the same loading conditions, me-
ridional forces and stresses are always under
compression.
The symbols used in this example are H
for hoop forces, T for meridional thrust, and
S for the tension force in the tension ring,
following the terminology of the Portland
Cement Association. l The symbols CPl' CP2'
CPs . . . indicate the zenithal angles for
points 1, 2, 3, ... on the dome, and CPo in-
dicates the zenithal angle at the oculum or
compression ring, if the dome has a lantern
opening. If the dome does not have a lantern
opening at its crown, then CPo = O. The radius
of the sphere is indicated by r, but no symbol
is needed for the radius of the base or of any
other hoop.
The loading conditions being considered
here are vertical dead and live loads. The
unit load w combines together the, dead load
and live load, for simplicity's sake, although
one is applied to the unit surface area of the
dome and the other to the unit area of hori-
zontal projection for the dome. The symbol
Wu is the total dead and live load as uniformly
distributed over the entire dome, from Po to
the base:
On these bases it is possible to attain a
number of results.
a) Meridional thrust 10 compression at
any given point is:
91
b) Next, the hoop force at any given lati-
tude is figured as:
H = -T + wr cos cP
c) Tension force in the base ring is then
calculable as:
d) The angle cP, corresponding to the lati-
tude where the hoop force H is 0, can be
found from the previous expressions, assum-
ing that H = O. Therefore:
H = -T + wr cos cP = 0
Therefore T = wr cos cP
But
21l r2w(cos CPo - cos CP)
21l r sin 2 cP
by equating the two expressions for T.
We thus obtain cosscp - 2 cos cP + cos CPo
=0.
Considering a dome without an opening at
its center, when CPo = 0 the equation above
can be solved for cp. Thus cP = 52 degrees.
This value is constant for any spherical dome
that is uniformly loaded. Under these condi-
tions spherical domes thus have hoop forces
in compression in the area above the circle of
latitude that corresponds to cP = 52 degrees
and they have hoop forces in tension in the
surface area below that circle.
Let us consider a spherical dome made of
brick masonry that has a uniform thickness of
twelve inches and is covered with one inch
of cement plaster on both sides. The unit
weight of the dome's surface is therefore
(10 + 120 + 10) = 140 psf. Let the live load
be assumed to be 20 psf. Thus, the combined
 Wood and Masonry Domes

uniformly distributed load is (140 + 20) = I' = 4,928 = 34.2 si

160 psf. Let it be further assumed that the )1 12 X 12 P
dome does not have an oculum at its crown
and has a radius at the base of fifty feet and a Next, from c), above, the tension force in
rise of forty feet. the base ring is found as follows:
First, calculate the radius of the sphere r:
W" cos cP
r2 = (50)2 + (r - 40)2 S=-----:-
2n sin CPI
r = 51.25 ft

Since the dome has no central opening, = 2,060.9 (0.2196) = 73.8 ki s

S 2n (0.9756) p
CPo = o. Therefore, calculate CPI at the base as
follows: This tension force can be counteracted by
whatever ring or similar structural member a
50 ft designer chooses to use. Because CPI at the
sin CPI = 51.25 ft = 0.976 base of the dome is 77.32 degrees (that is,
larger than 52 degrees), the dome also has
CPI = 77.32 degrees hoop forces in tension. In considering hoop
forces in a masonry dome, hoops in compres-
Next, calculate the total uniformly distrib- sion present no problem, but having hoops in
uted load W". From the expression above, tension would not work, because of the in-
ability of masonry to resist tension. As a re-
W" = 2n r2 w (cos CPo - cos CPI) suit, the bricks in any given hoop that became
W" = 2n (51.25)2 (0.16) subjected to tension will tend to separate
(cos CPo - cos CPo 77.32)=2,060.9 kips along their vertical joints. For failure to
occur, however, the hoops must also undergo
Then from a) above, calculate the meridi- shear forces acting radially. These forces will
onal thrust T at the base of the dome. Where be able to counteract the tensile forces in the
CPI = 77.32 degrees, hoops, so that the masonry will actually work
in shear rather than in tension. If the mortar
2,060.9 beds are horizontal, the hoop forces and
2n (51.25) (0.952) shear forces will be in the same plane. How-
6.72 kips/ft ever, if the mortar beds are inclined the shear
forces acting on those beds will be a compo-
Since the dome is 12 inches thick, the maxi- nent of horizontal radial shear, and there will
mum meridional stress at its base is be another component perpendicular to the
mortar beds, which could easily be carried by
= 6,720 = 46.7 si the masonry.
f 12 X 12 P

From b), above, now calculate the hoop Spherical Domes

force H at the base of the dome. with a Central Opening

H= -T+ wr cos CPI Following the example of the Pantheon,

+ 0.16 (51.25) cos 77.32° =
H = -6.72 many domes were built with a central open-
-4.92 kips/ft (tension) ing or oculum. Such a structural discontinu-
ity has a significant effect on the entire dome,
The stress at the base of the dome produced which is reflected in the formulas previously
by the hoop force is then given. Thus, if CPo is the angle between the

92
 Dome Technologies
vertical axis at the crown and a radius of
the sphere passing a point around the edge of
the opening, the various formulas above will
be modified as follows.
The surface area of the dome from the
edge or collar of the oculum to a point PI is
figured as:
A = 2rr r2 (cos ¢o - cos ¢d
w is the uniform distributed load per unit
area of dome surface-including both dead
and live loads combined.
Wv is the total variable load that varies
from 0 at the collar to a point P I at a rate of
w' per radian to point PI.
Wv =
2rr r 2w' [(sin ¢I - sin ¢o) - cos ¢o (0 1 - ¢o)]
Combine the various total loads into one.
The expression then becomes W = Wu +
Wv + We where Wu and Wv have been pre-
viously defined. We is the total load applied
along the collar.
The various formulas that follow are ex-
pressed in terms of a w that may include all
three component loads or any combination of
them.
Meridional force T per unit length of hoop
circumference in compression at point P I is
W
T=----:-
2rr r sin 2 ¢I
The hoop force H (whether tension or
compression) per unit length of meridional
arch at point P I is
where ¢I and ¢o are expressed in radians.
The total tension force S at the base ring is
The compression force in the collar is
93
We cos ¢o
S=---'---
2rr sin ¢o
From this last formula the compressIOn
force on the collar is 0 if We is O. Also, We is
the only load that generates any force in the
collar itself, since We is the only load present
in the expression of S. Such loads applied
below the collar as Wu and Wv do not produce
any concentrated force in the collar, al-
though they do produce hoop forces. The
collar therefore may be treated differently
from the base ring, because the latter is
always needed, but the former can be omit-
ted whenever collar loads are not applied.
Spherical Domes with a
Variable Thickness
Domes have traditionally been built with
variable thicknesses that increase from the
crown toward the base. This practice is justi-
fied by the increasing meridional thrust T
that obviously gets larger toward the base.
The various formulas for internal forces in
spherical domes are hereafter introduced for
variable loads, following the previously men-
tioned outline published by the Portland Ce-
ment Association. The meridional thrust T
per unit length of dome circumference at a
given hoop is
But Wv is the total variable load above point
P I that is generated by a unit load that in-
creases at the rate of w' per radian, starting
from 0 at the crown and reaching a maxi-
mum of PI for domes that do not have an
oculum at the top. Its expression is
Meridional thrust T at point PI is a com-
pressive force given by
 Wood and Masonry Domes

The hoop force H at point P I is given per increases toward the base at a rate of W can
linear foot of meridion by be found as follows:

H = -T + w'cplr cos CPI Wv = 2n r2 W' (sin CPI - CPI cos CPI)

The tension force S at the base ring can be

= 2(n)(51.25 ftr (44.48)(sin 77.32°-
1.3488cos 77.32°)
found from
Wv = 498.57 kips

The meridional thrust T at the base of the

dome is
For example, consider a spherical brick
498.57 kips
masonry dome with no central oculum at its
crown, a radius at the base of fifty feet, and a (2)(n)(51.25 ft) 0.976 2
rise at the crown of forty feet. The dome
varies from 1 foot in thickness at the crown to T = 1.62 kips/ft of compression force per
1.5 feet at the base. The dome also includes foot of circumference. Therefore, the stress!
one inch of cement plaster on both its inside at the base of the dome that is generated by T
and outside. What is required is to calculate IS
the internal forces and stresses in the dome
that are generated by only the increase in its = 1620lb = 7.5 si
! 12" X 18" P
thickness.
The unit weight of the dome at its crown is Now calculate the hoop force H at the base
W o = (10 + 120 + 10) = 140 psf. Its unit of the dome, as follows:
weight at its base is WI = (10 + 180 + 10) =
200 psf. Therefore, the increase in unit H = -T + w' (CPI)r cos CPI = -1620 +
weight from the crown to the base is w' = 44.48 (1.3488)(51.25) cos 77.32°
WI-WO' Thus, w' =200 psf-140 psf=60
H = -945 Ib/ft of circumference (tension)
psf.
From the geometry of domes we can cal-
The stress at the base of the dome pro-
culate that
duced by the hoop force is
r2 = 50 2 + (r - 40)2
-945
r = 51.25 ft I' = = -4.38 psi
)t 12" X 18"

and The tension force S in the base ring is

found as follows:
50
sin cP = - - = 0.976
I 51.25 WV COSCPI 498.57 kips cos 77.32°
S= = ---...!.-----
2n sinCPI 2 sin 77.32°
(2)n
CPI = 77.32° = 77.32 (360) = 1.34880 rad
S = 17.85 kips

The increase of the unit load per radian is
w' = 60 psf/1.34880 = 44.48 psf.
The total variable load above the base Wv
generated by a load that is 0 at the crown and
In this problem the uniform distributed
load is not included, and only the variable
portion of the load is taken into considera-
tion, so that its effects can be evaluated
separately.

94
 Dome Technologies
Conoidal Domes
Conoidal domes differ from spherical domes
in that they originate from a different gener-
ating process. Conoidal domes are obtained
by rotating an arc of a circle around a vertical
axis when the center of the circle does not lay
on the axis of rotation. There are two kinds
of conoidal shells, according to whether the
center of the circle is on the same side of
the generatrix as the axis of rotation or on
the other side.
If r is the radius of the circle of an arc and
r' is the distance between center of the
sphere and its axis of rotation, various for-
mulas for the geometry and for the forces
applied to conoidal domes have similar ex-
pressions to those used for spherical domes.
The surface area of a conoidal dome with
an oculum is figured as
where A is the surface area of the dome ex-
tending between point Po at the edge of the
oculum and point PI' which is arbitrarily
chosen. The expressions ¢o, ¢I' and r' have
already been defined. In the formula above,
¢o + ¢I is expressed in radians.
If a dome does not have an oculum at its
crown, Po is at the crown, and ¢o = O. There-
fore, sin ¢o = 0 and cos ¢o = 1. The surface
area of the dome in this case becomes
A = 2n r2(1 - cos ¢I) - 2n rr' ¢I
The total uniformly distributed dead and
live load over the dome from its crown to
point PI is
W" = 2n r2w (cos ¢o - cos ¢d
- 2nrr'w(¢1 - ¢o)
where w is the uniformly distributed dead
and live load. Although the live load should
be considered as being applied to the hori-
zontal projection, it is here combined with
the dead load, which is distributed over the
95
unit surface of the dome. A is the surface area
expressed by the two formulas above, accord-
ing to whether the dome has an oculum or
not.
If the dome has variable thickness, the
total load produced by the increase in thick-
ness as it varies from 0 at Po to a maximum at
PI is
Wv = 2n r2w' [sin ¢I - sin ¢o - cos ¢I
(¢I - ¢o] - n rr'w l (¢I - ¢O)2
If the dome has no oculum, then Po is
located at the crown, thus ¢o = 0, and sin
¢o = 0 and cos ¢o = I. In this case the ex-
pression Wv becomes
Wv = 2n r 2w' (sin ¢I - ¢I cos ¢1 2)
- n rr'w' ¢1 2
where w' is the rate of the load increase per
radian. This increase is expressed in radians
by
W" at PI - W" at Po
w' = --''---=---'''--~
¢I
If the dome has an oculum with a collar
around its opening edge, We becomes the col-
lar load, linearly distributed.
Having thus defined the three different
loads, W becomes the sum of all or any com-
bination of them. Therefore, W = Wv +
W" + We' The meridional thrust Tper unit of
length of a hoop is thus figured as
The hoop force H per unit length of merid-
ian is calculated as
where ¢I - ¢o is expressed in radians.
Then the total tension force S in the base
ring is given by
 Wood and Masonry Domes
W cos ¢)
S=--~
2n sin ¢)
Next, the total compression force in the
collar is given as follows:
We cos ¢o
S= --=---'--""
2n sin ¢o
LANTERNS AND SKYLIGHTS
The typical Renaissance dome is illuminated
by an opening at the crown that is sur-
mounted by a glazed prismatic structure in
the shape of a lantern. Sunlight finds its way
in through the lantern into the dome from
above regardless of the dome's orientation,
depending only on the altitude of the sun
above the horizon.
The Roman Pantheon made a much
bolder statement many centuries before the
Renaissance, with its circular unprotecte.:l
oculum that let the sun, rain, and wind all in,
but without creating discomfort. However,
the protecting lantern of the Renaissance and
baroque domes was indeed an improvement.
In present-day structures a glazed crown
opening could be interpreted using a high-
tech vocabulary of interesting geometric
forms in mechanical components. Prisms,
polished metal frames, various movable com-
ponents, reflecting devices, and other ele-
ments could capture air and sunlight, reflect-
ing and diffusing them to produce ingenious,
efficient solutions.
Whether in its historical or contemporary
versions, the lantern is not just a superim-
posed system. It has structural effects on the
dome itself that both create discontinuity in
the dome and add a specific load concen-
trated along the edge of the discontinuity.
Along the edge of a dome a compression ring
thus becomes necessary. As mentioned, the
collar load from the lantern is carried by this
ring as a compressive force. The effect of We
96
on a compression ring can be calculated by
using the following expression:
We cos ¢o
S=---=--"":"-::'
2n sin ¢o
Here S is the compressive force on the ring
and ¢o is the zenithal angle between the ver-
tical axis of the sphere and a radius passing
through any point at the edge of the ring.
THE STRUCTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF MASONRY
When mankind's nomadic phase ended and
permanent buildings became desirable, the
physical world presented two basic building
sources: timber from vast forests and stone,
both readily available in nature. Timber
structures seem likely to have generated a
relatively minor architecture, but stone ma-
sonry created major architectural expres-
sions. The great longevity of masonry in
comparison to that of timber, and its poten-
tial for larger-scale applications, made ma-
sonry structures preeminent. Masonry thus
came to be the material associated with the
development of the art of building as it con-
tributed to the development of civilization.
The basic components of masonry are its
stone elements and their mortar embedment.
The former include natural field stones, cut
stones from quarries, or artificial bricks of
sun-dried clay or from clay fired in kilns.
Mortar developed early on out of primitive
mud, natural bitumen, or mixtures of lime
and sand. Except for the substitution of poz-
zolana for sand in the Roman technology, no
other major changes occurred in the history
of masonry. Within the simplicity of this
building material, structural morphologies
have flourished in an extraordinary modula-
tion of forms.
The composition of masonry has included
a variety of schemes in different combina-
 Dome TechnoloBies
tions of materials. Stones alone, bricks alone,
or combinations of them were used in various
applications with different geometric pat-
terns, according to the prevailing tradition.
Despite this multiplicity the whole of ma-
sonry can be considered a homogeneous ma-
terial when one visualizes a masonry form in
a structural context.
The forms that emerged out of structural
homogeneity substantiate the versatility of
masonry. In the hands of sensitive designers,
rigid, unimaginative vertical surfaces ac-
quired lightness and elegance. Rectilinear
walls could become curved, making possible
circular buildings. A wall could now be per-
forated by openings complemented with
structural lintels. Major spaces were framed
with structural arches. More freely and ima-
ginatively, masonry expanded into fluid,
curvilinear surfaces to generate vaults and
domes.
To attain curvilinear surfaces in masonry
it was necessary to develop new building
techniques. The temporary supports that
were needed for unfinished masonry during
construction had to be kept in place until the
structure was completed and the mortar had
had time to harden. Centering for arches as
well as falsework for vaults and domes had to
be designed. The use of timbers and of cen-
tering and falsework supported by scaffolds
became an integral part of masonry building
techniques, much as form work has become
necessary today for cast-in-place concrete.
The major characteristics of masonry as a
whole are inherent in the brick itself. Ex-
tremely manageable in size and weight,
bricks can be quickly and easily set in mortar
beds resting on complex curvilinear false-
work. It is rewarding to observe the astonish-
ing ability with which experienced masons in
the Middle East can still produce masonry
artwork with apparent ease. Because it is usu-
ally covered by stucco, brick masonry has to
be visualized to be seen for what it really is if
one wants to capture its significance.
When masonry performs structurally as a
homogeneous mass, its total strength de-
pends on its weakest link. The carrying ca-
97
pacity of masonry is for the most part a func-
tion of the strength of its mortar joints.
These critical elements are much weaker
than stones or bricks in general. The stresses
allowable in various types of masonry give
some idea about the order of magnitude of
the values in question. For instance, the safe
working compressive-stress values listed in
the CRSI manual indicate for limestone ma-
sonry 350 psi and 500 psi, sandstone masonry
208 psi and 400 psi, rubble masonry 140 psi
and 250 psi. The CRSI figures for the bear-
ing capacity of various brick masonry under-
bearing plates include hard-burned common
brick in cement mortar 200 psi, soft common
brick in cement mortar 150 psi, hard-burned
common brick in lime mortar 150 psi, and
soft common brick in lime mortar 120 psi.
The various kinds of mortar currently de-
fined by ASTM specifications give allowable
bearing stresses as follows: 2,500 psi for type
M, 1,800 psi for type S, 750 psi for type N,
and 350 psi for type O.
The Brick Institute of America has given
specific values of allowable stresses recom-
mended for brick masonry. 2 The allowable
stresses include the following types: compres-
sive axial (fm ), compressive flexural (fm ), ten-
sile flexural (fl ), shear (v m ), and bearing (fm ).
These stresses are derived as a percentage of
the computed compressive strength of ma-
sonry at twenty-eight days (Pm) that has been
attained by a formula taking into account the
ultimate compressive strength of brick (£I,)
and two coefficients: A, equal to two-thirds
without inspection and 1.0 with inspection,
and B equal to 0.2 for type N mortar, 0.25
for type S, and 0.3 for type M. The £I, factor
should not exceed 14,000 psi. The formula is
as follows:
Pm = A(400 + B£I,)
Table 4-1, "Allowable Stresses in Nonrein-
forced Brick Masonry," gives the values of
the allowable stresses as a function of f:". To
appreciate the order of magnitude of these
stresses, consider, for example, a type M
mortar undergoing no inspection and an n
 Wood and Masonry Domes

TABLE 4-1 Allowable Stresses in Nonreinforced Brick Masonry

ALLOWABLE STRESSES (psi)
Without With
DESCRIPTION Inspection" Inspection"
Compressive, Axial b
Walls fm 0.20f:n 0.20f:n
Columns fm 0.16f:n 0.16f:n
Compressive, Flexural b
Walls fm 0.32f:n 0.32f:n
Columns fm 0.26f:n 0.26f:n
Tensile, Flexurale.f
Normal to bed jointsb
M or S mortar f, 24 36
N mortar f, 19 28
Parallel to bed jointsC
M or S mortar f, 48 72
N mortar f, 37 56
Shearg
M or S mortar Vm 0.5 f:n, but not to 0.5 f:n, but not
exceed 40 to exceed 80
N mortar Vm 0.5 f:n, but not to 0.5 f:n, but not
exceed 28 to exceed 56
Bearing
On full area fm 0.25f:n 0.25f:n
On one-third area or lessd fm 0.375f:n 0.3.75f:n
Modulus of Elasticityh Em 1000f:n, but not to 1000f:n but not
exceed to exceed
2,000,000 psi 3,000,000 psi
Modulus of Rigidityh E, 400f:n, but not to 400f:n, but not
exceed 800,000 to exceed
~si 1,200,000 esi
Source: Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry, August 1969, Brick
Institute of America. UDC 692.02.
'See Section 1.3. Where f:' is determined in accordance with Section 4.2.2.2. (brick
tests), values of f:' shall be based on Table 2. Where f:' is determined in accordance with
Section 4.2.2.1 (prism tests), values of f:' shall be reduced by one-third when there is no
engineering or architectural inspection.
b Direction of stress is normal to bed joints, vertically in normal masonry construction.
< Direction of stress is parallel to bed joints, horizontally in normal masonry construction.
If masonry is laid in stack bond, tensile stresses in the horizontal direction shall not be
permitted in the masonry. See Section 5.8.5.
d This increase shall be permitted only when the least distance between the edges of the
loaded and unloaded areas is a minimum of one-fourth of the parallel side dimension of
the loaded area. The allowable bearing stress on a reasonably concentric area greater
than one-third but less than the full area shall be interpolated between the values given.
<For computing the flexural resistance of cavity walls, the lateral load shall be distributed
to the wythes according to their respective flexural rigidities.
fIn the use of these allowable stresses, consideration shall be given to the influence of
unusual vibration and impact forces.
sSee Section 4.7.12.3.
h Where determinations involve rigidity or relative stiffness considerations in combination
with other materials or where deflections are involved, the moduli of elasticity and
rigidity given for "With Inspection" shall be used.

equal to 14,000 psi. From the previous for-
mulas we attain an f:" = 3,070 psi. From this
the following allowable stresses can be deter-
mined: a compressive axial stress for walls of
614 psi and for columns of 490 psi, a bearing
stress on the full area of 767 psi, and a shear
stress of 27 psi, not to exceed 40 psi.
Mortar qualities vary considerably, ac-
cording to the percentage of the various in-
gredients in their mixture. From time imme-
morial, conventional mortar has been mixed
empirically, in accordance with the experi-
ence of many traditions. Historically, the ex-
tent of the variations has been limited by
combining lime and sand in slightly different
proportions and using different amounts of

98
 Dome Technolo8ies
water. Modern mortar mixtures vary little
from the old ones, the major difference being
the inclusion now of portland cement, with a
consequent increase in strength. The propor-
tions of the various ingredients by volume
have also by now been more exactly estab-
lished. In the ASTM specification system the
various proportions of components for the
type mortars for nonreinforced masonry are:
for M, 1 part portland cement to 1/4 lime to 3
of sand; for S, 1 part portland cement to 1/2 of
lime to 41/4 of sand; for N, 1 part portland
cement to 1 of lime to 6 of sand; and for 0, 1
part portland cement to Ph - 21/2 parts lime
to 21/4-3 of sand. Notice that type 0 mortar
is no longer permissible by the new ACI
530-88 specifications.
The allowable stresses in Table 4-1 are
based upon the existence of a good bond be-
tween units and their mortar or grout.
Where the surface of the brick in contact
with mortar or grout is either smooth or
heavily sanded, the possibility of making a
reduction in the allowable stresses should be
considered.
BASIC VAULTING
Vaulting can be defined as an extension of
the arch into a three-dimensional space.
The fundamental statement that structural
strength derives from mass and form and
their relative relationship finds a clear and
obvious demonstration in vaulting. With the
stiffness derived from curvature, vaults have
achieved astonishing strengths, which has re-
duced the contribution of mass to a second-
ary role. The stiffness that a vaulted struc-
ture displays allows for extremely slender
configurations in structural surfaces. This
trait has created a special vocabulary within
the language of architecture. Starting with
the first expressions of curvilinearity, in an-
cient Etruria (see the Porta all' Arco, c. 300
B.C., in Volterra, Tuscany) and the cultures
of Mesopotamia, in the hands of sensitive
99
builders the art of vaulting has been perva-
sive in architecture to the present.
While focusing on the various expressions
of domes that have distinguished themselves
in masonry, wood, and concrete and steel
structures, it is worth mentioning some other
forms of vaulting, especially those in masonry
and concrete. Briefly describing here some of
the basic types of vaulting used for masonry
structures will illustrate the structural back-
ground from which the masonry dome
evolved. Similarly, other vaulting forms have
been illustrated later in this work, with much
greater emphasis, in connection with thin-
shelled concrete domes.
Barrel Vault
Named after artifacts that it resembles, this
vault is also known as a tunnel vault, wagon-
head vault, and wagon vault. This vault is
characterized by its cross-section, which is
constant throughout its length. Although a
portion of a circle is the most popular archi-
tectural form, the barrel vault could also be
constructed using different cross-sectional
configurations.
From the structural point of view the bar-
rel vault has two totally different patterns of
behavior, according to whether or not it acts
as a series of contiguous arches or as a longi-
tudinal thin shell. In the first case, usually
found in heavy masonry structures, the vault
bears along the longitudinal edges, acting
like several arches connected rigidly. In the
latter case the vault acts as a beam supported
by an arch at each end of its longitudinal
span. It develops longitudinal stresses of ten-
sion and compression within the shell's sur-
face, just as a beam would be stressed.
Groin or Cross-Vault
The groin vault, also called a cross-vault, re-
sults from the perpendicular intersection of
two barrel vaults. The intersecting lines thus
formed are curvilinear and extend diagonally
 Wood and Masonry Domes
to form two intersecting arches. With respect
to the rest of the vault's surface these arches
are in a valley resembling that of the groin of
the human body, from which the name de-
rives. The term cross-vault arises from the
two longitudinal axes of the barrels, which
intersect at 90 degrees to form a cross. Such a
vault may be used to cover square or rectan-
gular floor plans. The cross-section of the
barrels can be part of a circular or elliptical
shape.
FROM MASONRY TO CONCRETE
The adoption of pozzolana for use in mortar
mixes in the region around and south of
Rome produced a special mix that was in
reality a form of cement. The natural chemi-
cal components of pozzolana, especially its
silicate and aluminate, combined chemically
with the calcium in the lime to generate a
new chemical product. The Roman vaults
and domes that capitalized on the structural
strength of this new special mortar succeeded
in establishing a new concept in masonry.
From the original heaviness of massive walls
Roman masonry developed a new sense of
lightness, through long-span curvilinear sur-
faces. The thin concrete shells of today owe
their ancestry to Roman vaults. Of course,
these early megastructures were just the be-
ginning of a centuries-long tradition. Byzan-
tine, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque ar-
chitecture followed the Western tradition of
curvilinear masonry structures, improving
the technology and adopting new forms in it.
Similarly, the Islamic culture of the Ottoman
Empire borrowed dome technology and
made it a major expression in religious
architecture.
In its pure expression, concrete used in
isolation should properly be considered, like
terra-cotta, to have several obvious advan-
tages over the ancient primitive manipulated
day. Concrete should really be regarded as a
man-made stone that responds magnificently
100
to use in large-scale applications. Modem-day
cement, which comes from day and lime-
stone, shares with the baked day of ceramics
the same ancestral origin in basic soils found
freely on earth. Concrete is a low-key indus-
trial product that requires only low-key
technology and energy input for its manufac-
turing. It is a humble material found unre-
strictedly almost anywhere. Even without any
reinforcement, it is obviously an improved
product in the masonry family that can resist
compressive and shear forces many times
greater than brick or stone masonry can
carry. Concrete can thus be used for much
thinner, and larger, structures. In itself, the
smoother homogeneity of the mass of con-
crete in comparison to masonry makes it a
monolithic material in some ways better than
fragmented masonry composition.
Curvilinear structures in reinforced con-
crete expressed as thin shells did not in fact
revolutionize the prevalent view of domes.
With the advantages of a material such as
steel and concrete combined one could have
expected more extensive use of it in domes,
yet reinforced concrete came primarily to
compete with steel frames in applications of
columns and beams. Tension, compression,
shear, bending, and torsion were stresses that
reinforced concrete could carry with the
same ease as could steel alone. With their
relative costs it is dear why reinforced-con-
crete structures competed with steel- and
won.
TIMBREL VAULTING
Timbrel vaulting is a distinguished construc-
tion system for domes that excels in its ele-
gance and efficiency over any other masonry
technology for curvilinear shapes. Its name,
derived from timbrel (tambourine), reflects
the appearance and efficiency of this system,
which employs thin, slender vaults much like
the surface of the percussion instrument.
One could imagine that if a vault were
 Dome Technologies
slapped, its tightness would make it reverber-
ate the sound just as a timbrel would. It came
from two basic areas in Spain, Estremadura
and Catalonia, but it was in the latter that the
technique really expanded and flourished.
Whether this technology can be traced to
Italian traditions is subject to scholarly de-
bate, but it is definitely not connected to the
Moorish culture or other known sources.
This type of vaulting is so associated with
Catalonia that the timbrel vault is also re-
ferred to as the Catalan vault.
A major characteristic of this system is the
behavior of mortar joints in it. In typical ma-
sonry the mortar acts as an embedment for
the stone or brick components that provide
for the uniform distribution of stresses, basi-
cally those of compression and shear. In this
case the mortar is not assumed to carry any
tensile stress. In the timbrel vaulting system,
however, the mortar has a major role as a
bonding agent that develops tensile resist-
ance and high shear strength. It thus de-
velops a cohesive strength that dominates the
structural behavior of the timbrel vault. This
cohesive strength seems to have character-
ized as well the masonry technology of early
Egyptian barrel vaults and of Byzantine, Sas-
sanian, and Moslem domes.
The timbrel vault, which is applicable to
most curvilinear shapes and domes, uses
brick tiles rather than voussoirs and has joints
that lie horizontally instead of radially. The
vault itself includes several layers of tiles su-
perimposed. Each layer is constituted of tiles
connected along their edges and arranged
with staggered joints. The layers also differ
from one to the other in terms of the orienta-
tion in which tiles are arranged in them. The
various layers together make up a sort of lam-
inated vault system.
One basic feature of the timbrel vault is its
reduction of the falsework needed for its con-
struction. After the first segment of a timbrel
vault is in place, workmen can stand on it and
continue to extend it by bonding adjacent
tiles with a quick-setting mortar. The harden-
ing of conventional lime mortar was often
accelerated by adding small amounts of gyp-
101
sum or even clay to it. In some cases the
system included a first layer of tiles embed-
ded in gypsum mortar, which set quickly,
creating a structural layer on top of which
other layers could then be superimposed. In
this first, interior, layer the gypsum mortar
would be protected by superimposed layers
that included instead a conventional lime
mortar, which might even have in it hydrau-
lic cement.
The astonishing facility of the timbrel
vault is dramatically expressed by the dome
over the cathedral of St. John the Divine in
New York. This dome, which is 132 ft (40.2
m) in diameter, was built in successive circu-
lar courses that were 18 in (45.7 cm) wide but
had no centering. Workmen would stand on
the edge of the dome erected the day before
as they built the next course. There was no
protection in case of failure between the
workmen and the floor of the church 150
feet below.
The interweaving of the various layers of
tiles that form a laminated vault generates a
structural system with great inherent cohe-
siveness. This integrity is reflected by a high
degree of structural durability that is compa-
rable to the behavior of reinforced concrete.
This strength was dramatically demonstrated
once during the erection of the Boston Public
Library in 1892. A stone block that weighed
approximately two tons was accidentally
dropped and plunged through one of the
vaulted floors below, perforating it without
causing further damage. The localized dam-
age did not spread at all and was easily
patched.
This vaulting system was made even more
popular by its fire-resistance ability. Lamina-
ting the layers allowed mortar joints to be
protected from the heat of fire by the tiles of
the adjacent layers.
Late in its development, the timbrel sys-
tem was brought to the United States by Ra-
fael Guastavino. There it gained astonishing
momentum, which spread it throughout this
and other countries. Its final decline in the
United States did not occur until 1943, when
Guastavino the Younger retired. At this
 Wood and Masonry Domes
point brick masonry could no longer compete
economically in the United States, because of
increased labor costs and the competitiveness
of concrete.
THE ERECTION OF DOMES-
EARL Y TECHNOLOGY
The early use of masonry to erect walls can
only be considered a direct manifestation of
construction concepts inherent in the mate-
rials available. When instead masonry came
to be used to complete structures overhead as
a roof covering, this process required an in-
ventiveness that marked a major step forward
for civilization. Vaulting in its various forms
expressed amazing intuition, rationality, and
great faith in man's intellect, as well as bold-
ness. The erection of heavy masonry vaults
springing overhead no doubt required a
great deal of self-assurance on the part of
ancient builders. For instance, removing the
temporary centering from under a com-
pleted masonry dome must have required sig-
nificant courage, especially when the builders
increased its span beyond that of the largest
yet built.
In its early, empirical stage, the develop-
ment of the vault evolved simultaneously
with experience in design and construction.
Construction naturally had to follow design,
but design could proceed only by capitalizing
on previous construction experiences. Such
an approach based on an interdependence
between construction and design produced in
the past a quality of work usually lost in cur-
rent professional practice. On occasions
when this gap is bridged it is still possible to
see work that recaptures frequently lost ar-
chitectural values.
Machines
With the high degree of mechanization upon
which the construction industry depends
today, shell construction methodology is not
102
dramatically affected. With its usual conser-
vative approach, the construction industry
has yet to capitalize on the high-level technol-
ogy that has revolutionized most other indus-
tries today. The most significant contempo-
rary contribution in shell construction in
terms of building equipment is probably the
high-power lifting cranes now available.
Speed in construction constitutes a major
contributor to the efficiency and economics
of any structure, which is a factor that can
benefit significantly from the high lifting ca-
pabilities of cranes. This power allows large-
size buckets that increase the rate of concrete
pouring. The crane's high lifting power also
makes it possible to increase the operating
swinging radius of its boom, which increases
the maneuverability and positioning of the
bucket during casting. At present the con-
struction industry has available many large-
size construction cranes, from both domestic
manufacturers and foreign sources, including
ones in Europe and Japan.
In examining ways to improve the effi-
ciency of shell construction it is important to
consider the role that the tower crane can
play. The advantages of the tower crane are
in fact major and need particularly to be un-
derlined for the U.S. market, where it is not
in widespread use. Its particular advantages
include having a large operating radius,
because of its having a counterbalancing
weight. Also important is the tower crane's
ability to position its bucket right at the point
of casting, because of its large range of oper-
ating radius. The tower crane can place ma-
terials directly in any desired location,
whereas the mobile crane cannot compete
with it, because of its small inherent radius.
Mobile cranes require pouring concrete from
the bucket into wagons that then have to
travel over the formwork to get to areas
where the mobile crane cannot reach.
In light of the lifting power that machines
can supply today, the large, outstanding
domes of the past such as the Pantheon, St.
Sophia, and Santa Maria del Fiore, which
were built with rudimentary hoists operated
by animal power, appear to be a much more
 Dome Technologies
significant achievement in the art of building.
Let us then try to determine the point at
which the modern era of mechanization de-
parts from that of the building art that
started as far back as early Mesopotamia.
The essential elements that provide
strength in structures, whether produced by
nature or by man, are mass and form. In
building artificial structures, interposed be-
tween the two elements comes the builder
who operates with tools in hand or with ma-
chines he has conceived and built. From an-
tiquity, collective human machines have con-
sisted of organized work armies of several
thousands of men. The building of the Meso-
potamian canals and Egyptian pyramids uti-
lized these complex human organizations.
Machines have long operated also on projects
where mass was the predominant factor. On
the other hand, the delicate vaulting and do-
mical structures of antiquity depended on a
geometry that required other kinds of ma-
chines: centering, scaffolds, hoists, wind-
lasses, positioners, and so on. The human
component in this matrix had to be skillful,
but limited in number. The energy to power
such machines was traditionally from humans
or animals, until the industrial era tapped
new sources. Early machines usually operated
at very low speeds, with little concern given
for friction and the deformation of moving
parts, which were usually made of wood or
soft metals.
To build the great domes of the Renais-
sance the techniques and machines of the
Gothic master builders constituted the start-
ing point. For instance, most of the historic
significance of the dome of Santa Maria del
Fiore in Florence comes from the construc-
tion methodology, specifically the hoists and
positioners that Brunelleschi designed, which
capitalized on the experiences of centuries of
earlier builders. Tons of material had to be
hoisted up to the springing level and higher
during the 12-year period that the dome was
being built. The workmen also had to be
lifted to their working stations and brought
down fast and safely every day. The ox-pow-
ered hoist that Brunelleschi used was the
103
major equipment on the job, but smaller
hoists were also installed on the tops of the
walls supporting the dome.
The significance of these hoisting ma-
chines created by Brunelleschi went beyond
their practical usefulness as they became the
object of admiration and civic pride of the
Florentines, who were the sophisticated citi-
zens of an outstanding city. The performance
of the main hoist can be evaluated by recog-
nizing that the dome of Santa Maria del
Fiore, without its lantern, weighed approxi-
mately 50 million pounds. Thus, the average
lifting work for the hoist per day over twelve
years must have been on the order of 20,000
pounds per day, with occasional peaks of per-
haps 50,000 pounds per day.
Although Brunelleschi's technology
marked the architectural transition from
Gothic to Renaissance technology, the engi-
neer-architects of the Renaissance gained
their scientific impetus from the achieve-
ments of Roman architecture. Pulleys,
tackles, and windlasses for pulling or lifting,
as well as treadmills powered by men walking
inside them, mu~t have been known at least
since Roman times. Vitruvius wrote about
some of these basic machines used in con-
struction. The concepts behind such simple
machines as the lever, the pulley, and the
inclined plane became the objects of scien-
tific mathematical study for many Italian
Renaissance scientists, including Federico
Commandino da Urbino (1509-1575), Giro-
lamo Cardano (1501-1576), Niccolo Tar-
taglia (1499-1557), Giambattista Benedetti
(1530-1590), Bernardino Baldi (1553-
1617), and Guidobaldo del Monte (1547-
1607). The Renaissance saw toothed gears
and worm gears used in hoisting machines, as
Leonardo da Vinci, Giuliano da Sangallo,
and Francesco di Giorgio documented in
their drawings.
Scaffolds
Scaffolds have yet to be recognized as they
deserve in the usual descriptions of struc-
 Wood and Masonry Domes
tures. The essential importance of their func-
tion was more widely recognized in the past,
when architecture, engineering, and con-
struction operated under the same umbrella,
than now when the three fields are distinct.
Because scaffolds were designed to support
structural dead loads and specific forces en-
countered only during construction, in the
past they determined the very shape of struc-
tures. In curvilinear forms the role of scaf-
folding has been more significant than for
rectilinear structures. Another reason that
architectural historians have neglected the
role of scaffolds and construction problems
in their descriptions of architectural struc-
tures is that they usually lack the engineering
knowledge in structural theory and construc-
tion practice that the subject requires.
Current practice in scaffolding-almost
anywhere in the world, not just in high-tech-
nology areas - has for several decades practi-
cally abandoned the old traditional use of
timbers. Now tubular metal scaffolds in ei-
ther steel or occasionally aluminum (when
light weight and corrosion resistance are im-
portant) are available for purchase or rental.
The geometry and various components
patented in each of the many different scaf-
fold prototypes create quite an intriguing
repertoire of solutions to building problems
that stimulate the interest of theoretical de-
signers. Starting with patterns that form rigid
frames in basic units it is possible to design a
complex framework with a variety of bracing
sections that will respond efficiently to sup-
port any desired configuration of concrete
formwork. The light weight and ease of as-
sembly of steel and aluminum elements make
it possible, for instance, to build movable
formwork that is mounted on casters. By in-
terposing hydraulically operated jacks, the
movable scaffolds that support the form work
can easily be lowered and moved to a new
location where they can be lifted again to
build the next portion of a shell. This method
of construction has produced extraordinary
cost reductions in the construction of con-
crete thin shells, by allowing for repetitive
uses of the same formwork.
104
It has always been recognized that one of
the major factors contributing to the cost of
concrete thin shells, especially in industrial-
ized countries, has been the high amount of
labor formwork requires. Therefore, adopt-
ing a system that permits extensive reuse of
form work is the most efficient way to lower
the construction costs of thin shells in such
countries.
The Labor Factor in Construction
A labor force includes craftsmen and un-
skilled laborers. Understanding their assets
and limitations is vital, because the contribu-
tion of labor to any building project is an
essential factor not to be underestimated.
The proper assessment of labor needs should
start at the design stage, to maximize overall
efficiency.
The fundamental roles in the realization
of a structure are those of the architect, engi-
neer, builder, craftsmen, laborers, and ma-
chines. When the first three roles are com-
bined into one, as often happens, certain
structures become particularly sensitive to
this integrity. Sophisticated curvilinear struc-
tures, including domes, vaults, and modern
thin shells, are definitely among them.
The contribution of labor to the efficiency
of a particular type of building methodology
involves a variety of factors, such as the re-
quired degree of craftsmanship, how un-
skilled labor will be used, whether prefabrica-
tion will be on site or in the plant, and the
complexity of geometric shapes and construc-
tion form work involved. In thin-shelled con-
struction, more than in any other form of
building, labor is one of the most critical
components.
Felix Candela's work in Mexico is an ex-
ample of brilliant solutions to thin-shelled
projects that realistically evaluated the poten-
tial of the labor forces available with respect
to the methodologies being considered. With
relatively unskilled labor Candela succeeded
in attaining complex geometric shapes, un-
doubtedly by having throughout the design
 Dome Technolo8ies

process a clear perception of the construction
methodology. Similarly, Pier Luigi Nervi's
work in curvilinear structures achieved its ex-
traordinary success by rationally optimizing
construction methods, labor, and design. In
fact, Candela and Nervi each combined into
themselves the roles of architect, engineer,
and builder.
Another particularly important aspect of
the relationship between labor and the con-
struction of shells involves some of the devel-
oping nations at present. These countries
have found great potential in such low-cost
materials as conventional concrete and ferro-
cement, having seen that thin shells require a
minimum of material and can absorb unem-
ployed labor forces. Some countries like
China have already capitalized on this con-
cept, and many others are poised to take ad-
vantage of it, particularly with the help of the
international organizations that disseminate
such technical data.
CERAMIC DOMES FOR
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
sIZIng its basic integrity and extraordinary
simplicity.
A pilot project (see Figs. 4-1 and 4-2) was
completed with satisfactory results in a farm-
ing community in Iran. Even though it con-
sisted only of improving an existing building
technology, its results can be seen as a brand-
new approach toward building durable
domes or thin shell structures in those parts
of the world where clay is available but only
low-level skilled labor can be attained.
The domical structures in this project in-
clude a base slab, perimeter walls, and a
crowning shell, which together constitute an
integral, monolithic mass that can be looked
at as a surface structure with an intradox and
an extradox. The extradox, the surface ex-
posed to weather, is the most vulnerable part
of the structure and thus would benefit the
most from effective stabilization. However,
the process of firing from the inside makes
the intradox benefit the most from the fir-
ing. The duration of the baking affects how
much the heat treatment penetrates the
thickness of the structure. Ideally, the thresh-

Clay has of course been used as a building

material as far back as the beginnings of civi-
lization. Recent research in building technol-
ogy has retraced old Middle Eastern tech-
niques in an attempt to improve them with
new methodologies. The basic concept of
such dome construction consists first of mak-
ing clay domes according to the ancient tradi-
tions still alive in many Mideast farming com-
munities. These domes are erected over clay
walls. At this point the structure is self-sup-
porting, because the clay, dried by the sun,
has acquired adequate strength, although it
does not have the strength and durability of
clay fired in furnaces. The new technology
consists of introducing an oil burner within
the structure and keeping it burning for sev-
eral days. In this way the clay is fired, creat- 4-1 Introducin8 an oil burner into a clay shell
ing a strong, durable ceramic structure that is and letting it burn the structure for a few hours
a monolithic continuum. A bright whitewash will convert the clay to a hard, durable ceramic
then completes the structure visually, empha- product.

lOS
 Wood and Masonry Domes
4-2 These ceramic shell structures were built in a farminn communio/ in
Iran as a pilot project to test the potential of firinn a clay shell with an
oil burner placed inside it.
old temperature of 600 C should reach the
0
extradox also. Two ways to do this might be
to insulate the exterior or fire the exterior
surface also, but this would substantially com-
plicate the process.
This technique has great potential, if it
could be exported to the needy countries of
the Third World that are in desperate need
of housing. Many dire situations in Africa
and Asia could be substantially alleviated if
such low-tech building systems could be
brought in, perhaps by organizations similar
to the Peace Corps. Everywhere that clay is
available and climatic conditions are favor-
able, burnt clay domical structures could be
clustered to form entire villages. Especially in
tropical and subtropical zones, where the sun
can quickly harden clay blocks, such ceramic
domes can be easily built and fired.
The lightness of such a structure would
lessen the necessity for its needing a substan-
tial foundation system that would require sig-
nificant excavation. A thick clay slab on
grade could constitute both a foundation and
a dry floor surface. Over the slab the dome
itself could be erected, by using the tech-
nique just described, creating, ultimately a
monolithic thermomass. The advantages of a
thick thermo mass are self-evident, whatever
the climatic zone.
106
WOODEN DOMES
The idea of building wooden domes seems at
first extravagant if not bizarre. Yet in the
Near East the wooden dome is a historical
reality encompassing great tradition that
flourished for centuries in Syria and Palestine
and spread from there to the entire Islamic
world.
The idea of building a doubly-curved
structure in wood planking is easier to accept
once we consider that millennia of experi-
ence in shipbuilding had by then perfected
the techniques for it throughout the civilized
world. The accentuated curvilinear forms of
wooden hulls had reached great sophistica-
tion in the elegant ships of Roman times. The
curvature of Roman barges made with wood
planks that were found after centuries on the
bottom of Lake Nemi near Rome was quite
advanced. Kept on the lake by the Roman
emperors, these barges measured up to 240
ft (72 m) in length, which is even larger than
the span of most domes in the ancient world.
A timber-framed dome of well-fitted planks
would represent no problems to experienced
carpenters. In fact, in terms of durability and
protection from the elements, wood domes
would have been easier to preserve than con-
 Dome Technologies

ventional ships, because domes were usually Church of St. Stephen at Gaza, fifth or
covered with metal sheathing rather than sixth century A.D.
being directly exposed. Church Mahoymac at Port of Gaza
In choosing wood to construct their domes
the builders of the Near East recognized the DOME OF THE ROCK, QUBBET
advantage of a light structure as opposed to a ES-SAKHRA, JERUSALEM (A.D. 688-692)
heavy masonry one under the seismic forces This dome is a timber structure consisting of
frequently felt in their earthquake-prone two shells resting over a masonry arcade.
area. Furthermore, it was obvious that a com- This most important Islamic structure,
plex, bulbous dome high aboveground was erected by Ummayad Caliph Abd AI-Malik,
much easier to build in wood than in heavy influenced later Islamic architecture. Built
masonry that had to be hoisted into place and on the top of Mount Moriah, from where it
temporarily supported by centering. is assumed that Mohammed ascended to
Is the wooden dome a replica of the ma- Heaven, this structure is in character with
sonry dome built thus just for practical rea- Syrio-Byzantine architecture, and specifically
sons? According to many scholars, 3 there is Syrian building techniques (see Fig. 4-3).
actually reason to believe that the wood
dome preceded the masonry version. It now
seems possible that the polygonal buildings of
the Hellenistic period that were once as-
sumed to have been covered with wooden
rectilinear members forming conical struc-
tures may have instead been covered with
wooden domes. Similarly, the Etruscans and
Romans knew the wooden dome, and some
sources believe that in India the wood dome
preceded the stone type.
Some examples of structures in the Near
East that are assumed to have been roofed
with wooden domes include the following 4

Marneion Gaza, c. A.D. 130: pagan temple

dedicated to Marnas
The Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem: built by
Constantine A.D. 326-335 as a memo-
rial over the tomb of Christ
Domus Aurea at Antioch: built by Con- 4-3 The Dome of the Rock, Qgbbet es Sakhra,
stantine in A.D. 327 and rebuilt after a Jerusalem.
fire in A.D. 588.
Martyrium at Nyssa Cappodocia, c. A.D.
380. Wood Domes of the Present
Several martyria in Constantinople, fourth
and fifth centuries A.D. After the early development previously seen,
St. Sergius at Gaza, c. A.D. 407 the use of wood for domes reappears in mod-
St. Simeon Stylites at Kal'at Sim'an, A.D. ern times and is still used today. It is interest-
460-490 ing to notice that the wooden dome found a
Sion Church in Jerusalem particularly fertile ground in the New World,
Cathedral of Etschmiadzin, Armenia, c. starting with various applications in the cu-
A.D. 483 polas of several state capital buildings. In the

107
 Wood and Masonry Domes
United States, the wooden dome has also
reached its largest application with excep-
tionally large spans of the same order of mag-
nitude of those reached by concrete and steel
megadomes. The following are some of the
most significant examples that illustrate the
new innovative vocabulary of the wood dome
of the present.
ORIGINAL DOME, U.S. CAPITOL,
WASHINGTON, D.C. (1793-1867)
The original dome was a wooden structure
sheathed with copper in a basic design in-
spired by the dome of the Pantheon that cov-
ered a circular rotunda designed in the Palla-
dian style. After being damaged in the War
of 1812 it was rebuilt in its present state using
cast iron.
FIELD HOUSE AT MONTANA STATE
COLLEGE, BOZEMAN (1956)
This wooden dome by O. Berg and F. F.
Willson covers an area of 70,000 sq ft (6,500
sq m) and has a diameter of 300 ft (90 m).
The structure consists of 36 meridian ribs
arranged radially and a series of hoops, both
made of laminated wood. The ribs have a
cross-section of 7 X 16 in (180 X 400 mm)
with a curvilinear axis that follows the curva-
ture of the dome, whereas the hoops are
made of individual straight members. The
primary facing, which includes the laminated
meridians and hoops, is completed with
braces and a steel tension ring at the top.
Covering the frame is a 3 in (7.5 cm) wooden
deck.
INFORMATION PAVILION,
BRUSSELS (1958)
This building is a saddle-type hyperbolic par-
aboloid thin shell built as an experimental
structure covering a rhomboidal floor plan.
Its sides are 60 ft (18.3 m) by 46 ft (14 m)
long. The structure consists of wooden
planks arranged in a specific pattern. The
prestressed shell is supported at two points.
The architect, engineers, and builders are,
respectively, Lucien-Jacques Baucher, Jean-
Pierre Blondel and Odette Filippone, and
108
Rene Sarger C.E.T.A.C. Enterprise Delens;
N. V. Nemaho S.A.
FACTORY FOR JOHN RENNOCK &
SONS, LTD., HAUGHLEY PARK,
SUFFOLK, ENGLAND (1958)
This structure is of hyperbolic paraboloid
gable-type shells built of wood. Each shell,
supported at its four corners, covers a square
area whose sides are 57 ft 6 in (17.5 m). The
reinforced-concrete columns to support the
wood shell that are at each corner are tied
together by prestressed ties to absorb hori-
zontal thrust. The wood shell consists of
three layers of wooden boards placed at right
angles to each other. The various combina-
tions of materials, including wood, concrete,
and steel, in this structure derive from cost
considerations. The designers for the struc-
ture were Johns, Slater & Haward and the
Timber Development Association, Ltd.
FOREST PRODUCTS PAVILION,
PORTLAND, OREGON (1960)
This timber structure consists of assembled
hyperbolic saddle-type paraboloids. The shell
consists of two layers of wooden boards with
an overall thickness of 1 V2 in (4 cm). The two
layers are oriented along the convex and con-
cave parabolas. The boards along the con-
cave line, because they are in tension, are
only V2 in (l.2 cm) thick. Conversely, the
boards along the convex line, which are in
compression, are 1 in (2.5 cm) thick. The
edge members consist of two layers of boards
1 X 10 in (2.5 X 25 cm) connected beneath
the shell and four layers on top of it so that
the overall thickness of the beam is 7V2 in (18
cm) and their width is 10 in (25 cm). The free
peaks cantilever 56 ft (17 m) outward from
the supports. This pavilion was designed for a
lumber association, so it was logical to use
wood to show its potential in thin-shelled ap-
plications. The designers were John W.
Storrs and James G. Pierson.
SPORTS BUILDING AT NORTHERN
ARIZONA UNIVERSITY, FLAGSTAFF (1978)
This wood dome excels as an example of the
 Dome TechnoloOies
potential of wood's structural capabilities.
Spherical in shape. this dome has a base diam-
eter of 502 ft (153 m) and a rise at the crown
of 92 ft 4.75 in (28.2 m). It was erected in
only five months. at a cost of $6 million for
the whole complex. The structure of the
dome includes a wood deck and a skeletal
framework. The deck, built of tongue and
groove panels 50 cm X 50 cm that are sup-
ported by purlins, is structurally independent
from the wood framework of the dome, but it
provides lateral support to the members of
the dome skeleton. The structural members,
which are laminated. consist of southern yel-
low pine interconnected at their joints with
bolted steel connectors capable of providing
80 percent fixed-end conditions. This partial
fixity. assumed for safety's sake to be only 50
percent, is included in the design conditions
to increase the efficiency of the members. A
typical wooden member cross-section is
5 11s X 27 in (13 X 43 cm) throughout the
structure. except in perimeter areas, where
the section is 8¥. X 27 in (22 X 43 em). The
whole dome was built combining six spherical
triangles having an angle at their vertex of 60
degrees. The fitting, which was fabricated on
the ground and lifted into place. was particu-
larly accurate. The base support includes six
points per spherical triangle, for a total of
thirty-six points for the entire dome. At each
point the dome is supported by a reinforced
concrete buttress 1.5m high. These but-
tresses are in tum connected at their bases by
a post-stressed reinforced concrete ring that
resists the tension created by the dome.
4-4 The Tacoma Dome. Tacoma. Washinoton (1983).
109
A structural analysis of this dome was per-
formed by the GENSAP program. Of partic-
ular note are the loading conditions, which in
the design project snow loads up to 2 m high,
producing 40 Ib/ffl (195 kg/mt), with 30 psf
(146 kg/mt) for horizontal wind and 17.4 psf
(85 kg/mt) for dead load. This dome was
designed by Rossman and Partners Archi-
tects and by John K. Parsons & Associates.
TACOMA DOME. TACOMA.
WASHINGTON (/983)
The Tacoma Dome still retains the record
for being the largest wood dome in the
world, with its base diameter of 530 ft (162
m). It tops the dome over the Sports Building
at Northern Arizona University at Flagstaff
by only 28 ft (8 m) but at a total cost of $44
million versus $6 million for the Arizona
complex. The main skeletal wooden frame-
work consists of 414 major wooden lami-
nated beams with a curved configuration
having a cross-sectional depth of 30 in (76
cm). Erected without using falsework-only
a central pole reaching the crown - the
wood frame bears around the base on 36
round concrete columns that are 26 in (66
cm) in diameter, interconnected by a pre-
stressed concrete ring. The wooden deck that
completes the dome consists of treated Doug-
las fir. As with most structural work today,
this dome was analyzed by computer (see Fig.
4-4). This dome was designed by Tacoma
 Wood and Masonry Domes
Dome Associates, the winners of a competi-
tion organized by the city of Tacoma.
EARLE A. CHILES CENTER, UNIVERSITY
OF PORTLAND, OREGON (1984)
Designed by RSG Architects, Phoenix, Ari-
zona, and engineered and built by Western
Wood Structures of Tualatin, Oregon, this
dome was designed on the base of the Varax
patent. This wooden dome, consisting en-
tirely of Douglas Fir members, has a diame-
ter at the base of 305 ft (93 m) and a rise at
the crown of 62 ft (19 m). The main frame
consists of laminated arched beams 24 inches
deep made out of wood layers 11/2 inches
thick. These beams, with a constant cross-sec-
tion but variable lengths, are interconnected
at the joints by means of patented steel con-
nectors. All of the beams, 756 in number,
were considered fixed at the joints and con-
stitute the primary structure. The secondary
structures include purlins and two-inch wood
planks forming the roof deck. The total cost
of the project of $7.5 million in 1984 was
estimated to have been 20 percent cheaper
than an equivalent steel dome. The dome
sprang from the ground level and thus elimi-
nated the perimetrial wall. This design cut
the dome's cost by approximately one-third,
as reported by some technical literature.
LATTICE WOOD SHELLS, NARA,
JAPAN (1988)
Wood shells consisting of latticework were
first demonstrated by prototypes designed
and constructed by Frei Otto in 1962. Such
grids, consisting of a close-knit framework of
curved wood members, form the structure
itself, which is in turn covered by a nonstruc-
tural membrane. Otto's system was recently
applied in Japan near Osaka, where three pa-
vilions built in 1988 for the Nara Silk Road
Exposition in Nara are covered with such a
system. The three shells vary in configuration
and measure, respectively, 205 ft (62.5 m) in
length for the Nara Pavilion, 343 ft (104.5
m) for the Theme Pavilion, and 130 ft (39.5
m) for the Information Office. The struc-
tures consist of wood members prebent to
110
follow the contour of the shell, with a mini-
mum radius of curvature of 33 ft (10 m).
Such bending created a desirable stiffness but
also generated undesirable prestressed bend-
ing conditions. The wood used was crypto-
meria, a Japanese type of cedar, with a cross-
section of 2.8 in (7 cm) in width and 1.6 in (4
cm) in depth. These structures were designed
and constructed by T. Maeno, M. Wada, T.
Nagase, and T. Hisatok.
SPORTS TRAINING COMPLEX,
UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN MICHIGAN,
MARQUETTE (1990)
This dome, almost completed at the time of
this writing, retains the record for being the
largest wood dome in the world. Approxi-
mately three feet larger than the Tacoma
dome, this dome has a diameter of 533.5 ft
(163 m) at its base and a height at the crown
of 126.25 ft (39 m) with a springing angle of
50.4 degrees. Its spherical shape has a curva-
ture with a radius of 344.5 ft (105 m). The
architects for the project were T.M.P. Asso-
ciates, Inc., Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. The
general contractor, responsible also for the
structural design of the dome, was Western
Wood Structures from Tualatin, Oregon
that retains the Varax patented system. The
dome was constructed entirely of Douglas Fir
and is supported by 40 concrete buttresses,
which are an extension of the wood ribs.
The main structure, consisting of lami-
nated arched beams, includes 181 nodes.
The connectors at each joint consist of fabri-
cated steel capable of joining six converging
members. The glued laminated members are
rigidly bolted to the connector, forming a
rigid connection at the joint. The laminated
arched members have a constant cross-sec-
tion throughout their length of 371f2 in in
depth and 8% in in width consisting of glued
layers 11/2 in in thickness. Such arched mem-
bers are not all equally long. They vary con-
siderably from one another. In this dome
they range from 38 to 15 ft without an even
distribution. The triangular areas delimited
by the primary arched beams are in-filled
with laminated purlins, which in turn support
 Dome TechnoloBies
the 2-in tongue and groove boards. The con-
crete buttresses at their base are intercon-
nected by a prestressed concrete ring 2 ft 6 in
deep and 5 ft 0 in wide, with 3 post-tensioned
tendons exerting 2400 kips force. The whole
dome, consisting of five spherical segments,
was designed for a dead load (D.L.) of 20 psf
(958 Pa), a live load (L.L.) of 60 psf (2873
Pa), and a wind load of 80 mph (129 kmh).
Varax Wood Domes
Western Wood Structures, a contracting
company with in-house engineering, has pat-
ented the Varax system and has proven the
success of the method with the four struc-
tures included in this text: Sports Training
Complex at University of Northern Michi-
gan, Marquette; Earle A. Chiles Center, Uni-
versity of Portland, Oregon; Tacoma Dome,
Tacoma, Washington; Sports Building at
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
These structures have conquered world
records in terms of their size within wood
domes. The major patent in the system in-
cludes a special six-way steel connector capa-
ble of joining six arched beams forming a
structurally rigid connection. Made of fabri-
cated steel components, these hubs receive
the wood laminated members which are
bolted to them and are capable of transfer-
ring axial forces as well as shear and
moments.
The domes consist of a primary frame
made out of laminated arched wood beams
which intersect each other at the joints form-
ing triangular inner spaces. These spaces are
NOTES
1. Portland Cement Association, "Design of Circular Domes." Publication IS076. OlD, undated. Available
from Portland Cement Association.
2. Brick Institute of America, Recommended Practice for Engineered Brick Masonry. Reprinted 1986.
3. See, for example, E. Baldwin Smith, The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas (princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1971).
4. Ibid., 10-41.
111
then infilled with laminated curved purl ins
that in turn carry a roof deck of tongue and
groove two-inch thick boards. A base ring of
post-tensioned concrete absorbs the tension
from the dome. The configuration of the
Varax dome always follows a perfect spheri-
cal surface with the nodal points precisely on
the surface and therefore easily identifiable
geometrically by their coordinates. The con-
necting members constitute the arches that
follow the configuration of the great circles
of the sphere. In other words, the circles lie
on planes passing through the center of the
sphere. The length of the arched members
spanning from joint to joint is variable. In
some cases the disparity is such that the long-
est may reach lengths more than twice that of
others. The construction of the members to
attain their true curvature is easily attained
by laminating thin boards not more than one
and a half inches thick. The axial capacity of
the members which are fixed at each end is
calculated on a conservative assumption that
their fixed ends are only partially fixed. Fur-
thermore, the superimposed wood deck gives
a continuous support to the arched members
in compression.
The feasibility of the wooden dome in the
United States building market has been
proven by the erection of the Varax domes
discussed in this section. They have all won
the contracting bids with their lower costs in
competition with steel and concrete counter-
parts. Although not well publicized, the
wood dome structure has reached a stage of
maturity that demands a greater recognition
among the structural systems of the present.
 Part II
Concrete Shells:
Fundamentals and
Case Studies
CHAPTER 5
Thin Shells
A thin shell is a term not in itself as readily
understandable by the layman as the terms
dome or vault would be. It is in a sense a word
coined on the basis of its structural connota-
tions, as exhibited in the artifacts it creates.
A thin shell is a special kind of vault whose
geometry may include many shapes. It could
be a spherical or elliptical dome, a parabolic
structure, or a barrel vault in any configura-
tion, or be a paraboloid, a conoid, or a hyper-
bolic paraboloid. The thin shell thus requires
further definition.
A thin-shelled structure is a three-dimen-
sional form made thicker than a membrane,
so that it can not only resist tension as mem-
branes do, but also compression. On the
other hand, a thin shell is made thinner than
a slab, which makes it unable to resist bend-
ing as a slab does. In short, thin shells are
structures thicker than membranes, but thin-
ner than slabs.
Thin shells are made possible by the use
of materials that work well under tension
and compression. Masonry has no tensile
strength, so the thin shell could not exist
when masonry was the only technology avail-
able. Only the availability of reinforced con-
crete and ferrocement made the thin shell
possible. Wood could of course have served
the purpose, as the wooden dome and
115
wooden hull quite probably did, even if the
wooden shell often was a combination of
timber framing and plank sheathing.
The curvature of a shell can be of the
same sign throughout, that is, be concave or
convex everywhere. In such a case the sur-
face is called synclastic. Domes are synclastic
surfaces, because any section attained by in-
tersecting the dome with a normal plane pro-
duces a line that has only a downward
curvature.
The curvature of a shell can also be of a
different sign such that the surface is both
concave and convex at the same time, which
is known as anticlastic. An example of an an-
ticlastic surface is the hyperbolic paraboloid.
When such a surface intersects with normal
planes, the sections formed can be a parabola
with either upward or downward curvature,
and at times even be a straight line.
SHELLS AND
SURF ACE STRUCTURES
It is well to differentiate first between surface
and linear structures. Within the former can
be included all forms of skeletal systems, and
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
the latter can include all systems consisting of
a structural continuum. Among such systems
are membranes, pneumatics, thin shells,
folded plates, slabs, and the like.
Thin shells and other surface structures
constitute a type of construction that is dras-
tically different from that of linear struc-
tures, whether they are planar or spatial.
Thin shells, membranes, slabs, and pneu-
matic structures, which are all part of surface
structures, constitute an enormous field that
offer a great variety of solutions to specific
problems. Three-dimensional cables and
two-dimensional membranes, for instance,
correspond to each other in terms of forces,
as do arches to shells and beams to slabs. This
correspondence of planar to three-dimen-
sional structures derives from a similitude of
structural behavior observable in each indi-
vidual system. The similar behavior of cables
and membranes causes them to change shape
under different load conditions. As a conse-
quence, these two structures are always
stressed only by tensile forces.
Arches and thin shells relate to each other
on the basis of their various similarities. Both
structures have in common a curvilinear con-
figuration that forms the basis of their struc-
tural strength. In other words, they attain
their structural strength primarily from their
geometry.
THIN SHELLS
AND SPACE FRAMES
Although thin shells and space frames are at
opposite ends of the structural spectrum,
they can usefully be compared, because of
the similarity of their structural behavior.
Space frames consisting of large assemblies of
tension and compression members are in re-
ality skeletal structures, but on the whole
they act much like the full continuum of thin
shells. A space frame with an overall configu-
ration following that of a similar thin shell
would clearly exhibit the stress conditions
within the thin shell, if the two structures
116
were equally supported and loaded. In the
space frame the axial forces in its top and the
members of its top and bottom layers would
indicate the same distribution of tension and
compression present within the shell's sur-
face. The tension and compression forces
within the diagonal members of a space
frame would likewise illustrate the shear
force within the thickness of the thin shell.
This correlation between forces acting on the
space frame and the thin shell makes it conve-
nient to test the efficiency of various geomet-
ric forms for shells, by analyzing with a com-
puter program the distribution of forces and
the deflection in an equivalent space frame.
Even with only an approximate model, ana-
lyzing a space frame could also give a general
overall qualitative representation of the
structural behavior of a similar thin shell.
They are both modern, efficient, light,
versatile, capable of supporting long spans in
two directions for large roof coverings, and
comparable in cost but thin shells and space
frames are at opposite ends of the spectrum
of possibilities for carrying building loads.
Space frames funnel stresses from the whole
structure to narrow paths, where struts and
ties are arranged to absorb them. Thin shells
instead spread loads throughout an entire
surface. Although both systems share a cer-
tain quality of lightness, thin shells are com-
plete in and of themselves, whereas space
frames require an additional skin to complete
their enclosure. In terms of thickness, thin
shells do not require the depth that space
frames do or, for that matter, that of any
other structural system. Light in weight, thin,
flexible, structurally and spatially self-con-
tained and complete in itself, the thin shell
depends for its effectiveness mostly on the
curvature of its shape.
CURVATURE AND STRENGTH
The concept of curvature as a factor in struc-
tural strength is discussed here from a practi-
cal, visual point of view, to help in visualizing
 Thin Shells
the correlation between geometric form and
strength.
That curvature is an element in structural
strength can be easily seen through simple
visual examples. For instance, a sheet of typ-
ing paper held by its short end bends down,
incapable of supporting itself, but if it is
arched slightly into a half cylinder it gains
enough rigidity to hold a horizontal configu-
ration. The difference between these two
conditions can be attributed only to the con-
figuration of the cross-sectional shape of the
sheet of paper, since nothing else was differ-
ent. Similarly, a thin sheet of metal has no
significant structural strength in its planar
shape. However, when that same sheet is
forcefully molded by a large press into an
automobile fender, astonishing structural
strength is acquired from this change in ge-
ometry. The well-known shape of automobile
fenders displays two major directions of
curvature -longitudinal and transverse-
that give to this form the characteristics of a
synclastic, undevelopable surface (see Fig.
5-1). The concept of undevelopable surfaces
is discussed shortly.
The rigidity acquired through curvature
can be copiously illustrated, but let us con-
sider now the concept of curvature as applied
to a curved line, then expand it to curved
surfaces. If we take any curved line and visu-
alize a tangent line touching the curve at a
5-1 The stiffness that comes about throu8h the
curvature of surfaces is employed in many
manufacturin8 processes. The fenders of an
automobile, for instance, are practical examples
of thin-shelled structures that capitalize on
8eometric forms as an element of their stren8th.
117
certain point on its convex side, we can then
similarly visualize a circle that touches the
curve for a certain length on its concave side.
Such a circle is called an osculating circle,
from the Latin osculum (kiss), just as the term
tangent derives from a Latin root meaning to
touch.
To describe a curve fully requires a com-
mon vocabulary. To begin with, an osculat-
ing circle is one that touches a concave curve
at as many points as possible. In other words,
it is a circle that fits against most of the curve
at that point. With this understanding it can
now be noted that the curvature of a curve at
any point is the reciprocal of the radius of the
osculating circle at that point (l/R). At any
point of a curve, therefore, we can find its
curvature. At the limit when the curvature is
zero, in other words when the radius of the
osculating circle is infinity, the curve be-
comes a straight line, with zero curvature.
With this in mind, let us now move from
examining curves to surfaces, or from planar
curves to spatial surfaces. A plane rotating
around a line perpendicular to a surface in-
tersects the surface, thereby generating an
intersecting curve. There is an infinite num-
ber of such planes, and thus an infinite num-
ber of corresponding curves. Among these
infinite curves would be one that would have
the highest curvature, and perpendicular to
it would be one having the smallest curva-
ture. These two curves would be indicated as
the major and minor curvatures at that point,
and would be at 90 degrees to each other.
The maximum curvature and minimum cur-
vature are referred to as principal cur-
vatures.
If its curves are always concave, a surface
has positive Gaussian curvature. Similarly, if
its curves are always convex, the surface also
has positive Gaussian curvature. If a surface
has positive Gaussian curvature, it is said to
be synclastic. If a curve is concave for some
intersecting planes but convex for others, its
surface is said to have negative Gaussian cur-
vature, and the surface is therefore called
anticlastic. When a surface has Gaussian cur-
vature equal to zero, the surface is a plane.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
The radius of its osculating circle has infinity
as its limit, which thus implies zero cur-
vature.
Among examples of synclastic surfaces are
the sphere and parts of it. In this case it is
easy to visualize that at a given point a cross-
sectional curve is always either a concave or a
convex arc, when the normal plane intersect-
ing the sphere rotates around the normal.
One example of an anticlastic surface is a
hyperbolic paraboloid that includes curves
that are concave parabolas for some sections
and convex parabolas for others, as the nor-
mal plane intersecting the surface rotates
around the normal.
Considering all the sectional curves that
can be attained when a normal plane inter-
sects with a curved surface as that plane ro-
tates around the normal, it can be seen that
there is always one direction of the normal
plane that generates an intersecting curve
with the maximum curvature and, at 90 de-
grees to this direction, another intersecting
curve for which the curvature is the mini-
mum. Once one of these two directions,
called the principle directions, is determined,
the other is immediately found.
For example, in the case of a cone the
intersecting curve with the minimum curva-
ture is obviously the straight-line generator
since its curvature is zero. The other princi-
pal curvature, which must be perpendicular
to it, is easily found by the plane perpendicu-
lar to the generatrix; it will form an ellipse.
In a circular cylinder one of the principal
curves is also the straight-line generatrix, so
that the other principal curve is perpendicu-
lar to this and is circular. In a hyperbolic
paraboloid one of its many concave parabolas
identifies the direction of one of the principal
curvatures. The convex parabola intersecting
the surface along the other principal direc-
tions can be found immediately, being 90 de-
grees to the other. Considering that these
two parabolas have opposite curvature (one
upward, the other downward) and that be-
tween the two there are an infinite number of
other curves that are determined by a normal
plane as it rotates, there must be a curve
118
having zero curvature as the overall curva-
ture varies from positive to negative and an-
other curve of zero curvature as the curva-
ture varies from negative to positive, so that
there would then be two straight lines inter-
secting the surface. The curves having zero
curvature are therefore straight lines, which
is one of the major characteristics of hyper-
bolic paraboloids.
Synclastic or anticlastic surfaces are non-
developable in that their surfaces cannot be
flattened onto a plane without there being a
dimensional increase. In both synclastic and
anticlastic surfaces, the two curvatures along
the principal directions always have a value
different from zero. If the surface has a cur-
vature in one of the principal directions that
is equal to zero (in other words if one of these
curves is in fact a straight line), the surface is
neither synclastic nor anticlastic but is said to
be developable. Two examples of such sur-
faces are the cone and the cylinder.
Thus far we have looked at surfaces for
their geometric characteristics, without refer-
ence to their structural capabilities. The dif-
ference between developable and nondevel-
opable surfaces has structural implications
that should be considered when selecting
forms. Synclastic and anticlastic surfaces have
an inherent quality that stiffens them, since
they cannot change shape freely. Not being
developable, they have higher resistance
against deformations produced by loads.
Therefore, they should be considered more
efficient in structural terms than are develop-
able surfaces.
SHELL THICKNESS
Most concrete shells have thicknesses from
11/2 inches to 6 inches. Many factors are in-
volved in establishing their thickness.
Building codes, which vary from one
country to another, have a major influence
on minimum legal thicknesses. In Mexico, for
instance, Felix Candela was able to cast con-
crete thin shells that were less than one inch
 Thin Shells
thick, because of the more permissive code of
that country. In the United States the ACI
code has instead certain restrictions on con-
crete cover thicknesses for reinforcement
that force the thickness of shells here to be
considerably higher.
Traditionally, the minimum shell thick-
ness was simply controlled by the allowable
stresses, but in modern design other criteria
are used. The stresses in concrete thin shells
have always been kept low in the United
States in comparison to the stresses used for
other structures. For instance, in 1963 the
ACI code allowed structures in general to
have a maximum bending stress of 1,350 psi,
a bearing stress of 750 psi, and a compressive
stress for columns of 638 psi, when using a
3,000 psi concrete. At the same time, how-
ever, the designers of concrete thin shells
were keeping concrete stresses no higher
than 150 to 200 psi. At the time, a lack of
confidence in the structural behavior of thin
shells suggested this conservative approach.
The danger of local buckling and the possi-
bility of cracks forming from secondary
stresses seems to have more than justified
such prudent judgment.
The uncertainty of having proper con-
crete correctly placed also leaves serious
doubts about minimum specifications. In
most cases the actual composition of the con-
crete is not what was originally specified. On
thin sections small imperfections can create
seriously vulnerable areas. And factors such
as vibration, placement, compaction, pene-
tration of the concrete through the reinforce-
ment, and the loosening of the elements of
coarse aggregate make it advisable to in-
crease the concrete's thickness. Doing so pro-
vides a double safety factor in reducing con-
struction errors as well as stresses. I
Thickness - Span Relationship
A meaningful value for evaluating the effi-
ciency of thin shells is the relationship be-
tween the thickness and the span of the struc-
ture. If t is the thickness of the shell in a
119
certain unit and L the span in the same unit,
then: t = K X L where K is a coefficient of
proportionality. The smaller K is, the more
efficient the shell is, because it uses less mate-
rial to perform an equivalent task.
Considering the egg as a thin-shelled
structure produced by nature, then for an
average egg the relationship above becomes
lL
t=-
230
This value should be kept in mind when ana-
lyzing man-made thin-shelled structures.
Typical dimensions for the preliminary
design of various types of thin shells will be
shown. It would thus be useful for designers
to be aware of the values of t = KL that were
used in various cases.
Recommended preliminary design thick-
ness for use in the United States is based on
standard procedures derived from ACI code
recommendations and building codes. 2 The
design criteria of the various structures in-
clude the following data.
Concrete strength as at 28 days was 4,000
psi (27.6 MPa). Reinforcing steel should be of
grade 40 ksi (276 MPa) in the shell and grade
60 ksi (413.8 MPa) in its edge members. The
weight of the concrete was 150 lb/cf (2,400
KG/m 2 ). The dead load includes the weight
of the shell plus 5 psf (24.4 KG/m 2 ) for roof-
ing and 5 psf (24.4 KG/m 2 ) for other uses.
The live load should be 30 psf (146 KG/m 2 )
on horizontal projections.
The recommended thicknesses for spans
are discussed here (see Table 5-1) only in
terms of spherical shells.
From brief observation of the coefficient
of proportionality K, one can see that the
efficiency of a structure increases as a span
increases. However, this is true only up to
300 ft (91.4 m), at which point it starts to
diminish. This phenomenon can be under-
stood by considering that ACI restrictions for
small spans force minimum thicknesses to ex-
ceed what is required from structural stresses
only. After peak efficiency is reached for a
given span, its efficiency is reduced as the
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

TABLE 5-1 Spherical Dome Span Thicknesses Kresge Auditorium, M.LT., by Saarinen
DOME 1 TYPE OF SHELL (1955): sectional hemispherical dome
Span L = 100 ft (30.5 m) with triangular plan; sides 160 ft long
Height h = 10-50 ft (3-15.2 m) (48.8 m), thickness 3 112 in (9 cm)
Average Thickness t = 4.25 in (10.8 em) Shops, Bulgaria, by Doganoos (1957):
I
t=-L series of conoidal shells 23 ft wide (7 m)
282 with 59 ft span (18 m); thickness, 1Ifr, to
DOME 2 TYPE OF SHELL 2% in (3-6 cm)
Span L = 200 ft (61.0 m) May, D. and F. Store, Denver, by Pei
Height h=20-80 ft(6.1-24.4 m)
Average Thickness t = 3.75 in (9.5 em) (1958): four-gable hyperbolic parabo-
I loid roof shell covering space 112 X
t=-L 132 ft (34 X 40 m), thickness 3 to 5 in
640
DOMES TYPE OF SHELL (7.6-12.7 cm)
Span L = 300 ft (91.4 m) Church of San Jose Obrero, Mexico, Felix
Height h = 40-100 ft (12.2-30.5 m) Candela (1960): two saddle-type hyper-
Average Thickness t = 4 in (10.1 em) bolic paraboloids with 90 ft (27.4 m)
I cantilevers; thickness, 1SIr, in (4 cm)
t=-L
900 Planetarium, St. Louis, by Obate (1962):
DOME 4 TYPE OF SHELL hyperboloid shell 160 ft (48.8 m) in di-
Span L = 400 ft (121.9 m) ameter, 75 ft high (23 m), thickness 3 in
Height h = 80-150 ft (24.4-45.7 m)
Average Thickness t = 6 in (15.2 em) (7.6 cm)
I
t=-L
800
SHELLS IN NATURE

length of the span continues to increase as in
any other structure, reaching a point eventu-
ally where the efficiency is so low the struc-
ture becomes infeasible.
CASE STUDIES IN SPAN THICKNESS
A few examples illustrating the thicknesses
adopted for some thin-shelled structures
follow:
Market Hall, Algeciras, Spain, by Eduardo
Torroja (1934): octagonal dome of
eight barrel shells, 156 ft (47.5 m) in
diameter; thickness, 3 112 in (9 cm)
Aircraft hangars, France, by Perret
(1952): two contiguous barrel vaults
330 ft (100 m) in span each, consisting
of 32 ft (lO m) wide arched sections;
thickness, 2Ifs in (6 cm)
Air Terminal, St. Louis, by Yamasaki
(1954): groined vaults consisting of the
intersection of two barrel vaults; thick-
ness, 4112 to 8 in (11.4-20 cm)
Examples of shells in the morphology of na-
ture are particularly abundant (see Fig. 5-2).
Eggs, sea shells, turtles, skulls, nuts, and the
nests that certain birds build by instinct are
all based on the shell. This large number of
applications indicates clearly how naturally
efficient the shell can be under certain condi-
tions. The most efficient of these examples is
probably the eggshell, whose lightness pro-
portional to its strength is amazingly high.
Birds are amazing builders of structures
whose soundness and efficiency compete fa-
vorably with the products of man's ingenuity.
The bird's nest, which is a good example of
the inverted dome, results from birds' aston-
ishing instinct to capitalize on the efficiency
of the domed geometric shape and on mate-
rials that are readily available. These sub-
stances are usually straw, twigs, and grass,
performing mostly in tension. In many cases
mud is also used. When it hardens it adds
compressive strength to the nest and further
stabilizes the structure.

120
 Thin Shells
5- 2 Examples of shells in nature: a) eBB, b) turtle; c) sea shell; d) nut; e) skull.
Not all nests are built in the same shape, of
course, nor do they all have a cuplike form,
but the domical ones are often elaborate and
intriguing. One example is the nest that is
built by a bird called the social weaver, of
South Africa (Philetairus Socius). This type of
nest, which has a dome cover, is built by
groups of birds that may include at times as
many as 100 individual birds, both male and
female. Built in a tree, their structures can
reach proportions of up to 10 feet (3 m) and
often contain smaller individual nests.
Another interesting domed structure in
nature is the nest built by the South Ameri-
can ovenbird (Furnaridae). This nest is a hol-
low dome built with mud and reinforced by
grass and other fibers. About one foot (.30
m) in diameter, its thickness is about 1/2 inch
(13 mm) or more. The totally enclosed struc-
ture has an indirect, narrow entrance at its
bottom.
121
THE ORIGINS OF
MAN-MADE SHELLS
The history of thin shells should be seen as
coincident with the discovery of cement,
which made reinforced concrete possible.
The natural cement used by the Romans sim-
ply did not have sufficient strength for thin
shells. It was used mostly for mortars in ma-
sonry structures or as concrete filler within
masonry masses, but never as a self-support-
ing material. Only a new generation of ce-
ment with the compressive strength to bind
aggregate could be used to create shells. It
could be combined with other materials capa-
ble of resisting tension.
The discovery of cement is attributed to
the Englishman John Smeaton, in 1756. Dur-
ing the construction of the Eddystone light-
house, near Plymouth, he experimented to
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
formulate an hydraulic mortar using lime
and clay in equal parts. He established that
instead of using lime and pozzolana (silica) as
the Romans had, he could obtain a similar, or
even better effect, by making the lime from a
limestone that already contained some clay.
This clay, and silica, with their necessary
compounds, could be mixed in the desired
proportions with the calcium carbonate in
the limestone and burnt together in furnaces.
In natural cements heat was applied to the
clay and silica during volcanic action inde-
pendently of the calcium carbonate (lime). It
in turn was heat treated during the process of
producing the lime. Then the compounds
from the clay and silica were combined cold,
with the calcium carbonate. The process of
making artificial cement involves the com-
pounding of clay and silica under heat, in the
presence of calcium carbonate.
After Smeaton had opened the way to the
use of this new product, two English engi-
neers, Wyatts and Parker, began producing
cement in 1796, using natural deposits of
clay and limestone found in sedimentary
layers near London. The name they chose
for this commercial product was Roman
Cement, capitalizing on the millennarian
dependability of the cement in Roman
structures.
In 1800 an engineer named Lesage pro-
duced another kind of cement using a lime-
stone found embedded in clay banks along
the beach of Boulogne-sur-Mer. Then, in
1824, Joseph Aspidin produced the cement
called portland, in Leeds, Canada. The name
derives from the type of Portland rock used
in masonry, because the concrete blocks
made with that cement had the same color as
the natural portland rocks. Others claim that
the name derives not from the golden color
but from the strength associated with the
portland stone. Whatever the case, the name
has been used ever since. A similar cement
was produced in Germany in 1830.
This short synopsis of the history of con-
crete serves only to introduce this material
that is the basis for the concrete out of which
the thin-shelled concept was born. Concrete
122
is an artificial stone made of a plastic mass
that hardens after being molded by hand and
thus owes its very existence to this com-
pound. Similarly to the clay that is so readily
found in nature, concrete lends itself to the
generation of many forms, as a medium for
large-scale sculptures in the way that clay has
had the potential to generate ceramic arti-
facts. Clay and concrete are even similarly
processed. They both require a stage of high-
temperature firing: ceramics after the clay
has been molded and cement after the clay
and limestone have been combined to pro-
duce the "clinker."
When concrete is seen from the point of
view of being a natural product useful to
make creative shapes, it is clearly in the free-
dom and curvilinearity of its forms that con-
crete structures should manifest themselves,
not in the rigidity of straight lines and plane
surfaces. Thin shells are thus the most logical
form of expression for concrete structures
when architectural integrity is considered.
On their own merits, thin shells owe to their
special geometry their ability to carry exter-
nal loads and filter them through their sur-
faces to edge members, which then collect
the loads and channel them to supports at the
foundation. The geometry that sustains this
structural process is the basic language the
designer must learn first. Only then, after
acquiring a certain literacy, the architect can
experiment with fine tuning shapes and
forms by fine tuning through more-precise
analysis. The concrete layer, the precise dis-
tribution of steel reinforcements, and the
configurations of edge members then be-
come intriguing components in the de-
signer's hands, which take shape in the exhil-
arating process of structural and archi-
tectural design.
OVERALL STRUCTURAL
EQUILIBRIUM
The overall equilibrium of a whole structure
can be obtained in various ways. A structure
can consist either of a continuous self-stand-
 Thin Shells
ing unit or be a structure combining differ-
ent units that achieve equilibrium only when
united. Thus, in terms of structural equilib-
rium it makes sense to distinguish first be-
tween shell structures that are self-standing
and those that are combined structures.
Self-standing Structures
Self-standing structures, whether they are
continuous or discontinuous, are in equilib-
rium by means of their own support systems,
without needing the help of any other struc-
ture. Their support systems can consist of a
number of supports or of a special type of
support. For example, consider an umbrella-
type hyperbolic paraboloid that is supported
on only one central point by a single column
standing on an isolated footing. If the footing
were to be sized only in terms of gravity loads
and the soil's bearing capacity, the footing
would probably be so small that it would not
guarantee maintaining equilibrium against
possible overturning. Such structures would
not then be self-standing. However, if the
footing were to be increased in size, equilib-
rium would be provided for the structure
without having to change the basic geometry
of the whole structure. Likewise, the same
umbrella-type hyperbolic paraboloid with the
limited footing would become stable when
combined with other similar structures.
A hyperbolic paraboloid on two supports
(saddle type) would also be unstable by itself,
unless other means of support were provided.
A typical example for stabilizing such struc-
tures, without changing their basic visual and
structural concept of using two main bearing
supports, consists of adding thin tensile mem-
bers at the free, cantilevered tips, to prevent
overall rotation or over-turning.
Combined Structures
There are several types of thin-shelled struc-
tures that achieve equilibrium when com-
bined into groups of two or more. When
123
combined, small groups of structures can
produce unique compositions that often
achieve dramatic effects. For example, Felix
Candela joined together two saddle-type hy-
perbolic paraboloids on two supports laced
along longitudinal members so that it seems
that they merely touch each other. In this
case the two saddles are inclined, creating a
tensile connection between the two to
achieve stability in an atmosphere of lightness
and pronounced elegance. There are other
examples of combining three hyperbolic par-
aboloids so as to create an equally astonishing
effect and achieve overall stability through a
system of mutual support.
Another approach for combining a large
number of isolated structures is in reality a
modular system acting as a thin shell. An ex-
ample typical of this kind of modular struc-
ture is a combination of individual umbrella
types on one support or of inverted umbrella
types on one support. In these two cases the
moduli are connected along their edges and
so can take full advantage of the repetitive
use of one or several individual modular
formworks. Large continuous roof structures
can thus be built with modular elements or-
ganized on a grid pattern. Square or rectan-
gular grid systems are therefore convenient
to use for a large variety of buildings, from
institutional to commercial and industrial. In
fact, the economies achieved by modular con-
struction make even low-cost industrial appli-
cations feasible.
FLOA TING CONCRETE SHELLS
FOR BOATS AND SHIPS
It is important to realize that the first applica-
tions of concrete for practical uses were not
for buildings, as might be expected, but for
the hulls of small boats. Using concrete shells
thus reflected the most rational, natural of
responses to the many qualities of the new
moldable material. Early examples capital-
ized on the strengths of the geometry of dou-
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
bly curved shells that only the moldability of
concrete could allow.
In 1848 a French gardener named Joseph-
Louis Lambot built a concrete shell for the
hull of a small rowboat, and a year later built
a similar boat with the same method of con-
struction. Completely apart from engineer-
ing or architecture, Lambot realized the true
potential of this material and used it intui-
tively. He first built a hull of iron rods and
wire mesh, then worked a cement mortar
through this mesh reinforcement on both
sides, obtaining a finished surface on both
interior and exterior. His mortar contained
only sand, with no additional aggregate.
Working by hand, Lambot plastered this
shell in 1848 in just the same way many other
shells are built on a larger scale a century
later. Some of the shells of Felix Candela in
Mexico recall this construction technique
which although expensive in man-hours pro-
duces a good product when the labor cost
allows it. The most amazing feature of these
early prototypes is their durabilty: these two
boats are still in perfect condition in Paris at
the Brigonoles Museum as a testimony to
shell technology (see Fig. 5-3).
In 1896 an Italian named Gabellini built a
similar concrete hull for a small rowboat with
c-t=....=..
5-3 This ferrocement rowboat built in 1849
seen in Paris in 1974 was still in excellent
condition. A similar prototype of thin-shelled
application was built by the same Joseph-Louis
Lambot in 1848.
124
a type of construction using a whole array of
reinforcements, mostly wire mesh and con-
crete plaster with only fine aggregate. This
system cannot be classified as either typical
reinforced concrete nor ferrocement, but
something in between. The many other boats
built following these prototypes eventually
produced the ferrocement hulls of Pier Luigi
Nervi's work.
In 1897 the first reinforced-concrete hull
was built, in Rome, to construct a pontoon.
Then in 1902 GabeIlini built the first con-
crete hull, for a 50-ton barge. He expanded
on that with the Liguira, a concrete barge of
160 tons, which soon saw large numbers of
other such concrete vessels built in this pio-
neering new technology. In 1910 the English
built their first concrete hull, the Sand Witch,
followed two years later by a pontoon, the
Manchester Ship Canal. Then in 1917 the
Norwegians built the first concrete hull for a
self-propelled seagoing ship. The concrete
hull of the Namsenfjord, designed and built
by N. K. Fougner, was 83.64 ft (25.5 m) long
with a dead load of 182 tons.
Concrete Hulls in WorId War I
Historically, wars have accelerated techno-
logical development, under the impact of
needs required for survival. The reason con-
crete hulls developed so rapidly for large-
scale applications was the demand for cargo
ships using a material other than steel, which
was needed for other war products. The
United States vessel the Selma at 426 ft (130
m) became the largest ship ever built of con-
crete. It weighed 6,340 tons. The English
built the Armistice (205 ft [62.5 m], 1,150
tons) and the Creteravine, a 1,000-ton barge
built in Gloucester in 1919 which is one of a
large group of similar concrete barges built at
the time.
After World War I a gradual change carne
about in the economic market for concrete
hulls, resulting in in their eventual eclipse
about 1922.
 Thin Shells
Concrete Hulls in World War II
World War II repeated the same need of the
previous world war for concrete hulls. Of the
many countries involved in building concrete
hulls the United States produced the largest
number.
Germany also engaged heavily in building
concrete hulls of both the shell type and the
framed type, which included stiffening ribs.
In 1944 German experimentation with ves-
sels up to 3,700 tons proved the thin-shelled
hull much superior to the frame type in
strength for impact loading. The English
produced the famous Mulberry Harbour pon-
toon, used in 1944 for the successful landing
of Allied forces in Normandy, as well as sev-
eral hundred barges.
These and other experiences proved the
durability, seaworthiness, and overall reliabil-
ity of concrete ships. Reinforced concrete
barges in Japan demonstrated their resistance
to fire and explosion by surviving the atomic
test at Bikini, when one barge loaded with
fuel oil was set afire. And the S.S. Aspin
proved for its seaworthiness in a 1944 hurri-
cane off Cape Hatteras by surviving winds of
an estimated 120 mph (193 km/hr) with
wave heights up to 100 ft (30 m).
Ferrocement Hulls
The two world wars proved the feasibility of
the concrete hull in practical terms. Pier
Luigi Nervi built upon the technology of
wire mesh reinforcement and cement plaster.
He clarified the concept of ferrocement and
finalized its construction and design proce-
dures, applying it to several successful hulls
and later to thin shells for buildings. Al-
though Nervi has been associated with the
development of ferrocement, he modestly
disclaimed it (author's personal communica-
tion with Nervi in 1974).
Ferrocement is a homogeneous isotropic
substance that has equal strengths of com-
pression and tension in all directions, because
125
thin steel wires are completely dispersed in its
cement paste as embedded fibers. The best
comparison is to visualize the composition of
ferrocement as being like the mixture in fi-
berglass that combines the resin and glass
fibers together.
Nervi's applications of ferrocement to
hulls included several fishing vessels and
pleasure craft, including an elegant sailboat,
the Irene. Powered by both an inboard motor
and sail, this vessel had a weight of 165 tons,
which resulted in a saving of 5 percent in
weight compared to a wooden hull. Its cost
proved to be a significant 40 percent less than
an equivalent wooden prototype. The
strength of its shell, 1.4 in (3.6 cm) thick, was
shown when the vessel survived two acci-
dents, which required only minor replaster-
ing and did not alter its seaworthiness. An-
other ferrocement application of great
elegance was the Nennele, a 41 ft (12.5 m)
ketch only 1/2 inch in thickness that Nervi
designed and built in 1948 for his own use
(see Fig. 5-4).
PRESTRESSED HULLS
The process of prestressing was applied to
concrete hulls as early as 1942, first in Ger-
many involving concrete barges weighing
500 tons each. This method of course cur-
rently dominates the construction of most
concrete hulls, because of its increased
strength and consequent possible reduction
in shell thickness.
The two methods used include prestress-
ing, also called pretensioning, and postten-
sioning. Of the two, posttensioning is the
most widely used. Among its advantages is
the possibility of applying the tensioned rein-
forcement not only along rectilinear paths
but curvilinear ones as well.
Prestressing or pretensioning consists of
applying tension to high-strength steel wires,
bars, or cables (tendons) and keeping them
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
5-4 Photoaraph showina the "Nennele" a 41
ketch in ferrocement, one-half inch thick,
desiened and built in 1948 by Pier Luiei Nervi
for his own personal use.
stretched between two anchors attached to
the ground while the concrete hardens.
When it has acquired sufficient strength the
tendons are released. They then try to regain
their original length, and in so doing they
apply a compressive force in the concrete in
parts of the structure that will later be
stressed under tension. This precompression
is of course designed to neutralize later
under load the tensile forces that will be in-
ducted by the loads themselves. In this
method there is a continuous bond between
the prestressing tendons and the concrete,
with no need for anchorages. However, rein-
forcements can be placed only in rectilinear
paths, as mentioned.
In posttensioning, tendons are introduced
into hollow ducts set into the structure. After
the concrete has hardened, the tendons are
tensioned and anchored at their ends to the
concrete with special anchors. Grout is even-
tually placed in the ducts to prevent their
corroding the tendons.
FERROCEMENT HULLS
AT PRESENT
Following Nervi's work, the 1950s exhibited
a great enthusiasm for the architectural fea-
tures of concrete thin shells. By the begin-
ning of the 1960s, ferrocement hulls had
gained wide acceptance for use in pleasure
crafts, particularly in the United Kingdom
and Australia and New Zealand. The Awah-
nee, a ferrocement yacht 53 ft (16 m) long,
was built in New Zealand in 1965. In a series
of amazing events this vessel circumnavigated
the world, successfully surviving seventy-knot
winds, a collision with an iceberg, and a ram-
ming by a steel-hulled yacht.
ft The popularity of the thin shell in engi-
neering terms is widespread among students
today. Since 1970, ferrocement-canoe races
have become a national trend in various engi-
neering schools throughout the United
States.
The undeniably large-scale acceptance of
ferrocement hulls among numerous develop-
ing countries of the world was described in a
1979 report of an ad hoc panel of the Advi-
sory Committee on Technological Innova-
tion of the Board of Science and Technology
for the International Development Office of
the Foreign Secretary.3 This panel recom-
mended ferrocement as a substitute for mate-
rials now used to construct traditionally
shaped indigenous boats. The technical feasi-
bility of ferrocement has been well estab-
lished, but field trials or demonstrations may
be needed in some developing areas to over-
come local resistance to innovation in boat
building.
126
 Thin Shells

The Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) and the United
Nations Industrial Development Organiza-
tion (UNIDO) have taken the initiative to
introduce ferrocement in developing coun-
tries and demonstrate its importance in their
context. Thus far, however, such technical-
assistance projects have been oriented toward
large oceangoing trawlers with sophisticated
Western-style hulls, to increase commercial
fishing capabilities. Commercial fishing on
this scale requires a considerable land-based
organization to preserve, transport, and mar-
ket products, and the cost of large fishing
boats represents an investment that subsis-
tence-level fishermen simply cannot afford.
We are here concerned with the individual
boatmen, whether commercial or subsistence
fisherman, who would benefit from the low
cost, long life, and easy repairs of small, fa-
miliarly shaped and propelled ferrocement
boats.
Ferrocement's unique low cost of mate-
rials, its strength, and its ease of maintenance
and repair recommend themselves particu-
larly to the fabrication of small native craft.
The usual curved-displacement hulls of in-
digenous craft are appropriate for this mate-
rial. Small ferrocement workboats can be
built on site, by local, supervised, laborers
who are usually available at low cost. Because
these boats are mainly hull and therefore
have no costly fittings, the builder's savings
are maximized. Small onshore workboats un-
dergo less stress than deep-water vessels and
require less stringent technology and quality
control. Moreover, existing wooden craft are
often so heavy that converting them to ferro-
cement sometimes yields boats of an equiva-
lent or lighter weight. Furthermore, ferroce-
ment boats are inherently strong enough to
be powered, while some comparable wooden
boats are not.
Since design improvements can be added
in ferrocement incrementally, a traditionally
shaped boat might be improved over the
years in design. In particular, using ferroce-
ment allows all the complex curves of
planked wooden boats, as well as the more
complex curves not possible in wood that
would improve a boat's performance. Finally,
ferrocement is free from attack by teredos
(shipworms), wood rot, and other hazards of
the tropics.

NOTES
1. See Iurgen Joedick, Shell Architecture (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1962), 98.
2. From R. M. Gensert, Kirsis Uldis, and Peller Miklos, "Economic Proportioning of Cast-in-Place Concrete
Thin Shells." Paper SP 28-3, Concrete Thin Shells, ACI, 1971,41-112.
3. Advisory Committee on Technological Innovation, Board of Science and Technology for International
Development Office of Foreign Secretary, "Ferro-cement: Application in Developing Countries," 4, 21-23.

127
CHAPTER 6
Selected Shapes of Shells
GEOMETRIC ASPECTS
The combined effects of mass and geometry
are major factors in structural strength. This
chapter will focus on the role of geometry.
The geometric surfaces used in architectural
structures have been generated from differ-
ent approaches developed over thousands of
years of building experience. As discussed in
previous chapters, when dealing with ma-
sonry the requirements of the material itself
imposed forms that resolved superimposed
loads by means of internal forces acting in
compression. Having adopted by trial and
error the geometric surfaces able to satisfy
these requirements, the builder then needed
to adopt geometric surfaces that would lend
themselves to the requirements of the space
designed. This geometry resulted intuitively
from the building'S structural and spatial re-
quirements, as seen in domes. For instance,
the spherical masonry dome derived from
the desire to create a column-free space in
the round. Whether to adopt a specific spher-
ical configuration or an elliptical, parabolic,
or other configuration was determined by
the geometric understanding of the purity of
the sphere. Since the spherical configuration
did work, the need to improve its structural
129
efficiency was not felt for many centuries,
and the spherical dome continued to be in
use until engineering intuition suggested em-
ploying other shapes, such as parabolic cross-
sectional forms. Similarly, the shape of the
barrel vault with a semicircular cross-section
was determined originally from an intuitive
geometric shape that did work, since builders
did not realize the limited efficiency of circu-
lar cross-sections against parabolic ones.
Even now, when structural analysis can
find optimal solutions for structural forms,
geometric configurations may most probably
derive from aesthetic values. Reinforced con-
crete shells can follow almost any desired
configuration, even if the resulting form is
not particularly efficient structurally. Many
examples verify this approach, including spe-
cial cases where the concept can be seen
pushed to the limit. The Sydney Opera
House is a dramatic example of arbitrary ge-
ometry being forced to perform structurally
against better engineering analysis and
judgment.
In the hands of a creative architect, the
geometric vocabulary of basic forms that
have been particularly adapted for thin-
shelled structures offers the potential for a
great variety of compositions. Felix Candela
has shown, for instance, what can be done by
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
composing the basic elements of hyperbolic
paraboloids. Even the forms of ancient vault-
ing could inspire reinterpretations in modern
versions using reinforced concrete. Reducing
the mass through reduced thickness and re-
ducing a vault's curvature could result in
thin-shells with light, lofty qualities, in new
forms of domes, pendentives, squinches, and
groin vaults.
Many other approaches suggest them-
selves when one looks for inspiration in the
work of the architectural masters. In particu-
lar, the dramatic explorations of geometric
forms in the architecture of Louis Kahn
create an awareness of articulated forms in
space where thin shells could generate sur-
faces of complex significance, whether as a
composition involving only surface elements
or in combination with rectilinear longitu-
dinal members. It is exciting to visualize the
potential of volumetric compositions that
may be attained with thin surfaces and recti-
6-1 Axial and shear forces in the shell element under load.
130
linear or curvilinear members interacting in
space to produce articulated structures.
Although the role of geometry is too vast
to be covered adequately here, a brief intro-
duction to the major basic geometric shapes
will prove useful.
BARREL SHELLS
Simplified Structural Behavior
Ancient barrel vaults derived directly from
the arch because, in reality, they consisted of
a series of contiguous arches placed side by
side. Because each arch interacted with the
adjacent one, the load applied to one was
shared by the adjacent ones also. These bar-
rel vaults could therefore be considered as
one-way arched slabs spanning across two
parallel longitudinal supports. The modern
 Selected Shapes of Shells
6-2 Transmission of forces to the supports.
thin-shell barrel is definitely a two-way sys-
tem, although there is no similarity to the
two-way slab. The structural behavior in the
barrel shell in one direction is totally differ-
ent than that in the other because it has both
a longitudinal and a transverse direction.
The barrel shell acts as a beam spanning in
the longitudinal direction, which is consid-
ered the span of the barrel. The width of the
barrel, perpendicular to its span, is the trans-
verse dimension. When the span of a barrel is
longer than its width, the barrel is considered
long, and when the span is shorter than the
width it is said to be short.
Long Barrels
The long barrel carries the distributed load
to the supports just as a beam would. The
cross-section of the beamlike barrel is an
arched thin shell. The supports at the ends of
the barrels are usually arches, but they could
also be conventional walls with curvilinear
tops following the shape of the shell, or else
two thin walls acting as vertical diaphragms.
As in a beam, the longitudinal axial forces N L
in the upper part of the barrel are compres-
sive, with those in the lower part being tensile
131
(see Fig. 6-1). The neutral axis, which slices
the barrel horizontally, separates the area in
compression from that in tension. The longi-
tudinal axial forces are equal to zero at the
neutral plane, then gradually increase as they
move away from it. The axial transverse
forces NT run perpendicularly to the N L
forces and are always compressive. They act
as the compression forces in arches. The
forces NL and NT combine together and are
then transmitted to the supports (see Fig.
6-2).
Short Barrels
Short-barreled shells behave somewhat dif-
ferently than long barrels. Although the long
barrel behaves almost like a conventional
beam, the short barrel behaves that way only
in the lower part of its shell. In the upper part
the longitudinal axial forces NL are zero, with
the axial transverse forces NT dominating. In
other words, the top of the shell acts like a
series of adjacent arches. However, in the
lower part of short barrels the longitudinal
axial forces of compression and tension reap-
pear, and the neutral plane is lower than
where it is in long barrels (see Fig. 6-3).
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

6-3 Behavior of barrel shells: a) lona shell; b) short shell.

CONOIDAL SHELLS straight lines, the surface is a hyperbolic

paraboloid (Fig. 6-5c).

Conoidal surfaces are translational shells gen-
erated by a straight line, the generatrix,
translating over two curves known as the di-
rectrices that are contained in two vertical
parallel planes (see Fig. 6-4). Since the gen-
eratrix is a straight line, the surface is consid-
ered a ruled surface.
Three cases can result from this:
1. If one of the two directrices is a horizontal
straight line, the surface is a conoid (Fig.
6-5a).
2. If the two directrices are equal curves, the
surface is a cylinder (Fig. 6-5b).
3. If the two directrices are two skewed
Some conoidal surfaces also belong to
other families of surfaces. For instance, the
cylinder is also rotational.
Translational surfaces can be obtained in
more than one way. For example, the hyper-
bolic paraboloid can be generated by using a
parabola as the generatrix and another pa-
rabola, instead of straight lines, as a directrix,
as in the third case just seen.
Conoids
Conoids are anticlastic, meaning that at any
given point the curvature in a certain direc-

6-4 The conoid, one of three conoidal surfaces in addition to the

cylinder and the hyperbolic paraboloid. A ruled surface aenerated by
straiaht line aeneratrices slidina over curved and straiaht line directrices.

132
 Selected Shapes of Shells

The horizontal projection of the two di-

rectrices over the horizontal plane xy
// have an equal length (BI = B2) only if
we so desire, but in general they can be
different (BI 1= B2)'

The values for YI and Y2 in the general equa-

tion above are given, respectively, by the fol-
A
lowing expressions:

B
It is important to notice that if BI = B2 then
the equation is considerably simplified, be-
cause YI = Y2 = y. Thus, the equation of the
conoid becomes

C EXAMPLE: Find the equation of a conoid,

given the following:
6-5 The three basic cases of conoidal shells: a)
a conoid; b) a cylinder; c) a hyperbolic paraboloid. Directrix 1 is a semicircle with its center at
the origin.
Its radius R = BI = 20 ft
tion is concave, whereas in another direction
Its equation z = J. (y) is y2 + z2 = 20 2 .
it is convex. The equation for the conoid is From this it follows that z = ,J20 2 - y2
easily determined once one knows the equa-
Directrix 2 is a straight line whose equa-
tions for the two directrices, which are, re- tion z = f 2 (y) is z = O.
spectively, z = II (y) and z = 12(Y) (see Fig. Other known data include BI = 20 ft,
6-6). The equation for the conoid is B2 = 15 ft, and L = 60 ft.
Solution:

In this equation it can be seen that

The directrix z = II (y) is contained in the In this equation the values for YI and Y2' re-
vertical plane, by passing through its spectively, are
point of origin.
The other directrix [z = 12 (y)] is contained
in another plane parallel to zy at dis-
tance x = L between the two planes.

133
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
6-6 Coordinates of the conoidal shell.
EXAMPLE: To find the equation for a conoi-
dal surface that is in this case also a hyperbo-
lic paraboloid, it should be noted that the
equation can also be determined in a differ-
ent manner, to compare the two different
methods. Let us assume the following data:
Directrix 1 coincides with the y axis.
Therefore, its equation, z = II (y), is
z=o.
Directrix 2 is a straight line passing
through one point whose y,z coordi-
nates are (0,0) and through another
point of coordinates (20,10). The equa-
tion of this directrix z = II (y) is
z = -(1/2)y.
Furthermore, L = 30 ft and BI = B2 = 20
ft.
Solution: For this surface the equation is as
follows, because BI = B2:
Thus:
xy
z=-
60
134
This can easily be recognized as an equation
for a hyperbolic paraboloid of the following
type:
z= (:b) xy
where a = 30, b = 20, and h = -10.
CANTILEVERED SHELLS
Cantilevered thin shells constitute their own
subgroup within the larger family of shell
structures, one that is distinct in terms both
of geometry and of structural behavior. Such
shells, which project outward from key points
of support, display an effect of lightness, as
with any other cantilevered structure. The
fact that their means of support are unclear
to the typical observer creates an illusion of
loftiness capable of inspiring a sense of
wonder and admiration.
From a structural point of view cantile-
vered thin shells have the distinction of being
able to produce forms that corresponding
masonry vaults could not attain. The direct
offspring of masonry vaults, concrete thin
shells have replaced them in present-day con-
 Selected Shapes of Shells

struction by performing equivalent tasks
much more economically and with better
structural performance.
The cross-section of the thin shell carries
loads by virtue of membrane stresses only. It
is subjected only to tension and compression,
by means of structural reinforcement and
concrete mass, as mentioned earlier. By cut-
ting a transverse cross-section through a
whole shell it can be noted that zones are in
compression and under tension, just as a
cross-section would display through a cantile-
vered beam.
To emphasize the validity of the rational-
ity and structural efficiency of the cantile-
vered thin shell, let us note that there are
several examples in nature that are based on
the same structural principle. One is the
trunks of trees that extend vertically from
the ground, with branches projecting hori-
zontally either from the trunk or from one
another. Rock formations are at times also
cantilevered. And in the body structure of
several animal species the neck and limbs act
as cantilevers controlled by muscle tension
and compression. The most specific example
that comes to mind is the leaves of plants.
The stalk of a leaf and the ramified veins
through it can be compared to the edge
members of a thin shell, with the leaf itself
analogous to the membrane shell. In fact, the
geometric configurations of the many types
of leaves can legitimately inspire new rational
forms for thin-shelled applications.
A good example of this analogy between
shells and leaves is a reinforced concrete sign-
post built for a housing project by Felix Can-
dela on a lake in Mexico. It includes a frame-
work of longitudinal members that are
supported at two points on the ground and
cantilever out in opposite directions. The
length of each section is about 53 ft (16 m).
Each of the two cantilevered arms terminates
in a slender thin shell that is in turn cantile-
vered from the main framework of solid
members (see Fig. 6-7).
The dramatic nature of cantilevering is
further emphasized when a structure widens
away from its supports rather than tapering
off, thus creating the illusion of an even less
stable structure. The music pavilion at the
Santa Fe housing project in Mexico City, de-
signed by Felix Candela and Aldo Pani, in
1953 - 1957, can be considered to be divided
into three adjacent components. Each has a
triangular plan that joins the others to form
a fan-shaped canopy that cantilevers out from
a central vertex. The three triangular com-

6-7 A reinforced concrete sionpost for a housino project near Lake Tequesquitenoo, Mexico. The shell
desiBned by Felix Candela in cooperation with Guillermo Rosell and Manuel Larrosa.

135
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

ponents of the canopy are portions of hyper-
bolic paraboloid surfaces. The cantilevered
shell spans 40 ft (12 m) from the point of
support. At the support two concrete walls
anchored to an underground footing balance
the moment generated by the cantilever (see
Fig. 6-8). Numerous cantilevered filling
station roofs by Candela are an interesting
element of the Mexico City townscape (Fig.
6-9).
Rationally designed structures do indeed
possess inherent aesthetics, as can be seen in
the cantilevered shells that have been de-
signed at times as sculptural pieces. Often
they are designed to function as entrance
canopies in front of a building of which they
are a part, as is the canopy in front of the
UNESCO Building in Paris designed by Pier
Luigi Nervi in 1957. The building (1953-
1958) itself was a collaboration between
Nervi, Marcel Breuer, and Bernard Zehriuss.
This particular canopy, not to be confused
with another, over the entrance at the Place
de Frontenoy, is in front of the southwest
pedestrian entrance. This massive, muscular
structure of reinforced concrete uses the can-
tilever action of the shell in a totally different
manner visually from the structure by Can-
dela. Here Nervi capitalizes on the efficiency
of the geometry and the mass of the material
to erect a sculptural piece (see Fig. 6-10). A
similar structure is the massive cantilevered
shell forming a canopy over the main en-
trance to the Hiraoka City Hall in Japan, by
Junzo Sakakura.
The Sydney Opera House (1957) men-
tioned earlier also represents a different con-
cept in heavy shell structures. The form of
these concrete cantilevered shells is the work
of Jorn Utzon. The shells cantilever upward
and forward at various angles of inclination
to look like sails inflated by wind. Each shell
springs from two supports on the ground. On
the interiors of the shells stiffening ribs con-
verge at the supports, there transferring their
loads from the shells to the foundation. On
the exterior the shells are as smooth and
white as the spinnakers of sailing ships.

41 It
19.20 It 10.5 It

CONCRETE WALLS h< I

6-8 Music Pavilion at "Santa Fe" Housing Project, Mexico City.

Architects: Felix Candela and Aido Pani. Balancing the overturning moment
because of the cantilever, two concrete walls anchor the structure to the
foundation 8 ft (2.5 m) deep.

136
 Selected Shapes of Shells

6-9 Cantilevered roofs over the filling station in Mexico Cio/ designed by
Felix Candela. (Courtesy of]. A. Starczewski.)

the compositIOn of several partial surfaces

combined. The edges obtained by having
various intersecting planes with different ori-
entations are endless. Much more complex
curves result by intersecting hyperboloids
with other kinds of surfaces (see Fig. 6-12).
Interesting free forms can also be attained by
cutting out a portion of an hyperboloid (see
Fig. 6-13).

HYPERBOLOIDS

6-10 The canopy in front of the UNESCO
bUilding in Paris designed by Pier Luigi Nervi.
Free Forms
An hyperboloid surface can be generated as a
ruled surface with straight line generatrices,
or as a rotational surface produced by rotat-
ing an hyperbola around an axis. The equa-
tion for the hyperboloid of one - not two-
sheets is as follows:

Using a revolving hyperboloid to explore ar-

chitectural forms can produce remarkable
results (see Fig. 6-11, a - h). Basically, as with
any other geometric surface, one could treat Notice that the surface is a quadric and,
the edges in various manners and deal with being expressed in this form, is thus referred

137
A B

c D

6-11 Various arrannements and compositions of hyperbolic paraboloid modular elements. a,b) A
square hypar on two supports; c,d) Schematic models of umbrella-type hypars.
E F

G H

6-11 (continued) eJ) A combination of hypar modules in groups of two; g,h) A square-plan hypar
on two supports, with stabilizine struts or ties alone the edge beams.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
6-12 A balsa wood study model showing the
potential of hyperboloids for a church bUilding.
6-1 3 Free forms attained by cutting off pieces
of a hyperboloid.
to as systems of axes x and y, with the origin at
the center. The hyperboloid of one sheet has
elliptical cross-sections, meaning that the sec-
tions perpendicular to the z axis are ellipses.
If a = b, then the equation becomes
140
The sections perpendicular to the z axis are
then circles. The surface is now more prop-
erly called an hyperboloid of revolution. In
both surfaces, sections parallel to the z axis
are always hyperbolas.
Structural Aspects
From a structural point of view, an hyperbo-
loid of revolution that is generated by start-
ing from a cylinder can be seen as a series of
vertical straight lines arranged around a cir-
cular directrix. To twist the circle will make
the tops of all the straight lines rotate, but the
points at the bottom will remain stationary.
The cross-sections perpendicular to the z axis
will consist of circles having different diame-
ters. Moreover, the height of an hyperboloid
would be shorter than that of its original cyl-
inder, because the more twist there is, the
shorter is the height.
Under a vertical load arranged over the
top circle, an hyperboloid will tend to
shorten its height and increase its twist. In
such a condition the structure would not be
stable. To stabilize it requires preventing in-
creased twisting and consequently preventing
shortening of it. This can be accomplished by
adding another set of straight lines, but ones
twisted in the opposite direction. Shortening
the hyperboloid's height implies that it must
undergo both a clockwise and a counter-
clockwise rotation at the same time, which
cannot occur, thereby preventing twisting.
Trellised Hyperboloid
An hyperboloid structure can become a phys-
ical reality as a network of two sets of
straight-line generatrices with opposite incli-
nations when the hyperboloid is constructed
as a trellis rather than a continuous surface.
Whether they are in steel or concrete,
straight members hinged at their points of
intersection form a structure that could be
considered a space truss. Such a structure can
also be considered a space frame if its mem-
 Selected Shapes of Shells
6-14 An office buildine proposed by I. M. Pei
and Associates in cooperation with Roberts and
Schaefer Co.
bers are fixed at their intersections rather
than being hinged.
The efficiency of the trellised hyperboloid
has been especially recognized for the rigidity
it can achieve. Because rigidity is a major
component in high-rise structural design, it is
logical for the trellised hyperboloid to be
considered a potential system for tall, slender
141
buildings. In this respect there is an interest-
ing example in an office building proposed in
1956 -1957 by I. M. Pei and Associates, ar-
chitects, and the Roberts and Schaefer Co.,
engineers (see Fig. 6-14). In it intersecting
diagonal members along the generatrices of
an hyperboloid form the exposed structure
of the high-rise building. The exterior lattice,
of tension and compression members, is con-
nected every thirteen stories to the internal
structural core of the building to stiffen the
structure against lateral deflection.
Prestressing
The last major advantage of the hyperboloid
is its ability to generate surfaces not only by
rotating an hyperbola around an axis but by
using straight-line generatrices. In reinforced
concrete this means that the complexities of
double-curvature formwork can be elimi-
nated by using straight boards, but equally
important is the possibility of prestressing a
shell along straight lines.
WATER TOWER, FEDALA,
SPAIN (1956-1957)
This water tower by Eduardo Torroja, A.
Paez, and F. Del Pozo Associates consists of
two different hyperboloids connected at a
horizontal circle 129 ft (39.50 m) above-
ground. At this point the two hyperboloids,
at the top and bottom, share the same vertical
tangent. The merging circle previously men-
tioned is the smallest in diameter and can
thus be considered the waistline of the struc-
ture. The top of the shell, at an elevation of
168 ft (51.25 m), has a diameter of 105 ft (32
m), the largest in the shell. The bottom of the
shell, which is supported by piers at an eleva-
tion of 97 ft (29.63 m) has a diameter of 69 ft
(21 m). The waist, at an elevation of 129 ft
(39.50 m), has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m).
The thickness of the shell also varies. Its
bottom varies from 11 in (28 cm) at the base
to 63/4 in (17 cm) at the highest water level.
Above this line the thickness is kept constant
at 4 in (10 cm). Prestressing is applied along
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
6-1 5 A hyperboloidal shell for a water tower
in Fedala, Spain, by Eduardo Torroja.
both directions of the straight-line genera-
trices. Such double prestressing eliminates
concrete cracking in the shell, which is clearly
essential for a vessel that is to contain liquids
(see Fig. 6-15).
PLANETARIUM IN ST. LOUIS (1962)
This shell by Obata is an hyperboloid of revo-
lution with a base diameter of 160 ft (48.8 m)
and a height of about 75 ft (23 m). The shell
142
thickness is 3 in (7.5 cm) on average. Two
tension rings, at the top and bottom, consti-
tute the only edge members required by the
whole shell. In comparison to the typical hy-
perboloids used for nuclear power plants, this
structure has a particularly elegant accen-
tuated angle of twist of its straight-line gener-
atrices. This angle emphasizes the sharpness
of the hyperbolic silhouette and the differ-
ences in the diameter of the base circle and
the circle at its waist. Furthermore, there is
significant asymmetry produced between the
part above and the one below the waist level
(see Fig. 6-16).
6-16 Planetarium in St. Louis, Missouri, by
Obata.
CHAPTER 7

SiEJIliftcant Examples of Concrete Shells m

•

the Twentieth Centwy

BUILDINGS met. To illustrate thin-shell applications

throughout this century, this chapter briefly
describes a selection of representative
Present-day thin shells were made possible by projects.
the advent of concrete as a new building ma-
terial that let vaults and domes be built with CENTENNIAL HALL, BRESLAU,
much less thickness and weight than their GERMANY (/912-1913)
masonry counterparts. Moreover, new forms This structure designed by Max Berg repre-
were eventually built with ease to capitalize sents the beginning of a new era in the his-
on the tensile strength of reinforced con- tory of building with thin shells using rein-
crete. Reinforced concrete thin shells have in forced concrete. The dome, which is 213 ft
the twentieth century completely replaced (65 m) in diameter, was in itself a significant
masonry vaults and domes, in the process of achievement, not just in terms of domical
expanding the shapes of curvilinear forms to
an almost unlimited variety. When they have
been applied to cover large, unobstructed
spaces, concrete shells have also reached
spans of extraordinary length that match that
of equivalent steel structures.
Since thin shells are quite complex in
terms of the structural analysis they require
and the building technology they demand,
they represent a sophisticated building sys-
tem with a challenging complexity that im- -~ ..... "' .

plies a high degree of sophistication. Perhaps

not surprisingly, therefore, most applications 7-1 Centennial Hall, Breslau, Germany. This
of thin shells are found in Western countries, was the laroest buildino of any kind in the world
where these challenges might more easily be at the time of its construction.

143
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-2 Interior view of Centennial Hall, Breslau,
Germany.
structures but as a practical application of
concrete in general. Radially arranged arches
connected by concentric circular ribs form
this dome, which is then carried by large
arches (see Figs. 7-1 and 7-2). The exterior of
the dome is totally hidden by a series of win-
dows arranged on stepped-back tiers, thus
emphasizing the domical shape only on the
interior.
DIRIGIBLE HANGAR, ORLY
AIRPORT, PARIS (/916)
Eugene Freyssinet, who contributed much to
the development of concrete, designed this
cylindrical shell that is an example of early
concrete technology. With a transverse span
of 330 ft (100 m), it consists of a series of
7 - 3 Dirigible hangar at Orly Airport. On the back of the ribs latticework
prOvides openings for natural lighting.
144
V-shaped ribs set adjacent to each other to
create an undulating surface significant for
its rigidity (see Fig. 7-3).
EXPERIMENTAL THIN SHELL, JENA,
GERMANY (/931)
This segmental spherical dome designed for
Carl Zeiss was only sA in (15 mm) thick. The
testing ceremony had people stand on the
structure to prove visually its structural
strength, as illustrated in Figure 7-4. This
building is often regarded in the literature on
the development of the thin shell as a signifi-
cant step forward in thin-shell design for
buildings.
MARKET HALL, ALGEC1RAS, SPAIN (/934)
This thin-shell structure designed by
Eduardo Torroja is prominent in the history
of the development of concrete thin shells.
The octagonal dome is supported by eight
arches that transfer the load vertically to
eight columns aligned on a circle that is 156
ft (47.5 m) in diameter. The whole shell con-
sists of eight individual barrel shells joined
along their radial edges. Their free edges,
along the perimeter of the octagon, are stiff-
ened by supporting arches. Tie beams below
the arches absorb tension along the octagonal
perimeter, acting together like a tension ring.
A compression ring on top provides central
day lighting and connects the eight barrels at
 Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

.y---

7-4 Testing an experimental thin-shell roof structure by showin8 a live load of people standing on it.

their top edges. Very light and crisp in its
simplicity, this shell is only 3 1/2 in (90 mm)
thick (see Fig. 7-5).
FOUNDRY BUILDING, MILAN (1934)
The architect and engineer for this project
was Giorgio Baroni. The structure is particu-
larly significant since it is the first example of
a hyperbolic paraboloidal geometric surface
ever applied to a building. In this first appli-
cation to a roof structure the configuration
of the shell includes straight-line edge mem-
bers around the perimeter. The shell in-
cludes quadrants of hyperbolic paraboloid
surfaces combined together and supported at
their four points.
HAYDEN PLANETARIUM,
MANHATTAN (1934)
Designed by Trowbridge and Livingston, ar-
chitects, and Wieskopt and Pickworth, engi-
neers, this was the first thin-shell dome to be
built in concrete in the United States. The
dome's shape is hemispherical. The close net-
work of bent wooden members necessary for
the form work is particularly impressive.
OCTAGONAL ROOF, VILLAVERDE,
SPAIN (1935)
This octagonal concrete dome designed by
Eduardo Torroja is only 2 in (50 mm) thick
(see Fig. 7-6).

---

--

7-5 The dome of the Market Hall in Alaeciras, Spain, by Eduardo Torroja.

145
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-6 Octagonal concrete dome in Villaverde,
Spain, by Eduardo Torroja.
MADRID RACE TRACK, MADRID,
SPAIN (1935)
This famous cantilevered thin-shell canopy
(shown in Figure 7-7) by Eduardo Torroja is
another example of early thin-shell applica-
tions in the development of these structures.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDING, ALFA-ROMEO
FACTORY, MILAN (1937)
Designed by architect and engineer Giorgio
Baroni, this structure was built three years
after the first application of the hyperbolic
paraboloid, in Milan, where the Alfa-Romeo
administration was open to new ideas. The
reinforced concrete shells that form the roof
over this long rectangular building are con-
tiguous and equal in size and configuration.
Supported at four points, each shell is made
of four quadrants connected along their com-
mon horizontal ridge lines. Sloping edge
members gather the load from the surface
and bring it to the supports (see Fig. 7-8).
146
STORAGE SHED, FERRARA, ITALY (1938)
This, the third hyperbolic paraboloid thin
shell built by architect and engineer Giorgio
Baroni, has particular significance for being
the first application of this geometric surface
in the form of umbrellas. The whole roof is
made up of several umbrella-sloped struc-
tures connected along their horizontal edge
members to form one continuous system that
is in equilibrium.
CEMENT HALL, SWISS NATIONAL
EXHIBITION, ZURICH (1939)
This hall was built by architect and engineer
Hans Leuzinger and Robert Maillart, with
Prader & Cie. This exhibition structure was
erected to demonstrate the potential of thin
shells. It is a short cylindrical shell with a
parabolic cross-section. Two parabolic arches
stiffen this shell at midspan, and a walkway at
the base of the arches acts as a tie. A flat
horizontal slab stiffens the shell's lower edge
against horizontal deformation. The width of
this parabolic shell is 50.32 ft (15.3 m), and
its height at the crown is 38.4 ft (11.7 m).
The shell, built by the Gunite method, is only
2.36 in (60 mm) thick. The arches' ribs vary
from 2.30 to 37 in (60 to 940 mm) in thick-
ness (see Fig. 7-9).
U.S. ARMY WAREHOUSE, COLUMBUS,
OHIO (1941)
This huge complex covered with a thin-shell
roof was designed by Anton Tedesko, a pio-
neer in thin-shell design who has been cred-
ited with exporting the method of shell calcu-
lations from Germany to the United States
(see Fig. 7-10).1
PALAZZO DEI CONGRESSI (THE
CONGRESS PALACE), E.U.R., ROME
(c. 1942)
This thin-shell roof structure covering the
Congress Hall at the E.U.R. complex in
Rome is a striking architectural piece. The
structure is a groin vault consisting of two
intersecting circular cylinders that form a
classic shape with circular arches along its
 Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

c
7 -7 The cantilevered thin-shell canopy over the Madrid Racetrack.
a) General view. b) Closeup frontal view. c) Closeup side view.

147
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

7-8 An hyperbolic paraboloid modular roof ~stem for the AlJa-R.omeo

automobile factory in Milan.

edges and elliptical arches forming the
groins. It bears on four supports at the
corners of the building Although the inter-
secting diagonal arched lines give it away, the
overall configuration strikes a note of strong
similarity with such sectional domes as that
over an M.I.T. auditorium (see below). The
vault, over a square floorplan measures ap-
proximately 131.5 ft (40 m) on each side and
31 ft (9.5 m) in height. The glass surfaces
that enclose the space between the underside
of the vault and the top of the building's
volume create sharp separation between the
roof and the building itself, making the vault
extremely light visually. The sharpness and
simplicity of the overall configuration of the
building divided into a cubical mass-a dark,
shaded area above and a light, floating shell
merely touching the building - bring out the
character of the shell.

7 -9 Cement HaJJ, Zurich, by R.obert Maillart.

148
 Sianificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
7-10 Shell roof for the U.S. Army warehouse
in Columbus, Ohio, by Anton Tedesko.
CONSTILLARES BUILDING, SPAIN (1948)
This triangulated shell roof designed by
Eduardo Torroja is shown in Figure 7-11.
HANGAR, CUATRO VIENTOS, SPAIN (1949)
Figure 7-12 shows the exterior and interior
of this structure.
OUTDOOR SHELTER, SANCTI SPIRITI,
SPAIN (1953)
This hemispherical dome of reinforced brick
masonry was designed by Eduardo Torroja
(see Fig. 7-13).
BRYN MAWR RUBBER FACTORY, SOUTH
WALES (1945-1951)
The main body of this factory is covered by
nine domical shells, the rest by various rows
of barrel shells. The nine main domes are
segmental spherical shells each projecting
horizontally 85 ft by 62 ft (25.5 m by 19 m).
149
The shells are arranged in a three-by-three
matrix supported by pillars at each point
where the grid intersects the matrix. Clere-
story lighting is attained through glazed sur-
faces on each side of the rectangular domes.
This project, designed by the Architects' Co-
Partnership, was one of the first applications
of the new generation of thin shells in the
postwar period that opened the field of in-
dustrial building in concrete shells.
AUDITORIUM FOR GENERAL MOTORS
TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, WARREN,
MICHIGAN (1946-1955)
The dome for this auditorium covers one of
twenty-five buildings designed by Eliel Saa-
rinen and his son Eero. This dome (see Fig.
7-14) reflected the spirit of the time and capi-
talized on the dramatic effects of curvilinear
architecture, a theme continued by Eero
Saarinen in the TWA Air Terminal in New
York City.
SCHOOL OF PLASTIC ARTS, HAVANA
(1962-1965)
This complex of domical structures culmi-
nates in a major dome comprising the roof of
a school building. The architect, Ricardo
Porro, brings out an architectural composi-
tion of domes of various sizes that creates the
effect of a Middle Eastern structure (see Fig.
7-15).
CHURCH OF MARY, MONTERREY,
MEXICO (1947)
The structure of this church by Enrique de la
Mora is a relatively early expression recogniz-
ing the potential of thin shells in architecture
in North America. With its cruciform floor
plan this church was the first religious build-
ing in Mexico designed in a contemporary
architectural style. This structure consists of
two thin-shell parabolic barrels that spring
from the ground to enclose the entire struc-
ture of roof and walls. Two barrels intersect
at 90 degrees to form a symmetrical cross.
The vertical enclosures at each end of the
cross-arms are recessed from the ends of the
 7-11 Triangulated shell roof by Eduardo Torroja for the Constillares
Building, Spain.

7-12 Hangar at Cuatro Vientos, Spain, by Eduardo Torroja.

 Si8nificant Examples oj Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

barrels, exposing the slender thin edges of

the shells (see Fig. 7-16).

AIRCRAFT HANGARS, MARIGNANE,

FRA N CE (1950-1952)
This structure, by Auguste Perret, includes
two identical cylindrical barrel vaults in a
corrugated form made of corrugations each
consisting of six toroidal shells. Each shell is
32 ft (9.75 m) wide, with a span of 333 ft
(101.5 m). The thickness of each shell is 2'/3
in (60 mm). A toroidal shape is generated
differently from a translational shell because
as the generatrix slides over the directrix,
instead of staying in a plane that remains ver-
tical, it is in a plane always perpendicular to
the directrix. Both the generatrix and the
directrix are arcs of circles. The directrix is
part of a circle whose radius is 374 ft (114 m),
and it has a span of 333 ft. Prestressed tie
beams at the springlines of the barrels absorb
the horizontal thrust of the shells (see Fig.
7-13 Outdoor shelter in Sancti Spiriti, Spain, 7-17).
by Eduardo Torroja .

7-14 The auditorium of the General Motors Technical Institute at Warren, Michinan.

151
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
./
7-15 Domical roofs over the School of Plastic Arts in Havana.
COSMIC RAYS RESEARCH LABORATORY,
UNIVERSITY OF MEXICO, MEXICO
CITY (1951)
This shell designed by architects and engi-
neers Jorge Gonzales Reyna and Felix Can-
dela consists of two saddle-type hyperbolic
paraboloids that meet at midpoint along the
length of the building to form one unit. The
horizontal boundaries of the shell are two
hyperbolas. The shell is particularly slender,
with a thickness at the crown of only ~/5 in (15
mm), to allow cosmic rays to enter without
interference. At the base of the shell, how-
ever, the thickness increases to 2 in (50 mm).
In its overall shape this structure reflects its
unique function. Most noticeably, arched
supports carry the vertical diaphragms at
each end of the shell, revealing the thin edge
of the membranes (see Fig. 7-18).
KRESGE AUDITORIUM,
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE (1952-1955)
Designed by architect Eero Saarinen and en-
gineers Ammann and Whitney, this thin-
shelled spherical dome has a triangular floor
plan. Its supports are at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle whose sides are 150 ft
152
(45.7 m) long. The shell is in two parts: an
interior one whose average thickness is 3 1/2 in
(90 mm) and an outer one only 2 in (50 mm)
thick. To eliminate the horizontal thrust of
supports these shells are connected by under-
ground ties along the sides of the triangle.
The free edges of the shells are reinforced
with thick arches going from one support to
the other that hide the thickness of the struc-
tural shell. Of particular interest are the ex-
posed steel hinges that visually emphasize the
structural behavior of the shell, an architec-
tural expression that Saarinen used also in
the TWA Terminal Building in New York.
Significant architectural effects are attained
by the pure simplicity of the geometric form
as emphasized by the floating effect of the
white shell in contrast to the dark-glazed ver-
tical surfaces below it (see Fig. 7-19). For its
particular exposure, function, and location,
this structure stands out as an impressive ex-
ample of thin-shell architecture in the United
States.
AIR TERMINAL BUILDING,
ST. LOUIS (1954)
This air terminal structure designed by Min-
oru Yamasaki, consists of three identical units
 Sionificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

7 -16 The Church of Mary, Monterrey, Mexico.

7-17 Hanaars in Marianane, near Marseille.

7-18 The Cosmic Rays Research Laboratory, University of Mexico.

153
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-19 The Kresge Auditorium, Massachusetts
Institute of Technolo8J', Cambridge.
placed side by side. Each unit includes two
cylindrical shells that intersect each other at
right angles in a cruciform plan. The square
individual units measure 120 ft (36.6 m) on a
side. The thickness of the shell varies from
4tf2 to 8 in (115 to 200 mm). The edge mem-
bers at the line where the shells intersect, or
along their free sides, are thickened to act as
stiffening arches to carry the loads to the
foundation at each corner. The crowns of the
arches along the perimeter of the building
are 32 ft (9.75 m) high (see Fig. 7-20).
CANOPY, CIBA PLANT, CHURUBUSCO,
MEXICO (1954)
This striking cantilevered shell designed by
Felix Candela testifies to the close relation-
ship between structure and art in the hands
of a sensitive designer (see Fig. 7-21). The
cantilevered form consists of two hyperbolic
paraboloid surfaces combined along their
longitudinal edges to form a single shell with
enough rigidity to cantilever out from a sin-
gle supporting column.
CHURCH OF THE MIRACULOUS VIRGIN,
MEXICO (1954-1955)
This church designed by Felix Candela was
his first commission in which he combined
architecture and engineering. This structure
explores the potential of the hyperbolic para-
boloid. The concrete membrane is only 1%
in (35 mm) thick.
MARKET HALL, ROYAN, FRANCE (1955)
The architects and engineers for this struc-
ture were Louis Simon, Andre Morisseau,
154
and Rene Sarger. The shell is symmetrical
around a vertical axis and consists of thirteen
contiguous shells radially arranged to form a
continuous circular roof. With its diameter of
122 ft (36.6 m) this structure appears to be
an undulated shell supported at thirteen
points connected with a perimetral tie. From
the geometric point of view each of the thir-
teen component shells is obtained as a trans-
lational surface in which the generatrix is a
parabola and the directrix a cosine line. To
provide the necessary rigidity at the free
edge its shell thickness was increased. The
overall thickness of the shell except for the
edges is just over 3 in (7.6 cm).
SHELL FOR GREEK ORTHODOX
CHURCH, MILWAUKEE (1956)
A shallow spherical dome was applied by
Frank Lloyd Wright in one of his last struc-
tures, the Greek Orthodox Church in Mil-
waukee. Designed with a thickness of only
3tf2 in (90 mm), this dome with its low rise
gains slenderness from its shallow appearance
(see Fig. 7-22). Supported along its perime-
tral circular edge, the dome rests over a
series of small arches that accentuate the
lightness of the shell. Notice that the tension
force at the edge of the dome is absorbed by
a circular band of larger thickness within the
shell, using the simplest structural technique.
CAPILLA DE NUESTRA SENORA DE LA
SOLEDAD (CHAPEL OF OUR LADY OF
SOLITUDE), SAN JOSE DE ALTILLO,
COYOACAN, MEXICO (1955)
This structure was designed by Felix Candela
in cooperation with Enrique de la Mora and
Fernando Lopez Carmona. Its concrete shell
roof is a saddle-shaped hyperbolic paraboloid
with a rhomboidal plan 117.5 ft (35.67 m)
long by 95 ft (29 m) wide. The shell is a
continuous surface with straight-line edge
members, but the structure is not symmetri-
cal. The tip on one side is approximately 35.6
ft (10.85 m) from the floor with a cantilever
of 85.5 ft (26 m), whereas the other tip is 28
ft (8.5 m) above the floor and cantilevers 32
 Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

7-20 The Air Terminal Building at St. Louis, by Yamasaki.

7- 2 1 The canopy at the entrance of the Ciba Plant, Churubusco, Mexico.

7 - 22 The shallow spherical dome for the Greek Orthodox Church in Milwaukee, by Frank Lloyd Wright.

155
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
-
7- 23 Elevation of a proposed thin-shell vault coverino a laroe atrium in front of the Exposition
Buildino in Turin.
ft (9.75 m). Because of this asymmetry the
z - z axis that is vertical for symmetrical hy-
perbolic paraboloids is here slightly tilted.
The unbalanced moments produced by hav-
ing two differently cantilevered parts are bal-
anced for overall equilibrium by anchoring
the shell to the wall and to the struts along
the edges. Doing so also stabilizes the struc-
ture against unbalanced thermal deflections.
PROPOSED ATRIUM FOR EXPOSITION
BUILDING IN TURIN (/956-1957)
This proposed thin-shell vault for covering a
large atrium in front of the Exposition Build-
ing in Turin, Italy, is by Pier Luigi Nervi and
L. Ravelli. This reinforced concrete shell
with a variable thickness included also some
stiffening ribs that are visible from the inte-
rior. The large vault carriers exposed to view
strike a dominant note in Nervi's work that
somehow recalls the ribbed vaults of Gothic
architecture (see Fig. 7-23).
BUS GARAGE, DUSSELDORF,
GERMANY (/957)
The architect and engineer of this structure
was Dyckerhoff-Widmann KG. This struc-
ture consists of shallow barrel shells for the
roof, each 146 ft (44.50 m) long and with a
width of 45 ft (13.7 m). The shell thickness of
3 5/8 in (44 mm) was made possible by pre-
stressing the shell.
156
--
CHURCH OF SAN ANTONIO DE LAS
HUERTAS (ST. ANTHONY OF THE
ORCHARDS), MEXICO CITY (/957)
Designed by Felix Candela in cooperation
with Enrique de la Mora and Fernando
Lopez Carmona, architects, this complex
structure consists of three units in a row.
Each groined unit consists of two intersecting
saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloids. The
three units are joined by arched steel trusses
through which light penetrates the space. Of
particular interest is a crypt below the level of
the church that also is covered by hyperbolic
paraboloid reinforced concrete shells. The
thickness of the shells is 11/2 in (40 mm).
THE PALAZETTO DELLO SPORT
(SMALL SPORTS PALACE), ROME (1957)
This structure, designed by Pier Luigi Nervi
in collaboration with Annibel Vitellozzi and
built by Ingg. Nervi e Bartolli Construction
Company, was designed, calculated, and con-
structed in a unified fashion by a master capa-
ble of optimizing all variables at once. Al-
though this project was based on solid
realism, since all such projects had success-
fully outbid other proposals, the architectural
value and purity of its structural design
emerge crystal clear.
This shallow lamella concrete dome con-
sists of 1,620 prefabricated skewed elements
approximately 1 in (2.5 cm) thick. The units,
 Si8niftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
constructed in ferrocement, were shaped like
pans with an edge all around. During con-
struction, the pans were placed with a space
between them so that they would form cast-
in-place ribs to make the lamella dome. The
ribs cast in between connected the pans to
form a single structure. A thin layer of con-
crete covering the entire dome was cast mon-
olithically with the ribs
The edge along the tension ring on the
bottom is constituted by a series of triangular
precast elements that give unity to the ring
and transfer the meridian forces to the sup-
porting piers, showing an undulated edge.
The whole shell is in turn supported by
thirty-six Y-shaped piers that are aligned
along the tangent to the shell at the edge.
With this arrangement, the piers carry the
load, as axial compressive forces only. The
tapered Y-shaped piers, which are all pre-
fabricated at the site, are aligned along a cir-
cumference 257 ft (78.50 m) in diameter and
are connected to a foundation ring 267 ft
(81.5 m) in diameter that is 8.2 ft (2.5 m)
thick. The ribs, shaped like lamella elements,
convey the shell's forces by combining to-
gether the meridian and the hoops along in-
clined patterns that eventually reach the
piers. It should be noted that the piers have
only an architectural purpose: using a tension
ring would have been both cheaper and
structurally stronger.
This shallow dome covers 51,000 sq. ft. of
floor area with a capacity of 5,000 seats. It
has a base diameter at the shell edge of 192 ft
(58.5 m) and a height from floor level to
crown of 69 ft (21 m).
7-24 The dome of the Palazzetto dello Sport, Rome.
157
What is particularly significant in this de-
sign is the elegance of the exposed interior of
the dome, with its high level of craftsmanship
in the coffers and ribs, as well as the exposed
V-shaped piers, which give a sense of light-
ness to the whole structure. The innovative
combination of precast and cast-in-place
methodologies using on-site pre casting is also
noteworthy (see Fig. 7-24).
OPEN CHAPEL NEAR CUERNAVA CA,
MORELOS, MEXICO (1958-1959)
Designed by Felix Candela, Guillermo Rosell,
and Manuel Larrosa, architects, this hyper-
bolic paraboloid shell which is only 1112 in (40
mm) thick has a dramatic effect because of its
continuous surface that constitutes an entire
form similar to a paraboloid of revolution.
Each end of this structure terminates in a
parabolic arch, the larger having a span of
102 ft (31 m) and a height of 72 ft (22 m) (see
Fig. 7-25). The height of the smaller arch is
only 13l/4 ft (4 m).
MAY-D & F DEPARTMENT STORE,
DENVER (1958)
This thin-shell hyperbolic paraboloid roof
structure covers a floor area that measures
112 ft (34 m) by 131 ft 8 in (40 m). The shell
is in the shape of a four-gabled structure sup-
ported at its four corners by abutments that
absorb the thrust from the inclined edge
members without the use of ties. Anchored
on the abutments are steel hinges exposed to
view. The thickness of the shell varies from 3
to 5 in (75 mm to 125 mm), but the insulation
underneath it makes its overall thickness ap-
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
- j
7 - 25 The open chapel near Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
pear so much larger that there is no real dif-
ferentiation between shell and edge mem-
bers. The architects were I. M. Pei and
Associates, the engineers Roberts and
Schaefer Company (see Fig. 7-26).
GROIN VAULT FOR THE CATHEDRAL
OF NEW NORCIA, PERTH,
AUSTRALIA (1958)
This shell structure by Pier Luigi Nervi in
collaboration with F. Vacchini and C. Van-
noni is a groin vault covering an equilateral
triangular floor plan with side lengths of 116
ft (35.40 m). Three vaults join together in a
parabolic cross-section with a height at the
crown of 101 ft (30.85 m). The construction
consists of precast-concrete skewed elements
joined together (see Fig. 7-27).
RESTAURANT, XOCHIMILCO,
MEXICO (1958)
This concrete roof shell designed by Felix
Candela in cooperation with Joaquin and
Fernando Alvarez Ordonez is an octagonal
groined vault (see Fig. 7-28). Its geometric
shape derives from four intersecting hyper-
158
bolic parabolas. The edges, which lie on in-
clined rather than vertical planes, have the
shape of hyperbolas. The groins act as arches
to carry the load to the ground at eight sup-
port points. The structural behavior of these
groins is just like that of three-hinged arches.
In addition to the two hinges at the support,
it may be assumed that each arch has a third
hinge at its crown, where the section of the
arch is almost flat. The arch is thus much
more flexible at its crown. The foundations
consist of inverted umbrella shapes with a
perimetral tie to resist horizontal thrust from
the groins. The height at the crown of the
hyperbolic edges is 33.6 ft (10.25 m), while at
the center of the structure (the crown of the
groins) the height is 20.1 ft (6 m). The roofs
waterproofing consists only of black-tar paint
sprinkled with white gravel chips.
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDAL SHELL
STRUCTURE FOR THE PHILLIPS
PAVILION AT THE BRUSSELS
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION (1958)
This shell structure consists of several hyper-
bolic paraboloids combined to form a single
 Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

/,~~r---rr-
\ . .. -
......

7-26 The May-D &.. F Store in Denver, by I. M. Pei (1958).

unit covering a pavilion. Designed by Le Cor-
busier, this structure acquires particular sig-
nificance from its powerful geometry that is
at times considered an eccentric mathemati-
cal expression (see Fig. 7-29).
THE PALAZZO DELLO SPORT, ROME
(1958-1960)
This dome designed by Pier Luigi Nervi in
collaboration with Marcello Piacentini covers
a structure with a capacity of 16,000 seats
that was designed for the 1960 Olympics. Its
shape, a portion of a sphere, consists of a shell
31/2 in (90 mm) thick with prefabricated ra-
dial beams underneath, but no hoops (see
Fig. 7-30). These beams form an integral part
with the shell and have a V cross-section. The
beams and shell have been designed to act
independently of each other. That is, the
shell can carry loads without the help of the
prefabricated beams, and the beams them-
selves can also carry the whole load. Al-
though this ambivalent behavior is indeed
possible, it seems that in actual practice the
membrane action of the dome prevails over
the load-bearing ability of the arch action.
The shallow dome, which is approximately
230 ft (70 m) in diameter, is supported by

7-27 An elliptical arain vault for the Cathedral of New Norcia in Perth,
Australia, by P. L. Nervi.

159
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

7-28 a) Restaurant at Xochimilco, Mexico, by Candela and Ordonez. b) Hyperbolic paraboloidal

elements 1Va in thick that form the shell structure of the restaurant.

forty-eight triangular slab piers inclined so EXPERIMENTAL BUILDING, INSTITUTO

that they are tangent to the dome at its edge
in order to be stressed only by axial loads.
As in most of Nervi's work, this one was
designed and built by his construction com-
pany, Ingg. Nervi e Bartolli, making the
structure cost competitive. More important is
its unified concept of design and construction
that optimizes the various factors of struc-
ture, architecture, and construction, based
on partial prefabrication. Once the abut-
ments were built, the construction time for
the dome itself took less than three months.
TECHNICO DE LA CONSTRUCCION Y
DEL CEMENTO, CONSTILLARES,
SPAIN (1959)
This thin-shelled structure by architect and
engineer Eduardo Torroja, consists of pre-
cast concrete components. The shell's thick-
ness is only 2.2 in (55 mm). The shape chosen
for the shell's configuration was derived from
a process of structural optimization. The
structure consists of a series of three-hinged
arches set atop two supporting walls. The
arches consist of two leaves, each with a span

160
 Sionificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

7-29 The roof of the Phillips Pavilion at the Brussels International

Exhibition, by Le Corbusier.

of 58 ft (17.70 m) and a rise of 13.8 ft (4.22 LOHR IRONWORKS FOUNDRY,

m). Each of the two leaves that form the arch
is stiffened by the curvilinear shape of the
longitudinal axis and the cross-section. Each
of the two elements forming the arch is 33 ft
7 in (10.24 m) long and includes ten precast
components. In its particularly light and ele-
gant style, this prototype has the potential to
inspire a variety of other, large scale, appli-
cations.
GERMANY (1959-1960)
This particular hyperbolic paraboloid roof-
shell system is subdivided into several quad-
rants combined to cover the whole foundry
(see Fig. 7-31). Each quadrant is similar to the
others, in a distinct shape much like a hood.
The overall form is determined by the major
requirement of providing natural ventilation
to exhaust fumes from the plant.

7-30 The dome of the Palazzo dello Sport, Rome, by Pier Luigi Nervi.

161
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-31 Sculptural hyperbolic paraboloids formi1lfJ roof hoods over a
foundry in Lohr, Germany.
Each individual hood covers a plant area
of44 ft 3 in by 49 ft 1 in (13.5 m by 15 m)
and is approximately 29 ft (9 m) high. The
shell consists of two mirrorlike hyperbolic
paraboloids joined together including an in-
clined glazed surface for lighting. Capping
the top of the hood is a hyperboloid that
forms a sort of small chimney. Massive and
sculptural at the same time, these thin shells
by C. Siegel and R. Wonneberg project a
totally different image from Candela's light,
lofty hyperbolic paraboloidal shells. Notice
that the design analyses for these structures
have depended mostly on model testing.
CENTRE NATIONAL DES INDUSTRIES
ET TECHNIQUES (CENTER FOR
INDUSTRIES AND TECHNOLOGY)
(CNIT), PARIS (1959)
This impressive structure on three supports
spans 780 ft (238 m). It was designed by Cam-
elot, de Mailly, and Zehrfuss, architects, and
built by Esquillon, engineers (see Fig. 7-32).2
CHURCH OF SAN JOSE OBRERO (ST.
JOHN'S THE LABORER), MONTERREY,
MEXICO (1960)
Dramatic hyperbolic paraboloid shells here
form the structure of one of the most famous
162
buildings by Felix Candela (see Fig. 7-33).
Two saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloids
bearing on two supports are tilted and joined
together so that one balances the other. The
total span is approximately 180 ft (55.2 m).
The cantilevered parts project approximately
90 ft (27.6 m) on each side of the two sup-
ports. The edge members soar vertically,
slightly inclined, to leave a space between
them that separates the two shells and allows
for day lighting. The metal ties that lace to-
gether the edges of the two shells are particu-
larly elegant. The overall configuration of
the building strongly resembles the tradi-
tional headdress of the Sisters of Charity, an
order of nuns world famous for its service in
hospital wards.
ST. VINCENT'S CHAPEL, COYOACAN,
MEXICO (1959-1960)
This church by Felix Candela, Enrique de la
Mora, and Fernando Lopez Carmona is simi-
lar in concept to that of the Church of San
Jose Obrero just seen, with three saddle-type
hyperbolic paraboloids connected together
(see Figs. 7-34 and 7-35). On a tilted axis,
each hyperbolic paraboloid has a lower peak
that projects outward at the ends of the canti-
levered members, and a higher peak soaring
 Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
vertically. The overall configuration of the
structure is almost triangular. Only three
supports, consisting of concrete abutments,
support the structure. Starting from the sup-
ports the length of the cantilevered edges is
77 ft 6 in (23.6 m).
ST. MARY'S CATHEDRAL,
SAN FRANCISCO
The architects for this whole project were
McSweeney, Ryan and Lee, with structural
engineers Robinson and Associates. Pietro
Bellushi was the architectural consultant, and
Pier Luigi Nervi was the structural consul-
tant who made the preliminary design. The
thin-shell roof that constitutes most of the
building consists of eight hyperbolic parabo-
loids of reinforced concrete that enclose a
square plan 120 ft (36.6 m) on a side. The
height of the shell is 130 ft (40 m), its average
thickness only 5 112 in (140 mm). As in other
Nervi structures, the shells are stiffened by a
system of ribs that form a triangular pattern
visible from the inside. These ribs are created
by casting concrete out of Gunite over and in
between small precast concrete pans.
Nervi's basic design made use of large
scale (1 : 15) models of reinforced concrete
7-32 Center for Industries and Technolo8J', Paris.
163
tested in Bergamo, Italy, at the Instituto
Sperimentale Modelli e Strutturi. A further
analysis using the STRESS computer pro-
gram was also conducted by the U.S. struc-
tural engineering firm. It assumed an equiva-
lent space truss simulating the behavior of
the shell (see Fig. 7-36).
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION
FACILITY, NEW ORLEANS
Architects Curtis and Davis, E. B. Silverstein
and Associates, and M. Bergman and Asso-
ciates in conjunction with structural engi-
neers Skilling, Helle, Christiansen and Rob-
ertson designed this thin-shell roof which
included posttensioned cylindrical sheets 253
ft (77 m) in span and 60 ft (18.28 m) high.
The cross-sectional shape of the barrels con-
sists of three centered arches whose radii are
38 ft (11.60 m) in their upper parts and
12.25 ft (3.73 m) in the lower. Along the
valley, where contiguous barrels join to-
gether, a beam 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) deep stiffens
the barrels. Additional arch stiffeners are
provided across the barrels to divide the lon-
gitudinal length into four parts. These in-
crease the longitudinal buckling strength and
reduce the bending moment transversely.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

90 ft approx.

7-33 Church of San Jose Obrero, Monterrey, Mexico, by Felix Candela .

164
 Sionificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

7-34 Chapel of St. Vincent at Coyoacan, Mexico, by Felix Candela, E.

de la Mora, and F. Lopez Carmona.

The average thickness of the shell is 41/2 in MAIL-PROCESSING FACILITIES,

(115 mm), increased to 51/2 in (140 mm)
where the prestressing and posttensioning
tendons are placed. Portions of the barrels
along the edges of the building are cantile-
vered to form an overhang that is stiffened
by edge beams. Included in the structure are
other, shorter-spanned barrels 139 ft (42.35
m) long that are similar in construction to
larger ones.
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND (1960)
This new Providence Post Office was de-
signed by C. A. Maguire & Associates (see
Fig. 7-37). The roof consists of several barrel
shells combined to cover the whole building,
which is 420 ft (128 m) long by 300 ft (91.5
m) wide. The barrels are supported at their
low points around the perimeter by columns
exposed on the outside of the structure and

7-35 A structural diaararn of the chapel of St. Vincent de Coyoacan.

165
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

117'
60'

7-36 St. Mary's Cathedral, San Francisco.

7 - 37 The thin-shell roof structure in concrete for the new Providence

(R.I.) Post Office, by C. A. Maouire &.. Associates.
 Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
7-38 Domical structures by Oscar Niemeyer in Brasilia.
additional columns in the interior. The free
edges of the barrels cantilever over the pe-
rimeters of the walls to reveal the thickness of
the shells on the exterior. Notice that pneu-
matic form work was employed in the con-
struction of this structure.
SENATE AND CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES,
BRASILIA (1960)
These two spectacular domical structures by
Oscar Niemeyer match the grandiose scale of
this new city. One is an inverted dome placed
next to a similar upright dome so that the two
structures seem to complement each other
(see Fig. 7-38). They are intended to repre-
sent symbolically by their geometry the com-
plementary action of the Senate and
Chamber of Deputies of Brazil.
CENTRAL RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT STATION, ARTIFICIAL
LEATHER INDUSTRY, COS WIG,
GERMANY (1961)
The architect and engineer for this thin-shell
structure were F. Schaarschmidt and Claus
Hoffmann. It consists of a series of cylindrical
shells 62 ft (I8.90m) long by 16 ft 5 in (5m)
wide placed side by side along their longitu-
dinal edges. The shells have, alternatingly, an
upward (concave) curvature then a down-
ward (convex) curvature so that the whole
roof undulates in shape. The concave shells
forming the valleys develop mostly tensile
stresses. To reduce these stresses these shells,
167
whose thickness is 4.4 in (110 mm), are pre-
stressed. The convex shells forming the
ridges are in compression, and their thickness
is only 2.25 in (57 mm). The shells also have a
slight curvature in their longitudinal direc-
tion to eliminate bending stres~es.
TWA TERMINAL, KENNEDY AIRPORT,
NEW YORK (1962)
This cantilevered concrete roof system con-
sists of four interacting vaults in slightly dif-
ferent shapes. Only four piers support the
entire shell system, in a free form that recalls
the letter Y. The overall space enclosed by
this fluid form is approximately 315 ft (96 m)
long. Although this exciting curvilinear com-
position is not really a thin shell in terms of its
thickness (see Figs. 7-39 and 7-40), it has left
an inspiring mark on the development of thin
shells. Designed by Eero Saarinen and Asso-
ciates, architects, and Amman and Whitney,
engineers, this impressive structure has at-
tracted significant attention in architectural
circles, both favorable and critical. One critic
calls it "a graphic shell-concrete representa-
tion of a soaring bird,"3 another a "neurosis
of forms filtered through a solid professional-
ism in a bold structuralism utilized as an
advertising technique."4 Whatever the pre-
vailing opinion, the engineering process suc-
cessfully integrated form and engineering,
following the original architectural concep-
tualization, to solve the static and construc-
tion problems in Saarinen's design.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
RESIDENCE, POUCNY, FRANCE (1962)
This unique egg-shaped thin shell designed
by Bruno Camoletti and Eric Hoechel capital-
izes on the continuity of the shell to its maxi-
mum extent. Although the sharp cutoffs in its
surface convey a strong contrast that detracts
from continuity, the form is exciting and in-
spiring (see Fig. 7-41).
ST. MARY'S CATHEDRAL, TOKYO (1965)
In this structure by Kenzo Tange the hyper-
bolic paraboloid that is used originally for
walls takes full advantage of the straight-line
generatrices (see Figs. 7-42 and 7-43). Eight
hypar surfaces enclose this complex struc-
ture, which is covered outside with aluminum
sheeting. The inside view shows the concrete
shell itself without the covering.
PALACE OF THE ASSEMBLY
(PARLIAMENT), CHANDICARR, INDIA
(1951-1965)
The first studies for this building, designed
by Le Corbusier, were initiated in 1951 long
before its final completion. This powerful,
massive cylindrical shell has an inverted roof
profile with an unusual upward concavity.
The horizontal cantilevered edge on the back
and the curvilinear cantilevered band on the
7-39 The TWA Terminal at Kennedy Airport, New York.
168
front serve to visually reduce the weight of
the structure. An observer could perceive the
profile of the shell exposed at the sides of the
building. Clearly expressed on the exterior,
the plastic form of this shell is an inspiring
piece of architecture that gives new interpre-
tation to the concrete shell as it paradox-
ically combines lightness and mass (see
Fig. 7-44).
THE EVOLUTION MUSEUM,
EINDHOVEN, NETHERLANDS (1966)
Designed by Kalff, architect, the structure
for this museum uses two low-rise spherical
domes, connected along a common edge.
The overall appearance of the structure,
which looks like a fiying saucer, is also reen-
forced by the dynamic fenestration cut into
the edge (see Fig. 7-45). Similar to the egg-
shaped structure in Pougny, France, this kind
of design capitalizes on the imagery that solid
geometry suggests (see Fig. 7-41).
CHURCH OF SANTA MONICA, MEXICO
CITY (1966)
This shell structure is one of the last by Felix
Candela. It was designed jointly with archi-
tects Enrique de Ie Mora and Fernando
Lopez Carmona (see Fig. 7-46).
7-40 An interior view of the TWA Terminal, New York.

7-41 A shell structure designed for use as a residence in Pougny, France.

7-42 An exterior view of the hyperbolic paraboloidal shells in St. Mary's

Cathedral, Tokyo.

169
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

ROOF FOR A B. P. GAS STATION,

DEITINGEN, SWITZERLAND (1968)
See Figure 7-48. 5

SICILY COMPANY, GENEVA (1969)

This shell structure has unstiffened edges
(see Fig. 7-49).

CAMOLETTI HOUSE, GENEVA (1970)

Pierre Camoletti served as architect for this
shell structure. Figure 7-50 shows the roof
under construction. 6

BURGI GARDEN CENTER, CAMARINO,

SWITZERLAND (1971)
See Figure 7-51.

SPORTS COMPLEX, CHAMONIX,

FRANCE (1971)
R. Taillibert was the architect for this project
(see Fig. 7-52).7

INDOOR TENNIS CENTRE, HEIMBURG,

SWITZERLAND (1979)

LENZLENGER SONS COMPANY

BUILDING, SWITZERLAND (1979)

7 -43 An aerial perspective of St. Mary's CIBA-GEIGY WATER PURIFICATION

Cathedral, Tokyo. PLANT, PRATTELIN, SWITZERLAND (1979)
See Figure 7-53. 8

SCHOOL ADDITION, GRAZ-EGGENBERG,

AUSTRIA (1974-1977)
Heinz Isler's Shells This structure consists of a free-form shell
with several components that suggest an un-
FACTORY FOR TROSCH COMPANY, dulated composition overall that does not
SWITZERLAND (1954)
present a sense of unity. Piercing the struc-
This is a thin shell on pneumatic forms. ture are circular skylights, with side apertures
for fenestration (see Fig. 7-54). The self-
ESCHMANN FACTORY, SWITZERLAND standing structure, designed as an addition to
(1958) an existing school, was designed by Gunther
This is also a thin shell on pneumatic forms. Domenig, architect, and Otto Theiler,
enineer.
ROOF FOR THE WYSS GARDEN Free-form shells do not contribute directly
CENTER, SOLO THURN, SWITZERLAND to advancing any specific type of shell but do
(1961) prove the versatility of the shell as a system
See Figure 7-47. and suggest its possibility for independent de-

170
7-44 The powerful yet plastic articulated conft8uration oj the massive
concrete rooJ vault by Le Corbusier Jor the capitol in Chandi8arh, India.

7-45 The Evolution Museum in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.

7-46 Church oj Santa Monica in Mexico Cio/.

171
7-47 Roof for the Wyss Garden Center, Solo Thurn, Switzerland by H.
Isler.

7-48 Thin shell for a B.P. 8as station by H. Isler.

7-49 Shell structure for the Sicily Company buildin8 by H. Isler.

172
7-50 Shell roof for a residential building by Pierre Camoletti.

7-51 Structure by H. Isler in Camarino, Switzerland.

7-52 Sports complex in Chamonix, France by H. Isler.

173
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-53 Ciba-GeiBY water purification plant in Prattelin, Switzerland by H. Isler.
[I ~ ..
IIJ
·1
7 HlPODROMO, CARACAS, VENEZUELA
7-54 Free10rm shell built without formwork,
usinO sprayed-on concrete.
sign. Adding to the difficulty of the analysis is
form work that may at times be complicated.
This particular free form resembles some
sort of an organic growth rather than an ex-
ercise in geometry. It is in reality a conglom-
eration of structures united along well-de-
fined joint lines.
174
AIRPLANE HANGAR FOR AMERICAN
AIRLINES, CHICAGO MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT (1948)
This structure designed by Ammann and
Whitney, engineers, consists of two short bar-
rels. Two shells are placed side by side along
their length, then coupled together. Their
length is only 28 ft 11 1/2 in (8.8 m), their
transverse width 257 ft (78.3 m). Their con-
crete shells have a variable thickness that in-
creases from 3 in (75 mm) at the crown to 6
in (150 mm) at the base (see Fig. 7-55).
This cantilevered thin-shell canopy built in
the 1950s in prestressed concrete was de-
signed for the grandstand at the Hippo-
dromo in Caracas. The thickness of this 90 ft
(27.5 m) shell is 3 inches (75 mm). Arthur
Froehlich was the architect, Henry M. Layne
the engineer (see Fig. 7-56).
OPERA HOUSE, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA
(1957-1973)
Extremely impressive for its grandiose scale,
the Sydney Opera House (see Fig. 7-57)
stands as a gigantic sculpture employing ar-
chitectural goals to support its rationale.
From different points of view, including pri-
marily that of its structural integrity, which is
 Sioniftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
the major point in the present context, the
Opera House has taught an interesting lesson
of great value not only for structures in gen-
eral but for shell architecture in particular.
From the point of view of its construction this
project included a series of major mistakes
that, although disastrous, now offer at least
some guidance on what not to do.
The beginning of the series of errors was
in the selection of the original architect, who
was dismissed long before the completion of
the project. It seems, according to Felix Can-
dela, who is certainly one of the best qualified
if not the best to describe the whole project,9
that the major responsibility for the selection
of the architect lay with Eero Saarinen, who
was on the building committee. He was par-
ticularly impressed by a set of architectural
sketches presented by a Scandinavian archi-
tect named Utzon Jorn, who was then in his
thirties. Considering Saarinen's approach to
design, it is no wonder that he likely re-
sponded enthusiastically to a proposal con-
sisting of only a few pictorial drawings rather
than a completely documented presentation.
P. L. Nervi pointed out right from the begin-
ning that a proposal for such a complex proj-
ect should have more specific information in
architectural terms and noted that this one
did not include engineering data on its struc-
tural and construction feasibility. This lack of
structural design at the early stages of the
project was the primary cause of the major
cost and schedule overruns.
For political reasons, the building commit-
tee decided to start construction in 1959, be-
fore the end of its term, and began building
the foundations before the design of the en-
tire building had been completed. This of
7 - 55 Airplane han8ar, Chica80 Municipal Airport, desi8ned by Ammann and Whitney (1948).
175
course proved disastrous, as later part of the
foundations had to be demolished and re-
built. Then, as the building progressed, the
design kept changing in trying to obtain cer-
tain feasible engineering solutions. The proj-
ect thus developed in an irrational manner,
with construction ahead of design and design
independent of engineering. Many of the ar-
chitectural design solutions were in fact not
feasible from an engineering standpoint and
could thus not be built. And even when struc-
tural design succeeded in making possible the
construction of the architectural design, the
results were far from harmonious. This di-
chotomy between architecture and engineer-
ing thus undermined the integrity of the
project. For instance, the concrete sails that
were logically supposed to be thin shells sim-
ply never materialized. One proposed solu-
tion had included a concrete framework
fixed at the base, cantilevered out to support
a sheathing of precast panels of ferrocement
covered with mosaics. Then in 1964, one of
the sails collapsed. In that year the building
committee dismissed Jorn and replaced him
with a new architect, who brought the proj-
ect to completion.
A lack of experience by the young archi-
tect in projects of this type and size proved to
be the chief cause of this failure. A more
experienced architect would have known, for
instance, that for a thin shell to be structur-
ally feasible it should try to approach a fu-
nicular shape of its loads. Instead young Jorn
was more preoccupied with imaginative free-
form configurations some of which were not
even geometric in shape, so that they were
incapable of being represented in analytical
geometric terms. Some design proposals did,
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

7-56 Prestressed concrete cantilevered shell at Hip6dromo, Caracas,

Venezuela.

however, have an aesthetic rationale that KINGDOME, SEAITLE (1975)

could have been justified. For instance, to cut
out various sails from the surface of one
sphere so that each had the same curvature
would have unified the design, yet it would
not have been sufficient to save the integrity
of the project.
The Kingdome proves the validity of using
long, thin-shell concrete spans comparable to
the span of the steel Superdome (1975). The
two structures are almost equal in size but the
concrete structure proved much more eco-
nomical. The common assumption today that

7-57 Opera House, Sydney, Australia.

176
 Si8nificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
concrete thin shells are dead as practical
structural options is certainly mistaken, as the
Kingdome proves. For this reason, it deserves
particular attention at this point.
The Kingdome covers Seattle Stadium,
which is surrounded by King County, from
which the name derives. The architects for
this project were Naramore, Bain, Brady and
Johanson, from Seattle, Washington. The en-
gineers were Skilling, Helle, Christiansen and
Robertson from Seattle and Praeger Kavan-
agh-Waterbury from New York.
The basic costs of the Kingdome were for
construction ($43 million) land, administra-
tion, and taxes ($12 million), and sports
equipment ($4 million), for a total of $59
million. The unit cost per seat for the 65,000
seats in the concrete Kingdome (under
$1,000) has been reported as being substan-
tially less than the cost per seat for the equiv-
alent steel Superdome and Astrodome. Con-
troversy concerning the final costs of this
structure attracted considerable public atten-
tion at the time, which focused on litigation
between county and contractor, but the basic
figures are still valid. One of the reasons be-
hind this economic achievement in a concrete
thin shell has been attributed to the engineer-
ing experience of J. V. Christiansen in thin-
shelled design.
7-58 The Kin8dome, Seattle.
177
The concrete dome covering the stadium
consists of a tension ring at the base, a com-
pression disc at the crown, and a thin-shell
dome between the two. The tension ring
measures 24 ft (7.3 m) in width and has a
thickness of 2 ft (61 cm). Its diameter mea-
sures approximately 660 ft (201.17 m) (see
Fig. 7-58).
The dome has a rise of 110ft (33.5 m), a
span of 661 ft 4 in. (201.6 m), and a surface
consisting of 40 thin-shell sectors each 5 in
thick (12.7 cm). Each pie-shaped sector con-
sists of a hyperbolic paraboloidal surface
whose double-curved geometry contributes
to stiffening the shell. This geometry allows
for using straight-line generators, which
made it possible to build the wood formwork
with components of straight lumber. The
sectors are connected along their radial edges
to stiffening ribs protruding upward from
the shell. All forty ribs, which are approxi-
mately 6 ft (1.83 m) deep and 2 ft (61 cm)
wide, extend from the compression ring to
the outer edge of the tension ring, stiffening
the shell (see Fig. 7-59). Christiansen later
applied this same technique to build a thin-
shell roof of an airport hangar.
The actual dome of the Kingdome springs
from a height of 132.5 ft (40.4 m) above
ground at the base of the tension ring. It is
 Concrete ShelIs: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-59 Interior of the 65,OOO-seat Kinodome.
supported by forty columns located under
the forty arched ribs. The load from the ribs
thus transfers directly to the columns, with-
out affecting the thin-shell surfaces between
the ribs.
The construction methods employed by
the contractor, which were preengineered
into the design stage, were essential to the
remarkably low cost of this structure. As
noted earlier in regard to P. L. Nervi's de-
sign, construction strategies constitute a
major factor in the economic success or fail-
ure of thin-shell structures.
In the Kingdome's construction the false-
work consisted of a central, stationary, tower
and four mobile ones at the outer edges
mounted on tracks. These could be moved to
make it possible to use the same formwork
again and again. Four sectors were cast simul-
taneously, then the form work was moved for
the next castings, until all forty sectors had
been built. For equilibrium the sectors being
cast simultaneously were those that were dia-
metrically opposite. Arched trusses spanning
radially out from the central tower to the
178
perimetral movable towers supported the
form work built for casting the ribs.
When concrete, rather than steel, was se-
lected for the construction of this dome a
number of factors contributed to the deci-
sion, including the following: 1o
Proven economic efficiency m terms of
overall cost
Fireproof construction qualities, eliminat-
ing any need for protection such as
sprinkler systems
Minimum cost for fire insurance
Minimum maintenance
Most economical roofing requirements
DOMES FOR NUCLEAR
REACTOR BUILDINGS
With the proliferation of nuclear power
plants around the world, certain building ty-
pologies must follow unique standards which
set them apart from any other industrial
building. Of most concern within the context
of shell structures is the shallow concrete
 Sianiftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
dome that covers most of the reactor build-
ings. Usually referred to as concrete contain-
ment buildings, they include a reinforced
concrete structure composed of a vertical cyl-
inder with a shallow dome over a flat circular
foundation slab.
Inside the concrete containment structure
is a steel shell that is the containment vessel
subject to a sequence of design requirements.
The concrete containment structure is thus
the first protective barrier against exterior
forces, with the steel containment being the
first barrier against internally generated con-
ditions. Between the exterior cylindrical con-
crete shell and the steel vessel inside it is an
annular space 5 ft (1.5 m) wide for control-
ling the temperature and pressure around
the exterior of the steel vessel.
As an example typical of such domes, con-
sider the two units of the McGuire Nuclear
Station (built December 1981 and March
1984) in Cornelius, North Carolina, as de-
scribed in the Final Safety Analysis Report by
its owner, the Duke Power Company. The
geometric characteristics of these identical
reactor buildings include an outside cylinder
diameter equal to 131 ft (40 m), a wall thick-
ness of 3 ft (0.9 m), and a height of 177 ft (54
m). The shallow dome covering each reactor
building has a rise that measures 27 ft 13/4 in
(8.27 m) from the springing circle to the top
of the crown. The design loads include dead
loads, seismic loads, accident loads for tem-
perature and pressure, live loads for snow
and ice, penetration loads and pipe reactions,
and loads for tornadoes, wind, construction,
pipe rupturing, and seven combinations of
these loads. The codes followed were ACI
318-63, ACI 307-69, ASTM A615 (Grades
40 and 60), and ASTM 36. For four loading
combinations the working-stress design
method was used, with the ultimate-strength
design method used for the other three. The
dome has a specified minimum thickness of
27 in (685 mm) as a safety measure against
missile impacts of various natures, including
those generated by tornado loads.
The dome is rigidly supported around its
perimeter and is monolithic with the cylindri-
179
cal structure below. The dome is reinforced
by a series of concentric hoops 15 in (380
mm) on center that consist of No. 10 rein-
forcing bars (30 mm) placed on the top and
bottom within the shell's thickness. A second
type of reinforcement is placed radially
throughout the dome, also in two layers on
the top and bottom of the shell. These consist
of No. 11 bars (35 mm). Starting from the
crown of the dome, these radial reinforcing
rods are spaced at ten-degree intervals
throughout the full 360 degrees. These rods
extend out approximately 25 ft (7.5 m)
from the center. The successive rods also ex-
tend radially, spaced 2 degrees 30 minutes
apart.
The first of three power stations owned by
Duke Power in the Carolinas was Oconee,
near Seneca, South Carolina. It included
three power-generating reactors that became
operational respectively in July 1973, Sep-
tember 1974, and December 1974. The
three cylindrical reactor buildings, identical
in form and covered with identical domes,
were built with posttensioning concrete
methodologies, a process not used for these
structures afterward. The geometry of the
cylindrical buildings shows them to have an
exterior shell diameter equal to 123 ft 6 in
(37.6 m) and a wall thickness of 3 ft 9 in
(1.145 m). The three domes each have a di-
ameter of 123 ft 6 inches (37.6 m), with a rise
of 43 ft 3 in (13 m), as measured from the
springing line to the top of the crown. The 3
ft 3 in (1,000 mm) thickness of the dome is
kept uniform throughout, except at the edge
support, where it is slightly thickened as it
meets the cylinders below.
SHELLS IN ART
The correlation between shell structures and
the visual arts can usefully be summarized as
a) the definition of forms, the perception of
forms, and the analysis through geometry; b)
the recognition of form as an element of aes-
thetics, involving definition and analysis of
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

7-60 "Abstraction" (1927), by Antoine 7 -61 "Construction" (1933), by Antoine

Pevsner. Brass, 24 X 25 in. Pevsner. Oxidized brass and plastic, 28 X 25 in.

aesthetic elements; and c) the incorporation

of aesthetic elements into art.
The definition and interpretation of what
form is has varied widely, from Democritus
(c. 460 B.C.) of the atomistic school to Kant
(1724-1804), who gave the term its present
significance. For the artist, however, who is
free to choose any given interpretation or
devise his own, it would be hard to deny the
fascination of geometry, which analyzes and
rationalizes form.
The intriguing Platonic concept of form
and idea, for instance, implies the existence
of form independent of the human mind.
Any man-made creation becomes a replica of
original models that the human soul experi- 7 -62 "Construction for an Airport" (1937),
enced in the world of "Ideas" prior to its by Antoine Pevsner. Bronze, tin, and oxidized
incarnation. Thus, forms like the hyperbolic brass, 32 in. wide.
paraboloid, which are so complex and so dif-
ferent in the ways they can be originated, are
human discoveries of prototypes that tran-
scend the physical world. Because these ideas or as corporeal bodies whose form is
forms are not found in nature and have not inherent in the matter of which they consist
been experienced by the human eye, they do according to Aristotelian concepts, they have
not have a material or conceptual existence, greatly affected the visual arts outside
yet once we have learned of the properties of architecture.
their nature, they become a reality with a Constructivism, an art movement in Rus-
distinct visual entity. sia after 1913, which came about through the
Whether shells with their three-dimen- efforts of Vladimir Evgrafovitch Talin,
sional geometry are interpreted as Platonic Elieyer Lissitzky, and Alexander Rodchenko,

180
 Si8nificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

followed some of the techniques of Cubism

and used materials typical of the industry of
the times. In its first exhibition. in 1915.
some of the work exhibited could have been .,.... .........
defined as geometric constructions in which
the basic vocabulary coincided with that of
modern thin shells. Naum Pevsner (Gabo)
and his brother Antoine Pevsner issued
manifesto for constructivism in 1920. but i
1922 the movement had moved from Russia' ::.-.:......:.-"---~
into Germany. there becoming part of the
Bauhaus.
The work of Antoine Pevsner is particu-
larly significant in relation to the geometry of
thin shells. In his logically organized compo-
sition. "Construction" (1933). the various
7-63 "Endless Ribbon" (/935 - 1936). by
surfaces are unified by their common origin
Roben Maillart. The apparent free form of this
and by their encircling form. The warped
shell borne on supportina boulders randomly
surfaces defined by the metal grid are hyper-
arranaed on the around is in reality the expression
bolic paraboloids (see Fig. 7-60). For other
of a rational thin shell desianed strictly on
works by Pevsner that relate to this theme.
structural theory.
see Figures 7-61 and 7-62. A sculptural piece
by Robert Maillart entitled "Endless Rib-
bon" (see Fig. 7-63) is a thin shell built of of variations. Thin shells are probably the
reinforced concrete. This significant work best morphological structures to express this
can be classified within Constructivism or be range, through their inherent plasticity of
placed in a category one might call construc- form, which lends them to diverse expres-
tive-spatial art. What it represents is the di- sions. From Maillart's "Endless Ribbon" to a
rect correlation between the language of thin-shelled utilitarian water tank. thin shells
sculpture and that of modern thin-shell archi- come in an immense variety of structural
tecture that moves a sensitive engineer such forms.
as Maillart to express himself also as sculptor. Another practical application of shells in
Maillart's structural shells as a whole testify the art world is in the symbolic architecture
to this similarity of language in a direct, con- of monuments. For example, the monument
vincing manner. by Kenzo Tange at the Hiroshima Peace
The transition from pure sculpture to util- Center (see Fig. 7-64) is a saddle-type hyper-
itarian architecture includes a great spectrum bolic paraboloid. This reinforced concrete

7 -64 Monument by Kenzo Tanae at the Hiroshima Peace Center.

181
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
7-65 An experimental concrete shell loaded with sand baos to test deflection. By Eduardo Torroja for
the lnstituto Tecnico de la Construccion y del Cemento in Costillares, Spain.
thin-shell structure stands as a sculptural
piece in a simple, pure form that speaks for
itself.
EXPERIMENT AL SHELLS
Because not many shells have been con-
structed for experimental purposes, those
that have been built have a special value for
individuals involved in design and construc-
tion. Regardless of the accuracy of the analy-
sis, it is always exciting to have indisputable
proof that what was built was indeed struc-
turally feasible. Such prototypes verify both
the design assumptions and the construction
methods. Also, testing full-scale models for
deflection under load is a rewarding experi-
ence for designers. Slender thin shells em-
phasizing particularly small thicknesses and
long spans can be loaded and tested for de-
flection by using, for instance, sand bags, as
in Figure 7-65.
Historically, experimentation on thin
shells preceded practical applications of these
techniques to conventional structures for
182
. ~
common uses. Among the first experiments
to determine structural efficiency through
form was the work of Antonio Gaudi, dis-
cussed in greater detail below. Another in-
teresting experimental work was conducted
in 1931 by Dyckerhoff-Widmann KG and
Walter Muller-Grah in Munich. It consisted
of a thin shell % in (15 mm) thick that cov-
ered an area approximately 22 ft (6.7 m)
square. The surface of the shell was spherical
with a square perimeter, that is, a sectional
dome. Four edge beams stiffened the shell
and carried the load to supports at each of
the four corners.
SHELL BUILDERS OF THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY
The advent of concrete as a new building
material at the beginning of this century pro-
duced basic changes in the philosophy of con-
struction that also affected the development
of the dome. Unrein forced concrete was not,
however, perceived as a practical construc-
tion alternative, being neglected in favor of
 Sioniftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
the revolutionary new reinforced version.
Now having a material that was good under
both compression and tension, builders used
it in totally new ways. Reinforced concrete let
builders abandon the criteria for masonry
and employ it mostly in tension, compression,
and bending for a wide range of applications,
including building frames.
This new field of architecture and struc-
tural typology captured the imagination of
numerous designers, from whom some
emerged most notably as innovators.
Antonio Gaudi (1852-1926)
Antonio Gaudi practiced in his native Spain,
where he trained as a sculptor and architect.
Reflecting the prevailing cultural vivacity, he
projected into his artistic production a multi-
plicity of media from sculpture and architec-
ture to calligraphy, wrought iron, and com-
positions of colorful tilework. His major
contribution, through which he certainly
enriched the development of curvilinear ar-
chitectural forms, was in the creation of new
shapes. Although his period preceded the sci-
entific approach to architecture, Gaudi pio-
neered scientific components in architectural
design by exploring the potential of geome-
try. A century after the powerful explora-
tions of baroque architecture into the intrica-
cies of curvilinear geometry, Gaudi reissued a
proposal to generate new curvilinear shapes
for architecture. His methodology was based
upon a fundamentally rational approach that
indicated deep comprehension of engineer-
ing principles on his part. Geometry, as a
factor in structural strength and not just for
its own sake, was the basic concept Gaudi
adopted. By experimenting with catenary
shapes attained empirically from studying
wires and membranes under loads, Gaudi
generated rational forms capable of creating
efficient shapes for masonry structures under
pure compressIOn.
Gaudi's pioneering work opened the way
to employing a structural geometry that later
183
found more practical, easier application in
reinforced concrete shells. Gaudi's major ac-
complishment was the development of the
hyperbolic paraboloid. Whether it is seen as
an artistic creation or as a discovery of geo-
metric relationships in the Platonic sense,
Gaudi's hyperbolic paraboloid is an almost
magic shape that will continue to intrigue the
mind. This concept explores not only the
geometric relationships that generate the
form but also the possibilities of construction
methods and the very rationality of structural
behavior. The Church ofthe Sagrada Familia
in Barcelona for which he designed the hy-
perbolic paraboloid remains a memorable
landmark for those sensitive to architectural
pacesetting.
Robert Maillart (1872-1940)
The relative position of Robert Maillart's ca-
reer within the context of structural shells is
not based so much on his realization of many
shell structures as on the influence this master
had on concrete as a new building material.
Born in Bern, Switzerland, MaiIlart spent
most of his life in his native country and left a
strong legacy of work there. He began his ca-
reer at the infancy of reinforced concrete as a
building material and in exploring the poten-
tial of this moldable, durable mixture created
prototypes still considered avant-garde today.
Art and technology became one in the numer-
ous structures he left behind. His work in-
cludes over forty bridges and many industrial
buildings. Maillart's contribution to concrete
structures has had tremendous influence on
the state of the art of concrete design. The Ze-
menthalle for the Swiss Provinces exhibition,
though an isolated sample of Maillart's design,
establishes this eminence. He was the father of
flared columns connecting with floor slabs to
eliminate supporting beams and designed
unique bridge forms. Maillart's name remains
associated with innovative concrete forms that
extend to the structural virtuosity of thin
shells.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

Eugene Freyssinet (1879-1962) reflected the accepted philosophy of a unified

This French engineer is known mostly as an
innovator in reinforced concrete structures.
He contributed significantly to the develop-
ment of prestressed concrete technology by
founding inventive techniques for this new
methodology in reinforced concrete. Freys-
sinet's strong association with thin-shell de-
sign is shown by his dirigible hangar at Orly.
Franz Dischinger (1887 -1953)
This major contributor to the development
of concrete thin shells was part of the original
group of German engineers responsible for
the great impetus associated with new
theories of shell construction in the 1920s in
central Europe. He started his professional
career with the firm of Dyckerhoff-Widmann
KG in 1913. In 1922 he was part of the team
designing the hemispherical dome for the
Zeiss optical company. Up to 1932 Dis-
chinger's work dominated the design and
construction of the most prominent shell
structures in Germany. One of his major con-
tributions to the theory of shells is his part in
writing a treatise on the design and construc-
tion of thin shells that was published in Ger-
many in 1928 as von Emperger's Handbuch. ll
In his writings he included membrane
theories for concrete domes with various ge-
ometries such as spherical, conical, elliptical,
and cycloidal shapes, bringing in new design
theories from experiences derived from the
experimental dome in Jena.
approach in the building art.
The true genius of Nervi is not, therefore,
in his concept of unifying the building arts
but in his clear, honest, logical and yet imagi-
native view of how to build. As he once stated
to this author, it is the building itself when
completed and occupied that counts-not
the ideas of buildings on paper with which
one could fill up museums.
An ardent admirer of building technology
throughout history, Nervi marveled at the
achievements of the Gothic builders. With a
profound appreciation for integrity he ex-
plored the powerful contribution of geomet-
ric forms to structural strength and the logi-
cal interpretation of how materials must be
used. His explorations in geometry were bold
and extremely imaginative yet always con-
tained a strong, disciplined rigor that avoided
illogical extravagance. In this regard it is
helpful to remember his firm criticism of the
design proposal accepted for the Sydney
Opera House.
As a true connoisseur of building materials
Nervi considered reinforced concrete in light
of basic values that current trends have

Pier Luigi Nervi (1891-1979)

Pier Luigi Nervi was born in Sondrio, Italy,

and a graduate in engineering from the U ni-
versity of Bologna (see Figure 7-66). He
emerged in the 1950s as a versatile personal-
ity bridging architecture and civil engineer-
ing. These two fields are much more unified
in the educational systems of Europe than in
other parts of the world, so in reality Nervi 7-66 Pier LuiBi Nervi.

184
 Sinnificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century

largely forgotten. The plasticity of this mate- Although Torroja's work was done mostly
rial that had in its early experimental stages in Spain, his fame spread throughout the aca-
produced hulls for boats by the middle 1800s demic world as he served as a visiting profes-
was again proposed by him in a variety of sor at Harvard, Princeton, Raleigh Architec-
curvilinear forms. In his hands concrete was tural College, M.LT., and the University of
liberated not only from the linearity of the Buenos Aires.
building frame but was also allowed to ex-
pand into the thin layers of ferrocement in Anton Tedesko (1903-
the large, thin shells he built.
The great success of Nervi's structures de- The work of Anton Tedesko made a major
rives from his intuitive use of prefabrication contribution to the advancement of thin-shell
that used a modular type of building compo- design in the United States. Born in Gruen-
nent that was mass produced and cast at the berg, Germany, Tedesko (see Figure 7-67)
site. He was able to assemble complex struc- brought to the United States academic
tures with great economy. Nervi used his knowledge of thin-shell design acquired from
own construction company to outbid and to education and early experience. After joining
construct his own designs in competition with the prestigious firm of Roberts and Schaefer
those of other builders. in Chicago and becoming a naturalized citi-
zen in 1938 he spent a life of intense profes-
sional activity that included designing a large
Eduardo Torroja Miret (1899 -1961) number of shell structures.
Tedesko remained in the United States
Eduardo Torroja Miret continued the tradi- working with various other private firms.
tion of architectural virtuosity in Spain begun Among his thin shells is the groined vault for
by Antonio Gaudi. Born in Madrid just forty- the new Lambert Field terminal building in
seven years after the birth of that master, St. Louis, done in collaboration with Hell-
Torroja must have been influenced in his ar- muth, Yamascale and Leinwebel. And in col-
chitectural thinking by the daring and inno-
vative creativeness in Gaudi's art. They do in
fact share the unique combination of engi-
neering and architectural expertise that rein-
force each other to produce a talent found
most typically in the masters of the Italian
Renaissance. A contemporary of Nervi, Tor-
roja has left in his native Spain a legacy of
structural elegance similar to that which
Nervi left in Italy and around the world. Like
Nervi, Torroja was trained in civil engineer-
ing and expanded his knowledge into archi-
tectural composition. The material he used
most often was reinforced concrete in the
form of thin shells.
One biography describes a particular work
of his as a "veritable ballet of eggshell con-
crete butterflies." 12 The structure in ques-
tion was the Zarazuela race course in Madrid,
built in 1935 and damaged during the civil
war, yet still standing structurally intact (see
Fig. 7-7). 7-67 Anton Tedesko.

185
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

laboration with I. M. Pei he designed a hy-

perbolic paraboloidal gable-roofed shell in
Denver that stands out as an inspiring
prototype.

Felix Candela (1910- )

Felix Candela (see Fig. 7-68) is often de-

scribed as a combination architect, engineer,
and builder, a contemporary master builder
who reflects the traditions of the Renais-
sance.
In the early 1950s the name of Felix Can-
dela came to dominate the field of shell ar-
chitecture, not just in North America but in-
ternationally. The astonishing number of
thin-shelled structures Candela created in
Mexico alone-more than 900-leaves no
doubt about his expertise and artistic sen-
sitivity.
Coming from an architectural education
rather than an engineering background,
Candela uses the geometry of his daring
structures as a starting point that evolves
through engineering and construction to
completion. One of the major geometric
forms he has most uniquely explored is the
hyperbolic paraboloid. This simple yet com-
plex form lends itself to the most unimagin-
able architectural compositions, ones that
only Candela has thus far been able to create.
He should clearly be credited with opening
up the myriad possibilities of this particular
geometric form.
In his hands solid geometry becomes not a
tool to work with nor an aid in general, but in
effect a major substance that generates archi-
tecture. It is thus this aspect of Candela's
work that should be particularly recognized
as invaluable to architectural education.
In addition to his creative uses of solid
geometry, Candela uses materials and con-
struction techniques in a unique, imaginative
way. His structures achieve unbelievably
small thicknesses that astonish and perplex
observers. Although the building codes in
Mexico, where most of Candela's structures
are, are particularly lenient and allow much
7-68 Felix Candela.
freedom in construction, his work neverthe-
less remains impressive. Candela's structures
are refreshingly free of the cold, mechanical
qualities that the industrialization of the
building art frequently generates.
Eero Saarinen (1910-1961)
Inheriting his vocations from his mother and
father, a sculptress and an architect, respec-
tively, young Saarinen moved with them
from his native Finland to the United States
in the early 1920s. As a sculptor and later as a
graduate in architecture at Yale he entered
his father's design firm and in time acquired
an identity of his own linking him to the U.S.
development of curvilinear architecture.
Saarinen's powerful prototypes included dif-
ferent species of curvilinear forms, from con-
vex to concave, from orthodox geometries to
unorthodox free forms.
Spurred by the new architecture of the
1950s that emerged with intense energy after
the war, Saarinen was definitely in the van-
guard of those exploring the possibilities of
curvilinearity by using concave catenary

186
 SiBnificant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
shapes for suspended roofs as well as convex
domical shells. From his concave suspended
roof over the Dulles Airport terminal in
Washington, D.C., to the traditional dome he
used with anew, modern vocabulary for the
M.I.T. Auditorium in Cambridge, Massachu-
setts, (see Fig. 7-19), Saarinen has left an in-
delible mark.
Saarinen's career was interrupted by his
premature death. Unlike Nervi and Candela,
Saarinen expressed himself in mostly archi-
tectural terms and therefore had more im-
pact in architectural circles, which could have
led to his continued achievement. One
wonders whether the progress of curvilinear
architecture would have been extended
beyond its current level if Eero Saarinen had
lived longer.
Mircea Mihailescu (1920-
Born in Brasov, Romania, Mircea Mihailescu
graduated from the Bucharest Polytechnik in
1944. He was educated as an engineer with a
strong background in analysis and therefore
7-69 Work by Mircea Mihailescu in Romania: a) a railway depot in
Brasov (1947).
187
his approach to design came from this point
of view. However, he was able to reach the
same level of architectural quality as other
designers that started from an aesthetic con-
cept of form.
Beginning his career just after World War
II, Mihailescu was not familiar at the time
with the architecture of Felix Candela, but he
was motivated by the work of the German
school of the 1930s. He saw in the thin shell
structure the practical expression of an ana-
lytical surface containing within its thickness
membrane stresses. This was the exciting
stimulus from which his work started. Prac-
ticing in Romania, in isolation from the shell
work produced outside of the iron curtain,
Mihailescu approached his work with a
strong individuality.
Major works by Mihailescu include the fol-
lowing: a railway depot in Brasov, Romania
(1947), consisting of forty conoidal shell ele-
ments, each cast on movable centerings (see
Fig. 7-69a); a textile factory in Bucharest
(1958), consisting of a cylindrical roof shell
cast on movable centering (see Fig. 7-69b); a
health spa in Olanesti, Romania (1960), con-
B

o
7-69 (continued) b) textile factory in Bucharest (1958); c) health spa
in Olanesti (I 960) ; d) railway station in Predeal (I 963).

188
E

7-69 (continued) e) sports hall in Onesti (1968). f and 0) exhibition

buildino in CIvi (1 970) .

189
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

sisting of four intersecting hyperbolic para-

boloidal shell surfaces (see Fig. 7-69c); a rail-
way station in Predeal, Romania (1963),
having a square plan of 50 m (164 ft) X 40 m
(131 ft), which is a hyperbolic paraboloidal
shell (5 cm thick with an undulated pattern)
consisting of precast elements assembled and
prestressed by cables inserted into the shell
(see Fig. 7-69d); a sports hall in Onesti, Ro-
mania (1968), whose roof structure includes
five thin shells, consisting of precast and pre-
stressed concrete elements (see Fig. 7-6ge);
and an exhibition building in Clvi, Romania
(1970). This roof structure consists of twelve
cruciform shells, consisting of precast ele-
ments joined by prestressed edge beams (see
Fig. 7-69f,g).

Heinz Isler (1926-

The work of Swiss engineer Heinz Isler (see

Figure 7-70) represents the present state of
art in concrete thin-shell design. As this work
is mostly in central Europe, especially in Swit-
zerland, Isler represents present-day Europe
in the field of structural engineering, specifi-
cally within the context of shell design.
During his education as a civil engineer at
the Federal Technical Institute in Zurich
(1945 - 1960) Isler took advantage of an in-
novative curriculum allowing creative ex-
pression of basic engineering theories. One
great influence on Isler's creative individual-
ity was a professor at the institute named
Pierre Lardy, who encouraged applied re-
search in the formulation of structural forms.
It seems that later Isler was greatly in-
fluenced by the work of Felix Candela, espe-
cially his famous hyperbolic paraboloidal
shell at Xochimilco, Mexico. 13
Isler's official career in thin-shell design
started with a paper called "New Shapes for
Shells" that he presented at the historic First
Congress of the International Association for
Spatial and Shell Structures organized by
Eduardo Torroja in Madrid in 1959. This
paper showed the way toward the creation of
rational structural forms for thin shells de-
7-70 Heinz Isler. (Courtesy of the Art
Museum, Princeton, University)
rived not through theoretical analysis or de-
scriptive geometry but through simple exper-
imentation. Isler's approach consisted of
applying basic fundamental techniques that
were already well-known (see Figs. 7-71a-
C) . 14 These methods involved finding funicu-
lar shapes in tension and reversing them
upside down to attain configurations of struc-
tures that were in pure compression under
gravity loads. Isler worked extensively in sus-
pending fabrics from isolated or continuous
supports, then freezing these forms with a
hardening substance to create permanent
models. Another method he employed was to
anchor a rubber membrane along the rigid
edge of some particular configuration and

190
7-71 Heinz Isler experimentin8 with three-dimensional catenary models.

191
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
inflate it to act as formwork. The configura-
tions of the inflated membrane generated by
pressures perpendicular to the membranes,
rather than by vertical gravity forces, made a
difference between the two that could even-
tually be neglected. Still another method
Isler used to generate forms was to let a
slowly expanding form project out of a rigid-
edged frame under air pressure.
Because Isler attained his structural forms
outside the normal constructs of geometry
and they were therefore not reproducible
through applying analytical geometry, his
methodology depended on taking precise
measurements of small-scale models to obtain
full-scale prototypes. With this empirical ap-
proach Isler was able to achieve an identity
that distinguishes his work from that of
others in shells. Isler strongly differentiates
himself both from those who use preestab-
lished geometric forms and those who work
in imaginative unsubstantiable configura-
tions. His forms are therefore often free of
the coercion of geometry and the structural
irrelevance of arbitrary design. In so doing,
Isler abandons certain traditional engineer-
ing approaches for making forms work and
keeps his distance from those who conceive
for,ns that are disconnected from the laws of
statics.
Following Candela's example, Isler is also
particularly interested in lightening shells by
removing edge members that are not neces-
sary. Often such members are a burden
rather than a relief to the whole shell. Isler's
work in this area is a noteworthy addition to
the state of the art that should not be
overlooked.
John V. Christiansen (1927-
Born and educated in the United States,John
V. Christiansen acquired a major reputation
by working in the area of concrete thin shells
as a structural engineer. He graduated with a
B.S. in architectural engineering from the
University of Illinois in 1949 and an M.S. in
192
civil engineering from Northwestern Univer-
sity in 1950, then worked mostly in the Seat-
tle area, on scores of concrete shell struc-
tures. Among his major contributions is the
structural design of the Kingdome in Seattle
(see Figs. 7-58 and 7-59), which, when com-
pleted, was the largest concrete-shell-roofed
structure in the world. His other major works
include a barrel shell for the Rivergate Exhi-
bition Hall in New Orleans, in 1968, which
attained a record for being the largest-
spanned concrete barrel vault in the world,
and also the impressive hyperbolic paraboloi-
dal concrete roof shell over an airport hangar
in Seattle, in 1962.
The Roberts and Schaefer Company
This company, founded in 1905, occupies a
significant place in the history of the evolu-
tion of concrete shell structures in the United
States. Roberts and Schaeffer was basically an
engineering company dealing with industrial
structures, mostly those associated with the
processing of coal. The company later en-
tered into the design and application of shells
to industrial buildings. Especially at the be-
ginning of the 1930s the company showed
particular interest in the scientific theories of
shells that were then being imported from
Germany.
From 1932, when the company began rep-
resenting the German-patented Z-D system
for thin-shelled concrete building typologies,
up to the beginning of World War II, this
firm dominated the design and construction
of concrete thin shells in the United States.
The major reasons behind this status were
the absence of practical expertise in this area
of engineering in the United States at the
time but also the presence in the company of
Anton Tedesko, who brought it his knowl-
edge and experience with Z-D systems. Rob-
erts and Schaefer spread the popularity of
concrete shells throughout the country with
designs such as the ice hockey arena for the
Hershey Chocolate Company in Pennsylva-
 Sieniftcant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century
nia, which in 1936 held the record for the
largest thin-shell concrete structure in
America.
Ammann and Whitney
The Ammann and Whitney consulting engi-
neering firm, based in New York, was estab-
lished in 1946 by consolidating into one com-
pany two professional consulting practices. In
the structural engineering of major concrete
shells and steel domes this firm is associated
with important projects throughout the
country.
From the start, Ammann and Whitney de-
veloped an original reinforced-concrete thin-
shelled barrel-vault prototype that would ac-
commodate a new generation of new and
larger planes demanding wider-span hangars.
The first structures built following this de-
sign were two hangars in 1948 for American
Airlines in Chicago, each having a clear span
of 257 ft (78.3 m) (see Fig. 7-55). A second
application was a 1951 TWA hangar in Chi-
cago with a 270 ft (82.3 m) clear span. An-
other application was the TWA hangar in St.
Louis (1954), with a span measuring 270 ft
(82.3 m). And finally the Swissair hangar in
New York (1960), with a span of 180 ft
(55 m).
Ammann and Whitney were the consult-
ing engineers for the M.I.T. Auditorium in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, designed by Eero
Saarinen in 1955 (see Fig. 7-19), and for the
structural design of the University of Illinois
Assembly Hall in Urbana (1962). This struc-
ture, designed by the architects Harrison &
Abramovitz, was a folded-plate lightweight
concrete dome with a 400 ft (122 m) diame-
ter. Other significant reinforced-concrete
shells designed by this firm include the bar-
rel-vault shell structure for the De Kalb Phys-
ical Education Building in De Kalb, Illinois
(1956), with a clear span of 171 ft (52 m), and
the inverted concrete shell for the Albany
Mall Meeting Center in Albany, New York,
with Harrison & Abramovitz, architects.
193
THE FUTURE OF THIN SHELLS
The future of thin shells cannot easily be
predicted, because there are many factors
that can potentially affect the development of
such a structural system. A few basic observa-
tions may nevertheless serve as indicators.
The present technology makes it feasible
to build long-span roof structures in wood,
steel, or reinforced concrete, as demon-
strated by the megastructures recently built
for stadiums. Although wood has sporadically
been used for these purposes, its cost is usu-
ally the highest of the three, and its span
limitations have already been reached. Steel
and reinforced concrete are still competitive
in a few countries, but on a worldwide basis
steel is definitely higher in cost. Because con-
crete can easily be produced anywhere in the
world, at a lower cost than steel, it thus seems
logical that reinforced-concrete thin shells
should be the structural system used to erect
permanent roof structures enclosing long-
span buildings. It is important to recognize
that concrete thin shells have had only a life-
span of less than a century, quite a short time
in comparison to other systems. Building
technology has a tradition of moving slowly
in accepting or rejecting systems, so it seems
probable that thin shells still have a long life
ahead of them.
Recently, the efficiency of concrete thin
shells has definitely advanced at a good rate.
Currently available in particular markets are
high-strength concrete mixtures that have
reached no less than 8,000 psi ultimate
strength in twenty-eight days. Such new
values can greatly reduce the required thick-
nesses of concrete shells, making it feasible to
design a new generation of shells that are
extraordinarily efficient, to lower costs and
expand the limits of spans.
The spherical dome built in reinforced
concrete no longer has the limitations of its
masonry counterpart. Tension stresses in it
can be carried by its steel reinforcement, con-
trary to the limitations of masonry domes,
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

which could carry only compression loads.
The thrust at the base of a thin shell can
easily be absorbed by a steel-reinforced ten-
sion ring. Thin-shell technology has reduced
thicknesses in dramatic terms, thereby reduc-
ing dead loads, with obvious advantages.
All in all, the concrete dome is a fresh new
structure much freer and lighter than its old
masonry parent. With this freedom, flat low-
rise spherical domes can achieve slender
ratios never possible before, allowing the
free-span diameters of modern domes to ex-
ceed several hundred feet in length.

NOTES
1. From David P. Billington, Thin Shell Concrete Structures (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1982). Used with
permission
2. Ibid.
3. Sir Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture (New York: Scribners, 1975), 1290.
4. Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco Dall, Modern Architecture.
5. Courtesy, The Art Museum, Princeton University.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. "The Uproar of the Sydney Opera House," in Architectura (Spain, Mexico;) and in In Defense ofStructuralism.
10. "Seattle's Dome," Consulting Engineer (Sept. 1976),53-55.
11. Billington, op. cit., 9.
12. Ann Lee Morgan and Colin Naylor, Contemporary Architects (Chicago: St. James Press, 1987),915.
13. Billington,op. cit. See also David P. Billington, The Tower and the Bridge (New York: Basic Books, 1983),
222-32.
14. Courtesy, The Art Museum, Princeton University.

194
CHAPTER 8
Construction Aspects of Shells
THE CONSTRUCTION -DESIGN
RELATIONSHIP
Unlike more orthodox structures, thin shells
escape being regimented into clearly estab-
lished construction methodologies because of
their very nature. The problem arises to
some extent from the novelty of these struc-
tures that were never before used in con-
struction, such as hyperboloids of revolution,
hyperbolic paraboloids, and conoids. How-
ever, even when the geometry is historically
well known, as it is in the case of domes,
difficulties may derive out of the technology
that present-day materials imply. For in-
stance, traditional domes, which were usually
built in masonry, do not share the same prob-
lems of cast-in-place concrete shells. More
specifically, new problems are created when
technologies for precasting or prestressing
concrete are used, as well as when concrete is
sprayed under pressure by the Gunite
method or cast on inflatable pneumatic
forms. Moreover, in constructing a specific
geometric form an additional consideration is
that certain shells can be built from either
straight-line generatrices or curvilinear ones.
Construction methodology is thus so
unique and variable from case to case that
195
cost estimations can vary erratically. This ele-
ment of subjectivity, caused by varied experi-
ence, can produce extreme bids, endanger-
ing the economic feasibility of shells. A strict
collaboration between the design and con-
struction companies is of fundamental impor-
tance to ensure that maximum efficiency is
reached.
A classic example is provided in the work
of Pier Luigi Nervi, who combined his expe-
rience in design and construction with that of
his design studio and construction company.
As a result architectural, structural, and con-
struction planning proceeded hand in hand,
complementing and reinforcing each other.
This seemingly simplistic example was the
key to Nervi's success at winning out over the
competition with creative projects and low
bids.
Historically, the team approach within ar-
chitecture, structural design, and construc-
tion has not flourished in American profes-
sional practice. However, in the early stages
of shell construction in the United States
there was close collaboration between design
firms and contractors both before and after
the bidding. Design firms in fact developed
construction advisors on whom they de-
pended while continuing to offer assistance
to bidding contractors in terms of cost esti-
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
mates, planning of construction methods and
strategies, and even collaborating with them
closely during construction. Even construc-
tion sequences recorded on film to illustrate
previous shell erections were often offered by
design firms to contractors. The existence of
adequate design fees to compensate the engi-
neering efforts, and the high standards of the
time, led the 1950s to produce a broad prolif-
eration of shell structures.
Many techniques have been used to con-
struct concrete shells. We shall start with the
simplest, which is wood formwork, and work
toward the more complex systems.
The Forming of Shells
WOOD FOR FORMWORK
The first material ever used to construct cur-
vilinear forms was wood. It was applied first
to the construction of form work for masonry
and later for concrete. Although the longitu-
dinal morphology of wood causes it to per-
form well, especially in rectilinear forms and
planar surfaces, it has also done well in the
construction of double-curved surfaces. The
capabilities· of wood in this regard have al-
ready been clearly demonstrated not only by
the precision of the wood form work used for
vaults and domes but even more so with dou-
ble-curvature surfaces used in shipbuilding.
The amazing technological virtuosity of
wood in the construction of curved surfaces
has been proven in many applications varying
according to their geometry and scale. On a
small scale, musical instruments, for instance,
verify the ability of wood to attain precise,
complex geometric shapes in doubly-curved
surfaces. On a larger scale, craftsmen have
used wood to produce complex shells for en-
tire buildings. Although there is a substantial
difference between wood form works and
final wood shells, the degree of accuracy and
smoothness of wooden forms must be partic-
ularly high, for it is well known that exposed
concrete surfaces reflect glaringly any imper-
fections in the wood form.
196
SPECIAL PNEUMATIC FORMING
The adoption of pneumatic forming was an
important step toward making feasible the
construction of curvilinear concrete forms.
In pneumatic forming a membrane is inflated
to generate a tensile surface capable of sup-
porting a concrete layer that is then applied
on top of it. Concrete spraying has been the
most practical method of constructing shells
by using pneumatic forms.
A completely new approach toward the
inflatable forming method that was devised
in the 1950s had several applications that
proved the technical feasibility of the
method. In this technique the concrete is
poured before inflating the pneumatic form.
Then the concrete is lifted by inflating the
membrane and spreads uniformly until the
membrane is fully raised. This method offers
extraordinarily simple construction that
looks more and more attractive cost-wise
when we recognize that the system can be
applied repeatedly.
The first step in this method is to cast on
the ground a circular concrete ring constitut-
ing the foundation, and eventually the ten-
sion ring itself. On the top of this ring a slot is
formed by inserting a narrow wedge with a
tubular inflatable form connected to it at its
base. Once the concrete hardens and these
inflatable inserts are removed, what is left
within the concrete ring is a hollow tubular
space and a slot.
A specially manufactured, reusable, neo-
prene membrane, shaped exactly like the de-
sired configuration of the dome, is obtained
from an outside supplier. This one compo-
nent, which must be made with great accu-
racy, is a major part of the cost of the dome.
This neoprene form has a tubular edge that
can be inserted while still uninflated into the
slot in the top of the concrete ring, falling
into the tubular slot in the concrete. When
this tubular edge is inflated it will spread out
in the tubular concrete slot, thus sealing the
balloon form to the concrete ring pneumatic-
ally. At this point the pneumatic form lies on
the ground, within the surrounding concrete
ring, ready to be inflated at the right time.
 Construction Aspects of Shells
Steel reinforcement is now placed over the
neoprene form as it lies on the ground. This
reinforcement consists of circular hoops and
radial lines capable of sliding as the form
gradualIy rises. One form it often takes is as a
series of chains that slide easily to cover the
spherical form. Other construction processes
and patterns can be devised to alIOW the ad-
justment of the steel reinforcement as it
moves from lying flat on the ground to drap-
ing properly over the inflated form.
After the pneumatic form and its rein-
forcement have been placed on the ground,
concrete is poured over the entire circular
area covering the pneumatic form and rein-
forcement to a uniform thickness, except that
an additional amount is cast exactly at the
center. Another neoprene membrane is now
placed on top of the concrete so that when
the first membrane is inflated the concrete
wilI be sandwiched between the two mem-
branes. The first membrane must be hermet-
icalIy sealed, but the second one, which is
anchored along its perimeter, does not need
an airtight seal. Its function is to retain the
concrete in place and give it a smooth, fin-
ished appearance. A hose is then connected
to an air pump to convey air under the neo-
prene form and lift it gradually. In a few
hours the form will be fulIy inflated, acquir-
ing its desired spherical shape. As the form
rises, the reinforcement system and concrete
stretch correspondingly, following the shape
of the membrane.
The air pressure required to support the
concrete is much lower than one would
guess, relatively speaking. A shelI one inch
thick requires a pressure of only 0.0868 psi (6
hPa). This is extremely low, when one con-
siders that the pressure in a bicycle tire tube
is approximately 50 psi (3,450 hPa).
There are several major advantages to this
system, which can offer a great range of ap-
plications. Construction time is short, and the
erection materials and tools are minimized.
Labor in general is greatly reduced, since this
method requires only a few expert man-
hours. Openings for doorways and fenestra-
tion can be provided after erection simply by
197
sawing into the concrete thin shell. Only a
smalI air compressor is needed for inflation,
which could be operated by a gasoline en-
gine, alIowing domes to be built in areas
where electricity is not available.
A patent exploring in detail this construc-
tion methodology was registered in Italy in
the early 1960s under the name of BinishelIs,
from the name of the young architect who
developed the process. Several structures
built with this method have since proved its
feasibility, including a demonstration proto-
type built in just a few hours on the Columbia
University campus in New York. Other ex-
amples of structures built with this method
include a dome over a recreational center
near Arezzo, Italy, that is 65.6 ft (20 m) in
diameter, and two domes covering a gymna-
sium that are, respectively, 104.96 ft (32 m)
and 49.2 ft (15 m) in diameter.
PLASTIC FOAM FORMING
In the late 1960s Dow Chemical patented
and produced a system using a plastic foam to
form concrete thin shelIs. The name they
gave to this process was Spiral Generation,
the plastic foam used for the process was
manufactured by Dow under the name Sty-
rofoam. Although Styrofoam stilI has a foot
in the market, the Spiral Generation process
is no longer in use, although more than two
hundred shells were built by it and, as we
shall see, it may have many related uses.
The inventor of the method, Donald R.
Wright, of Dow's lab in Midland, Michigan,
began by forming spherical domes with Sty-
rofoam as their main structural material to
carry uniformly distributed compression
loads. As the diameters of domes increased,
however, the Styrofoam domes became basi-
calIy the form work for the concrete shelIs
that were built over them. Wright's concept
was to design a mechanical means of bending
Styrofoam planks and cementing them to-
gether to form a continuous curvilinear
form.
Wright generated forms by rotating the
forming head around a vertical axis in a spi-
raling motion from the base of the dome to
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
its crown, thus laying down superimposed
courses of Styrofoam planks. These superim-
posed layers are then bonded together by
heat while bent. A special cam controls the
precision with which the forming head ro-
tates. The Styrofoam planks are fed contin-
uously to the forming head by operators sta-
tioned on a rotating platform that follows the
forming head. The Styrofoam planks are
shaped and bent so that the contact surface
between layers lies on radially inclined
planes. At its fastest this operation proceeds
at the rate of approximately thirty feet per
minute (see Figs. 8-1, 8-2, 8-3).
Typically, a cross-section through a fin-
ished Spiral Generation dome shows the ex-
terior concrete shell and its reinforcement,
the Styrofoam permanent formwork, and the
8-1 Typical Spiral Generation process equipment
shOwing the assembling of 20 in X 20 in X 9 ft
(50 em X 50 em X 2.75 m) Styrofoam strips.
198
interior plaster coating. Sandwiched as it is
between the exterior concrete and the inte-
rior plaster layers, the Styrofoam remains
well protected from ultraviolet degeneration.
These intrinsically lightweight structures
perform quite satisfactorily in earthquake
zones, since the seismic forces that are pro-
portional to the structural mass are conse-
quently low.
The Styrofoam's thickness can be deter-
mined either in terms of the minimum struc-
tural strength required of it or in terms of its
thermal-insulation value. Structurally speak-
ing, when a Styrofoam dome acts as form-
work for a concrete shell, the uniformly dis-
tributed load over the Styrofoam shell is 12.5
psf (60 kg/m2) per inch of concrete thick-
ness. Typical thicknesses of Styrofoam used
for the form work of domes follow a rule
of thumb of using approximately one inch
of thickness for each ten feet of base diam-
eter.
The Spiral Generation process is meaning-
ful in the evolution of thin shells and has
found applications in different market condi-
tions. From a technological point of view, the
validity of this process has been proven by a
series of thin shells built with this method as
indicated by case studies discussed later.
The reason the Spiral Generation process
had a short life span and failed to gain sub-
stantial momentum probably reflects the
operation of industrial dynamics. The main
intent of the Dow Company in devising this
process was to open a new market for their
Styrofoam, not to enter the building con-
struction technology field. Yet in so doing
Dow pointed out that lightweight form work
could easily be assembled by a simple me-
chanical device, which is what intrigues the
mind and opens the way to creating other
processes for generating different types of
forms. Once the form work is completed, the
process of spraying concrete over it relies on
conventional processes not peculiar to the
Spiral Generation system. The Styrofoam
form work of this system remains perma-
nently in place and does not require disman-
tling, as does conventional form work. The
 Construction Aspects of ShelIs

8-2 A heatinn plate sealinn tonether Styrofoam strips.

8-3 A 30 ft (9.15 m) diameter Styrofoam dome, 2 in (50 mm) thick,

nearing completion.

199
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
formwork remammg provides the highly
desirable side benefit of adding thermal
insulation.
The obsolescence of the Spiral Generation
method in the present economy does not in-
validate its significance, because it could
probably find other markets outside the
United States or produce feasible new solu-
tions, if properly modified. Although the
technique is no longer on the commercial
market for building construction, it should
not be considered dead as an option for ar-
chitectural and engineering designers. Dow
Chemical patents found commercial applica-
tion in domes for odor control in wastewater
treatment facilities, low-temperature ware-
houses, agricultural shelters, and recreation
enclosures. By the early seventies, Dow had
licensed Spirex Structures, Inc., to construct
concrete domes using the Spiral Generation
forming method. As reported by the latter
company, over 200 domes were built using
the process by the mid-1970s.
Some of the case studies of spiral genera-
tion applications include:
• four 221-ft (67.4 m) diameter domes at
the wastewater treatment facilities at the
Delta Street sewage treatment plant in EI
Paso, Texas
• two 136-ft 8-in (41.5 m) diameter domes
over the trickling filter installations for
Chemung County Sewer Authority in El-
mira, New York
• a 90-ft (27.4 m) diameter dome for the
Cherry Country Playhouse in Traverse
City, Michigan
Although most of the applications of this
process were restricted to spherical geome-
try, the cam that guides the erection of the
Styrofoam dome can also produce elliptical
configurations. Most applications were in
low-rise domes containing membrane stresses
in the Styrofoam that were in the compres-
sion range only, although for smaller appli-
cations hemispherical shapes were also built
which include tensile stresses. In the latter
case, tensile forces were absorbed by special
200
reinforcements provided in connection with
the Styrofoam. In all cases, a tension ring was
included at the base.
FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC SHELLS
Fiber-reinforced plastic is a material that has
penetrated the housing industry gradually
through a variety of products. From its appli-
cation in fabricating molded hulls for small-
and medium-sized boats it has grown to more
substantial applications in building con-
struction.
This material consists of combinations, in
various percentages, of a plastic resin and a
fiber reinforcement. The resin can be polyes-
ter, epoxy, phenolic, polystyrene, polycar-
bonate, or nylon. The fiber reinforcement
material can be glass cloth, glass fibers, glass
chopped strands, Al 20 s whiskers, or boron
or carbon filaments. The basic mechanical
characteristics of fiber-reinforced plastics in-
clude ultimate strength in tension, compres-
sion, shear and flexure, and modulus of elas-
ticity and specific gravity, as indicated in
Table 8-1.
For architectural applications, as in ma-
rine hulls made with techniques from auto-
motive body construction, the plastic resin
most commonly used is polyester. The major
advantage of this material is its ease of use in
molding complex surfaces. Also, it is not only
structural but provides an impenetrable roof-
ing material. Fiber-reinforced plastics can be
mass produced, prefabricated, in lightweight
components that can easily be connected to
produce complex assemblies.
The housing units made of such prefabri-
cated components that have occasionally ap-
peared on the market have usually incorpo-
rated a thin-shell roof, which seems the most
logical solution for creating a continuous sur-
face combining walls and roof into one com-
plete structure. The configuration often in-
cludes a double shell with thermal insulation
interposed that produces a whole that is a
rigid and efficient structural system. The
double-shell construction can be either of the
sandwich type consisting of two plastic layers
bonded to a rigid foam core or can consist of
 Construction Aspects of Shells

TABLE 8-1 The Mechanical Properties of Fiber-reinforced Plastics

FIBER REINFORCEMENT COMPOSITE
Modulus
of
Percent Elasticity
Plastic Resin (v = vol. Specific Ultimate Strength (ksi) I
(millions
Matrix T~Ee w = wt.) Gravit~ Tension Compression Shear Flexure of Esi)
Polyester Glass cloth 65w 1.8 70 50 90
Epoxy Glass cloth 65w 2.0 60 70 100
Phenolic Glass cloth 65w 1.9 60 40 95
Polystyrene 1.2 Glass W' fibers 30w 1.28 142
Polycarbonate Glass 1/4" fibers 40w 1.44 19' 1.5
Nylon 66 Glass 1/4" fibers 40w 1.41 29 4 1.6
Epoxy Glass (E)
directional 73w 2.17 238 8.1
Epoxy Glass (E)
directional 56w 1.97 149 6.2
Polyester Glass, chopped
strand, random 45w 1.6 25 26 1.8
Epoxy AI 20, whiskers 14v 1.64 1135 6
Epoxy Boron filaments 70v 330 12 300 40 (flex)
Epoxy Carbon filaments 38v 1.42 80 134 11.3 107 3.1
,---
Source: Compiled from Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, vol. 44, no. lA. (New York: McGraw-Hili,
1967), and L. J. Broutman and R. H. Krock, Modern Composite Materials (Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley, 1967).
I Kpsi = 6.9 Mpa.
2Without reinforcement, tensile strength = 6,500 psi (44.8 MPa).
'Without reinforcement, tensile strength = 9,500 psi (65.5 MPa).
'Without reinforcement, tensile strength = 10,000 psi (69.0 MPa).
'Specimen only 0.02 X 1.25" in size.

two distinct shells structurally interconnected
by shear-resistant elements spaced several
inches apart to create cavities that are filled
with loose insulating fibers.
One example of fiber-reinforced plastic
shells used to create a prototype housing unit
is the Casa Finlandia Futura, in Finland
(1967 -1968), designed by the architect
Matti Suuronen. The structure is of the sand-
wich type, with a polyurethane foam core.
Each unit has a diameter of 26 ft (8 m) and
consists of two circular shells, one atop the
other. The top one (convex) connects to the
bottom one (concave) at the equatorial line to
form a continuous spheroidal surface that is
pierced by a series of small windows. Each
shell is constructed of four segments, so that
the erection sequence includes assembling all
components by mechanically joining and
sealing their edges. At the structure's equa-
tor, where the two half-shells are connected,
a special steel belt reinforces the joint to ab-
sorb circumferential tensile force (see Fig.
8-4).
The years of experience accumulated in
the construction of fiberglass hulls have led
to practical applications being extended to
some building structures. Occasional isolated
prototypes demonstrate ingenious uses de-
rived by some manufacturers. For example, a
futuristic molded fiberglass structure built on
the outskirts of a resort town in southern
Italy in the early 1970s is cylindrical in con-
figuration and covered with a monolithic
shallow spherical dome. It has a diameter of
approximately 30 ft (9.1 m) and is two stories
high, in two interconnected shells forming a
combined insulated wall approximately 1 ft
(30 cm) thick. The structure, used appropri-
ately as a nightclub because of its open floor
plan, has minimal fenestration and doors that
fit smoothly within the curvature of the walls.

201
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
. , / ~.-.;::::--~
j~~~
8-4 Casa Finlandia Futura, by Matti Suuronen (1967-1968).
The tactile characteristics of the indoor and
outdoor surfaces of this structure, in their
continuous molded, rounded configurations,
remind one of the finishing of the plastic inte-
riors of present-day commercial aircract.
Such occasional prototypes that could be
industrially manufactured in large quantities
remain isolated cases. Extensive application
of the methodology has not yet gained a foot-
hold in the building industry. The lack of
practical acceptance seems to result from so-
ciological rather than climatological condi-
tions, probably because of these synthetic
products' striking contrast with conventional
building materials which are preferred by the
public at large.
This method of using molded, fiber-rein-
forced domical structures for a single build-
ing unit is not the only approach to follow
and may in fact have led to the overall lack of
success of fiber-reinforced building construc-
tion. Instead, a more appropriate approach
for this technology might be to use molded
components incorporated within different
kinds of building processes. Specifically, pre-
cast curvilinear fiber-reinforced roof seg-
ments could be used to generate domical roof
structures by being assembled together and
erected over a compatible building form.
Lightweight double-shelled components
sandwiched with rigid insulation like Styro-
foam can be easily built and transported to a
202
{( \-
site and assembled there to complete a domi-
cal roof structure, sealing the joints and
creating a monolithic surface impervious to
water. Structural reinforcement could easily
be installed at the base in a matter of minutes,
within a preformed groove. Minor reinforce-
ment in the form of a small steel cable could
even be posttensioned, if so desired, in con-
necting the various roof segments. Stand-up
seams could be sealed with cementing com-
pounds to create structural bonding capable
of absorbing tension stresses whenever they
occur. These examples are only an indication
of the many possibilities fiber-reinforced
shells could offer.
PSEUDOSHELLS
Occasionally a structure is not really what it
appears to be in a statical sense. When form
and structure do not correlate, this is usually
the result of construction limitations. Some
curvilinear surfaces that seem to be concrete
thin shells may actually have a structural sys-
tem totally different from the one expected.
The purity of continuous surfaces cannot
always capitalize on the inherent structural
values of membranes and thin shells. Yet
apart from this structural rationale, the ge-
ometry of forms has its own validity for the
justification of the shape of the delineated
structure and the configuration of the en-
closed space.
 Construction Aspects of Shells
Pseudoshells built with structural systems
other than that of thin shells may have strong
reasons to diverge from the typical methods
of shell construction. For instance, the lack
of certain materials or the absence of re-
quired building trades in a given area could
justify realizing a specific form using a substi-
tute system. The relationship between form
and structure must always be interpreted in
terms of prevailing circumstances. There
may be many controlling factors in addition
to structural efficiency. In this regard the
pseudoshell has its own validity.
The nature of pseudoshells might seem to
exclude them from association with thin
shells per se, but it is logical to identify them
in some way within the overall context of thin
shells. Examples of such structures, sup-
ported by a hidden interior framework, can
be found in many wooden domes of the an-
cient world and in some steel domes today.
The structure shown in Figure 8-5 is a shal-
low spherical dome consisting of a structural
steel system covered with a nonstructural
concrete shell. This 1966 structure is the res-
idence of its architect, Charles Deaton, on
Genesee Mountain near Golden, Colorado.
8-5 A pseudoshell supported by structural steel. This residential structure is shaped to resist hiBh wind
forces.
203
To avoid the complications of using form-
work in this location, this shell was not built
in structural concrete. Similarly, the U.S.
Capitol building in Washington, D.C., is
crowned by a dome whose masonry appear-
ance conceals a cast-iron framework.
SUPPORTS
Edges and Boundary
Members Framework
Edge members are necessary to transfer
membrane stresses from the shell to its sup-
ports. They constitute a primary framework
supporting the shell from the ground up.
Their characteristic is that they develop reac-
tions in a plane tangential to the shell at its
boundary. They should also theoretically
allow certain displacements within the shell
that are induced by membrane stresses. How-
ever, because in reality the reactions in these
members are not exactly tangential to the
shell, as they should be, bending moments
arise in both the edge members and the shell.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
In the shell such disturbances fortunately dis-
sipate rapidly, farther away from the edges.
Another phenomenon caused by edge mem-
bers is a difference in distortions that comes
about between points that are part of the
shell and ones that are part of the edge mem-
bers, caused by differences in stiffness. At a
given point of contact the stiffer edge mem-
ber will undergo a smaller distortion than
that in the shell, which would have a larger
displacement if it were freed from the edge
member (see Figs. 8-6 and 8-7).
8-6 Various conftaurations of ridae members to
connect two adjacent shell elements, either alona
their ridaes or their valleys.
204
A
B
8-7 Various types of edae-member conftaurations
of typical cross-sectional shapes that can be used
on either horizontal or sloped edaes.
Edge Support for Domes
Supporting a thin-shelled dome around the
edge of its membrane presents a delicate
problem in judgment on the part of the de-
signer. The dome can be either isostatic or
hyperstatic, that is, statically determinate or
indeterminate, depending on the details of
the connection between the membrane shell
and the edge member (the tension ring at the
base) or on the support condition of the edge
member itself. For the dome to be isostatic
it is required that the membrane shell be
hinged to the edge member (the tension
ring). Doing so guarantees that the reaction
 Construction Aspects of Shells
at the edge of the membrane will always be
tangent to the membrane itself and moments
will not transfer from the tension ring to the
membrane. For this isostatic condition to
occur it is also required that the edge mem-
ber itself be simply supported.
If these conditions are not totally satisfied
the dome becomes hyperstatic and additional
stresses arise. The shell cannot resist these
stresses generated by bending because of its
structural inability to do so, as inherent in the
very definition of thin shells. The isostatic
conditions of support also guarantee that
thermal expansion and contraction of such a
shell occur freely, without generating an op-
posing reaction, and thus without adding fur-
ther stresses.
There is another consideration involving
the support of domical thin shells to make the
shell behave according to theoretical assump-
tions. This is based on the fact that the edge
of the shell and the tension ring act differ-
ently from each other and undergo different
degrees of deformation. If they are joined
together they deform equally in a given di-
rection, the result of a compromise between
shell and edge. The edge member acts upon
the free edge of the shell with forces that
modify the free deformation of the shell
caused by membrane stresses alone. Con-
versely, the membrane modifies the free de-
formation of the edge member acting inde-
pendently. The most important of the two
actions is of course that within the shell itself,
because the stresses induced by the edge
member alter the membrane stresses in the
shell, thereby inducing bending.
A practical example to illustrate this phe-
nomenon would be a shallow dome under
vertical live and dead load with the hoop
forces in compression for the entire dome.
Because the edge member at the base is defi-
nitely in tension, along the edge where shell
and edge member meet there are the oppos-
ing forces of compression and tension, which
tend to separate the shell from the edge
member. A similar situation can be observed
in a dome approaching the size of a hemi-
sphere in which the hoop forces near its base
205
are tensile. Although in this case the edge of
the shell and the edge member are both in
tension, the difference in stiffness here be-
tween the two would generate different free
displacements, separating the shell and edge
member. There are two practical options to
approximate a support condition that would
make the shell isostatic and reduce the in-
compatibility between the structural behav-
ior of the shell's edge and the edge member.
One is to eliminate the tension ring com-
pletely and use the edge of the membrane to
resist the tensile force, provided the shell is
thick enough to include the necessary rein-
forcement. The other is to incorporate the
tension ring in the shell itself, making the two
compatible in the elastic sense, that is, equally
stiff. This can be done by slightly increasing
the thickness of the shell around its edge and
providing reinforcement.
If the dome includes a tension ring at its
base, a problem arises in detailing a hinged
connection between the shell and the ring
around the perimeter of the dome. One solu-
tion is to provide a groove in the ring, in
which the edge of the shell could sit. This
groove would be shaped like an L with a hori-
zontal and a vertical lip capable of developing
vertical and horizontal reactions, respectively
(see Fig. 8-8). Another alternative would be
to do exactly as suggested above, but make
the edge of the shell slightly thicker, to pro-
vide sufficient bearing surface for the shell
8-8 An example of momentless edae support for
domes. Here a hinaed connection aenerates both
a vertical and a horizontal reaction.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
(see Fig. 8-9). Yet another solution is to use a
typical concrete-hinge technique in which the
tension ring has an inclined edge perpendicu-
lar to the meridional force at the edge of the
shell. The shell will then extend into the ring
as usual. Another particularly ingenious type
of support consists of hanging the edge of the
shell from a continuous concrete ring above
it, using flexible steel rods that would deform
as would a pendulum as the shell expands and
T
8-9 A momentless edee support. This simply
supported condition eenerates only a vertical
reaction component.
8-10 Hineed connections between the shell of an isostatic (statically
determinate) dome and its tension rine.
206
contracts. This part of the connection would
provide only a vertical reaction, so the hori-
zontal reaction around the full rim of the
dome would need to be furnished by another
part of the connection constituting the ten-
sion ring. An example of this system can be
seen in the Felix und Regula Church in Zu-
rich (see Fig. 8-10).1
POINT SUPPORT (Ribbed Dome)
The Fieldhouse of the University of Virginia
at Charlottesville illustrates a particular type
of support for domical shells, consisting of
hinged point supports. This dome, with a di-
ameter of 282 ft (86 m), consists of a series of
radial ribs supporting precast barrel units
that form a scalloped shell. The radial-arched
ribs spring from a horizontal tension ring
that is supported by several cast-in-place col-
umns. The prestressed ring is loaded by the
radial forces coming from the arched ribs
that induce the tension. The connection de-
tailed in Figure 8-11 shows the ribs sup-
ported by the ring and hinged to it. Only the
vertical and horizontal reactions are pro-
vided, with moments excluded by using an
L-shaped support. Two threaded steel rods
embedded in each rib go through the joint to
anchor the rib to the ring. These anchors are
 Construction Aspects of Shells

"1--- - Precast rib

Prestressed
wires

Tension ring
Packet

Column

8- 1 1 Detail showing in turn a precast rib with posttensioned anchors

connected to a prestressed ring that is supported by columns.

posttensioned by tightening a nut at their piers, or arches; by pendentives that embrace

threaded ends which are accessible through a
pocket within the concrete ring. Not having
an edge member around the perimeter of the
dome eliminates disturbances in the shell
generated by differences between free defor-
mation in the shell and in the edge member.
This is possible because the dome is sup-
ported only by point supports, not a continu-
ous support, that is, an edge member.
TRANSITIONAL SUPPORTS: SQUINCHES
Squinches, which were widely applied in the
technology of Persian domes, still find ex-
pression in the morphology of the concrete
shell. The various types of dome supports can
be grouped into two basic categories: single-
point supports and continuous supports. The
latter can be supports either at ground level
or ones extending vertically to carry the base
of the dome aloft. Once the dome is aloft, it
can be supported in various different ways:
with a circular drum carried by columns,
the whole base of the dome and carry the
load to columns, piers, or other supporting
elements; or by some sort of transitional
structure to connect the circular base of the
dome with the tops of the four walls to form a
square plan. To do this requires a squinch, a
sort of small vault shaped like part of a cone,
with a horizontal axis placed diagonally
across the corners of the square. The result-
ing octagon facilitates the gradual change-
over to a circle.
As shown in Figure 8-12, squinches have
historically been connected by several ma-
sonry courses laid horizontally in an octago-
nal configuration that changed gradually so
that at the top they attain a circular form.
Because bricks are such a small unit in ma-
sonry, the gradual change in curvature be-
tween one course and the next can generate
smooth surfaces. Squinches have been built
also using stone masonry, and are thus basi-
cally part of a construction morphology

207
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
8-12 A diaorammatic illustration of an Iranian
masonry technique in dome construction usinO
transitional squinches to pass oradually from a
square base to circular courses in the dome. The
small squinches at the corners are connected by
increasinoly curved horizontal courses of masonry
so that as the courses reach the top of the
squinches a circular base is finally obtained for
the sprinoino course of the dome.
8-13 A typical Iranian technique usinO laroe
conical squinches that start from the corners of a
square structure to form a complete vault as they
finally meet at the crown.
based on masonry. This device may have
valid applications in concrete as well.
A modem reinterpretation of traditional
masonry forms could probably be attained
using, for instance, unreinforced concrete.
This material would be the equivalent of ma-
208
sonry because of its mechanical ability to
carry compressive and shear stresses only.
Another ancient technique still in use
today for domical structures supported on
square bases depends on using large
squinches. In this case the squinches reach
practically to the top of the dome and consti-
tute almost the entire dome itself (see Fig.
8-13).
HINGES AND RIBS
Hinged Edge Members
Because thin-shelled structures are different
from typical orthogonal concrete frames
used for conventional buildings, they often
include a primary framework of edge mem-
bers in complex geometric configurations
that transcend the simplicity of rectilinear or-
thogonal designs. A glance at the complexity
of one of Felix Candela's geometric forms
gives an immediate idea how shell structures
are articulated. This articulation often im-
plies incorporating hinges that either connect
edge members to one another or to founda-
tions. These hinges can be in either concrete
or steel (see Figs. 8-14 and 8-15).
Concrete hinges are formed by converg-
ing the steel reinforcement at the end of one
member, near the connection. After con-
8-14 A typical concrete hinoe.
 Construction Aspects of Shells

8-16 A typical reinforced-concrete hinge by

8-1 5 A typical steel hinge for reinforced- Mesnager.
concrete structural members. Connection usable
for rectilinear as well as arched members.

verging at the center of the hinge itself, the

reinforcement extends into the next concrete
member and continues to expand gradually
there. The steel forming the hinge must be
symmetrical in its configuration, as it extends
into the two connecting members on each
side of the hinge.
Although various types of concrete hinge
connections might be devised by a structural
designer, two prototypical designs have as-
sumed the status of standards. Both proto-
types come from France and carry the names
of the engineers who originally devised them:
Mesnager and Considere, respectively. The
different configurations of these two hinges
are illustrated in Figures 8-16 and 8-17. 2
The concrete hinge consists basically of 8-17 A typical reinforced-concrete hinge by
converging the reinforcement that passes Considere.
from one member to the other, without using
additional hardware. Another type of con-
nection to hinge concrete members together crete types and obviously more efficient,
depends on an articulated steel mechanism of though more costly. Typical examples are the
components that behave more like typical exposed hinges at the TWA building at Ken-
hinges. Even visually these hinges reflect nedy Airport in New York and those sup-
what an observer may be expecting to see. porting the dome of the MIT auditorium, as
Steel hinges are more flexible than the con- illustrated in Figures 8-18, 8-19, and 8-20.

209
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

8-18 The steel hin8es suPportin8 the ed8e of the dome over Kres8e
Auditorium at MIT.

Structural Ribs collect and transfer stresses to the supports.

Reminiscent of Gothic structures as an inte-
gral part of the vault from which they pro-
trude, structural masonry ribs typically col-
lect stresses from the vault and carry them to
a singular point of support. Similarly, in con-
temporary thin-shell technology, specifically
that of the lamella roof system, exposed ribs
The lamella system includes two sets of curvi-
linear ribs that intersect each other to form a
sort of rhomboidal pattern. Although this
system is most often used in steel construc-
tion, it is also at times employed in concrete
thin shells as well, as in the Palazzetto dello
Sport in Rome (Figure 7-24). Precast forms
in this roof of ribs and shell constitute a mon-

210
 Construction Aspects of Shells
8-19 A sectional drawino detailino the hinoe shown in Fioure 8-18.
8-20 A schematic illustration of the hinoe in
Fioure 8-19.
olithic unit bonded by concrete and inter-
laced by reinforcement. This complex pat-
tern of ribs would have been quite expensive
if the form work had been constructed by
conventional systems. Only the mass produc-
211
tion of the 1,620 ferrocement pans on site
made it possible to reduce the cost drastically.
However, this system did not eliminate the
need for full wooden formwork.
One alternate method might employ reus-
able fiberglass pans instead of permanent fer-
rocement ones. This would be similar to the
conventional reusable forms used for waffle
slabs. The Palazzetto dello Sport was such a
unique structure that its individual forms
would not have found practical possibilities
for reuse, but the idea of revising pan forms
of fiberglass has considerable merit that sug-
gests establishing this method as a standard.
Barrel vaults, for instance, could employ this
construction technique to great advantage, as
could other types of shell geometry, such as
the hyperbolic paraboloid. Capitalizing on
closely spaced ribs employing reusable pan-
shaped form inserts greatly increases the effi-
ciency of a structure, minimizing the volume
of concrete needed and keeping down labor
costs for formwork.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

PRECAST SHELL TECHNOLOGY two adjacent elements, then grouting the

Joinin, Precast Components
The precast concrete components for shell
structures can include either a large number
of small modular units or a few large precast
parts. In general, precast thin-shell elements
must be joined together to form one continu-
ous shell. The joints are usually formed by
splicing dowels projecting from the sides of
joint. Doing so creates continuity for tensile
and compressive stresses passing from one el-
ement to the next.
If only compressive stresses are to be
transferred, there is no need to splice the
reinforcement. This technique generates an-
other kind of joint, as illustrated in Figures
8-21 and 8-22. This joint detail consists of
large segments described in the technical lit-
erature~ and seen in the dome of the Plane-

Connection line _ _ _~

... , .. -. ' ,-'

f-----i'c..---------.L-----;~-------....~ Insulation

Precast element Precast element

8-21 A detail of the connectino device between two precast concrete

seoments of a spherical dome. Notice that the two edaes of the adjacent
seoments are in contact at the bottom and leave a specially contoured oap
at the top for oroutino and sealino the joint.

I
I
I
,
. : ....... : \........ ,
I
I
8-22 The edoes of two adjacent precast panels such as those seen in
Fioure 8-21.

212
 Construction Aspects of Shells
tarium at the New Jersey Cultural Center in
Trenton. This precast dome, which is 82 ft
(25 m) in diameter at its base, was con-
structed of thirty-two segments shaped like
spherical isosceles triangles. Two equal sides
each 63 ft (19.2 m) long followed the merid-
ian lines, with the 8 ft (2.44 m)-long base as
part of the base hoop. The top vertex of the
triangle of course coincides with the crown of
the dome. The elements were 3 inches (75
mm) thick, reinforced at their edges by ribs
so that the joint between two adjacent trian-
gular segments involved two adjacent ribs
each 63 ft long. The profile ofthe joint shows
that at the bottom of the joint the two adja-
cent parts contact each other, but in the
upper part of the joint there is a gap to allow
insertion of pressurized nonshrinking grout.
When completed, the joint was covered by a
neoprene cord which in turn was covered by
polysulfide caulking. The top of the joint and
the exposed surfaces of the jointed ribs were
then covered with a synthetic rubber coating.
A cast-in-place tension ring at the base and a
compression ring at the top hold the thirty-
two spherical triangular segments together.
Examples of Precast-Shell
Technology
Precast concrete methodology for thin-shell
domes has been particularly popular in con-
struction methods adopted in the Soviet
Union. The precasting process can be subdi-
vided into three basic methods of assembly,
the first being defined as having the individ-
ual components assembled along meridian
lines extending from the base ring toward the
crown. A second type includes assembling
components defined by meridians and hoops
along their perimeter. The third type in-
cludes assembling elements along concentric
circular hoops to constitute two-layered
domes.
The domes over the 1965 Karaganda inte-
grated iron-and-steel works are examples of
the first type of precast concrete domes.
Their diameter is 107 ft (32.5 m), the rise 23
213
ft (7.1 m). They include thirty-two spherical
sectors extending from a precast disc at the
crown to a cast-in-place prestressed ring at
the base. The panels are only 1.2 in (30 mm)
thick, with meridian members 11.8 in (300
mm) deep and hoop members 5.9 in (150
mm) deep, spaced 6.4 ft (2 m) center to
center, and monolithically cast. Once assem-
bled, the thirty-two sectors were connected
along their meridians by grouting.
An example of the third type of assembly
is furnished by the 1961 dome over a sports
center in Tbilisi, which has a base diameter of
241 ft (75.2 m) and consists of 496 precast
flat elements 1.18 in (30 mm) thick assem-
bled to form ten concentric circles into a two-
layer dome. As is typical for this type of con-
struction, the elements are trapezoidal and
vary in size as the concentric loops progress
from base toward crown. On the first ring
the panels had a length along the meridians
of 16 ft (5.8 m), with the length along the
lower hoop 15 ft (4.7 m) and that along the
higher hoop 7.7 ft (2.4 m).
A recent paper by G. K. Khaidukov4 de-
scribing the technical characteristics of typi-
cal precast concrete domical shells built in the
U.S.S.R. furnishes significant data on the ef-
ficiency of Soviet technology in shell con-
struction as measured by the amount of steel
reinforcement used per unit area of shell
surface:
Karaganda works (1965): 107 ft (32.5 m)
diameter; 3.34 Ib/ft2 (16.3 kg/m2) of
steel reinforcement.
Sports center, Tbilisi (1961): 241 ft (75.2
m) diameter; 3.28 Ib/ft2 (16 kg/m2)
steel reinforcement.
Druzhba sports center, Moscow, for 1980
Olympics: 308 ft (96 m) in diameter;
7.78 Ib/ft 2 (38 kg/m 2) of steel
reinforcement.
Domes for Borispol air terminal, Kiev,
513 ft (160 m) in diameter; Chelya-
binsk, 327 ft (102 m) in diameter;
Minsk, 330 ft (103 m) in diameter: all
5.53 Ib/ft2 (27 kg/m2) of steel
reinforcement.
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
DOUBLE-SHELL
CONSTRUCTION
As discussed in earlier chapters, multishell
construction has been used in various dome
typologies historically. St. Mark's twelfth-
century Byzantine architecture, with one
outer shell and an inner one, contains a large
space between the two with an interposed
framework. Many Islamic domes are built in
the same manner. As described before, the
dome of St. Paul's in London, includes three
shells. However, all these are assemblies that
do not constitute a single integral structure.
The first example of a double-shell masonry
dome acting as a structural unity was Santa
Maria del Fiore in Florence, conceived by
Brunelleschi. The same concept was followed
by Michelangelo in his design for St. Peter's
in Rome.
Double-dome construction not motivated
by structural strength has deep-rooted tradi-
tions, as in Ottoman architecture, where the
exterior dome makes an emphatic statement
to impress the viewer by the imposing sight of
a precious crown dominating a building. The
materials used for these coverings, such as
copper or glittering ceramic tiles, emerge on
the cityscapes with an astonishing dominance.
These chromatic, daring domes often can be
seen from great distances, for miles in the
flat desert territories around many Islamic
centers. The interior domes of these lofty
celestial forms have their own role of com-
pleting the interiors. The materials of which
they were built were not affected by weather,
and the interior dome's structure needed
only to carry its own weight, leaving the
upper dome to resist the live load and wind
force.
EDGE OR BOUNDARY MEMBERS
In thin shells the shell itself is a continuous
surface whenever the surface has a geometric
continuity that is defined by only one specific
equation. Often, however, a concrete shell
will have construction continuity but consist
214
in reality of several surfaces combined. The
individual components may then be different
from each other or equivalent. Still, with re-
spect to one system of coordinates they are
components with a geometric discontinuity
along their connecting edges.
Structurally speaking, the edges along
which individual surfaces are joined to con-
stitute an overall thin-shell structure are in
reality longitudinal members, distinguishable
as ridge members or valley members accord-
ing to the angle between their joining sur-
faces. These members collect the shear
stresses from the thin-shell surfaces and carry
them to the foundation.
In addition to these members connecting
several surfaces together are others along the
free edges of each thin shell, which are usu-
ally called edge members. All these ridge
members, valley members, and edge mem-
bers can be grouped together under the gen-
eral term boundary members.
Although the designer can choose what-
ever configuration of members works best to
satisfy structural optimization, construction
ease, or subjective aesthetic considerations, it
will be useful to consider a few basic practical
types that seem to have been the most com-
monly used. These types, classified in terms
of cost factors, offer a meaningful basis for
comparison to guide the designer.
Four basic types of ridge members can be
considered, as follows:
• Deep rectangular cross-sectional members
connecting two shell surfaces at an angle
with each other, framing into the member
at approximately one-half its depth, mak-
ing the member visible inside and outside.
Assumed cost factor: 1.00.
• Deep rectangular members connecting
two shell surfaces forming an angle with
each other, framing into the member at its
top, and making the member visible only
from the inside.
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.80.
• Shallow rectangular members connecting
two shell surfaces at an angle with each
other, framing into the member at the
 Construction Aspects of Shells
bottom, and making the member visible
only on the outside.
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.70.
• Shallow member following the contour of
the shell, built by thickening the shell on
top to make the member visible only from
the outside.
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.60.
There are also four basic types of edge
members, as follows:
• Deep rectangular members along the edge
of the shell in which the shell frames at the
mid-depth of the member.
Assumed cost factor: 1.00.
• Deep rectangular members along the edge
of the shell in which the shell frames at the
top of the member.
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.80.
• Shallow rectangular members along the
edge of the shell in which the shell frames
at the bottom of the member.
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.70
• Shallow rectangular members along the
edge of the shell following the inclination
of the shell so that the member appears to
be an edge with increased thickness.
Assumed cost factor: approximately 0.60.
The rectangular cross-section for the edge
members mentioned is just a schematic indi-
cation of a generic cross-section that can actu-
ally take any configuration desired, from a
triangular to any other polygonal shape, solid
or hollow. It should also be mentioned that
regardless of the shape of the cross-section
the boundary member can have throughout
its length whatever cross-section is required
by the variation of the load. Tapered edge
members are in fact commonly used in many
thin-shell designs as accepted practice.
PRESTRESSING
As described before, the technique of pre-
stressing concrete structures greatly increases
215
their efficiency and substantially reduces the
amount of reinforcement needed in compari-
son to conventionally reinforced concrete.
This technology used for beams, girders, and
slabs is also valid for edge members and
shells.
The practice of prestressing concrete
began in the United States, with circular in-
stead of linear prestressing. In 1935 the Pre-
load Company introduced a new method for
winding wire reinforcement through a spe-
cial apparatus to stress the wires. This process
made possible the prestressing of circular
storage tanks such that they gained substan-
tially in efficiency and thus in popularity.
Over a thousand of these structures were
built up to the mid-1960s.
The pioneering stage shows prestressed
concrete technology being applied to arched-
floor systems, as patented by P. H. Jackson in
1886 in San Francisco. Two years later, C. E.
W. D. Doehring in Germany patented an-
other method for prestressing concrete. Both
methods failed from a practical point of view
because the pretensioning in the steel was lost
as the concrete contracted through creep and
natural shrinkage. Then in 1925 R. E. Dill in
Nebraska applied a posttensioning method of
coating steel reinforcements to prevent their
bonding with concrete, then tensioning the
reinforcement and anchoring it with nuts to
the concrete once it had set. In 1928 E.
Freyssinet in France finally devised the first
practical method of prestressing concrete, by
using high-strength steel wires with a yield
point in excess of 180,000 psi (1,240 MPa) to
attain a prestressing value of 150,000 psi
(1,035 MPa) and a strain of approximately
0.005. This left enough strain and tension in
the reinforcement even after creep and
shrinkage had occurred. Subsequently, in
1939, Freyssinet developed conical wedges
for anchoring and special jacks for tension-
ing. In 1940 a Belgian named G. Magnel
developed another anchoring method.
The most significant contribution to pre-
stressing was the industrial application of
prestressed beams by a German named E.
Hoyer. In his system wire reinforcement sev-
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
eral hundred feet long was tensioned be-
tween two solid anchorages attached to the
ground. Several beams separated by spacers
were cast along the length of the reinforce-
ment. When the concrete hardened, the
wires were cut, separating the beams from
each other (see Figs. 8-23 and 8-24). In
Hoyer's method the continuous bond be-
8-23 End anchorage devices for prestressed
concrete.
8-24 The industrial application of prestressing as designed by E. Hoyer. Prestressing of several beams
at the same time by tensioning a wire reinforcement several hundred feet long, then cutting it after the
concrete has hardened, thus securing the bond.
216
tween steel and concrete along the length of
the beam required no end anchorage.
Prestressing in Isostatic Domes
Prestressing the edge rings of domes is a con-
venient procedure that offers several advan-
tages. When the wires in the ring are pres-
tressed, then released after the concrete has
hardened, the ring is set in compression. As a
result, the dome lifts, detaching itself from
the form work. This makes the removal of the
forms much simpler and also eliminates
saggmg.
It is especially important to determine the
prestressing force recommended in the ring.
The simplest approach is to apply enough
compression to balance the tension that will
be induced in the ring by full dead and live
loads on the dome. Doing so will let the dome
rise from the form after prestressing, because
only the dead load would be applied when
the forms are removed. Later, when full live
loads are applied, there will be no deforma-
tions and the ring at the base will be in a state
of repose.
 Construction Aspects of Shells

THE PRESTRESSING FORCE bending stresses in the shell. The connection

The prestressing force (P.) to be applied at
the tension ring should have a magnitude as
given by
P.=HR
where R is the radius of the dome at the base
where the tension ring is. Its expression is
R = r sin A
where r is the radius of the sphere out of
which the dome has been cut and A is the
angle at the center of the sphere between the
central vertical axis of the dome and a radius
passing through the base of the dome. H is
the hoop force per foot of length at the base
of the dome. Its expression is the following:
V
H=--
tan A
where V is the vertical reaction per foot of
length at the base of the dome. But
between ring and shell must be articulated to
allow for rotation. If this is not possible the
shell becomes hyperstatic, according to the
analysis in the previous chapter, and the pre-
(8-1) stressing force will be different, as will be
discussed in the next section.
EXAMPLE: Given a spherical dome with a
rise of 30 ft (9.2 m) and a radius R at the base
(8-2) of the dome of 80 ft (26.6 m) with a thickness
of 4 in (100 mm) and a live load assumed to
be 20 psf (950 N/m2) of horizontal dome
projection, calculate the recommended pre-
stressing force in the tension ring.
Solution: The radius of the sphere con-
taining the dome is
r2 = 80 2 + (r - 30)2
Thus,
r = 121.66 ft (37 m)
(8-3)
Since the thickness of the dome has been
considered to be 4 in, the dead load per
square foot of shell is then

V=---
w 150
21lr sin A (8-4) w = 12 X 4 = 50 psf (2,400 N/m2)

W in this expression is the total weight of the

Combining the dead and live loads together,
dome above its base. Substituting the value of
V in the expression of H we obtain
the total load per square foot of shell be-
comes approximately
H= WcosA
WT = 50 + 20 = 70 psf (3,350 N/m2)
21lr sin2A (8-5)
The total surface area of the dome, a, is
Substituting equations (8-2) and (8-5) into
(8-1), we obtain the recommended value for a = 21lr2 (1 - cos A)
the prestressing force at the tension ring as
follows: where

P = W . 80
SIn A= = 0.6575702
• 21l tan A (8-6) 121.66

Because this dome is isostatic, the edge of Thus,

the shell and the tension ring at the base must
not be rigidly connected, to avoid having A = 41.114825 deg.

217
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
And by substituting
a = 2n (121.66)2 (1 - cos 41.114825)
a = 22,922 sf (2,130 m 2)
the total dead plus live load for the whole
dome becomes
W = 22,922 X 70 = 1,604,568Ib (7,137 kN)
The recommended prestressing force in the
tension ring at the base of the dome can then
be calculated as
1,604,568
P=-------
s 2n tan (41.114825)
292,588.9 lb (1,302 kN) (8-7)
Again, remember that the tension ring in
this isostatic case must be hinged to the shell
edge. Otherwise the dome becomes hyper-
static and the expression just given is no
longer valid.
Prestressing in Hyperstatic Domes
Statically indeterminate (hyperstatic) domes
require different prestressing forces than
those required by statically determinate (iso-
static) domes. Domes can be hyperstatic for a
variety of reasons arising from the support
conditions. Having a rigid base ring around
its edge makes a dome hyperstatic even if the
ring itself is simply supported. This is caused,
it should be remembered, by the different
elastic behavior that occurs between the edge
of the shell and the much more rigid con-
crete ring. The condition that changes the
membrane stress theory in the area of the
shell near its edge introduces some bending
moments into this area of the shell.
To make the case simpler, it is assumed
that the geometry of the base ring, which is
rigidly connected to the shell, is such that the
meridional force N passes exactly through
the centroid of the beam.
Let us now determine the recommended
value of the prestressing force p. that is to be
218
applied at the base of the dome. Notice first
that the horizontal component of the meridi-
onal force N at the base would make the edge
of the shell move horizontally inward, away
from the edge ring, in an amount d. as given
by
2R
d = -(H - .uN)
• 2Et (8-8)
where
A: Angle at the center of the sphere con-
taining the dome between a vertical
radius and the radius passing through
the base of the dome
E: Modulus of elasticity of the material
of which the dome consists
H: Horizontal hoop force in the mem-
brane per ft of shell
N: Meridian force in the membrane per
ft of shell
R: Radius of the dome at its base: as
given in (8-2), R = r sin A
r: Radius of the sphere containing the
dome
t: Thickness of the shell
.u: Poisson's ratio
Notice that the edge ring is also stressed in
such a manner to move outward, i.e., away
from the shell edge, by an amount given as
N cos A (2R)2
dR = 4 Ebd (8-9)
where A, E, N, and R have been previously
defined
b: Width of the edge ring at the base of
the shell
d: Depth of the edge ring at the base of
the shell
Thus, the total gap between the edge of the
shell and its base ring would theoretically be
the sum of the two individual displacements
in the horizontal plane: (d R + d s). Thus, it is
evident that the prestressing force p. in the
base ring should be enough to close the
(dR + d s ) gap.
 Construction Aspects of Shells

The relationship between the prestressing
force and the gap is given by the following
expressIOn:
(8-10)
by means of a special jack. The solid cone is
then placed inside the hollow one and the
wires gripped in the grooves between the two
cones. As the wires tend to regain their origi-
nal length they pull the two cones together,
thus increasing the gripping force.

The Magnel System. This now-obsolete sys-

Then, substituting the values for .1R in equa-
tion (8-9) and .1s in equation (8-8) in the ex-
pression above and solving for Ps we obtain
bd
Ps = -(H - .uN) + N (cos A) R
t (8-11)
Observe that in the case of hyperstatic sup-
port conditions the prestressing force is ap-
proximately 5 to 19 percent higher than in
the equivalent isostatic case.
tem consists of conical wedging anchorages
to pull and stretch two wires at the same time,
thereby pushing against a pressure plate at
each end of the concrete member.
The Roebling System. Also now obsolete, this
technique for stretching a single cable in-
cludes two pressure plates, one at each end of
a concrete member, having a threaded hole
through which a turning screw pulls the
cable.

The Macalloy and Dywidag Systems. These

POSTTENSIONING methods are used to tension a steel rod rather
than wires or cables. The rod has threaded
ends and is pulled by turning two nuts that
In the posttensioning process, tendons are apply pressure on the concrete through pres-
inserted in the concrete member after it sure plates.
hardens and are then stretched between two Among the numerous anchorage systems
anchorages at the ends of the member. for posttensioning that are commercially
There are quite a number of types of anchor- available in various countries are the follow-
age currently available, but they all have de- ing worth mentioning:
veloped from a few basic types.
U.S.A.:
The Coyne System. This type consists of one The Anderson system
end anchorage obtained by embedding wires The Prescon system
directly into the concrete. Its success depends The Stressteel Bas system
on the bond between the steel and the con- The Stressteel Multistrand system
crete. The anchorage at the other end is a England:
steel anchor block that is pulled away from The CCL system
the concrete end during posttensioning and The McCall's Macalloy system
kept in place by inserting spacers between the The PSC (Freyssinet) system
block and the concrete end. This system is The Stress-Block system
usually used to secure dams and retaining The Stronghold system
walls to bedrock to prevent a structure from Germany:
sliding. The Dywidag system
The KA system
The Freyssinet System. This anchorage con- The Leoba system
sists of a hollow cone and a solid cone with The PZ system
grooves. The hollow cone is placed in a cavity Switzerland:
at the end of the concrete member, after The BBRV system
which wires are slid through it and stretched The VSL system

219
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies
8- 2 5 A posttensioned shell structure at the University of Illinois. One of the laraest concrete domes of
the time (1961). It is 400 ft. in diameter and is constructed in liahtweiaht concrete with a total
weiaht of 10,700 kips.
An example of a modern posttensioned
shell structure, at the University of Illinois,
Urbana (1961), is shown in Figure 8-25. The
architects were Harrison and Abramovitz;
structural engineers, Ammann and Whitney.
The ring at the base of this 400 ft diameter
dome was stressed with a reinforcement hav-
ing a cross section of 85 sq in of steel consist-
ing of 2,503 wires with a diameter of 0.236 in
each. The prestressing in the wires consisted
of 150,000 psi, which induced 1000 psi com-
pressive stress in the concrete base ring.
PROFESSIONAL GUIDANCE
FOR THIN-SHELL
DESIGN WORK
Usually outside the cultural sphere of influ-
ence of the United States it is hard to find
professional guidance in designing specific
structures requiring experience and judg-
ment that cannot reasonably be acquired in
conventional educational institutions. Build-
ing codes are usually the only source of guid-
ance around the world, but they seldom
220
enter into the final details of specific building
systems that constitute the avant-garde in the
design profession. Concrete thin-shell struc-
tures fall without a doubt into this category.
It is essential for structural designers of thin
shells to locate practical sources of informa-
tion to complement theory and to receive
practical guidance. In terms of scientific in-
formation and education, U.S. cultural and
professional organizations are clearly the best
sources. Their collections of information,
usually derived from scholarly papers pre-
sented at international symposia, are usually
processed and redistributed in a technically
applicable format. From highly scientific for-
mats to applicable routines that are easy to
apply, the professional literature published
by these organizations can be of extraordi-
nary help to any designer feeling isolated in
professional terms.
Because the design of thin shells does not
fall within conventional educational topics in
most architectural and engineering schools, it
is fundamental to point out in this context
the practical availability of technical litera-
ture from U.S. professional societies. This is
of special significance for professionals out-
side the United States and particularly for
those in developing countries, for apart from
 Construction Aspects of Shells
the glamor inherent in the geometry of thin
shells, these structures should be of great in-
terest to economically depressed countries.
The low cost of concrete and minimal
amount of material that thin shells require,
along with the labor this work will require,
make thin-shell construction important for
countries poor in materials but rich in un-
skilled labor.
Although it was founded in the United
States in 1903 and operates primarily there,
the American Concrete Institute (ACI) has
worldwide validity for anybody interested in
the various aspects of shell engineering. The
ACI constitutes a fundamental source for
guidelines covering the scientific aspects of
structural analysis and design, as well as tech-
nological aspects of construction and the
maintenance of structures. Because of the
general validity of the scientific role that
the ACI has assumed, the potential restric-
tions offered by local building codes do not
invalidate the practical importance of ACI
guidelines in other countries. Once the basic
concepts expressed in ACI publications are
understood, it is not hard to accommodate
the possible restrictions that local building
codes can legally impose.
The ACI is a professional society of some
nineteen thousand members that includes
practitioners in engineering and architecture
as well as educators and builders in these
fields. This wide spectrum of interested indi-
viduals includes those whose roles could be
either of producing knowledge and informa-
tion on concrete or benefiting from the dis-
semination of information and guidelines
that the Institute can provide. The Institute
is a technical organization dedicated to im-
proving the design and construction of con-
crete structures within the great multiplicity
of existing structural typologies, which runs
from conventional structures to the unique
and innovative, including thin shells.
The invaluable contributions of the ACI
to those working in concrete structures are
basically represented in the publications pro-
duced by the Institute, among which the
Codes of Standard Practice and accompany-
221
ing commentaries are fundamental guide-
lines essential to designers worldwide. The
126 ACI committees contribute to its pro-
duction of a number of technical reports in
addition to the codes, which are routinely
improved and updated. Chapter 19 of the
"Building Code Requirements for Rein-
forced Concrete " (ACI 318-89) is included
in the Appendix, with a reprint of Chapter
19, dealing with thin shells and folded plates.
Also included in the Appendix is a reprint of
the ACI commentary on the building codes
dealing with Chapter 19.
The Portland Cement Association,
founded in 1916, is another major organiza-
tion in the United States and Canada whose
main objectives include the promotion of
concrete structures. Supported by its mem-
bership of cement manufacturers, this orga-
nization produces numerous technical ser-
vices in the research and development of
concrete structures. Presently its seven dis-
trict offices in the United States and five in
Canada reach architects, engineers, and con-
tractors with information and product dem-
onstrations. Although the Portland Cement
Association's technical papers cannot strictly
speaking be called codes of standard practice
in the way the ACI codes are, they are ex-
tremely valuable practical guidelines for the
design of concrete structures, including, of
course, thin shells.
The International Association of Shell
Structures, as indicated by its name, was an
organization dedicated to the study of shell
structures that in their avant-garde status
would have benefited from the sharing of
data among scholars around the world. This
organization, founded in Spain, was origi-
nally promoted by Eduardo Torroja, whose
reputation in reinforced concrete structures,
and particularly in thin shells, had spread
beyond his own country. A new organization
eventually grew out of the original in 1959
by extending the field of interest from shell
structures per se to spatial structures. In so
doing the new organization changed its name
to the present International Association for
Shells and Spatial Structures (lASS).
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

The authority and prestige of this organi-
zation have been apparent from its inception
because of the scholars who joined it and the
worldwide international pool from which it
gathers experts together. The widespread in-
ternational character of the lASS, which
covers the world with its symposia, is ex-
pressed by the international sources that con-
tribute to the professional papers presented
at its meetings. The extremely wide scope of
the association includes the history of archi-
tecture, design concepts, structural design
theories, and construction aspects, resulting
in an efficient approach to the development
of shells within the professional circles involv-
ing these disciplines.

NOTES

1. From Schweizerische Bauzeitung (April 1950).

2. For further information see Michele Melaragno, Simplified Truss Design (Malabar, Florida, R. Krieger, 1986).
3. See, e.g., Paul E. Mast, "Construction of Precast Thin Shells and Folded Plates," Concrete Thin Shells, ACI
publication SP-28 (1971), and "Precast Dome: Circle Amid Squares," Engineering News Record 174:10 (Mar.
11, 1965).
4. See G. K. Khaidukov, "Development of Reinforced Concrete Dome Shells in the U.S.S.R.," Proceedings,
lASS Symposium, "Domes from Antiquity to the Present," Istanbul, May 30-June 3, 1988.

222
CHAPTER 9
Computer Analysis
THE FINITE METHOD
For the design of thin-shell and dome struc-
tures, finite analysis is the method usually
employed. For this reason the computer pro-
gram used here to solve thin-shell and dome
problems is GT STRUDL, which stands for
Georgia Tech Structural Design Language.
GT STRUDL, which has a large capability to
solve complex problems through the finite
analysis method, is a computer program de-
veloped between 1975 and 1977 as an exten-
9-1 A schematic representation of a simply supported shell showino an isostatic condition.
of Shells and Domes
sion of the original STRUDL programs de-
veloped at MIT from 1965 to 1972. The
following example provides the guidelines
necessary for the practical application of this
program to any structural shell of various
configurations. Following the example step
by step will make it clear how to prepare the
necessary input.
EXAMPLE: Consider a circular dome that is
part of a sphere whose radius Rw = 125 ft
(38.10 m). The dome, shown in Figure 9-1,
has a radius Rb = 100 ft (30.48 m) at its base
h=50 ft (15.24 m)
223
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

and a height h = 50 ft (15.24 m) at its crown.
The origin of the xyz coordinate system coin-
cides with the center of the sphere. The hori-
zontal axes are x and y, with the vertical axis
being z, directed upward. All the supports at
the base have an elevation of 75 ft (22.85 m)
above the point of origin, with the crown
having an elevation of 125 ft (38.10 m). For
this analysis the dome will be subdivided into
360 finite elements. The dome is subdivided
by 10 horizontal hoops that are each at a
given elevation above the point of origin: at
75.000 ft (22.85 m) for the base, then at
83.938 ft, 92.154 ft, 99.578 ft, 106.147 ft,
111.893 ft, 116.499 ft, 120.194 ft, 122.856
ft, 124.463 ft and finally at the point of the
crown, at 125.000 ft (38.10 m). Each hoop
contains 36 nodes so that the total number of
nodes, including those at the crown, is 361
(see Fig. 9-2).
The surface is divided into 360 elements
(Fig. 9-3) arranged so that there are 36 ele-
ments between two consecutive hoops. The
incidence of each element is given by the
nodes at each corner of the element, taken in
a clockwise direction. For example, element

"LOAD DL*LL MeN Itl.n 1" .2 126 HORIZONTAL FT Ul<ITS PER l"eN
14 . 2126 VUT/CAl FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATION' Z ••• v •.• ~ a.,

361

9-2 Computer-nenerated drawinn showinn a simple supported dome all around its edne at the base.

178.5512 HORIZONTAL IN UNITS PER IHCH

17' .55 12 VERTICAL ,N LtlITS PER INCH
ROTATlOIU Z •. a v ••• x •••

9-3 A computer drawinn of an underformed structure showinn its elements shrunk.

224
 Computer Analjrsis of Shells and Domes

1 has an incidence of 1, 2, 38, and 37 (see
Fig. 9-4). Element 360, whose shape is trian-
gular, has an incidence of 360,325, and 361
(see Figs. 9-5 and 9-6). The elements are not
all equal and are of two different types. The
elements from 1 to 324 inclusively, as shown
in Figures 9-7 to 9-9, are all shaped as similar
quadrilaterals and identified as type SBQH6.
From 325 through 360, all around the
crown, as shown in Figure 9-10, the elements
are all similar triangles, identified as SBHT6.
The thickness of the dome is constant over

22.8676 HORIZOHTAL FT UNITS PER INCH

22.8676 UERTICAL FT UNITS PER IHCH
ROTATIONI Z e.. v e.. x 27e.e

9-4 A dome with its joints labeled from 1 throunh 252.

225
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

its entire surface at 5 in (127 mm). The dead
load on the shell, including the concrete shell
itself, the roofing, the ceiling, and other ele-
ments is 150 psf (7.19 kPa), which is oriented
in the z direction and applied on each ele-
ment. The live load is applied on each ele-
ment in the z direction in the amount of 30
psf (1.44 kPa). Note that there is a significant
difference between the dead and live loads.
In accordance with the general assump-
tions of this example problem, this dome is
assumed to be simply supported around the
edge at its base. All the supports on the
ground can therefore provide only vertical

7.8~97HORIZONTAL FT UNITS FER INCH

7.8497 VERTICAL FT UHITS PER INCH
ROTATION: Z 0.0 V 0.0 X 270.0

253 254

9-5 A dome with its joints labeled from 253 throuoh 324.

226
 Computer Ana{ysis of Shells and Domes

reactions, that is, in the z direction. Since the
joints are considered fully restrained, they
must be released from the horizontal reac-
tion components in the x and y directions and
from any restraining moment.
The apex of the dome, joint 361, is as-
sumed to generate horizontal reactions in the
x and y directions, but none vertically. This
joint is thus released accordingly, as indicated
in the computer printout.
The so-called incidence of each element is
the identification of the element in terms of
the nodes Goints) constituting the vertices of
the element. Thus, in writing the incidence

2.6468 HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH

2.6~68 VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH

ROTATION: Z 0.0 Y 0.0 X 270.0

360 325 326

9-6 A dome with its joints labeled from 325 throunh 360.

227
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

for each element, the node Uoint) number of
each vertex is written.
As mentioned, elements 1 through 324
are tra~zoidal, thus they have four vertices.
Elements 325 though 360 are triangular, so
that they have only three vertices.
Output: It is impossible to reproduce here
the entire output for this example, but fortu-
nately the symmetry of the geometry and of
the loading of the dome make it unnecessary
to cover all the elements and nodes. For this
reason, provided below are only selected e1e-

22.29~O HORIZOHTAL FT l~.ITS PER INCH

22.2948 VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATIONS Z e.e V e..
x 27•• '

9-7 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 1 throuoh 216.

228
 Computer Analjrsis of Shells and Domes

ments within two adjacent meridians that go
from base to crown. These two meridians can
be identified by the nodes that they connect:
1,37,73,109,145,181,217,253,289,325,
and 361 for the first one and 2, 38, 74, 110,
146, 182, 218, 254, 290, 326, and 361 for
the second. The elements within these merid-
ians, starting from the base and proceeding
toward the crown are: 1, 37, 73, 109, 145,
181, 217, 253, 289, and 325. Therefore, the
results listed hereafter will be limited mostly
to those for the preceding elements. All the

1'.1812 HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH

19.1812 VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATION: Z e., v 8.8 x 278.0

9-8 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 217 through 288.

229
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

numerical values in the output are expressed direction of the meridians.

in pounds or feet, as applicable, since these
were the active units specified. The reference
system used for the output, which is referred
to as the planar system, includes in this case
an x-x axis on the plane element along the
direction of the hoops and a y-y axis in the
In this output SXX is the hoop force, in
tension or compression, acting on a cross-sec-
tion 1 ft (305 mm) in length and 5 in (127
mm) in thickness (see Fig. 9-11).
SYY is the meridional force (compression)
acting on a cross-section that is 1 ft in length

5.1387 HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH

5.1381 UERTICAl FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATION: Z e.e V e.e X 270.0

9-9 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 289 throuah 324.

230
 Computer Analysis of Shells and Domes

and 5 in in thickness. the shell acting on the specified cross-

SXY is the shear force within the plane of
the shell applied on the same cross-sections to
which the hoop force and the meridian force
are applied.
In Figure 9-12, VXX and VYY are the
shear forces perpendicular to the surface of
sections.
MXX is the bending moment acting
perpendicular to the x-x axis, that is, in
the direction of the meridian, acting on the
same-sized cross-section lying along the
hoops.

z
L~ HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH
2.S8e~
VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH
2.S8e~
ROTATION: Z e.e V e., x 270.0

9-10 A dome with its finite elements labeled from 325 throuah 360.

231
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

SXY

..
)
SXX SXX

J SXY

.. SYX

9-11 A oraphic illustration of axial and shear stresses.

MYV

.... o VYV

°1-
..
MXX

MXY

MXX

VYV®

----I.~.~ MYV

9-1 2 A oraphic illustration of bendino stresses.

232
STRUDL I DOME I I SHELL ANALYSIS OF DOME I
$
$ FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF DOME
$ THE VERTICAL AXIS OF THE DOME IS THE GLOBAL Z AXIS
$
TYPE PLATE
UNIT FEET DEGREES
$
$ SPECIFY MATERIAL PROPERTIES
$
MATERIAL CONCRETE CONSTANT STANDARD VALUES
$
$ TURN OFF OUTPUT FROM AUTOMATIC GENERATION OF COORDINATES AND
$ INCIDENCES
$
PRINT GENERATE OFF
$
$ 53. 13 DEGREES IS THE ANGLE OF THE SWEEP FROM THE TRUE
$ CENTER OF THE SPHERE (75 FT BELOW THE GROUND) AND THE
$ GROUND TO THE TOP OF THE SPHERE.
$
$=============================================
$ THE FOLLOWING COMMANDS WILL GENERATE ALL THE COORDINATES
$ FOR 361 JOINTS. THE GENERATION IS DONE IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES
$ AND THEN CONVERTED INTO CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
$
GENERATE 36 JOINTS SPHERICAL Z ID 1,1 R 125. PZ 53.13 TZ O. ,10.
MODIFY 9 ID 36 PY -5.313
JOINT 361 COORD Z 125
$
$=============================================
$
$
$=============================================
$
$ THE FOLLOWING COMMANDS WILL GENERATE ALL THE ELEMENT INCIDENCES FOR
$ THE QUADRILATERAL AND TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS
$
$ GENERATE QUADRILATERAL FINITE ELEMENTS
$
GENERATE 35 ELEMENTS ID 1, 1 FROM 1, 1 TO 2, 1 TO 38,1 TO 37,1
MODIFY 8 ID 36 FROM 36 TO 36 TO 36 TO 36
GENERATE 9 ELEMENTS ID 36,36 FROM 36,36 TO 1,36 TO 37,36 TO 72,36
$
$ GENERATE TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS AT TOP
$
GENERATE 35 ELEMENTS ID 325,1 FROM 325,1 TO 326,1 TO 361,0
ELEMENTS 360 INCIDENT 360 325 361
$
$=============================================
$
$ SUPPORT ALL THE JOINTS AT THE BASE AND THEN ADD JOINT RELEASES TO HINGE
$ THE BASE
$
ST ATUS SUPPORT 1 TO 36
$
JOINT RELEASES
1 TO 36 MOMENT X Y Z

9-13a Running the program: a printout (input). The symbol "$" indicates the insertion of a
comment; this insertion will not affect the program and will not be read by the computer.

233
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

MYY is the bending moment acting per- The values for the individual forces S, V,
pendicular to the y-y axis, that is, in the di- and M are given at each node according to
rection of the hoops, acting on a cross-section the elements of which the node is a part.
that is 1 ft long and 5 in thick lying along the Since these values differ from element to ele-
meridians. ment, the practical value to use would be an
$
$==============================================
$
$==============================================
$
$ SPECIFY THE TYPE OF ELEMENT AND THE THICKNESS
$
UNITS INCHES
ELEMENT PROPERTIES
1 TO 324 TYPE' SBHQ6' THICKNESS 5. $ QUADRILATERAL ELEMENTS
325 TO 360 TYPE 'SBHT6' THICKNESS 5. $ TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS
$
$==============================================
$
$
$==============================================
$
$ SPECIFY LOADING CONDITIONS
$
UNIT FEET POUNDS
LOAD 'DL' 'DEAD LOAD'
ELEMENT LOAD
1 TO 360 BODY FORCES GLOBAL BZ -150 $ LBS/FT**3
$
LOAD 'LL' 'LIVE LOAD'
ELEMENT LOAD
1 TO 360 SURFACE FORCES PROJECTED PZ -30 $ PSF
$
LOADING COMBINATION 'DL+LL' 'DEAD LOAD + LIVE LOAD' COMBINE 'DL' 1. 'LL' 1.
$
$==============================================
$
$
$==============================================
$
$ PERFORM ANALYSIS, OUTPUT RESULTS AND SAVE DATA BASE FOR FURTHER USE SUCH
$ AS GRAPHICAL DISPLAY OF DEFORMED SHAPE OR CONTOUR PLOTTING.
$
STIFFNESS ANALYSIS
$
LIST DISP
$
LIST STRESSES
$
CALCULATE AVERAGE STRESSES TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM SURFACES
$
SAVE I DOMEANAL I
$
$==============================================
FINISH

9-3b Runnina the proaram: a printout (input) (continued).

234
 Computer Ana&,sis of Shells and Domes

LOADING· DL+LL DEAD LOAD + LIVE LOAD

RESULTANT JOINT DISPLACEMENTS SUPPORTS

JOINT / .. ... ·DISPLACEMENT··
X DISP Y DISP Z DISP

GLOBAL O. 0000000 a 0000000 0000000

GLOBAL o 0000000 O. 0000000 a 0000000
GLOBAL o 0000000 a 0000000 O. 0000000
4 GLOBAL 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
5 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 O. 0000000
6 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 a 0000000
7 GLOBAL O. 0000000 0000000 a 0000000
8 GLOBAL o 0000000 O. 0000000 a 0000000
9 GLOBAL a 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
10 GLOBAL a 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
II GLOBAL O. 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
12 GLOBAL 0.0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
13 GLOBAL a 0000000 0.0000000 o 0000000
14 GLOBAL 0000000 a 0000000 0.0000000
15 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 0000000
16 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 . 0000000
17 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 0000000
18 GLOBAL O. 0000000 0000000 a 0000000
19 GLOBAL a 0000000 0000000 a 0000000
20 GLOBAL O. 0000000 0000000 a 0000000
21 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 a 0000000
22 GLOBAL 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
23 GLOBAL 0.0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
24 GLOBAL a 0000000 O. 0000000 a 0000000
25 GLOBAL a 0000000 O. 0000000 a 0000000
26 GLOBAL o. 0000000 O. 0000000 O. 0000000
27 GLOBAL 0.0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
28 GLOBAL a 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
29 GLOBAL 0.0000000 O. 0000000 a 0000000
30 GLOBAL a 0000000 O. 0000000 a 0000000
31 GLOBAL a 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
32 GLOBAL a 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
33 GLOBAL o 0000000 O. 0000000 o 0000000
34 GLOBAL 0000000 a 0000000 a 0000000
35 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 0000000
36 GLOBAL 0000000 0000000 0000000

LOADING· DL+LL DEAD LOAD + LIVE LOAD

ELEMENT STRESSES
ELEMENT
NODE 1 SXX ·0 285921E+04 SYY -0 167305E+05 SXY -0. 162354E+03
MXX O. 189720E+03 MYY -0. 154592E+03 MXY O. 131623E+03 VXX 0.106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 2 SXX ·0 285921E+04 SYY -0 167305E+05 SXY O. 162361E+03
MXX O. 189717E+03 MYY -0. 154588E+03 MXY -0. 131624E+03 VXX -0.106418E+03 VYY 156598E+03
NODE 38 SXX -0 276891E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY 0 174147E+03
MXX 0 309075E+03 MYY 0 .652732E+03 MXY a 150687E+03 VXX -0 9B5700E+02 VYY -0.301232E+03
NODE 37 SXX -0 276881E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY -0.174141E+03
MXX 0 309080E+03 MYY 0 .652735E+03 MXY -0 150687E+03 vxx 985708E+02 VYY ·0 301232E+03

NODE 2 SXX -0. 2B5921E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY -0 162360E+03

MXX O. 189718E+03 MYY -0. 154592E+03 MXY 0.131624E+03 VXX 0.106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 3 SXX -0 285921E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY O. 162363E+03
MXX 0.189719E+03 MYY -0 . 154594E+03 MXY -0. 131625E+03 VXX -0. 106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 39 SXX -0 276879E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY 0.174151E+03
MXX 0 309077E+03 MYY 0 . 652737E+03 MXY O. 150686E+03 VXX -0. 9B5708E+02 VYY -0 301232E+03
NODE 38 SXX -0 276879E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY -0.174146E+03
MXX 0 309076E+03 MYY 0 . 652732E+03 MXY ·0 150684E+03 VXX 985700E+02 VYY ·0. 301232E+03

NOOE 3 SXX -0. 285921E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY -0. 162368E+03
MXX O. 189717E+03 MYY -0. 154589E+03 MXY 0 131623E+03 VXX O. 106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 4 SXX -0. 285920E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY O. 162359E+03
MXX O. 189717E+03 MYY -0. 154591E+03 MXY -0 . 131623E+03 VXX -0. 106418E+03 VYY 156597E+03
NODE 40 SXX -0. 276878E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY 0.174145E+03
MXX a . 309076E+03 MYY 0 652734E+03 MXY O. 150687E+03 VXX -0 985704E+02 Vyy -0 301232E+03
NODE 39 SXX -0. 276878E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY -0 174157E+03
MXX 0 .309077E+03 MYY 0 . 652732E+03 MXY -0 150687E+03 vxx 985704E+02 VYY ·0 301232E+03

NODE 4 SXX -0 285921E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY -0. 162361E+03

MXX O. 189719E+03 MYY -0 154594E+03 MXY O. 131624E+03 VXX O. 106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 5 SXX -0 285921E+04 SYY -0. 167305E+05 SXY O. 162370E+03
MXX O. 189718E+03 MYY -0. 154591E+03 MXY -0. 131625E+03 VXX -0. 106418E+03 VYY O. 156597E+03
NODE 41 SXX -0 276877E+04 SYY -0. 152245E+05 SXY O. 174158E+03
MXX 0 309077E+03 MYY 0 652735E+03 MXY 0 . 150686E+03 VXX -0 985705E+02 VYY ·0.30 1232E+03
NODE 40 SXX ·0 276877E+04 SYY -0 . 152245E+05 SXY ·0 174147E+03
MXX a 309077E+03 MYY 0 652737E-;-03 MXY ·0 . 150686E+03 VXX 985705E+02 Vyy -0. 301232E+03

9-14 a (above) and b (below). Other examples of typical printouts.

235
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

H~ "10 CONTOUR STEP see.eeee L8,FEET

LO OL+LL MIN -5820.88 MX -U88.56
Z

Lx 24.6913 HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH

24.6913 VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATION: X I.'
V , . , Z e.e

9-15 Contour of the NXZ resultant.

average. Examples of typical printouts are Displacements at the Base

shown in Figures 9-13 and 9-14. Contours Under the effect of loads, the nodes or joints
for particular resultants are shown in Figures on a dome are displaced from their original
9-15 and 9-16. positions because of elastic deformation in
the structure. These displacements are ex-

236
 Computer Anao/sis of Shells and Domes

HVV MID COHTOUR STEP Zee.Beee LB,FEET

lD Dlf LL MIN -6971. 86 !'lAX -537-4.60
STEPBASE -52ee.ee
Z

Lx 24.6913 HORIZONTAL FT UNITS PER INCH

24.6913 VERTICAL FT UNITS PER INCH
ROTATION: Z e., v •• e X e.e

9-16 Contour of the MXX resultant.

pressed in terms of the movement of their
components in the x, y, and z directions.
The first nodes to be analyzed are the sup-
ports on the ground, numbered from 1
through 36. The first hoop on the ground
constitutes the edge of the base of the dome,
which must be in tension, regardless of the
stress conditions in the hoops above. The dis-
placement of each node occurs along radial
directions. Because of the orientation of the
two horizontal axes x and y, the radial dis-
placement of nodes 1 and 19 have ranged
from +0.423 in to -0.423 in, the positive
and negative signs being in respect to the
orientations of the axes. These displacements
are centrifugal. Since the y axis is positive in

237
 Concrete Shells: Fundamentals and Case Studies

the direction of node 1, the centrifugal dis- ment of node 1 in the y direction is inward.
placement of this node must be positive, with Some of the negative displacements for the
that of node 19 required to be negative. nodes aligned with node 1 are inward, some
Similarly, we can see that the positive dis- outward. From the computer output can be
placement of node lOis in the direction of seen the following:
the x axis, equal to +0.423 in, and the nega-
tive displacement of node 28, also on the x
axis, is likewise equal to -0.423 in, in which DISPLACE-
MENT
both displacements are centrifugal. All the NODE HOOP /:;. (ft) (mm)
nodes on the ground have 0 vertical (z direc- 1 1 -0.0352500 inward (10.74)
tion) displacement. 37 2 +0.0056879 outward (1. 73)
Horizontal displacement can be calculated 73 3 -0.0080555 inward (2.45)
109 4 -0.0058910 inward (1.80)
by adding vectorally the displacement com- 145 5 -0.0041729 inward (1.27)
ponents of any of these nodes in the x and y 181 6 -0.0029016 inward (0.88)
directions. 217 7 -0.0008663 inward (0.26)
253 8 +0.0011710 outward (0.36)
289 9 +0.0042273 outward (1.29)
325 10 +0.0197200 outward (6.01)
Displacement at the Apex 361 11 0.0000000 (0.00)

Node 361, at the apex ofthe dome, which is

supported horizontally (in the x and y direc-
tions) for the stability of the dome, can have
only vertical displacement. This is indicated
to be -0.0049866 ft (1.52 mm), with the
negative sign indicating that the displace-
ment is downward.
Free Nodes Horizontal Displacement
Free-Node Vertical Displacement
The nature of the vertical load makes the
meridional forces displace the nodes verti-
cally downward, in the z direction. This dis-
placement is equal for all the nodes on the
same hoop, but it varies for each hoop, as
follows:

Except for the nodes at the base, on the

ground (1 through 36) and the one at the DISPLACEMENT
apex (361), all other nodes are considered HOOP /:;. (ft) (mm)
free nodes, meaning that they are not re- 1 0.00000000
strained and can develop displacement in 2 0.0004739 (0.14)
3 0.0009254 (0.28)
both the horizontal (x and y) and vertical (z) 4 0.0019862 (0.61)
directions. 5 0.0028090 (0.86)
In addition to the tenth hoop on the 6 0.0035658 (1.09)
7 0.0042311 (1.29)
ground which acts as a tension ring at the 8 0.0047663 (1.45)
base, there are nine other horizontal hoops, 9 0.0052590 (1.60)
each containing 36 nodes. Because of the 10 0.0050568 (1.54)
Apex 0.0049866 (1.52)
geometric configuration of the spherical
dome, which is less than a hemisphere, the Readers interested in all the numerical values may write
the author for a copy of the full program or obtain a
hoops are in compression, as indicated by the complete output by running the input through an IBM
displacements at each hoop, which are in- computer using the Georgia Tech STRUDL program.
Contact the Department of Civil Engineering at the
ward. To see this consider that the displace- Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta or its various
ments of nodes 73, 109, 145, 181, and 217 affiliates.
Because the entire program cannot be reproduced here,
are aligned with nodes 1 and 361 on the y-z only those elements between meridians I and 2 (that is, I,
vertical plane. The radial horizontal displace- !l7, 7!l, 109, 145, 181,217, 25!l, 289, and !l25) are shown.

238
 Part III
Practical Aids for the
Preliminmy DesiEJIl of
Thin Shells
CHAPTER 10
Empirical DesiEJIl cf Masomy Vaultin8
Architecture is architecture, regardless of its
date of execution. Masonry vaults and domes
from all periods can coexist in the vocabulary
of an ageless architecture that will always
have meaning. Masonry vaults and domes in
fact opened the way to the understanding of
the validity of using curvilinear forms in
space, which solved the problem of building
long-span roofing structures in heavy, dura-
ble materials, in place of perishable wooden
structures, which could not survive indefi-
nitely.
It is interesting to speculate about what
generated the physical design of the overall
shape, span, height, thickness, supports, and
so on for the classical vaults and domes. How
did the builders of the Pantheon find the
confidence to place so many tons of masonry
and concrete overhead without fearing col-
lapse? How did Brunelleschi devise the con-
struction techniques for building the dome of
Santa Maria del Fiore without using any cen-
tering? To some extent, architectural trea-
tises had tried to codify rules and guidelines
for design. Thus, in the absence of scientific
theories at the time the only possible conclu-
sion is that early designers and builders pro-
ceeded along empirical lines. By observing
previous structures as case studies, some gen-
eral concepts eventually emerge. For in-
stance, Carlo Fontana's rules for domes, dis-
241
cussed below, were based on a retrospective
analysis of case studies. It was only with Gio-
vanni Poleni in the late eighteenth century
that a more scientific approach to design
began to take shape.
EMPIRICAL RULES
Empirical rules derive from experience accu-
mulated over the course of centuries and
form the basic guidelines that the master
builders of the past used to design vaulting
before the coming of the scientific era. The
basic criteria for applying the rules recom-
mending the sizes of individual components
are based on the overall dimensions of the
structure and knowledge of the materials to
be used. The use of empirical methods was
made possible by recognizing the exact wood
species, type of rocks, and the like, and by
assessing the characteristics of the materials
for their assumed strength, durability, and
even deformations in comparison with the
problem at hand. The underlying assumption
was that if it had worked before, it would also
work in a similar case at hand. This was the
general approach of the practical architect or
master builder used to solving problems that
would probably frighten the average present-
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

day engineer who depends more on scientific
knowledge than experience. Many of these
rules, known among the building trades and
passed along from generation to generation,
were not codified and were subject to inter-
pretation and change according to the ap-
proach of the individual builder. Only in the
Renaissance, with the beginning of scientific
methodology, did some of these rules of
thumb come to be expressed gradually and
more clearly by theoreticians in the building
sciences. Several Italian architects wrote ar-
chitectural treatises and dissertations that
codified and explained many of these rules in
scientific terms.
masonry domes. He described some of the
relationships between the clear span (internal
diameter) of a masonry dome and certain
other geometric elements, such as the radius
of the intrados and extrados, the diameter of
the lantern, the thickness of the dome at its
base and of the drum, and how to locate the
center for the intrados curve and extrados
curve. Although these observations were
merely empirical and without scientific ratio-
nale, these rules produced gigantic domes
such as that of St. Peter's in Rome, which is
still standing safely, despite cracks that devel-
oped centuries ago.

Blondel's Rule for Vault Abutments

Fontana's Rules for Domes
Carlo Fontana (1634-1714), (not to be con-
fused with Domenico Fontana, the engineer
and architect who built the dome of St.
Peter's from a wooden model left by Michel-
angelo) codified some of the rules he had
derived from analyzing the construction of
Among the empirical formulas devised for
designing vaults and arches is a rule attrib-
uted to Jacques Fran~ois Blondel (1705-
1744) that is basically empirical in nature and
furnished a starting point, in the absence of
any other guiding rules. The technique is
theoretical and does not consider materials'

10-1 An illustration of Jacques Franfois Blondel's eiahteenth-century

formula for establishina the width of abutments for vaults and arches.

242
 Empirical Desinn of Masonry Vaultinn
characteristics and construction details. The
rule provides a geometric method that can be
used to calculate the widths of abutments for
vaults and arches, but no other members. Its
application, illustrated in Figure 10-1, can be
summarized as follows. Taking the vault or
arch in question, inscribe an isosceles trape-
zoid in it, with the upper base and two sides
of equal length. Extend one of the sides of
the trapezoid downward for a length equal to
its own length, then consider the horizontal
projection that will give the required thick-
ness for the abutment.
SHAPE OPTIMIZATION
The concept that form and mass constitute
the basic elements of any structural composi-
tion is also applicable to thin shells. Probably
because of their high efficiency, the relation-
ship of mass to form is most significant in
these structures. In this case geometry pre-
vails, allowing dramatic reductions in the
mass of the material needed. This becomes
particularly obvious if one experiments in a
simple, intuitive manner. Almost any struc-
tural designer has noted the rigidity that can
be obtained from a thin piece of cardboard if
it is properly folded.
Historically, an intuitive understanding of
the contributions of geometry to structural
strength can probably be traced back to eigh-
teenth-century experiments. Then, consider-
ations of shapes for arches and domes on the
basis of the loads to be superimposed on
these structures were substantially developed
by the Venetian nobleman, Marquis Gio-
vanni Poleni (1685-1761). This nobleman
became a philosopher, humanist, theologian,
physicist, mathematician, and professor of as-
tronomy at the University of Padua by the
time he was twenty-five. He discovered that
the funicular polygon of equally spaced loads
is a catenary that is very close to a paraboloid.
Therefore, arches and domes constructed to
follow this configuration have meridional
axial forces of compression only, which pass
243
through the centroid of the cross-sections of
the structure.
In a 1748 work I Poleni showed graphi-
cally the composition of two forces by the
rule of the parallelogram, according to the
graphic statics of today. In one figure he
showed the diagramatic composition of an
arch consisting of spherical elements that
could transfer only normal loads from one to
the other. He showed clearly the composition
of the gravity force in each element with the
force coming from the element above. In so
doing he determined from the top of the
structure down to its abutments the resultant
line of thrust through the structure.
EMPIRICAL RULES
FOR BUCKLING
Structural failure under compressive loads
that is caused by geometric instability in the
material is called buckling. This phenome-
non occurs not only in such linear structures
as beams, columns, and struts but also in
planar structures like plates and in spatial
structures such as thin shells.
Although thin shells gain substantial stiff-
ness from their curvature, which of course is
one of their fundamental inherent character-
istics, they are still vulnerable to the critical
effects of buckling. Often buckling rather
than the allowable membrane stress turns out
to be the controlling factor in establishing a
required minimum thickness for a given thin
shell.
Formulas to determine allowable buckling
loads are presented below. These formulas
are particularly valid for use in preliminary
design and are simple to use. Their nature is
partly empirical in that they have a tangible
validity that is supported by experience
rather than theoretical assumptions. It is im-
portant to note that strictly theoretical for-
mulas do not always provide answers that are
in accord with actual tests, so that empirical
formulas are the ones that are in fact prac-
tically used. These formulas vary according
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desinn of Thin Shells
to the different types of shells; spherical
(domes), rotational (in general), translational
(synclastic), and barrel types. Of these only
the spherical and the barrel are considered
here.
Buckling in Spherical Domes
The empirical formula to determine the load
that would cause a spherical dome to buckle
is as follows: 2
K E t2
WeT = (4)2
where.
W CT= Critical distributed load, in psi, on
the dome, either as dead load or live
load or a combination. Although one
load is distributed over one sf of the
dome and the other over one sf of
horizontal projection, they are not
differentiated here, to simplify this
approximated formula.
K = Coefficient that varies from 0.30 for
hemispherical domes to 0.15 for
shallow domes (with a rise equal to
1/10 the base diameter)
E = Modulus of elasticity, in psi
t = Thickness of the dome, in inches
r = Radius of the sphere, in inches
The allowable load would of course be
only a fraction of the critical load that would
cause the buckling of the dome. This fraction
could vary between 1/2 and 1/3. With the latter,
the most conservative case, the allowable load
to prevent buckling in a spherical dome be-
comes
1 t2
wall=-K E2'
3 r
where Wall is in psi. The other quantities were
previously defined.
EXAMPLE: Check the stability against buck-
ling of a spherical dome with a 50 ft (15.2 m)
244
diameter at its base and a 20 ft (6.1 m) rise at
its crown that has a thickness of 4 in (10 cm)
and carries a live load of 30 psf (1.44 kPa).
Solution: Since the dome is close to being
hemispherical, K = 0.3, E is found by E = 33
wl. 5 -IPC where w = the unit weight of con-
crete (in pef) and r c = the ultimate strength
of the concrete at 28 days (in psi). Then, by
substituting we find that E = 33 (150)1.5
~4,000 = 3,834,000 psi. Then r = 25.625
ft = 307.5 in. Finally, we can determine the
allowable load by substituting
W a ll=1/3 X.3 X 3,834,000 X (307.5)2
65 psi=
9,342 psf (0.45 MPa)
However, the actual distributed load is
(150 X 0/12) + 30 = 80 psf. Because 80 psf
«9,342 psf, the shell is quite stable against
buckling.
Buckling in Long Barrels
A long barrel shell acts like a simply sup-
ported beam spanning from one supporting
arch to another generating longitudinal com-
pression forces near its top, with longitudinal
tension forces near the bottom. Buckling can
thus occur in the zone of maximum compres-
sion, which is the longitudinal strip that goes
from one arch to the other near the crown.
The empirical formula for the critical load
that can produce buckling is as follows:
where
W CT= Critical distributed load, in psi, on
the barrel, either as dead load or live
load or a combination.
K=0.6
E = Modulus of elasticity, in psi
t = Thickness of the barrel, in inches
r = Radius of the supporting arches, in
inches
 Empirical Desinn of Masonry Vaultinn
The allowable load would be only a frac-
tion of the critical load causing the buckling
of the barrel, varying as before between 1/2
and 1/3. Again taking the latter as the more
conservative case, the allowable load to pre-
vent buckling in a long barrel becomes
1 t2
W =-K E-
.I1 3 r2
where W.I1 is in psf and the other quantities
are as previously defined.
EXAMPLE: Check the stability against buck-
ling of a long concrete barrel shell that is
supported at each end by circular arches hav-
ing a 50 ft (15.2 m) span and a 20 ft (6.1 m)
rise. The shell is assumed to be 4 in (10 em)
thick and carry a live load of 30 psf (1.44
kPa).
Solution: The value of K = 0.6 (constant).
E is found from the equation. E = 33 W1.5 ../PC
where w = the unit weight of concrete (in
pcf) and f' c = the ultimate strength of con-
crete at 28 days (in psi). Then we find by
substituting that E = 33 (150)1.5 ..'4,000 =
3,834,000 psi and t = 4 in and we calculate
r = 307.5 in.
Finally, by substituting we determine that
(4)2
w.I1 = 1/3 X 0.6 X 3,834,000 X ---'--'---
(307.5)2
130 psi= 18,684 psf (0.9 MPa)
However, the actual distributed load is
(150 X '¥'12) + 30 = 80 psf. In conclusion, be-
cause 80 psf < < 18,684 psf, the shell is quite
stable against buckling.
FUNICULAR POLYGONS
THROUGH THREE POINTS
The catenary curve attained by suspending
loads from a string under tension is one of
the most practical empirical methods for de-
termining the exact shape wanted in a tensile
245
structure. The method is of course equally
valid to determine the optimal shape of an
arch in pure compression under the same
loads when the catenary curve is reversed
from this concave to a convex configuration.
Corresponding to this empirical method
of modeling is the graphic method of draw-
ing funicular polygons, which is widely
enough known to require no further descrip-
tion. However, in using the funicular poly-
gon to determine the configuration of a cable
or arch it is necessary to follow a special pro-
cedure to establish the location of a certain
pole. In constructing a force polygon a pole P
is selected arbitrarily, with the resulting
funicular polygon being one of many belong-
ing to a specific family of curves. Among the
curves in this family there is one in particular
that passes through three specific points that
together identify the desired configuration of
the cable or arch. These three points coin-
cide with the two supports at each end and
with either the lowest or highest point corre-
sponding to the sag of a cable or rise of an
arch. The description that follows briefly
outlines the method for determining the new
pole P'
Establish first the location of the two sup-
ports X and Z and the location of the vertical
loads. Now draw a force polygon, using an
arbitrary pole P, and draw a funicular poly-
gon (see Fig. 10-2). Then draw vertical lines
through supports X and Z and through the
loads. Next find X' and Z' as the intersections
of the vertical lines through X and Z and the
funicular polygon. Then locate point Y (in
reference to X and Z) which defines the sag
or rise of the cable or arch. Now draw a
vertical line through Y that intersects the
funicular polygon at point Y'. Draw lines X Y
and Z Y. From pole P draw line m parallel to
line X Y and then find point A, which is the
intersection of line m and the force line in the
force polygon. Similarly, from point P draw
line n parallel to line Z Y and find point B,
the intersection of line n and the force line in
the force polygon. Through point A now
draw a line m' parallel to line X'Y'. Similarly,
through point B draw a line n' parallel to line
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

0.2

~
"", ~

k" V
foo""'"
"
i"'"
V
~
V
0.1
/
Y

o
o· 100' 200' 300'

DOME DIAMETER IN FEET

10-2 The funicular po!Yaon throuah three points.

Z'Y'. The intersection of line m' and line n'
will then locate the new pole P'.
Using the pole P', construct now a new
funicular polygon. This polygon will be the
exact configuration of the cable or arch that
has the desired span and sag or rise.
included in the building code in the area for
which the structure is being designed or can
be found in prepared charts. s Next calculate
the dynamic pressure q (psf) from the follow-
ing expression:
q = 0.00256 V2

WIND FORCES where V is the velocity of the wind in mph.

Wind forces on domes can be calculated fol-
lowing procedures similar to those for any
other building configuration. The method is
basically empirical because it depends on test-
ing made on aerodynamic models. A practi-
cal step-by-step procedure is as follows: First,
attain the wind velocity value which is either
The wind pressure at any point of a spher-
ical building p (psf) can be found from the
following expression:
p=q XCpe
Where Cpe is the coefficient for external pres-
sure found at each point (see prepared
charts4 ).

246
 Empirical Desion of Masonry Vaultino

NOTES

1. See Giovanni Poleni, Memorie Istoriche della Gran Cupola del Tempio Vaticano, 1748.
2. See Mario Salvadori and Matthys Levy, Structural Design in Architecture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1981), 393. Note differences there in symbols.
3. See Michele Melaragno, Wind in Architectural and Environmental Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982,
48, Fig. 2-9.
4. See Ibid., 194, Table 3-2 (27).

247
CHAPTER 11
Spherical Shells
PROPORTIONING AND SIZING
OF CONCRETE THIN SHELLS
Preliminary Design
Most designers would no doubt agree that
the most excruciating phase of any project is
when one is facing a sheet of paper with
nothing yet on it: nothing to develop, noth-
ing to modify, nothing to disagree with. Ex-
tending this first stage unduly is obviously to
be avoided. It is thus desirable to decide upon
a preliminary structure as soon as possible,
using whatever means may be available.
Doing so is particularly important in struc-
tural design because analysis begins from
a proposed structure having a known
geometry.
Besides the needs of structural design,
which are demanding enough in themselves,
the building-design process also requires hav-
ing a starting point. The rules of thumb that
should result in feasible forms are eagerly
sought out by students and kept handy by
experienced designers. Architectural trea-
tises from Vitruvius to Alberti and Palladio
have explored and tried to codify rules of any
sort that might help in navigating the un-
charted waters of design.
The recommendations presented in this
chapter are the result of structural analyses
249
by R. M. Gensert, Uldis Kirsis, and Miklos
Peller. 1 The information presented here and
in later chapters covers the optimization of
overall dimensions and individual component
sizes, based on the structural efficiency and
cost of a great variety of spherical and sec-
tional domes, barrel shells, and hyperbolic
paraboloidal shells in reinforced concrete.
This chapter focuses on spherical shells.
SPHERICAL DOME DESIGN
When spherical shells under normal loading
conditions are considered, experience sug-
gests that they have some relationships be-
tween span and height that make them more
economical than other domes. The spherical
shells in question consist of concrete with a
minimum specified strength of!c' = 4,000 psi
(27.6 MPa) at 28 days and weighing 150 pef
(240 kG/m 3 ). The reinforcing steel used in
these shells is grade 40 (276 MPa). The live
load is 30 psf (1.4 kPa) on the horizontal shell
projection. The dead load includes the
weight of the concrete itself plus 5 psf (0.24
kPa) for roofing and the same load for miscel-
laneous other dead loads. Such specifications
for materials and loads are applied to all
structures mentioned in this chapter. The
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desien of Thin Shells

recommended values for various spans for

dome height at the crown are shown in Table
11-1. That these shells vary uniformly in
thickness from a maximum at the base to a
minimum at the crown is justified by taking
into consideration that secondary stresses
usually develop near the tension ring because
of incompatible structural behavior in this
zone (see Table 11-2 and Figs. 11-1 and
11-2).

Spherical Sectional Dome Design

Rectangular Plan
Sectional spherical domes are attained by in-
tersecting a spherical dome with three or
more vertical planes and generating a poly- , ~ TEN~ION RING
gonal floor plan that will produce arches at
the intersections. Such a structure can be
looked at from different points of view. On 11-1 Plan (top) and elevation (bottom) of
the one hand, the intersection of the dome spherical dome.

TABLE 11-1 Recommended Dome Heiehts for Various

Spans: Spherical Dome Shells
SPAN MINIMUM HEIGHT MAXIMUM HEIGHT

100 ft (30.48 m) 11 ft (3.35 m) 13.5 ft (4.11 m)

200 ft (60.96 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 34 ft (10.36 m)
300 ft (91.44 m) 49.5 ft (15.09 m) 58.5 ft (17.83 m)
400 ft (121.92 m) 76 ft (23.16 m) 84 ft (25.60 m)

TABLE 11-2 Spherical Dome Shells: Dimensions And Thicknesses

VARIABLE SHELL TENSION RING
THICKNESS CROSS-SECTIONS
DIAMETER HEIGHT At Crown At Base Width Depth

Jt (m) Jt (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)

100 (30.5) 10-50 (3-152) 3'12 (8.9) 5(12.7) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5)

200 (61) 20-30 (6.1-9) 4 (10.2) 8 (20.3) 12 (30.5) 18 (45.7)
200 (61 ) 40 (12.2) 4 (10.2) 6 (15.4) 12 (30.5) IS (45.7)
200 (61 ) 50-SO (15.2-24.4) 3112 (S.9) 5 (12.7) 12 (30.5) IS (45.7)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (53.6) 20 (50.S)
300 (91.4) 60-80 (18.3-24.4) 4 (l0.2) 8 (20.3) 16 (53.6) 20 (50.8)
300 (91.4) 100 (30.5) 4 (10.2) 6 (15.4) 16 (53.6) 20 (50.8)
400 (121.9) 80 (24.4) 6 (15.4) 12 (30.5) IS (45.7) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 100 (30.5) 6 (15.4) 10 (25.4) IS (45.7) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 150 (45.7) 6 (15.4) S (20.3) IS (45.7) 24 (61)

250
 Spherical Shells

z'

I
I a
I ~
I F2
I m'
I
I F3
I
m' y' I
x'
I I p'
F4 (.'lew po!e)
I I n
I I
I I
I I

3 i
IF IF. IFS IFS: n'

I I
I
: I

x~z min
I
y

11-2 Graphic illustration of the optimized proportions for the preliminary design of spherical domes.

with the vertical planes can be thought to
mutilate the structural integrity of the mono-
lithic dome. On the other hand, the portion
of the dome constituting the arches and pen-
dt;ntives can be considered the supporting
structure for the dome above. In this case the
dome resting on the pendentives and arches
is in itself structurally integral.
The supporting arches, which are geo-
metrically part of the same sphere that in-
cludes the dome, have their own structural
individuality. Their thickness will thus be
larger than the thickness of the dome, mak-
ing them individual members, which are usu-
ally necessary components of shells in
general.
The configuration of a sectional dome is
that of a dome with pendentives coming
down to constitute the points of support.
This geometric form has been seen to be
used historically quite often, especially in
Byzantine domes, yet it can still be employed
in contemporary architecture by applying the
same concept even if the proportions are
drastically changed. After all, the new con-
crete domes do have different structural re-
quirements than their masonry counterparts.
According to the number and orientation
of the intersecting planes, floor plans for
spherical sectional domes can be regular or
irregular polygons, with or without equal
sides. It is possible to have sectional domes
with triangular, square, or even pentagonal
configurations. Rectangular floor plans can
be designed by intersecting the dome with
two pairs of vertical parallel planes perpen-
dicular to each other. The vertical planes will
then intersect each other at points located on
the circular perimeter at the base of the
dome. In this respect some sectional domes
with rectangular and square floor plans will
be examined later. Although the square plan
has been much more widely used throughout
history, rectangular floor plans offer a
broader range of design options.
The geometry of sectional domes includes

251
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

several interrelated factors. By knowing the
correlations between them it is possible to
deduct some of the factors after selecting de-
sired values for the others. These factors in-
clude the following:
tion automatically defines the radius of the
sphere RI of which the dome is a part. Now
RI can be derived, as follows:
RI2 = R2 + (RI - He)2

He = Height of dome at crown RI = ~R2 + (RI - HJ2

HL = Height at crown of longitudinal
arch (longer span)
HT = Height at crown in transverse arch
(shorter span)
LL = Span of longitudinal arch
LT = Span of transverse arch
R = Radius of circle at base of dome
RI = Radius of sphere of which the dome
is a part
Consider a practical design situation that
can be better explained with a numerical ex-
ample. Suppose that it has been decided to
design a dome having four pendentives and
a rectangular floor plan. The lengths of
the longitudinal and transverse dimensions
therefore correspond to span LL of the longi-
tudinal arch and LT of the transverse arch.
Having thus established the location of the
pendentives, and knowing that they are lo-
cated on a circle at the base, it is now possible
to determine the radius of circle R, as
follows:
The height of the dome at its crown He
must now be assumed. Making this assump-
R2+H/
2He
The height at the crown of the two arches
HL and HT is related in such a way that the
sum of the two is equal to He' the height of
the dome at the crown. Therefore, He =
HL + H T. And when the plan is square
rather than rectangular, HL = HT and HL =
HT = 1/2 He.
The height at the crown of longitudinal
arch HL can also be found in another
manner.
Consider the great circle whose radius is
RI and whose equation is x2 + y2 = R12,
where to calculate HL we assume that x =
LT/2 and y = HL + (RI - He).
Therefore,
By substituting the values known we can find
HL •
By the same token HT can be calculated.
LL
x=-
2
y=HT+(R1-Hc)

TABLE 11-3 Spherical Sectional Domes with Rectangular Plans: Dimensions

LL R He LT R, HT HL
ft (m) I! (m) ft (m) I! (III) I! (m) I! (m) ft (m)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 10 (1.05) 50 (15.24) 161.2 (49.13) ±2 (0.61) ±8 (2.44)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 15 (4.57) 50 (15.24) 111.7 (34.05) ±3 (0.91) ±12 (3.66)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 20 (6.10) 50 (15.24) 88.1 (26.85) ±4 (1.22) ±16 (4.88)
100 (30.5) 55.9 (17.04) 25 (7.62) 50 (15.24) 75.0 (22.86) ±5 (1.52) ±20 (6.10)
200 (61.0) 111.8 (34.08) 15 (4.57) 100 (30.48) 424.1 (129.27) ±3 (0.91) ±12 (9.66)
200 (61.0) 111.8 (34.08) 20 (6.10) 100 (30.48) 322.5 (!l~.30) ±4 (1.22) ±16 (4.88)
200 (61.0) 111.8 (34.08) 25 (7.62) 100 (30.48) 262.5 (80.01) ±5 (1.52) ±20 (6.10)
300 (91.4) 167.7 (51.11) 20 (6.10) 150 (45.72) 713.1 (287.35) ±4 (1.22) ±16 (4.88)
300 (91.4) 167.7 (51.11) 25 (7.62) 150 (45.72) 575.0 (175.26) ±5 (1.52) ±20 (6.10)
300 (91.4) 167.7 (51.11) 30 (9.14) 150 (45.72) 483.7 (147.43) ±6 (183) ±24 (7.32)

252
 Spherical Shells

Therefore, Therefore,

Now, substituting the values already known,

Once again substituting the values already we can determine that HL = 8.0 ft (2.44 m).
known we can find H T . Similarly, to calculate HT assume that
LL
EXAMPLE: Consider a sectional spherical x=-
dome with a rectangular floor plan. Let 2
y = HT + (RI - He)
LL = 100 ft (30.48 m) and LT = 50 ft (15.23
m). Then, to find radius R, Therefore,

R=
=
~ ~L( r ~T r
55.9 ft (17.04 m)
+(
Substituting the values already known, we
Let the height of the dome at its crown be now have HT = 2.0 ft (0.61 m). Thus, be-
assumed to be Hc = 10 ft (3.05 m), from cause HL + HT = Hc we can verify that
which can be determined radius RI of the 8.00 + 2.00 = 10.00 ft (3.05 m).
sphere, as follows: For the practical design of rectangular sec-
tional domes, refer to Table 11-3.
RI2 = R2 + (RI - He) 2 Spherical sectional domes with square
R2 + Hc 2 plans, which have been more popular than
the rectangular type, can be considered vari-
2Hc
ations on the rectangular ones. Table 11-3
= 161.24 ft (49.15 m) gives suggested dimensions for thicknesses of
shells and arches for different cases. Unlike
Once all the perimeters are established, those for the rectangular sectional domes,
HL and HT can be found. the symbols used here are all the same, be-
The great circle's radius is RI = 161.24 ft, cause the four arches in this case are all equal.
so that x2 + y2 = R12. Thus, to calculate HL
assume that EXAMPLE: Design a sectional dome over a
square floor plan, with a low height at the
crown of Hc. Table 11-4 considers spans L,
which vary from 100 ft (30.5 m) to 300 ft

TABLE 11-3 (continued)

LONGITUDlNAL·ARCHED TRANSVERSE-ARCHED
EDGE CROSS-SECTION CROSS-SEC nON EDGE CROSS-SECTION CROSS-SECTION
SHELL THICKNESS AT BASE AT CROWN AT BASE AT CROWN
At Base At Crown Width Depth Width Depth Width Base Width Base
-~--

in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
5 (12.7) 4 (10.2) 12 (30.5) 18 (45.7) 10 (25.4) 14 (35.6) 18 (45.7) 18 (45.7) 15 (38.1) 14 (35.6)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
5 (12.7) 4 (10.2) 30 (76.2) 40 (101.6) 24 (61.0) 34 (86.4) 40 (101.6) 40 (101.6) 34 (86.4) 34 (86.4)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 26 (66.0) 36 (91.4) 22 (55.9) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 35 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
4 (10.2) 4 (10.2) 20 (50.8) 36 (91.4) 16 (40.6) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
8 (20.3) 5 (12.7) 50 (127.0) 68 (172.7) 44 (111.8) 58 (147.3) 68 (172.7) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3) 58 (147.3)
7 (17.8) 5 (12.7) 44 (111.8) 64 (162.6) 38 (96.5) 54 (137.2) 64 (162.6) 64 (162.6) 54 (137.2) 54 (137.2)
6 (15.9) 5 (12.7) 38 (96.5) 62 (157.5) 32 (81.3) 52 (132.1) 62 (157.5) 62 (157.5) 52 (132.1) 52 (132.1)

253
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desion of Thin Shells

TABLE 11-4 Spherical Sectional Domes with Square Plans

WIDTH OF RADIUS AT RADIUS AT HEIGHT OF SHELL
SPAN (L) BASE (R) SPHERE (R,)
At Crown At Arch
(L) --(~- _ _ (It_,)_ _ ~- (H)
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 1,004.7 (306.23) 10 (3.05) 5 (1.52)
100 (3D.48) 141.4 (43.10) 674.0 (205.44) 15 (4.57) 7.5 (2.29)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 509.9 (155.42) 20 (6.10) 10 (3.05)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 412.4 (125.70) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 2,009.6 (612.53) 20 (6.10) 10 (3.05)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,347.9 (410.84) 30 (9.14) 15 (4.57)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,019.7 (310.80) 40 (12.19) 20 (6.10)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 824.8 (251.40) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 3,015.5 (919.12) 30 (9.14) 15 (4.57)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,825.3 (556.35) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,320.9 (402.61) 70 (21.34) 35 (10.67)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,045.2 (318.58) 90 (27.43) 45 (13.72)

(91.4 m). Assume a 100-ft-square floor plan
in this case, which corresponds to a circle at
the base with radius R = 141.4 ft (43.10 m).
The height of the shell at the crown Hc con-
sidered for such a span varies from 10ft
(3.05 m) to 25 ft (7.62 m). Assume a height of
10ft (3.05 m) for a very shallow dome. From
the table, the radius RI of the sphere of
which the dome is a part is 1004.7 ft (306.23
m). The recommended thickness of the dome
at the base (T B) is 4 in (10.1 cm) and the
recommended thickness of the dome at the
crown (Td is the same, so that the shell has a
constant thickness throughout. The four
equal arches, spanning 100 ft (30.48 m), have
a recommended width at the base (Bx max.)
of 30 in (76.2 cm) and the same recom-
mended depth at the base (Dx max.). At the
crown the arches instead have a recom-
mended width (Bx min.) of 24 in (61.0 cm)
and a recommended depth (Dx min.) of24 in
(61.0 cm) also. Therefore, with their square
cross-sections the arches can taper slightly.
Such a small change in the required cross-sec-
tion makes it questionable whether the taper-
ing would really be beneficial. From a visual
point of view the variation would hardly be
appreciable, and from a construction point of
view the savings in concrete might not justify
the complicated form work demanded by a
variable shell thickness. It might thus be ad-
visable, if the designer chooses to do so, to
keep the arches with a constant cross-section
equal to that which is required at the base.
With three dimensions known, the de-
signer can now shape the overall configura-
tion by working out the details. These might
include, for instance, any cross-sectional
shape for the arches that is larger than the
minimum required. The details of the sup-
ports of the arches over piers or walls and of
the members connecting the four supports
might also be added. The supports them-
selves could constitute major architectural
components with hinges of either concrete or
steel.
The tie members could have various con-
figurations. In pier supports, for instance, the
ties could be exposed rods or concrete
beams. In supporting walls the ties could be
reinforcing steel rods embedded in the upper
parts of walls so as not to be visible. Re-

254
 Spherical Shells

TABLE 11-4 (continued)

SHELL THICKNESS WIDTH OF EDGE DEPTH OF ARCHED EDGE
At Crown At Base At Base At Crown At Base At Crown
~ ~ (B. max.) (B. min.) (D. max.t (D. min.)
in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
4 (10.1) 4 (10.1) 30 (76.2) 24 (6\.0) 30 (76.2) 24 (6\.0)
4 (10.1) 4 (10.1) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
4 (10.1) 4 (10.1) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
4 (10.1) 4 (10.1) 24 (6\.0) 18 (45.7) 24 (6\.0) 18 (45.7)
4 (10.1) 5 (12.7) 54 (137.2) 44 (11\.8) 54 (137.2) 44 (11\.8)
4 (10.1) 5 (12.7) 50 (127.0) 40 (10\.6) 50 (127.0) 40 (10\.6)
4 (10.1) 5 (12.7) 48 (12\.9) 42 (106.7) 48 (12\.9) 42 (106.7)
4 (10.1) 5 (12.7) 46 (116.8) 40 (10\.6) 46 (116.8) 40 (10\.6)
5 (12.7) 7 (17.8) 82 (208.3) 72 (182.9) 82 (208.3) 72 (182.9)
5 (12.7) 6 (15.2) 74 (188.0) 66 (167.6) 74 (188.0) 66 (167.6)
4 (10.1) 5 (12.7) 70 (177.8) 60 (152.4) 70 (177.8) 60 (152.4)
4 (10.1) 5 (12.7) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3)

member that these tie members are necessary
to absorb outward horizontal reactions at the
bases of the arches and are essential struc-
tural components of the dome as a whole.
With this in mind, it might be desirable to
express them architecturally by making them
visually independent in such a way as to
clearly indicate their function.
and He. Even for these shells, however, the
relationship HL + HT = He still holds true.
In Table 11-5 the preliminary design di-
mensions for the shell and arches are given
for various cases, as indicated. The similar-
ities between spherical and nonspherical
domes allow reference to the same figures
illustrating spherical sectional domes to visu-
alize these domes as well.

NONSPHERICAL DOME DESIGN Square Plans

Rectangular Plans These shells, like the nonspherical shells with

Following the same procedure previously
used for spherical sectional domes, we can
now consider another family of shells that are
similar but do not follow exactly the shape of
spherical surfaces. The arches at the edges of
these shells have various configurations for
any given set of values, which include LL' L T ,
rectangular plans just seen, are similar to
their spherical counterparts with square
plans.
Table 11-6 furnishes the preliminary di-
mensions for the shell and its arches in var-
ious cases. To visualize the configuration of
such a shell refer to the illustrations earlier of
spherical sectional shells with square plans.

NOTES

1. From R. M. Gensert, Uldis Kirsis, and Miklos Peller, "Economic Proportioning of Cast-in-Place Concrete
Thin Shells." ACI Publication SP-28, 1970. Used with the permission of the American Concrete Institute.

255
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

TABLE 11-5 Thin-Shelled Nonspherical Sectional Domes with Rectansular Plans

SHELL THICKNESS

LL LT He HT HL At Base At Crown

ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (01) in (em) in (em)

100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 10 (3.05) 5.0 (1.52) 5.0 (1.52) (12.7) 4 (10.2)
100 (30.48) 50 (15.24) 10 (3.05) 3.8 (1.16) 6.2 (1.89) (12.7) 4 (10.2)
100 (30.48) 50 (15.24) 10 (3.05) 1.7 (0.52) 8.3 (2.53) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 15 (4.57) 7.5 (2.29) 7.5 (2.29) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 15 (4.57) 5.6 (1.71) 9.4 (2.87) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 15 (4.57) 2.5 (0.76) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 20 (6.10) 10.0 (3.05) 10.0 (3.05) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01) 16.7 (5.09) 4 (10.2) (10.2)
100 (30.48) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.86) 15.6 (4.75) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
100 (3Q.48) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28) 20.8 (6.34) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (30.48) 15 (4.57) 7.5 (2.29) 7.5 (2.29) 8 (20.3) (12.7)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 15 (4.57) 5.6 (1.71) 9.4 (2.87) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 15 (4.57) 2.5 (0.76) 12.5 (3.81) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 20 (6.10) 10.0 (3.05) 10.0 (3.05) 5 (12.7) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01) 16.7 (5.09) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (30.48) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81) 12.5 (3.81) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.87) 15.6 (4.75) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
200 (60.96) 100 (3Q.48) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28) 20.8 (6.34) 4 (10.2) 4 (10.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 20 (6.10) 10.0 (3.05) 10.0 (3.05) 14 (35.6) 4 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29) 12.5 (3.81) 12 (30.5) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01) 16.7 (5.09) 8 (20.3) 5 (12.7)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81) 12.5 (3.81) 12 (30.5) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.87) 15.6 (4.75) 10 (25.4) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28) 20.8 (6.34) 7 (17.8) 5 (12.7)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 30 (9.14) 15.0 (4.57) 15.0 (4.57) 10 (25.4) 6 (15.2)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 30 (9.14) 11.2 (3.41) 18.8 (5.73) 7 (17.8) 5 (12.7)
300 (91.44) 150 (45.72) 30 (9.14) 5.0 (1.52) 25.0 (7.62) 6 (15.2) 5 (12.7)

TABLE 11-6 Nonspherical Sectional Domes with Square Plans

HEIGHT OF SHELL
RADIUS AT RADIUS AT At Crown At Arch
L BASE(R) SPHERE (R,) (Hcl (H)
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 1,004.7 (306.23) 10 (3.05) 5.0 (1.52)
100 (3Q.48) 141.4 (43.10) 1,004.7 (306.23) 10 (3.05) 3.8 (1.16)
100 (3Q.48) 141.4 (43.10) 1.004.7 (306.23) 10 (3.05) 1.7 (0.52)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 674 (205.44) 15 (4.57) 7.5 (2.29)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 674 (205.44) 15 (4.57) 5.6 (1.71)
100 (3Q.48) 141.4 (43.10) 674 (205.44) 15 (4.57) 2.5 (0.76)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 509.9 (155.42) 20 (6.10) 10 (3.05)
100 (3Q.48) 141.4 (43.10) 509.9 (155.42) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 509.9 (155.42) 20 (6.10) 3.3 (1.01)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 412.4 (125.70) 25 (7.62) 12.5 (3.81)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 412.4 (125.70) 25 (7.62) 9.4 (2.86)
100 (30.48) 141.4 (43.10) 412.4 (125.70) 25 (7.62) 4.2 (1.28)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 2.009.4 (612.47) 20 (6.10) 10 (3.05)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 2.009.4 (612.47) 20 (6.10) 7.5 (2.29)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,347.9 (410.84) 30 (9.14) 15 (4.57)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,347.9 (410.84) 30 (9.14) 11.2 (3.41)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,347.9 (410.84) 30 (9.14) 5.0 (1.52)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,019.7 (310.80) 40 (12.19) 20 (6.10)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,019.7 (310.80) 40 (12.19) 15 (4.57)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 1,019.7 (310.80) 40 (12.19) 6.7 (2.04)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 824.8 (251.40) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 824.8 (251.40) 50 (15.24) 18.8 (5.73)
200 (60.96) 282.8 (86.20) 824.8 (251.40) 50 (15.24) 8.3 (2.53)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 3,015.5 (919.12) 30 (9.14) 15.0 (4.57)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 3.015.5 (919.12) 30 (9.14) 11.2 (3.41)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1.825.3 (556.35) 50 (15.24) 25 (7.62)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1.825.3 (556.35) 50 (15.24) 18.8 (5.73)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,320.9 (402.61) 70 (21.34) 35 (10.67)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,320.9 (402.61) 70 (21.34) 26.3 (8.02)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,320.9 (402.61) 70 (21.34) 11.8 (5.73)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1.Q45.2 (318.58) 90 (27.43) 45 (13.72)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,045.2 (318.58) 90 (27.43) 33.9 (10.33)
300 (91.44) 424.3 (129.33) 1,045.2 (318.58) 90 (27.43) 15.0 (4.57)

256
 Spherical Shells

TABLE \\-5 (continued)

LONGITUDINAL EDGE TRANSVERSE EDGE
~~~~~-~-

Cross-section at Base Cross-section at Crown Cross-section at Base Cross-section at Crown

WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH

in (em) (em) (em) (em) (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)

10 (25.4) 18 (45.7) 10 (25.4) 14 (35.6) 18 (45.7) 18 (45.7) 14 (35.6) 14 (35.6)
10 (25.4) 18 (45.7) 10 (25.4) 14 (35.6) 18 (45.7) 18 (45.7) 14 (35.6) 14 (35.6)
12 (30.5) 18 (45.7) 10 (25.4) 14 (35.6) 18 (45.7) 18 (45.7) 15 (38.1) 14 (35.6)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
10 (25.4) 16 (40.6) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 16 (40.6) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 12 (30.5)
20 (50.8) 42 (106.7) 16 (40.6) 36 (91.4) 42 (106.7) 42 (106.7) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4)
22 (55.9) 42 (106.7) 18 (45.7) 36 (91.4) 42 (106.7) 42 (106.7) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4)
30 (76.2) 40 (101.6) 24 (61.0) 34 (86.4) 40 (101.6) 40 (101.6) 34 (86.4) 34 (86.4)
18 (45.7) 38 (96.5) 14 (35.6) 32 (8I.3) 38 (96.5) 38 (96.5) 32 (81.3) 32 (81.3)
22 (55.9) 38 (96.5) 18 (45.7) 32 (8I.3) 38 (96.5) 38 (96.5) 32 (81.3) 32 (81.3)
26 (66.0) 36 (91.4) 22 (55.9) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
20 (50.8\ 36 (91.4) 16 (40.6) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
20 (50.8) 36 (91.4) 16 (40.6) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
20 (50.8) 36 (91.4) 16 (40.6) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 30 (76.2)
34 (86.4) 74 (188.0) 28 (71.1 ) 64 (162.6) 74 (188.0) 74 (188.0) 64 (162.6) 64 (162.6)
40 (101.6) 70 (177.8) 34 (86.4) 60 (152.4) 70 (177.8) 70 (177.8) 60 (152.4) 60 (152.4)
50 (127.0) 68 (172.7) 44 (111.8) 58 (147.3) 68 (172.7) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3) 58 (147.3)
32 (81.3) 68 (172.7) 26 (66.0) 58 (147.3) 68 (172.7) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3) 58 (147.3)
36 (91.4) 66 (167.6) 30 (76.2) 56 (142.2) 66 (167.6) 66 (167.6) 56 (142.2) 56 (142.2)
44 (111.8) 64 (162.6) 38 (96.5) 54 (137.2) 64 (162.6) 64 (162.6) 53 (137.2) 54 (137.2)
32 (81.3) 64 (162.6) 26 (66.0) 54 (137.2) 64 (162.6) 64 (162.6) 54 (137.2) 54 (137.2)
36 (91.4) 62 (157.5) 30 (76.2) 52 (132.1) 62 (157.5) 62 (157.5) 52 (132.1) 52 (132.1)
38 (96.5) 62 (157.5) 32 (81.3) 52 (132.1) 62 (157.5) 62 (157.5) 52 (132.1) 52 (132.1)

TABLE \\-6 (continued)

SHELL THICKNESS WIDTH OF ARCH DEPTH OF ARCH

At Crown At Base At Base At Crown At Base At Crown

(Tel --~ --.JIl.Lmax. (B.)min. (D.)max. (D.)m",,--
(em) (em) in (em) (em) in (em)

(10.2) (10.2) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0)

(10.2) (10.2) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0)
(10.2) (17.8) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0)
(10.2) (10.2) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
(10.2) (10.2) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
(10.2) (12.7) 28 (7l.l) 24 (61.0) 26 (66.0) 24 (61.0)
(10.2) 4 (10.2) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
(10.2) (10.2) 20 (50.8) 16 (40.6) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
(10.2) (10.2) 20 (50.8) 16 (40.6) 26 (66.0) 20 (50.8)
(10.2) (10.2) 24 (61.0) 18 (45.7) 24 (61.0) 18 (45.7)
(10.2) (10.2) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 22 (55.9) 16 (40.6)
(10.2) (10.2) 16 (40.6) 12 (30.5) 22 (55.9) 16 (40.6)
(10.2) (12.7) 54 (137.2) 44 (I I 1.8) 54 (137.2) 44 (IlI.8)
(12.7) (17.8) 48 (121.9) 40 (101.6) 54 (137.2) 44 (I I 1.8)
(10.2) (12.7) 50 (127.0) 40 (101.6) 50 (127.0) 40 (101.6)
(10.2) 5 (12.7) 38 (96.5) 32 (81.3) 48 (121.9) 42 (106.7)
(12.7) 14 (35.6) 44 (111.8) 38 (96.5) 48 (121.9) 42 (106.7)
(10.2) (12.7) 48 (121.9) 42 (106.7) 48 (121.9) 42 (106.7)
(10.2) (12.7) 32 (8I.3) 26 (66.0) 46 (116.8) 40 (101.6)
(10.2) 9 (22.9) 36 (91.4) 30 (76.2) 46 (116.8) 40 (101.6)
(10.2) 5 (12.7) 46 (116.8) 40 (101.6) 46 (116.8) 40 (101.6)
(10.2) (12.7) 30 (76.2) 24 (61.0) 46 (116.8) 40 (101.6)
(10.2) (15.2) 32 (81.3) 26 (66.0) 46 (116.8) 40 (101.6)
(12.7) (17.8) 82 (208.3) 72 (182.9) 82 (208.3) 72 (182.9)
(15.2) 10 (25.4) 74 (188.0) 66 (167.6) 80 (152.4) 70 (177.8)
(12.7) (15.2) 74 (188.0) 66 (167.6) 74 (188.0) 66 (167.6)
(12.7) (20.3) 54 (137.2) 46 (116.8) 72 (182.9) 62 (157.5)
(10.2) (12.7) 70 (177.8) 60 (152.4) 70 (177.8) 60 (152.4)
(12.7) (17.8) 44 (111.8) 40 (101.6) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3)
(15.2) 10 (25.4) 50 (127.0) 44 (IlI.8) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3)
(10.2) (12.7) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3) 68 (172.7) 58 (147.3)
(12.7) (15.2) 38 (96.5) 30 (76.2) 66 (167.6) 54 (137.2)
(12.7) (20.3) 42 (106.7) 34 (86.4) 66 (167.6) 54 (137.2)

257
CHAPTER 12
Barrel Shells
BARREL V AUL TS
Barrel shells can easily be visualized from
their similarity to a portion of a typical bar-
rel; they are simply part of a cylindrical sur-
face. From the point of view of their mor-
phology, barrel shells are simple-almost
intuitive-structures. Once the arch was dis-
covered, extending it to barrel vaulting was
natural. Going from a planar to a three-di-
mensional structure in the practical construc-
tion was relatively simple, since at this level
all structures are in reality three-dimensional.
The morphology of the barrel vault is ba-
sically the same conceptually, whether the
transverse cross-section of the vault is circu-
lar, elliptical, or parabolic. Structural charac-
teristics will vary considerably as a function of
the various geometric cross-sectional shapes,
but from a morphological point of view the
barrel vault in whatever form remains basi-
cally the same.
There are several approaches through
which the barrel vault can be examined and
evaluated. Its geometry describes it as a ruled
surface, meaning a surface generated by a
straight-line generatrix that slides over two
identical directorices. These directorices can
be arches of a circle, or may have many other
configurations. The shapes used most typi-
259
cally are portions of conics such as circles,
ellipses, and parabolas. Another type of gen-
eration for the cylindrical surface of the bar-
rel vault is translational. In this case the sur-
face is generated by an arched generatrix
sliding over straight-line directrices. Regard-
less of which of the two previously described
generating processes is used, the surface can
be described as developable, implying that
it can be developed on a plane-in other
words it is a cylindrical surface of any shape
that can easily be flattened. From a structural
point of view, this implies that this particular
shape has no inherent stability unless addi-
tional considerations are taken into effect.
Still in geometric terms, barrel vaults and
shells can be described also as being synclas-
tic, meaning that the curvature of any spe-
cific cross-section is always positive or always
negative. In other words, the vault's cross-
sectional shape is always either concave or
convex. It is important to recognize that not
all surfaces are synclastic. For instance, hy-
perbolic paraboloids are surfaces that are typ-
ically anti clastic. In the history of building
technology the barrel vault comes at the be-
ginning of the development of curvilinear
surface structures. As previously seen, its
connection with the arch makes the barrel
vault one of the earliest attempts to attain
structural integrity in masonry.
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
BARREL SHELLS
At present, the thin-shell barrel acts quite
differently from the old barrel vault.
Whether they are short or long, barrel shells
in general are supported at each end by
arches that are an integral part of the shell
itself and can be considered as stiffening ribs.
Barrel thin shells span from arch to arch.
More precisely, they can be seen as ruled
surfaces originating from straight lines span-
ning across from one arch to the next. Thus,
the spacing between arches coincides with the
longitudinal length of the barrel. Masonry
barrel vaults and concrete barrel shells are
two different structural systems, not to be
confused with one another though their ge-
ometry is the same.
SHORT-BARREL SHELLS
Short-barrel shells are those with a width sub-
stantially larger than their longitudinal
NON-RIGID
EDGE~
> ZONES OF SECONDARY
STRESSES~ .
I I
12-1 Plan (top) and perspective (bottom) of a short-barreled shell with a nonrisid edse.
260
length or span. For instance, the tables that
follow include widths of 300 ft (91.4 m) with
longitudinal dimensions of 30 ft (9.1 m),
clearly indicating how short these spans are.
In such cases, of course, the structural behav-
ior of the shell in terms of its internal forces
and stresses is drastically different from that
which would be found in long-barrel shells.
Short Barrels with Nonrigid Edges
All barrel shells, including short ones, consist
of a shell that spans longitudinally from one
support to the next, even if the barrel's longi-
tudinal span is shorter than its transverse
(width) span. Again, the supports consist of
arches that are built integrally with the shell.
Short-barrel shells may have edges in the
longitudinal direction that are nonrigid and
unstiffened (see Fig. 12-1). Usually, however,
the thickness of the shell along its longitu-
dinal edges is purposely increased, to add a
little more rigidity to the elastic edges of the
~[ NON-RIGID
EDGE
yo SUPPORTING ARCH
 Barrel Shells

shell. Edge thickness characteristically in-
creases from the bottom up to a certain point
about 4 to 5 ft (1.20-1.50 m) from the edge.
The increase in the thickness of a shell can
more than double. Thus, except for these
longitudinal strips of variable thickness, the
rest of a shell will have a constant thickness
throughout. In this case the supporting
arches would have a constant width and a
constant depth throughout. Instead, barrel
shells with rigid edge beams are recom-
mended to have a variable thickness from the
edge to the crown. The optimized propor-
tions for preliminary design can be found
from Figure 12-2.
Short Barrels with Rigid Edge Beams
As do all barrel shells, these short barrels also
span structurally from one support to an-
other which consist of arches built integrally
with the shell. Short-barrel shells with longi-
tudinal edge beams stiffening their edges as
seen at the bottom of Figure 12-3 behave
structurally in a manner implying that these
beams do not carry the weight of the shell
from support to support, as would be the case
with masonry vaults. Instead these beams act
only as stiffeners for the shell. The shell is
also stiffened to a lesser degree by thickening
its edges as shown in the last case. Note that

0.4

coti /'
....~ " / ,/"
~
en
0.3
~\.::: y
w
en
a::
w
. ,()~ ':/
>
en ~0' ~
z
<{
a::
S ./ .~
V ,/
f-

/
~.,.
/'
z s~ /
~a:: y
()

~
,,~ ~
f-
I

"~ 0.2
I'v0~
/
/ ~<$

V V
V I?~~
V ibo.\..' /
~<;)'-: V
L\0' 1/
.-1

V-V
/

V
0.1

o· 100' 200' 300'

TRANSVERSE SPAN IN FEET

12-2 Optimized proportions for the preliminary desien of short-barreled

shells with nonrieid edee beams.

261
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desi8n of Thin Shells
STIFFENING
EDGE BEAM
12-3 The plan (top) and perspective (bottom) of a short-barreled
shell with ri8id ed8e beams.
edge beams have a rectangular cross-section
and should not be confused with the thicker
stiffening edge strips in the previous case,
even if they both do perform as stiffeners.
Table 12-2 gives the information neces-
sary to design short-barrel shells with stiffen-.
ing edge beams and stiffening edge strips.
The table supplies detailed dimensions for
the constant thickness of the shell, the width
of its stiffening strip, and dimensions for the
transverse arched rib and edge beams. The
arched ribs constituting the supports are rec-
ommended in this case to have a variable
depth, whereas for the short barrel with
nonrigid edges the supporting arches were
recommended to be uniform in depth. The
recommended depth of the arches actually
increases from the bottom up, so that their
maximum depth is at the crown.
262
zl
rt
(/)
zl
rt
(/)
{STIFFENING
EDGE BEAMS
The optimized proportions for prelimi-
nary design can be found in Figure 12-4.
The Design of Short-Barrel Shells
with Nonrigid Edge Beams
Whenever a barrel's longitudinal span is
shorter than its transverse, we have to use the
term short barrel. In this case the longitudinal
edge of the shell does not include an edge
beam, but in place of the edge beam the shell
is stiffened by a thicker edge strip.
The specifications upon which Tables
12-1 and 12-2 are based include using con-
crete with a minimum specified strength of
!C' = 4,000 psi (27.6 MPa) at 28 days, rein-
forcing steel of grade 40 (276 MPa), live
loads of 30 psf (1.44 MPa) of horizontal shell
 Barrel Shells

0.3

DNG :n)( INP ,...Sf

...- - - --
~N ~\J

--
\ ~

....-I--r-
-
~N
60'
111( INP ~Sf

-- - -
~tJ(:;
....
V I--
z ~, ~N '" 50

::... --
Cf. 0.2
L bN<: ~ f--
,...- ~

-
CIJ
w
CIJ
f--

-
a: ACI
w
> DIW L~I

--
z
« L~N<: \111

- - -
~
a:
I::: I--
z

--
'" 3C
3:
0 1,.,..,\ "lIN, LS ~N
a: LUI'" ~

--
()
t{
f-
f,-- ~
I
<9
W
I
0.1

o
0' 100' 200' 300'

TRANVERSE SPAN IN FEET

12-4 Optimized proportions for the preliminary desion of short-barreled

shells with riOid edoe beams.

projection, and dead loads from the weight
of the concrete itself based on 150 pef (2,400
KG/m~), plus 5 psf (0.25 kPa) for roofing
and another 5 psf for miscellaneous loads.
Unlike the net shell type that has a short
barrel with stiffening edge beams, which has
a variable cross-section, this type includes
shells that are uniformly thick except for
their thicker edge strips.
Table 12-1 includes five different groups
of shells with longitudinal spans from 30 ft
through 80 ft (9-24 m). For each span the
table shows transverse spans from 100 ft
through 300 ft (91.4 m). Then various shell
heights are considered for each individual
case, from shallow to deep. For example, for
a longitudinal span of 30 ft and a transverse
span of 100 ft (30.5 m) the table includes a
height at the crown from 15 ft through 45 ft
(4.61-13.7 m).

263
TABLE 12-1 Short-Barrel Shells with Nonriaid Edaes
THIN SHELL DIMENSIONS
Width of
Transverse Longitudinal Constant Strip of
Span (width Span (length Height Thickness Shell Variable TRANSVERSE ARCHED RIB
of barrel) of barrel) at Crown at Bottom Thickness Thickness Width De~th
Jt (m) Jt (m) Jt (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 15 (4.6) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 25-45 (7.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3 1/ . (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 20 (6.1) 10 (25) 3 If., (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 30 (9.1) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 40-70 (12.2)-(21) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 40 (12.2) 8 (20) 4 (10) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 3 If., (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 70-85 (21.3-25.9) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 50 (15.2) 9 (23) 4 (10) 72 (183) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 65 (19.8) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 80-110 (24.3 - 33.5) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 55 (16.8) II (28) 4 (10) 88 (224) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 70 (21.3) 9 (23) 3'/. (9) 72 (183) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 85 (25.9) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.1) 100-145 (30.5-44.2) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 6 (15) 3'/. (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 35-45 (10.7-13.7) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 10 (25) 3 If., (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 50-70 (15.2-21.3) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 55 (16.8) 8 (20) 3'/. (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 70-85 (21.3-25.9) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 65 (19.8) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 80 (24.3) 7 (18) 3 If., (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 95-110 (29.0-33.5) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 85 (25.9) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 100 (30.5) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 115-145 (35.1-44.2) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 25 (7.6) 8 (20) 3 If., (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 35-45 (10.7-13.7) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 40 (12.2) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 50 (15.2) 6 (15) 3 If., (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 60-70 (18.3-21.3) 5 (13) 3'/. (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 55 (16.8) II (28) 3'/. (9) 88 (224) 10 (25) 22 (56)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 70 (21.3) 7 (18) 3'/. (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 85 (25.9) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 80 (24.4) 9 (23) 3 If., (9) 72 (183) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 95 (29.0) 6 (15) 3'/. (9) 48 (122) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 110 (33.5) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 100 (30.5) 10 (25) 3'/. (9) 80 (203) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 115 (35.1) 6 (15) 3'/. (9) 48 (122) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 130-145 (39.6-44.2) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 10 (25) 3 If., (9) 80 (203) 10 (25) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 35-45 (10.7-13.7) 5 (13) 3 If., (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 8 (20) 3 If., (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
TABLE 12-1 (continued)
THIN SHELL DIMENSIONS
Width of
Transverse Longitudinal Constant Strip of
Span (length Height Thickness Shell Variable TRANSVERSE ARCHED RIB
Span (width
of barrel) of barrel) at Crown at Bottom Thickness Thickness Width Depth
It (m) It (m) It (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
150 (45.7) 60 (IS.3) 60-70 (lS.3-21.3) 5 (13) 31/2 (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) 60 (IS.3) 70 (21.3) S (20) 3'j, (9) fi4 (163) 10 (25) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 60 (18.3) S5 (25.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 60 (IS.3) 95 (29.0) S (20) 3'j, (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 60 (18.3) 110 (33.5) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 60 (IS.3) 115 (35.1) S (20) 3'j, (9) 64 (163) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 60 (lS.3) 130-145 (39.6-44.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (fil)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) S (20) 3'j, (9) 64 (163) 10 (25) lfi (41)
100 (30.5) SO (24.4) 45 (13.7) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) SO (24.4) 60 (18.3) 7 (IS) 3'j, (9) 56 (142) 10 (25) 14 (36)
150 (45.7) SO (24.4) 70 (21.3) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 10 (25) 12 (30)
200 (61.0) SO (24.4) S5 (25.9) 6 (15) 3'j, (9) 4S (122) 10 (25) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) SO (24.4) 110 (33.5) 6 (15) 3'j, (9) 4S (122) 10 (25) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) SO (24.4) 130 (39.6) 7 (18) 3'j, (9) 56 (142) 12 (30) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 80 (24.4) 145 (44.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 40 (102) 12 (30) 24 (61)

TABLE 12-2 Short-Barrel Shell with Rigid Edge Beams

LONGITUDINAL
THIN SHELL TRANSVERSE. ARCHED RIB EDGE BEAM
- - - -

Transverse VARIABLE
Span Shell Width of
(Width Longitudinal Height Thickness Constant Strip of Depth Depth
of Span (length at at Shell Variable Constant at at
-'~arrel) _ _ . of barrc_I_)_ _ Crown Bottom Thickness Thickness Width Bottom Crown Width
It (m) Jt (m) It (m) in (em) In (em) in (em) In (em) In (em) In (em) in (em) in (em)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 15-45 (4.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 12 (30)
150 (45.7) 30 (9.1) 20-70 (6.1-21.3) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 14 (36)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 25 (7.6) 6 (15) 4 (l0) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 16 (41) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) 55-70 (16.S-21.3) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 14 (36) 16 (41)
200 (61.0) 30 (9.1) S5 (25.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 12 (36) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 35 (10.7) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 50 (15.2) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 16 (41) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 65-S0 (19.S - 24.4) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 14 (36) 16 (41)
250 (76.2) 30 (9.1) 95-110 (29.0-33.5) 5 (13) 31/2 (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 12 (30) 16 (41)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 40 (12.2) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) IS (46)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 55 (16.S) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) IS (46)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 70-S5 (21.3-25.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 14 (36) IS (46)
300 (91.4) 30 (9.2) 100-115 (30.5-35.1) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 12 (30) IS (46)
400 (121.9) 30 (9.2) 50-70 (15.2-21.3) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (SI) 16 (41) 20 (51)
400 (121.9) 30 (9.2) 90-150 (27.4-45.7) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 16 (41) 20 (51)
500 (152.4) 30 (9.2) 65 (19.S) 7 (IS) 5 (13) 2S (71) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 22 (56)
500 (152.4) 30 (9.2) 90 (27.4) 6 (15) 4 (10) 20 (51) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 16 (41) 22 (56)
500 (152.4) 30 (9.2) 115-190 (35.1-57.9) 5 (13) 3'j, (9) 20 (51) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 16 (41) 22 (56)
(continued)
TABLE 12-1 Short-Barrel Shells with Nonriaid Edaes (continued)
LONGITUDINAL
THIN SHELL TRANSVERSE ARCHED RIB EDGE BEAM
Transverse VARIABLE
Span Shell Width of
(Width Longitudinal Height Thickness Constant Strip of Depth Depth
of Span (length at at Shell Variable Constant at at
Barrel) of barrel) Crown Bottom Thickness Thickness Width Bottom Crown Width De~
I! (m) I! (m) I! (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 15-45 (4.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3'1. (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 18 (46)
150 (45.7) 40 (12.2) 30-70 (9.1-21.3) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 18 (46)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 16 (41) 20 (51)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 3 11. (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 20 (51)
200 (61.0) 40 (12.2) 55-85 (16.8-25.9) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 14 (36) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 50-65 (15.2-19.8) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 20 (51)
250 (76.2) 40 (12.2) 80-110 (24.4-33.5) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 14 (36) 20 (51)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 12 (30) 14 (36) 24 (61) 20 (51) 22 (56)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) 22 (56)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 70 (21.3) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) 22 (56)
300 (91.4) 40 (12.2) 85-115 (25.9-35.1) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 14 (36) 22 (56)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 50 (15.2) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 20 (51) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 70 (21.3) 6 (15) 4 (10) 24 (61) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 20 (51) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 90 (27.4) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 16 (41) 24 (61)
400 (121.9) 40 (12.2) 110-150 (33.5-45.7) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 16 (41) 14 (36) 32 (81) 16 (41) 24 (61)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 65 (19.8) 7 (18) 5 (13) 28 (71) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 26 (66)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 90 (27.4) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 26 (66)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 115 (35.1) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 20 (51) 26 (66)
500 (152.4) 40 (12.2) 140-170 (42.7-51.8) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 20 (51) 16 (41) 40 (102) 16 (41) 26 (66)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 25-45 (7.6-13.7) 5 (13) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 20 (51)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 20 (6.1) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 22 (56)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 30 (9.1) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 16 (41) 22 (56)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 40-70 (12.2-21.3) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 22 (56)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 25 (7.6) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 10 (25) 14 (36) 16 (41) 20 (51) 24 (61)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 40 (12.2) 6 (15) 3 1; ' (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 16 (41) 16 (41) 24 (61)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 55-85 (16.8-25.9) 5 (13) 3 11. (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 24 (61) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 35 (10.7) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 10 (25) 14 (36) 20 (51) 20 (51) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 50 (15.2) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 10 (25) 12 (30) 20 (51) 16 (41) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 65 (19.8) 5 (13) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 16 (41) 24 (61)
250 (76.2) 50 (15.2) 80-110 (24.4-33.5) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 14 (36) 24 (61)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 40 (12.2) 7 (18) 4 (10) 28 (71) 12 (30) 14 (36) 24 (61) 20 (51) 26 (66)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 20 (51) 26 (66)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 70-85 (21.3-25.9) 6 (15) 3 11. (9) 24 (61) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 16 (41) 26 (66)
300 (91.4) 50 (15.2) 100-115 (30.5-35.1) 5 (13) 3 1; ' (9) 20 (51) 12 (30) 12 (30) 24 (61) 14 (36) 26 (66)
 Barrel Shells
Design of Short Barrel Shells with
Rigid Beams
These shells are classified as having short
barrels because their length is equal to or less
than their width, and they also have rigid
edge beams. For all the shells in this chapter
the design specifications call for using con-
crete with a minimum specified strength of
4,000 psi (2.26 MPa) at 28 days, weighing
150 lbs. per ef (2,400 kG/m 3 ), reinforcing
steel of grade 40 (2.76 MPa), a live load of 30
psf (1.5 kPa) of horizontal shell projection,
and a dead-load weight of the concrete itself
plus 5 psf (.25 kPa) for roofing and another 5
psf for miscellaneous loads. The shell thick-
ness is constant except for a strip near the
edge, where it increases steadily, to its maxi-
mum at the bottom.
The Effects of Rigid Edge Beams
Even when other factors vary, shells' uniform
thicknesses will always be equal for shells re-
gardless of whether or not they have rigid
edge beams. Differences will occur only in
edge strips, where thickness and width will
vary. In two short-barreled shells in which
one is rigid along its edges because it has rigid
beams but the other does not, if their longi-
tudinal spans, crown heights and transverse
spans are equal, the shells will have a uniform
thickness. In a nonrigid-edged barrel with a
longitudinal span of 40 ft (12.2 m), a crown
height of 15 ft (4.6 m), and a transverse span
of 100 ft (30.4 m), the stiffening strip will be
80 in (203 em) wide, with a thickness at its
base of lOin (25 cm) that reduces gradually
to 31/2 in (9 cm). In a barrel having the same
dimensions but with rigid edge beams, the
stiffening edge is only 20 in (51 cm) wide,
with the thickness at the base also being 10
in, reducing gradually to 3 1/2 in (9 cm).
267
LONG BARREL SHELLS
Long barrel shells (see Fig. 12-5) are charac-
terized by the fact that their longitudinal
span is substantially larger than their trans-
verse span. In the cases shown in Table 12-3,
the longitudinal spans vary from two to four
times the width of the barrel.
The structural behavior of the long barrel
shell is somewhat different from that of the
short-span one. For one thing, the beam ac-
tion in long-span barrel shells resembles the
structural behavior of a girder. Because of
the elongated rectangular shape of the long
barrel, it is necessary to combine several such
barrels together to cover buildings with floor
plans that are almost square. The barrels are
connected along their longitudinal edges so
that each edge supports the adjacent one.
Outside edges will remain unstiffened, how-
ever, unless an edge beam is provided.
The optimized proportions for the prelim-
inary design of long barrel shells can be
found in Figure 12-6.
Design of Long Barrel Shells
The optimal dimensions in terms of the
height of a shell at its crown with respect to
its longitudinal span vary according to the
ratio between its longitudinal and transverse
spans. The values given here have been de-
rived from shells designed to employ con-
crete with a minimum specified strength of
4,000 psi (27.6 MPa) at 28 days weighing 150
pef (2400 kG/m 3 ), reinforcing steel of grade
40 (276 MPa), a live load of 30 psf (1.5 kPa)
of horizontal shell projection, and a dead
load, including the weight of the concrete
itself, of 150 pef (2,400 kG/m 3 ), plus 5 psf
(0.25 kPa) for roofing and another 5 psf
(0.25 kPa) for miscellaneous loads.
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

SUPPORTING ARCHES

f
z
~
en

12-5 Plan (top) and perspective (bottom) of a desian in lana-barreled

shells.

0.2

Z
ct
en
--1
«z
u;
:::J
I-
az
0--1
Z
s:
0
a::
0.1
""" - -- --
r- :--
0
~
l-
I
(!)
iIi
I

o· 100' 200' 300'

LONGITUDINAL SPAN IN FEET

12-6 Optimized proportions for the preliminary desian of lana-barreled

shells.

268
 Barrel Shells

The recommended approximate values
for the dimensions of long-barrel shells are
given in Table 12-4.
The values indicated here are average
heights within the range of various possible
dimensions and do not represent specific se-
lections. Table 12-4, which follows, deals
with long barrel shells, showing four to five
different values for the height of a crown for
any given combination of longitudinal and
transverse spans.

TABLE 12-3 Dimensions for Selected Standard Spans and Heights of Long Barrel Shells
TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL
THIN SHELL ARCHED RIB EDGE BEAM
Transverse Height Constant
Longitudinal Span (width at Shell
S~an at Barrel) Crown Thickness Width DeEth Width Depth
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) In (em) In(em) In(em) in (em) In (em)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (1.5) 4I/2 (11 ) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 6 ( 1.8) 3 1/2 (9) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 8 (2.4) 3 1/2 (9) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 10 (3.0) 3 1/2 (9) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 30 (76)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 5 ( 1.5) 4 1/2 (11 ) 24 (61) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 6 ( 1.8) 4 (10) 24 (61 ) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 8 (2.4) 3 1/2 (9) 24 (61 ) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
100 (30.5 ) 50 (15.2) 10 (3.0) 3 1/2 (9) 24 (61 ) 12 (30) 10 (25) 32 (81 )
150 (45.7) 25 (7.6) 10 (3.0) 3 1/2 (9) 24 (61 ) 18 (46) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 25 (7.6) 12 (3.7) 4 (10) 24 (61 ) 18 (46) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 10 (3.0) 5 1/2 (14) 28 (71 ) 18 (46) 14 (36) 54 (137)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 12 (3.7) 4 (10) 28 (71 ) 18 (46) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 50 (15.2) 14 (4.3) 3 1/2 (9) 28 (71 ) 18 (46) 10 (25) 40 (102)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 10 (3.0) 6 ( 15) 32 (81 ) 20 (51 ) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 12 (3.7) 4 (10) 32 (81 ) 20 (51 ) 12 (30) 48 (122)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 14 (4.3) 3 1/2 (9) 32 (81 ) 20 (51 ) 10 (25) 44 (112)
150 (45.7) 75 (22.9) 16 (4.9) 3 1/2 (9) 32 (81 ) 20 (51) 10 (25) 40 (102)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 18 (5.5) 5 1/2 (14) 34 (86) 34 (86) 16 (41 ) 50 (152)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 20 (6.1 ) 4 (10) 34 (86) 24 (61 ) 14 (36) 60 (152)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 22 (6.7) 3 1/2 (9) 34 (86) 24 (61 ) 14 (36) 56 (142)
200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 24 (7.3) 3 1/2 (9) 34 (86) 24 (61 ) 14 (36) 52 (132)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 18 (5.5) 5 1/2 (14) 36 (91 ) 30 (76) 16 (41) 64 (123)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 20 (6.14) 4 (10) 36 (91 ) 30 (76) 14 (36) 64 (123)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 22 (6.7) 3 112 (9) 36 (91) 30 (76) 14 (36) 60 (152)
200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 24 (7.3) 3112 (9) 36 (91 ) 30 (76) 12 (30) 56 (142)
200 (61.0) 100 (30.5) 18 (5.5) 5112 ( 14) 42 (107) 32 (81 ) 16 (41 ) 64 (163)
200 (61.0) 100 (30.5) 20 (6.1 ) 4 1/2 (11 ) 42 (107) 32 (81 ) 14 (36) 64 (163)
200 (61.0) 100 (30.5) 32 (9.8) 3 1/2 (9) 42 (107) 32 (81 ) 12 (30) 60 (152)

TABLE 12-4 Approximate Values for Dimensions of Long-Barrel Shells

LENGTH OF LONGITUDINAL
SPAN IN RELATION TO HEIGHT AT
TRANSVERSE SPAN LENGTH OF LONGITUDINAL SPAN CROWN
Twice as long 100 ft (30.4 m) 7 ft (2.1 m)
200 ft (61.0 m) 13 ft (4.0 m)
300 ft (91.4 m) 18 ft (5.5 m)
Three times as long 100 ft (30.4 m) 10 ft (3.0 m)
200 ft (61.0 m) 18 ft (5.5 m)
300 ft (91.4 m) 24 ft (7.3 m)
Four times as long 100 ft (30.4 m) 13 ft (4.0 m)
200 ft (61.0 m) 21 ft (6.4 m)
300 ft (91.4 m) 29 ft (8.8 m)

269
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells
Structural Characteristics of the
Long Barrel Shell
The long barrel shell spans longitudinally
from one support to the next. The supports
for it, the transverse arched ribs, are built
integrally with the shell. These arched ribs
are in turn supported in various manners.
The long barrel acts primarily as a beam with
an upper zone in compression and a lower
zone in tension, divided by a line acting as a
neutral axis.
Long barrels can stand alone individually
or be combined into a series of adjacent shells
mutually supporting each other. With a sin-
270
gly standing barrel, its longitudinal edges are
free, so it is advisable to stiffen them with
longitudinal edge beams. Similarly, in a series
of adjacent barrels the outside edges of the
first and last barrels should be stiffened with
edge beams.
Table 12-4 furnishes the necessary dimen-
sions for many given combinations of longi-
tudinal spans, transverse spans, and heights
of crowns. The design dimensions also in-
clude the thickness of the shell, which is kept
constant throughout, and give the width and
depth of the arched ribs, which also have
constant cross-sections, and the width and
depth of the edge beam.
CHAPTER 13
The Design of Hyperbolic Paraboloids
SADDLE-TYPE
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDS
Square Plan on Two
Supports (Horizontal)
The usual name for this type of surface, the
saddle, comes from its similarity with that of
conventional saddles for horseback riding.
This type of hyperbolic paraboloid forms one
continuous surface, which distinguishes it
from other such applications that are attained
by combining different parts of hyperbolic
paraboloids. The saddle-type hyperbolic pa-
raboloid structure has no joint lines marking
the connections of different parts and has a
unified flow without lines of discontinuity.
This structure is a portion of a larger surface
form. Its perimeter is constituted of straight
lines that in space are skewed but if projected
on a horizontal plan would generate a square.
This shape consists of a hyperbolic parabo-
loid enclosed by four edge beams that slope
down from two high tips to lower points (see
Figs. 13-1 and 13-2). The four edge beams
are straight but have variable cross-sections
whose depths and widths increase as the sec-
tions get closer to the lower point. Two of the
four corners act as supports; the other two,
being the highest tips, cantilever out. The
structure is symmetrical with respect to axes
running as the diagonals of the square plan.
271
As is typical of saddle-type hyperbolic parab-
oloids, the whole structure consists of one
continuous surface, contrary to most hyper-
bolic paraboloidal structures, which as noted,
usually include several surfaces connected by
edge members. In this case the edge mem-
bers are located only on the perimeter. Fig-
ure 13-2 differs from 13-4. In the first, the
two cantilevered tips are at the same level
from the ground, while in the other, they are
at different heights. In the second case, the
paraboloid is inclined or sloped.
Looking at the projection of this hyper-
bolic paraboloid on a horizontal plane in Fig-
ure 13-1, we can observe that the square
shape of the structure identifies four corners,
two at each end of the diagonal of the square
that are on the ground and two at the ends of
the other diagonals that are the upper
corners of the structure. The two points on
the ground form the points of support, with
the two on the peak that are at an equal
height above the ground constituting the tips
of the cantilevered portions of the hyperbolic
paraboloid.
The straight-line edges of these hyperbolic
paraboloids were obtained by intersecting
the hyperbolic paraboloidal surface with four
vertical planes.
Because the structural supports are lo-
cated at the two diagonally opposed corners
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

SUPPORT

ZONES OF
SECONDARY STRESS

~ HIGH TIP

SUPPORT

13-1 A horizontal plan of a saddle-type hyperboliC paraboloid with a square plan on two supports.

HIGH TIP '"i-

SUPPORT

13-2 An elevation of a sloped saddle-type hyperboliC paraboloid with a square plan on two supports.

of the square projection of the hyperbolic
paraboloid, this makes the structure quite un-
stable if its loading is asymmetrical. It is thus
important to stabilize the structure with addi-
tional supports to avoid its overturning. One
elegant solution, which keeps only the two
main supports with their bearing capacity in
compression and minimizes the visual effect
of having additional supports, is to add verti-
cal tensile members at either the two upper
tips of the shell or along its cantilevered
edges.

272
 The Desien of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

To identify this particular group of hyper- The recommended optimal dimensions

bolic paraboloidal shells on two supports re-
quires distinguishing the shape of the hori-
zontal projection as square rather than
skewed or diamond shaped. It also is neces-
sary to establish that the two high tips of the
shell that are diagonally opposite each other
are at an equal height above the ground.
Identifying this condition distinguishes this
specific case and any other inclined shell
from the sloped type in the horizontal po-
sition.
for this type of shell (see Table 13-1) are
based on using concrete with a minimum
specified strength of f: = 4,000 psi (27.6
MPa) at 28 days, reinforcing steel of grade 40
(276 MPa), live loads of 30 psf (1.44 MPa) of
horizontal shell projection, and dead loads
from the weight of the concrete itself based
on 150 pef (2,400 kG/m S ), plus 5 psf (0.25
kPa) for roofing and another 5 psf for miscel-
laneous loads. The shell's thickness is con-
stant throughout.

0.3

v V

V
0.2 l/
Z /
V
ct
U)
~
l-
I
Q /
w
I
V
J7
0...
f=

0.1
V

a
0' 100' 200' 300'
SPAN IN FEET

13-3 Optimized proportions for the preliminary desien of horizontal

hyperbolic paraboloids on a square plan on two supports.

273
TABLE 13-1 Horizontal Saddle-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan on Two Supports
THIN SHELL
VARIABLE EDGE BEAMS
Constant
Shell Minimum Section Maximum Section
Diagonal Tip
Span Side Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (m) ft (m) !! (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
84.85 (25.9) 60 (18.3) 10 (3) 3112 (9) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 10 (25)
113.14 (34.5) 80 (24.4) 15-45 (4.6-13.7) 3112 (9) 28 (71) 28 (71) 10 (25) 10 (25)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 20-50 (6.1-15.2) 3112 (9) 34 (86) 34 (86) 12 (30) 12 (30)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 25 (7.6) 4 (10) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 30-55 (9.1-16.8) 31/. (9) 36 (91) 36 (91) 14 (36) 14 (36)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 30 (9.1) 5 (13) 46 (117) 46 (117) 18 (46) 18 (46)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 35 (10.7) 4 (10) 46 (117) 46 (117) 18 (46) 18 (46)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 40-60 (12.2-18.3) 3112 (9) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 35 (10.7) 6 (15) 54 (137) 54 (137) 24 (61) 24 (61 )
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 52 (132) 52 (132) 24 (61) 24 (61)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 45 (13.7) 4 (10) 52 (132) 52 (132) 24 (61) 24 (61)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 50-65 (15.2-19.8) 3112 (9) 50 (127) 50 (127) 20 (51) 20 (51)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 40 (12.2) 8 (20) 60 (152) 60 (152) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 45 (13.7) 6 (15) 58 (147) 58 (147) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 50 (15.2) 5 (13) 58 (147) 58 (147) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 55 (16.8) 4 (10) 58 (147) 58 (147) 28 (71) 28 (71)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 60-70 (18.3-21.3) 3112 (9) 58 (147) 58 (147) 28 (71) 28 (71)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 45 (13.7) 10 (25) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 50 (15.2) 7 (18) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 55 (16.8) 6 (15) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 60 (18.3) 5 (13) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 65-70 (19.8-21.3) 4 (10) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 75 (22.9) 3112 (9) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
 The Design of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

The recommended optimal values for the
average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic
paraboloid are as follows (see Fig. 13-3).
Diagonal Span Tip Height
100 ft (30.5 m) 12.5 ft (3.8 m)
200 ft (61 m) 40 ft (12.2 m)
300 ft (91.4 m) 75 ft (22.9 m)
Square Plan on
Two Supports (Sloped)
This type of structure is geometrically similar
to the saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloid de-
scribed above, the only difference being that
in this case the whole structure is rotated
around a horizontal axis that passes through
the two lower supports. An inclined or sloped
structure thus has its two cantilevered tips at
different heights from the ground.
The sloped hyperbolic paraboloid is a par-
ticular case with respect to the horizontal
type, which is more orthodox. By sloping the
whole shell, dramatic effects can be attained,
as seen in a number of Felix Candela's shells
in Mexico.
The recommended optimal dimensions
for this type of shell (see Table 13-2 and
Figures 13-4 - 13-6) are based on the same
specifications for materials and loads given
with Table 13-1.
The recommended optimal values for the
average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic
paraboloid are as follows:
Diagonal Span Tip Height
100 ft (30.5 m) 12.5 ft (3.8 m)
200 ft (61 m) 50 ft (7.6 m)
300 ft (91.4 m) 100 ft (30.5 m)

SUPPORT

HIGH TIP
'-.->

SUPPORT

1 3-4 The plan of a sloped, saddle-type, square-plan hyperbolic parabolOid on two supports.

275
TABLE 13-2 Sloped Saddle-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan on Two Supports
THIN SHELL VARIABLE EDGE BEAMS
Tip Constant Minimum Maximum
Diagonal Height Shell Section Section
S~n Side MAX. MIN. Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (CIII) ia (CIII)
84.85 (25.9) 60 (18.3) 10-20 (3-6.1) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 22 (56) 22 (56) 20 (25) 10 (25)
84.85 (25.9) 60 (18.3) 25-40 (7.6-12.2) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 10 (25)
113.14 (34.5) 80 (24.4) 15-20 (4.5-6.1) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 30 (76) 30 (76) 10 (25) 10 (25)
113.14 (34.5) 80 (24.4) 25-45 (7.6-13.7) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 28 (71) 28 (71) 10 (25) 10 (25)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 20 (6.1) 10 (3) 5 (13) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) to (3) 4 (10) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 38 (97) 38 (97) 14 (36) 14 (36)
141.42 (43.1) 100 (30.5) 35-50 (10.7-15.2) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 34 (86) 34 (86) 12 (30) 12 (30)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 30 (9.1) 10 (3) 6 (15) 48 (122) 48 (122) 20 (51) 20 (51)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 35-40 (10.7-12.2 10 (3) 4 (10) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
169.70 (51.7) 120 (36.6) 45-55 (13.7-16.8) to (3) 3'1.r (9) 36 (91) 36 (91) 14 (36) 14 (36)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 40 (12.2) 10 (3) 7 (18) 54 (137) 54 (137) 24 (61) 24 (61)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 45 (13.7) 10 (3) 6 (15) 48 (122) 48 (122) 20 (51) 20 (51)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 50 (15.2) 10 (3) 5 (13) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 55-60 (16.8-18.3) 10 (3) 4 (10) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
198.00 (60.4) 140 (42.7) 65 (19.8) 10 (3) 3'1.r (9) 44 (112) 44 (112) 16 (41) 16 (41)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 50 (15.2) 10 (3) 9 (23) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 55 (16.8) 10 (3) 7 (18) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 60 (18.3) 10 (3) 6 (15) 64 (163) 64 (163) 30 (76) 30 (76)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 65 (19.8) 10 (3) 5 (13) 56 (152) 60 (152) 28 (71) 28 (71)
226.27 (69.0) 160 (48.8) 70-75 (2l.3-22.9) 10 (3) 4 (10) 54 (137) 54 (137) 24 (61) 24 (61)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 65 (19.8) to (3) 9 (23) 70 (178) 70 (178) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 70 (21.3) 10 (3) 8 (20) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 75-80 (22.9-24.4) 10 (3) 6 (15) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
254.56 (77.6) 180 (54.9) 85-90 (25.9-27.4) 10 (3) 5 (13) 58 (147) 58 (147) 26 (66) 26 (66)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 85 (25.9) 10 (3) 8 (20) 74 (188) 74 (188) 34 (86) 34 (86)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 90 (27.4) 10 (3) 7 (18) 70 (178) 70 (178) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 95-100 (29.0-30.5) 10 (3) 6 (15) 66 (168) 66 (168) 30 (76) 30 (76)
282.84 (86.2) 200 (61.0) 105-110 (32.0-33.5) 10 (3) 5 (13) 64 (163) 64 (163) 26 (66) 26 (66)
 The Desian of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

/,HIGHER
If TIP

SUPPORT

13-5 The elevation of a sloped. saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloid on a square plan on two supports.

0.3

/
/
J
z JV
~ 0.2
C/)
.....
V
-
V
I-
::c
~
ijj
::c
c.. V
I
~
w
C!'
<C
c:: rr
J
W
~ 0.1

o
o· 100' 200' 300'
SPAN IN FEET

13-6 Optimized proportions for the preliminary desian of sloped

hyperboliC paraboloids on a square plan on two supports.

277
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desinn of Thin Shells

FOUR-GABLE-TYPE can be done conveniently by using four ties

HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDS to connect the four corners along the perim-
eter.
Square Plan The recommended optimal dimensions
for this type of shell (see Table 13-3 and Figs.
This structure strongly resembles a conven- 13-7 - 13-9) are based on the same specifica-
tional gable roof. In this case the plan is tions as given before for Table 13-I.
square, but it could also be rectangular, as The recommended optimal values for the
shown in the next example. This structure average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic
consists of four identical hyperbolic parabo- paraboloid are as follows:
loidal surfaces that form the four quadrants
of a square. Each surface has two inclined Span Tip Height
edge members at its perimeter and two hori- 100 ft X 100 ft (30.5 24 ft (7.3 m)
zontal edge beams, which join adjacent sur- m X 30.5 m)
faces and form the roofs ridges. The sloped 200 ft X 200 ft (61 66 ft (20.1 m)
edge beams have variable cross-sections m X 61 m)
whose depths and thicknesses increase to- 250 ft X 250 ft (76.2 93 ft (28.3 m)
ward the lower corners of the supports. The m X 76.2 m)
horizontal edge beams on the ridge where
the four quadrants merge also have variable
cross-sections, with their depths and widths Rectangular Plan
increasing as the sections progress from the
edges of the structure toward its center. Each This type of four-gabled structure is similar
edge member produces horizontal thrust that to the previous one, except that its plan is
must be counteracted at each corner, which rectangular rather than square. Although the

SLOPED EDGE BEAMS

SUPPORT , ,7 SUPPORT

~ ZONE OF
SECONDARY
STRESSES

~RIDGE BEAMS "'00

~
«
I
Ll.J
III
Ll.J
CJ
o
Ll.J
o
Ll.J
a..
o...J
~oo

SUPPORT SUPPORT
fsLOPED EDGE BEAMS.I

13-7 The plan of a four-nable-type, square plan hyperbolic paraboloid.

278
 The Design of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

~
SLOPED EDGE BEAMS.:'

13-8 The perspective of a four-gable-type, square plan hyperboliC

paraboloid.

0.4

/
V
-,j '/
l<~ /
cj~
0.3

z
/
~
en
<9
z I- ~ ~~
0
--'
;:::
I
V \ ~..>-
~O_

) "\ ~O~ \ "1-

<9
iIi ~
I
a. b_

- '\
j:: I'"

0.2
l ~
~
11:

/ \ ~
~I ~
~

~,

V
1\\ f11- ~

~,

0.1

0' 100' 200' 300'

LONG SPAN IN FEET

13-9 The optimized proportions for the preliminary design of a

four-gable-type, square and rectangular plan hyperbolic paraboloid.

279
TABLE 13-3 Four-Gable Hyperbolic Paraboloid with a Square Plan
VARIABLE HORIZONTAL VARIABLE INCUNm
THIN SHELL EDGE BEAMS EDGE BEAMS
ConsIant Minmum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Side Tip Shell Section Section Section Section
Span Height Thickness Width DefIth Width Depth Width Depth Width Depth
f!. (m> ft (m> ill (CJII> ill (CJII> ill (CJII> in (CJII> ill (CJII> ill (CJII> in (CJII> ill (CJII> in (CJII>
60 (18.5) 10 (5) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (50) 12 (SO) 10 (25) 6 (15) 24 (61) 12 (SO)
60 (18.5) 15-55 (4.6-10.7) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 4 (10) 52 (81) 16 (41)
80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (56) 14 (56) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (56)
80(24.4) 25 (7.6) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (50) 12 (50) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (SO)
80(24.4) 50 (9.1) S'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (50) 12 (50) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (SO)
80(24.4) 55 (10.7) S'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) S'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
100 (50.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (l!J)10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 5 (l!J) 44 (1l2) 22 (56)
100 (50.5) 50 (9.1) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 6 (15) 40 (102) 20 (51)
100 (50.5) 55 (10.7) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 52 (81) 18 (46)
100 (50.5) 40 (12.2) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 52 (81) 16 (41)
100 (50.5) 45 (l!J.7) 5'h (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (56) 14 (S6) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (lJ6)
100 (50.5) 50 (15.2) 5'h ... (~ ._10 (25_)_ 10 (25) 14 (56) _1.!.....iS.fj) ---.!Q. (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (lJ6)
 The DesiBn of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

square plan may be more practical because of 13-10- 13-12) are based on the same specifi-
its biaxial symmetry, the rectangular plan has cations given with Table 13-1.
much to recommend it. Its strong resem- The recommended optimal values for the
blance to a typical gable roof elimintes the a verage dimensions of this type of hyperbolic
dramatic effects that hyperbolic paraboloid paraboloid (see Fig. 13-9) are as follows:
surface can produce. And this type of assem-
bly of hyperbolic paraboloid surfaces can Long Side Short Side
produce practical roof structures in shell con- SEan SEan TiE Height
struction, to enjoy its desirable economic 100 ft 60 ft 20 ft
values. The economy of this form capitalizes (30.5 m) (18.3 m) (6.1 m)
on the simplicity of form work of using 140 ft 60 ft 20 ft
straight-line generatrices and the economy (42.7 m) (18.3 m) (6.1 m)
that any thin-shell structure offers, due to the 160 ft 80 ft 32 ft
minimal amount of concrete it uses. (48.8 m) (24.4 m) (9.8 m)
The recommended optimal dimensions 180 ft 80 ft 45 ft
for this type of shell (see Table 13-4 and Figs. (54.9 m) (24.4 m) (13.7 m)

SUPPORT SUPPORT

t=~=====n======~~~
ZONE OF ~
SECONDARY
STRESSES

-
RIDGE BEAMS j

SUPPORT
t.SLOPED EDGE BEAMS I SUPPORT

13-10 The plan of a four-Bable-type, rectanBular plan, hyperbolic

parabolOid.

1 3-11 The perspective of a four-Bable-type, rectanBular plan, hyperbolic parabolOid.

281
TABLE 13-4 Four-Gable Hyperbolic Paraboloid with a Rectansular Plan
VARIABLE HORIZONTAL VARIABLE INCLINED
THIN SHELL EDGE BEAMS EDGE BEAMS
Long Short Constant Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Side Side Tip Shell Section Section Section Section
S~an S~an Height Thickness Width Depth Width Depth Width Depth Width Depth
ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 20-40 (6.1-12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 20 (6.1) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 30-45 (9.1-13.7) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (51) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 30-40 (9.1-12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 45-50 (13.7-15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 10 (25) 7 (18) 20 (51) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 5 (13) 36 (91) 18 (46)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 30-45 (9.1-13.7) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 12 (30) 12 (30) 10 (25) 7 (18) 24 (61) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 5 (13) 36 (91) 18 (46)
120 (36.6) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
120 (36.6) 80 (24.4) 35-50 (10.7-15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 36 (19) 18 (46)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 36 (19) 18 (46)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 35-40 (10.7-12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
140 (42.7) 80 (24.4) 45-55 (13.7-16.8) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 6 (15) 40 (102) 20 (51)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 18 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) 18 (46)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 45-50 (13.7-15.2) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
160 (48.8) 80 (24.4) 55-60 (16.8-18.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 5 (13) 48 (122) 24 (61)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 6 (15) 44 (112) 22 (56)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51 ) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (18) 40 (102) 20 (51)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) 18 (46)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 16 (41)
120 (36.6) 100 (30.5) 55 (16.8) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 14 (36) 14 (36) 10 (25) 7 (18) 28 (71) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 5 (13) 48 (122) 24 (61)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 6 (15) 44 (112) 22 (56)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (18) 40 (102) 20 (51)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) 18 (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) 18 (46)
140 (42.7) 100 (30.5) 55-60 (16.8-IS.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (SI) 16 (41)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 26 (66) 26 (66) 10 (25) 5 (13) 52 (132) 26 (66)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 6 (15) 4S (122) 24 (61)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 44 (112) 22 (56)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 55 (16.S) 3'/. (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51 ) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 40 (102) 20 (51)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 60 (lS.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 18 (46) IS (46) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 36 (91) IS (46)
160 (4S.S) 100 (30.5) 65 (19.S) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 16 (41) 16 (41) 10 (25) 7 (\8) 32 (SI) 16 (41)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25) 26 (66) 26 (66) 10 (25) 5 (13) 52 (132) 26 (66)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 4 (10) 10 (25) 10 (25) 24 (61) 24 (61) 10 (25) 6 (15) 48 (122) 24 (61)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 55 (16.S) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 22 (56) 22 (56) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 44 (112) 22 (56)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) 20 (51) 20 (51) 10 (25) 7 (IS) 40 (102) 20 (51)
ISO (54.9) 100 (30.5) 65 (19.S) 3'j" (9) 10 (25) 10 (25) IS (46) IS (46) 10 (25) 7 (18) 36 (91) IS (46)
 The Desion of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

o. 4

" /
I~
Q:' II
•.J"
z
Cf.
pi v i" HO Fn~ PAr = 1PO'

W
0.3
rJJ
w
rJJ
\
7
a:
I--
N.~OF T8 AN 1=&
w
>
rJJ
Z
<{
V
a:
f- Ij/

Iv
SIJ bR- '8P, N
z 60'
~a:
()

~
f-
I
c:I
~ 0.2
If HO Fn ~ PAr = 4P'
I'I V
r
7
II
II
0.1

0' 100' 200' 300'

TRANSVERSE SPAN IN FEET

13-12 The optimized proportions for the preliminary desion of an

umbrella-type, square and rectanaular plan hyperbolic paraboloid_

UMBRELLA-TYPE of four quadrants of hyperbolic paraboloi-

HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDS
This type of structure resembles the um-
brella (see Figs. 13-13 and 13-14) from which
its name derives. The support for the whole
structure is at its center. However, the struc-
ture is usually combined with other, similar,
ones to form a system in which each column
is the nodal point of a grid. Large buildings
can be roofed with this system. An umbrella-
type paraboloid is in reality a combination
dal surfaces connected along their inclined
edges. When the four quadrants are joined
along their horizontal edges, a unit is formed.
U mbrella-Type Hyperbolic
Paraboloids (Square Plan)
This type of hyperbolic paraboloid resembles
a square pyramid with the support under its
apex being like the stem of an umbrella.
Though it is less glamorous than the hyper-

283
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desi8n of Thin Shells

, ZONEOF
SECONDARY
STRESSES

~
'OPED BEAMS
~

13-13 The plan of an umbrella-type. square plan hyperbolic paraboloid.

13-14 The perspective of an umbrella-type. square plan hyperbolic

paraboloid.

bolic paraboloid on two supports. this type is loads given with respect to Table 13-1.
quite economical and practical for one-story The recommended optimized values for
modular concrete buildings. By using these as the average dimensions of this type of hyper-
the basic model. a large structure can be built bolic paraboloid are as follows (see also Fig.
in modular formwork to cast individual units 13-12):
that can then be joined together.
Such structures have sometimes been used Side Spans Tip Height
as individual structures with self-standing sta- 50 ft X 50 ft 7.5 ft (2.3 m)
bility attained by the proper footing. In the (15.2 m X 15.2 m)
United States outdoor shelters shaped as hy- 100 ft X 100 ft 29 ft (8.8 m)
perbolic paraboloidal umbrellas have been (30.5 m X 30.5 m)
built as typical structures in state parks. 150 ft X 150 ft 55 ft (16.8 m)
The recommended optimized dimensions (45.7 m X 45.7 m)
for this type of shell (see Table 13-5) are 200 ft X 200 ft 86 ft (26.2 m)
based on the specifications for materials and (61 m X 61 m)

284
TABLE 13-5 Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan
VARIABLE INCLINED
THIN SHELL EDGE BEAM
CONSTANT
Minimum Maximum HORIZONTAL
Constant
Section Section EDGE BEAM
Side Peak Shell
Span Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
(m) (m) In (em) in (em) In (em) In (em) in (em) In (em) in (em)
ft ft
40 (12.2) 5 (1.5) 3'1. (9) 20 (51) 3 (8) 40 (102) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3'1. (9) 10 (25) 3 (8) 20 (51) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3'1. (9) 7 (18) 3 (8) 13 (33) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3'1. (9) 5 (13) 3 (8) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'1. (9) 4 (10) 3 (8) S (20) 6 (15) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 10 (3) 4 (10) 22 (56) 3 (8) 54 (137) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3'1. (9) 18 (46) 5 (13) 36 (91) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 14 (36) 5 (13) 27 (69) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (IS.3) 25 (7.6) 3'1. (9) 11 (28) 5 (13) 22 (56) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 9 (23) 5 (13) IS (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3'1. (9) S (20) 5 (13) 15 (38) 10 (25) 6 (15) 8 (20)
SO (24.4) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 2S (71) 6 (15) 70 (17S) 15 (38) 10 (25) 12 (30)
SO (24.4) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 24 (61) 7 (IS) 52 (132) 15 (3S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3'1. (9) 20 (51) 7 (18) 42 (107) 15 (38) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3'1. (9) 16 (41) 7 (18) 35 (S9) 15 (38) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 35 (10.7) 3'1. (9) 14 (36) 7 (18) 30 (76) 15 (3S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
SO (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3'1. (9) 12 (30) 7 (IS) 26 (66) 15 (3S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 20 (6.1) 9 (23) 35 (S9) 7 (IS) S5 (216) 17 (43) 12 (30) 16 (41)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (13) 36 (91) 9 (23) 6S (173) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 34 (S6) 10 (25) 57 (145) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 3'1. (9) 32 (SI) II (28) 49 (124) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 3'1. (9) 2S (71) II (2S) 43 (109) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3'h (9) 25 (64) II (28) 3S (97) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3'1. (9) 22 (56) 11 (2S) 34 (S6) 17 (43) 12 (30) 14 (36)
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

U mbrella-Type Hyperbolic
Paraboloids (Rectangular Plan)

This structure, which is similar to the pre- Long Side Short Side
vious one, differs only in that the shape of its Span Span Tip Height
plan is rectangular rather than square (see 120 ft 40 ft 25 ft
Figs. 13-15 and 13-16). Once again the rec- (30.6 m) (12.2 m) (7.6 m)
ommended optimized dimensions for this 120 ft 60 ft 29 ft
type of shell (see Table 13-6) are based on the (36.6 m) (IB.3 m) (B.B m)
specifications given for Table 13-1. 130 ft BO ft 36 ft
The recommended optimal values for the (39.6 m) (24.4 m) (11 m)
average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic 140 ft 100 ft 43 ft
paraboloid are as follows: (42.7 m) (30.5 m) (13.1 m)

~ZONEOF
"

SECONDARY
STRESSES ~

~ --~I •
, I

--'~'

tSCoPED BEAMS '1

~

~ ~
cg EDGE MEMBERS ~
13-15 The plan of an umbrella-type rectanaular plan hyperbolic
paraboloid.

1 3-16 A perspective of an umbrella-type rectanaular plan hyperbolic parabolOid.

286
TABLE 13-6 Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Rectan9ular Plan
VARIABLE INCLINED EDGE BEAMS
THIN SHELL Long Long Short Short CONSTANT
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum HORIZONTAL
Long Short Constant
Section Section Section Section EDGE BEAM
Side Side Peak Shell
S~an S~an Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (m) (m) It (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
ft
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 27 (69) 5 (13) 6 (15) 3 (S) IS (46) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3'/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) IS (46) 5 (13) 3 (S) 12 (30) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 13 (33) 5 (13) 3 (S) 9 (23) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) II (2S) 5 (13) 3 (S) 7 (IS) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 9 (23) 5 (13) 3 (S) 6 (15) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3112 (9) S (20) 3 (S) 35 (S9) 7 (IS) 3 (S) IS (46) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 26 (66) 7 (IS) 3 (S) 13 (33) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) IS (46) 7 (IS) 3 (S) 9 (23) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 15 (3S) 7 (IS) 3 (S) S (20) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 14 (36) 7 (IS) 3 (S) 7 (IS) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (S) 42 (107) 9 (23) S (20) 3 (S) 17 (43) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) S (20) 3 (S) 34 (S6) 9 (23) 3 (S) 14 (36) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 29 (74) 9 (23) 6 (I 5) 3 (S) 12 (30) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 25 (64) 9 (23) 3 (S) 10 (25) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 22 (56) 9 (23) 3 (S) 9 (23) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 15 (4.6) 3112 (9) S (20) 3 (S) 35 (S9) 7 (IS) S (20) 3 (S) 26 (66) 7 (IS) 12 (30) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 26 (66) 7 (I 8) 6 (I 5) 3 (S) 20 (51) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 21 (53) 7 (18) 3 (8) 16 (41) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) IS (46) 7 (18) 3 (8) 13 (33) 7 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 15 (38) 7 (18) 3 (8) II (28) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 13 (33) 7 (IS) 3 (8) 10 (25) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 20 (6.1) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 43 (109) 9 (23) 8 (20) 3 (8) 26 (66) 9 (23) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 25 (7.6) 3'/2 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 34 (S6) 9 (23) 3 (8) 22 (56) 9 (23) 12 (30) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 29 (74) 9 (23) 6 (15) 3 (8) 17 (43) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 25 (64) 9 (23) 3 (8) 15 (38) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 40 (12.2) 3 1/2 (9) 6 (15) 3 (S) 22 (56) 9 (23) 3 (8) 13 (33) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 60 (IS.3) 45 (13.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 19 (48) 9 (23) 3 (8) 12 (30) 9 (23) 10 (25) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 50 (127) II (28) S (20) 3 (8) 25 (64) II (28) 14 (36) 14 (36)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 42 (107) II (28) 3 (8) 21 (53) II (28) 12 (30) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 36 (91) II (2S) 3 (S) IS (46) II (28) 12 (30) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 32 (81) II (28) 6 (15) 3 (8) 16 (41) II (28) 12 (30) 12 (30)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 28 (71) II (28) 3 (8) 14 (36) II (28) 10 (25) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 25 (64) II (28) 3 (8) 13 (33) II (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (IS.3) 30 (9.1) 3112 (9) 10 (25) 3 (8) 58 (147) 13 (33) 10 (25) 3 (8) 25 (64) 13 (33) 14 (36) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 50 (127) 13 (33) 8 (20) 3 (S) 22 (56) 13 (33) 14 (36) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 44 (112) 13 (33) 3 (8) 19 (48) 13 (33) 14 (36) 14 (36)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) 3112 (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 39 (99) 13 (33) 3 (8) 16 (41) 13 (33) 12 (30) 12 (30)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 35 (S9) 13 (33) 6 (15) 3 (8) 15 (3S) 13 (33) 12 (30) 12 (30)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 55 (16.8) 3112 (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 32 (81) 13 (33) 6 (15) 3 (S) 14 (36) 13 (33) 12 (30) 12 (30)
(continued)
TABLE 13-6 Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a ltectQlIJIUlar Plan (continued)
VARIABLE INCUNED EDGE BEAMS
THIN SHELL Long Long Short Short CONSTANT
Long Short Constant Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum HORlWNTAL
Side Side Peak Shell Section Section Section Section EDGE BEAM
Span Span Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
ft (-) ft (-) ft (-) in (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea) ill (ea)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5 (IS) 10 (25) S (8) 4S (109) 9 (2S) 10 (25) S (8) S4 (86) 9 (2S) 18 (46) 18 (46)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) S4 (86) 9 (2S) 8 (20) S (8) 28 (71) 9 (2S) 14 (S6) 14 (S6)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 28 (71) 9 (2S) S (8) 2S (58) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 25 (64) 9 (2S) S (8) 20 (51) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 22 (56) 9 (2S) S (8) 17 (4S) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
100 (SO.5) 80 (24.4) 45 (IS.7) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 19 (48) 9 (2S) S (8) 16 (41) 9 (2S) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
60 (18.S) 40 (12.2) 10 (S) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 27 (69) 5 (IS) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (I8.S) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 5 (IS) S (8) 12 (SO) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.S) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) IS (SS) 5 (IS) S (8) 9 (2S) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (I8.S) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 11 (28) 5 (IS) S (8) 7 (18) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (I8.S) 40 (12.2) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 9 (2S) 5 (IS) S (8) 6 (15) 5 (IS) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) S5 (89) 7 (18) 8 (20) S (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 6 (15) S (8) IS (SS) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) S (8) 9 (2S) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 15 (S8) 7 (18) S (8) 8 (20) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80(24.4) 40 (12.2) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 14 (S6) 7 (18) S (8) 7 (18) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) 42 (107) 9 (2S) 8 (20) S (8) 17 (4S) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) S'h (9) 8 (20) S (8) 54 (86) 9 (2S) S (8) 14 (S6) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 29 (74) 9 (2S) 6 (15) S (8) 12 (SO) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 25 (64) 9 (2S) S (8) 10 (25) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (SO.5) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 22 (56) 9 (2S) S (8) 9 (2S) 9 (2S) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) 15 (4.6) S'k (9) 8 (20) S (8) S5 (89) 7 (18) 8 (20) S (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 12 (SO) 12 (SO)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) 20 (6.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 6 (15) S (8) 20 (51) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) 25 (7.6) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 21 (5S) 7 (18) S (8) 16 (41) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.S) SO (9.1) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) S (8) IS (SS) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (I8.S) S5 (10.7) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) 15 (S8) 7 (18) S (8) 11 (28) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.S) 40 (12.2) S'k (9) 6 (15) S (8) IS (SS) 7 (18) S (8) 10 (25) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
 The Desian of Hyperbolic Paraboloids

INVERTED UMBRELLA· TYPE cal to be able to guarantee that the drainage

HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDS
This type of structure resembles an umbrella,
but with the structure inverted (see Figs. 13-
17- 13-19). This inversion creates a drastic
difference not only in reversing the types of
stresses but also in the way that rain and snow
drain off, i.e., rather than flowing outward,
the runoff is collected at the center. Drainage
pipes are therefore required in the middle of
the supporting column. It is particularly criti-
system will always work when necessary, be-
cause failure within the system would create
excessive loading. In certain climates, large
accumulations of snow can be expected, and
only melting would make it possible to re-
move the load. This particular system should
thus be considered impractical for high
latitudes.
As with the umbrella-type hyperbolic pa-
raboloid, the inverted umbrella can also be
combined with others to create a system for
covering large buildings.

0.4

/
/
1/
j

"~
~
V
v
....
-...
Sf- OR SP I'N • 10C

~ ....- -
" ''''' ,... " '" ,

rrV
~I /""

I
../'"

SHe RT PA
-
SH OR SP N=

-
60'

0'

VV V r--

j,V
V
/
0.1

0' 100' 200' 300'

TRANSVERSE SPAN IN FEET

13-1 7 Optimized proportions for inverted umbrella-type hyperbolic

paraboloids in a square and rectanaular plan.

289
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Desian of Thin Shells

EDGE MEMBERS ;-'\

~===========;~======::;;;;:;11';

\ ZONE OF
SECONDARY
STRESSES
_ rOPED BEAMS

L--------,.---"
r - - - -__ '-j'----___- - - ,

1 3-18 The plan for an inverted umbrella-type, square plan hyperbolic

paraboloid.

1 3-19 The perspective for an inverted umbrella-type, square plan

hyperbolic paraboloid.

Inverted Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic The recommended optimal values for the

Paraboloid (Square Plan) average dimensions of this inverted umbrella
type of hyperbolic paraboloid are as follows:
The configuration of this structure empha-
sizes the cantilevered action of the shell, Side Span Tip Height
much more so than the umbrella-type pre- 50 ft X 50 ft 8 ft (2.4 m)
viously seen. (15.2 m X 15.2 m)
The recommended optimal dimensions 100 ftlOO ft 25 ft (7.6 m)
for this type of shell (see Table 13-7) are once (30.5 m X 30.5 m) 25 ft (7.6 m)
again based on using materials and loads with 200 ft X 200 ft 76 ft (23.1 m)
the specifications seen for Table 13-1. (61 X 61 m)

290
TABLE 13-7 Inverted Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Square Plan
THIN SHELLS VARIABLE INCLINED
EDGE BEAMS
Constant CONSTANT HORIZONTAL
Side Edge Shell Minimum Section Maximum Section EDGE BEAM
SEan Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
It (m) ft (m) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em) in (em)
40 (12.2) 5 (1.5) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 20 (51) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 10 (25) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 7 (18) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 5 (13) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 31/. (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 4 (10) 3 (8) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 10 (3) 4 (10) 6 (15) 3 (8) 27 (69) 5 (13) 12 (30) 12 (30)
60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3 1;' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 18 (46) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 20 (6.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 14 (36) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 11 (28) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 9 (23) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 8 (20) 5 (13) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 15 (4.6) 6 (15) 6 (15) 3 (8) 35 (89) 7 (18) 16 (41) 16 (41)
80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 26 (66) 7 (18) 14 (36) 14 (36)
80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 21 (53) 7 (18) 12 (30) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 18 (46) 7 (18) 12 (30) 12 (30)
80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 15 (38) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 13 (33) 7 (18) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 20 (6.1) 9 (23) 8 (20) 3 (8) 42 (107) 8 (20) 24 (61) 24 (61)
100 (30.5) 25 (7.6) 5 (13) 6 (15) 3 (8) 34 (86) 8 (20) 20 (51) 20 (51)
100 (30.5) 30 (9.1) 4 (10) 6 (15) 3 (8) 28 (71) 8 (20) 16 (41) 16 (41)
100 (30.5) 35 (10.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 24 (61) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 21 (53) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 45 (13.7) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 19 (48) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
100 (30.5) 50 (15.2) 3 1; ' (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 17 (43) 8 (20) 14 (36) 14 (36)
 Practical Aids for the Preliminary Design of Thin Shells

Inverted Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Long Side Short Side

Paraboloid (Rectangular Plan) Span Span Tip Height
100 ft 40 ft 19 ft
This structure is similar to the previous one (30.5 m) (12.2 m) (5.8 m)
except that its floor plan is rectangular rather 150 ft 40 ft 30 ft
than square (see Figs. 13-20 and 13-21). (45.7 m) (12.2 m) (9.1 m)
The recommended optimal dimensions 150 ft 60 ft 35 ft
for this type of shell (see Table 13-8) are (45.7 m) (18.3 m) (10.7 m)
based on materials and loads with the same 150 ft 80 ft 38 ft
specifications as seen for Table 13-1. (45.7 m) (24.4 m) (11.6 m)
The recommended optimal values for the 200 ft 100 ft 56 ft
average dimensions of this type of hyperbolic (61 m) (30.5 m) (17 m)
paraboloid are as follows:

EDGE MEMBERS 1
l.-t==f::=;;:::::===;t
, ZONE OF
SECONDARY
STRESSES

~SLOPED BEAMS
~

13-20 The plan for an inverted umbrella-type, rectangular plan

hyperbolic paraboloid.

13-21 The perspective for an inverted umbrella-type, rectangular plan hyperbolic paraboloid.

292
TABLE 13-8 Inverted Umbrella-Type Hyperbolic Paraboloid on a Rectangular Plan
VARIABLE INCLINED EDGE BEAMS
THIN SHELL Long Long Shon Shon CONSTANT
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum HORIZONTAL
Long Shon Constant
Section Seaion Seaion Seaion EDGE BEAM
Side Side Edge Shell
Span Height Thickness WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH WIDTH DEPTH
S~n
(m) It (m) It (a) in (C7II) in (CJII) in (CIII) In (CIII) in (OIl) in (CIII) in (CIII) in (ca) in (ca) in (OIl) in (OIl)
ft
60 (18.~) 40 (12.2) 10 (3) 3'h (9) 16 (41) 3 (8) 54 (137) 10 (25) II (28) 3 (8) 36 (91) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) ~'/. (9) II (28) 3 (8) 36 (91) 10 (25) 7 (18) 3 (8) 24 (61) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 8 (20) 3 (8) 27 (69) 10 (25) 5 (I~) 3 (8) 18 (46) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 7 (18) 3 (8) 22 (56) 10 (25) 4 (10) 3 (8) 14 (36) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3 1}. (9) 5 (13) 3 (8) 18 (46) 10 (25) 4 (10) 3 (8) 12 (~O) 10 (25) 6 (15) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 15 (4.6) ~'h (9) 15 (38) 3 (8) 69 (175) 14 (36) 7 (18) 3 (8) 35 (89) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3 1}. (9) II (28) 3 (8) 52 (132) 14 (36) 6 (15) 3 (8) 26 (66) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 7 (18) 3 (8) 35 (89) 14 (36) 4 (10) 3 (8) 17 (4~) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) ~'h (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 30 (76) 14 (36) 3 (8) 3 (8) 15 (38) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
SO (24.4) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 6 (15) 3 (8) 27 (69) 14 (36) 3 (8) 3 (8) 14 (36) 14 (36) 8 (20) 6 (15)
100 (~0.5) 40 (12.2) 20 (6.1) 3'h (9) 38 (97) 5 (13) 85 (216) IS (46) 15 (38) 5 (13) 34 (86) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 30 (76) 5 (13) 68 (173) 18 (46) 12 (30) 5 (13) 27 (69) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 25 (64) 5 (13) 57 (145) 18 (46) 10 (25) 5 (13) 23 (58) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 35 (10.7) 3 1}. (9) 22 (56) 5 13 49 (124) 18 (46) 8 (20) 5 (13) 19 (48) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 40 (12.2) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 19 (48) 5 (13) 43 (109) 18 (46) 8 (20) 5 (13) 17 (4~) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 15 (4.6) 3'h (9) 26 (66) 5 (13) 69 (175) 14 (36) 19 (48) 5 (13) 52 (132) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (IS.~) 20 (6.1) ~'h (9) 19 (48) 5 (13) 52 (132) 14 (36) 14 (36) 5 (13) 39 (99) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 15 (38) 5 (13) 42 (107) 14 (36) II (28) 5 (13) 31 (79) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 12 (30) 5 (I~) 35 (89) 14 (36) 9 (23) 5 (13) 26 (66) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) II (28) 5 (13) ~O (76) 14 (36) 8 (20) 5 (I~) 22 (56) 14 (36) 6 (15) 8 (20)
80 (24.4) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 9 (23) 5 (13) 26 (66) 14 (36) 8 (20) 5 (13) 20 (51) 14 (~6) 6 (15) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.~) 20 (6.1) 3 1}. (9) 24 (61) 5 (13) 85 (216) 18 (46) 14 (36) 5 (1~) 51 (130) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.~) 25 (7.6) ~I}. (9) 19 (42) 5 (13) 68 (173) 18 (46) II (28) 5 (13) 41 (104) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (~0.5) 60 (18.3) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 16 (41) 5 (13) 57 (145) 18 (46) 9 (23) 5 (13) 34 (86) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (~0.5) 60 (18.~) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 14 (36) 5 (13) 49 (124) 18 (46) 8 (20) 5 (I~) 29 (74) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3 1}. (9) 12 (30) 5 (13) 43 (109) 18 (46) 7 (18) 5 (13) 26 (66) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
100 (30.5) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) ~'h (9) II (28) 5 (13) 38 (97) 18 (46) 6 (15) 5 (13) 23 (58) 18 (46) 8 (20) 8 (20)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.3) 25 (7.6) 3'h (9) 32 (80) 7 (18) 100 (254) 22 (56) 16 (41) 7 (18) 50 (127) 22 (56) 8 (20) 8 (20)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.3) ~O (9.1) 3 1}. (9) 27 (69) 7 (18) 84 (21~) 22 (56) 14 (36) 7 (18) 42 (107) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
120 (36.6) 60 (18.~) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 23 (58) 7 (18) 72 (183) 22 (56) 12 (30) 7 (18) 36 (91) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.3) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 7 (18) 63 (160) 22 (56) 10 (25) 7 (18) 32 (81) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.3) 45 (1~.7) 3 1}. (9) 18 (46) 7 (18) 56 (142) 22 (56) 9 (23) 7 (18) 28 (71) 22 (56) 8 (20) to (25)
120 (~6.6) 60 (18.~) 50 (15.2) 3'h (9) 16 (41) 7 (18) 50 (127) 22 (56) 8 (20) 7 (18) 25 (64) 22 (56) 8 (20) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) ~O (9.1) ~'h (9) 32 (81) 7 (18) 1I7 (297) 26 (66) 13 (~~) 7 (18) 50 (127) 26 (66) 10 (25) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) 35 (10.7) ~'h (9) 27 (69) 7 (18) 100 (254) 26 (66) 13 (~3) 7 (18) 4~ (109) 26 (66) 10 (25) to (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) 40 (12.2) ~'h (9) 24 (61) 7 (18) 88 (224) 26 (66) 10 (25) 7 (18) 38 (97) 26 (66) 10 (25) to (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 45 (13.7) ~'h (9) 21 (5~) 7 (18) 78 (198) 26 (66) 9 (23) 7 (18) 33 (84) 26 (66) 10 (25) 12 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.3) 50 (15.2) 3'h (9) 19 (48) 7 (18) 70 (178) 26 (66) 8 (20) 7 (18) ~O (76) 26 (66) 10 (25) 10 (25)
140 (42.7) 60 (18.~) 55 (16.8) ~'h (9) 17 (43) 7 (18) 64 (163) 26 (66) 7 (18) 7 (18) 27 (69) 26 (66) 10 (25) 10 (25)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 20 (6.1) 5 (I~) 31 (79) 7 (IS) 85 (216) 19 (48) 25 (64) 7 (18) 68 (173) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 25 (7.6) 3 1}. (9) 32 (81) 9 (23) 68 (173) 19 (48) 26 (66) 9 (23) 55 (140) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 30 (9.1) 3'h (9) 27 (69) 9 (23) 57 (145) 19 (48) 22 (56) 9 (23) 46 (1I7) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 35 (10.7) 3'h (9) 23 (58) 9 (23) 49 (124) 19 (48) 18 (46) 9 (23) 39 (99) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 40 (12.2) 3'h (9) 20 (51) 9 (23) 43 (109) 19 (48) 16 (41) 9 (23) 34 (86) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
100 (30.5) 80 (24.4) 45 (13.7) 3'h (9) 18 (46) 9 (23) 38 (97) 19 (48) 15 (38) 9 (23) 31 (79) 19 (48) 10 (25) 12 (30)
 Part IV
Skeletal Steel Structures
and Megadomes
CHAPTER 14
Trussed Domes
SKELETAL STRUCTURES
Trussed domes are structures whose general
overall shape is that of a dome whose struc-
ture consists of a skeletal main framework to
carry the internal forces and a skin applied to
this frame that creates the actual enclosure.
The overall geometric effect of the space en-
closed by these domes does not differ sub-
stantially from that of a masonry dome, but
from a structural point of view there are two
distinctly different systems. On the one hand,
it could be said that the overall structural
behavior of a trussed dome is the same as that
of a masonry dome: the zones of compression
and tension throughout the dome's surface
are the same in each case. On the other hand,
there is a substantial distinction between a
continuous structural surface and a discon-
tinuous skeletal structure. Although this may
seem to contradict the last point, it does not
because one effect is global and the other is
primarily local.
A structural analysis of trussed domes is
based on the same criteria used for three-
dimensional spatial trusses, but in the trussed
dome the distribution of the axial forces
throughout the framework still conforms to
297
the pattern of stress distribution in curvilin-
ear thin shells.
Trussed domes could be looked at as
being space frames, since they are in reality
within that structural system. In this case,
however, the curvilinearity of their geometry
makes it logical to associate masonry domes,
thin shell domes, and trussed domes together
within the scope of this work.
The reasons for including trussed domes
within the overall group of curvilinear struc-
tures may be less evident at first glance.
Trussed domes combine the behavior of cur-
vilinear structures and trussed systems in one
of the latest structural concepts. They are at
the end of the process of the evolution of
structural strength achieved through geome-
try rather than mere mass.
Curvilinearity as a structural and architec-
tural form has evolved according to the avail-
ability of the basic structural systems offered
by technology, which are, in chronological
order, masonry vaulting, reinforced concrete
shells, and metallic trussed systems. Metallic
trussed domes find their logical place among
the company of masonry domes and thin
shells as part of the same evolutionary pro-
cess.
The reemergence of the dome after the
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meoadomes
baroque era was distinguished by a new form
of expression brought about through new
materials available for building construction:
cast iron and wrought iron. These two, com-
bined with glass, generated unique domes
that had no precedent. The metal framework
formed by thin structural elements could be-
come minimal, leaving the glass surface to
dominate. For the first time, a transparent
enclosure could create a protective space that
could bring full sunshine indoors. Light and
heat thus trapped became available to be
fully enjoyed in a space with a unique charac-
ter. In an elegant, subdued statement the
iron skeleton gently delineated a silhouette
that, without imposing, outlined the overall
configuration of the dome. Luminance, bril-
liancy, and iridescence all became key words
associated with glass domes made possible by
iron skeletons. So it was that at the beginning
of the nineteenth century the dome reap-
peared with new vigor under the impulse of a
new technology and revitalization of certain
architectural forms.
The first applications of iron domes were
in combination with metal sheathing, which
soon extended to the iron and glass combina-
tion used for pavilions and greenhouses in
public parks and, later, within the urban
framework, as in the Italian gallerie. Among
significant iron domes of the 1800s are the
domes over the Bourse du Commerce in
Paris (1806 -1811), which has a diameter of
approximately 130 ft (40 m) and consists of a
cast-iron framework and cooper sheathing;
the Royal Brighton Pavilion (1815-1823),
with a cast-iron framework and an exterior
onionlike configuration by architect John
Nash; St. Petersburg Cathedral (1840-
1842), by Auguste Ricard de Montferrand,
which included a concealed, complex cast-
iron framework supporting an external hemi-
spherical dome.
Various other examples of nineteenth-cen-
tury iron and glass domes could be cited. One
is the hemispherical dome in the center of
Syon House, or Greenhouse, in 1827 by
Charles Fowler, an example usually reported
in the literature not for its engineering but its
298
architectural significance expressing the ma-
ture forms of a number of elements. John
Claudius Loudon was already known for de-
sign work in iron and glass domes applied to
greenhouses when he built the dome for a
greenhouse in 1827 for Bretton Hall in
Yorkshire that was 100 ft (30.5 m) in diame-
ter with an iron framework. Other notable
domes were those over the greenhouse pavil-
ions in the Wilhelma Botanical Garden in
Stuttgart by Ludwig von Zanth built 1842-
1853 in glass and iron with a configuration
having a Moorish flavor and, finally, the
dome over the Palm House at Sefton Park,
Liverpool (1896), by Mackenzie and Moncur.
Within the urban context are many emi-
nent examples of the glass and iron dome
from the nineteenth century, including the
following:
London Coal Exchange (1846-1849), by
J. B. Bunning
New York World's Fair (Crystal Palace),
Bryant Park, Manhattan (1853), by
George Casten son and Charles Geld-
meister, which was of major importance
for the acceptance of the iron and glass
dome throughout the rest of the cen-
tury
Austro-Hungarian Bank, Vienna (1856-
1860), by H. von Ferstel
New Corn Exchange, Leeds (1860-
1863), by C. Brodrick
Palmhouse (greenhouse), Munich (1860-
1865), by A. von Voit
St. Augustin, Paris (1860-1871), by V.
Baltard
Funthaus Church, Vienna (1864-1875),
by F. Fowke
Galleria Victor Emmanuel II, Milan
(1865-1877), by G. Mengoni, which
had a base of 119 ft (36.21 m) and a
height of 154 ft (47.08 m)
Albert Hall, Kensington (1871), by H. G.
Scott, which had an elliptical base with
minor and major axes respectively of
190 ft (58 m) and 223 ft (68 m) and a
height of 213 ft (65 m)
Kibble Palace, Botanic Gardens, Glasgow
 Trussed Domes
(1872), by John Kibble
Exhibit Hall, Vienna (1873), by S. Russell,
Hansehauer, and Schmidt
Jardin d'Hiver, Laeken Royal Park, Brus-
sels (1873-1876), by A. Balat and
Maguet
Three domes, Paris World's Fair (1878),
by L. Hardy, A. G. Eiffel, and L.
Savvestic
Victoria Regia House, Schoneburg Royal
Botanic Garden, Berlin (1882), by
Schulze
Galleria Umberto I, Naples (1870), by
Emanuele Rocco
GUM Department Store, Moscow
(1888-1893)
Central dome, 1889 World's Fair, Paris,
by J. A. Bouvard, surrounded by two
minor domes, by J. C. Formige
Administration building, World's Colum-
bian Exposition, New York (1893), by
Richard Morris Hunt
Headquarters, Universal Brotherhood
and Theosophical Society, San Diego
(1897-1901)
Exhibition Hall, Palais des Machines, Paris
World's Fair (1900)
Grand Palais, Louvet, associated with the
Paris exhibition
GEODESICS AND SPACE FRAMES
The transition from planar trusses to three-
dimensional trussed vaults and domes oc-
curred immediately upon the availability of
metal structural elements such as cast iron,
wrought iron, and, later, steel. Trussed-dome
technology is thus about one century old.
The rectilinear metal members used pri-
marily to create rectilinear skeletal frames
were also employed to generate curvilinear
structures. Because metal domes had entered
the inventory of structural systems over a
century earlier, the geodesic dome technol-
ogy that became popular in the 1950s was
preceded by a long term of incubation. Many
steel domes had in fact already been built
299
before Buckminster Fuller's domes acquired
the popularity they attained in international
architectural forums.
It is interesting that the majority of the
geodesic domes, unlike their monolithic
predecessors, have been used as self-standing
structural enclosures rather than as roofs for
other structures. Most geodesic domes are
self-standing buildings that spring directly
from the ground, instead of from a building'S
top, as was the case with traditional dome
applications in the past. Geodesic domes
therefore seem to form part of a new vocabu-
lary whose use differs completely from that
of the typical application of the dome as an
element crowning a building. From this point
of view steel trussed domes have given a new
impulse to the evolution of curvilinearity in
present-day architecture.
It seems reasonable to expect that con-
crete thin shells and trussed domes, with
their common curvilinear geometry, should
both benefit from their association. Among
the potential gains that might feasibly be en-
visioned is a new generation of combined sys-
tems complementing one another by using
the continuous thin shell and the skeletal
trussed dome in an interacting play of sur-
faces and voids. Such an architectural compo-
sition of opposing complementary factors in
surfaces and voids would be part of the tradi-
tional manner in which architecture has artic-
ulated its language. It thus appears feasible to
speculate theoretically and connect these dif-
ferent curvilinear systems. For example, one
can visualize solid thin shells penetrated by
smaller domes in skeletal curved surfaces that
support a glazing skin, and many other pos-
sibilities.
Current trends in steel construction have
capitalized enormously on the potential of
the trussed dome. The largest structures in
the world are based on this structural con-
cept. The New Orleans Superdome seems
not to be at the limit of the possible, as the
Florida Suncoast dome indicates.
Looking at the trussed dome in terms of
such large-scale structures, one might assume
that the system is valid only for megastruc-
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Me8adomes
tures. However, such small-scale domes as the
glazed botanical greenhouses of the early
twentieth century have a great deal of charm
and are currently enjoying a resurgence in
construction. It seems feasible to predict that
there will be a new generation of small-scale
domes. The opportunities seem endless.
For instance, imagine bronze-finished metal
members in triangular patterns, with dark-
tinted glass forming the skin and pure ab-
stract forms of crystals recalling Platonic and
Archimedean solids. Springing from a low
base on the ground or projecting from the
fa~ade of a building, covering a terrace at a
corner of a high rise or over a roof garden,
these metal and glass domes could be fitted
onto or within building masses as effectively
as setting precious stones in a jeweled piece.
TRUSSED DOMES
AND THEIR BUILDERS
Several men contributed variously to the de-
velopment of the trussed dome, among them
Schwedler, Zeiss, Dykerhoff, Widmann, and
Zimmerman. Their names remain associated
with the types of domes they created. Above
all, however, one man dominates the field of
trussed domes-Buckminster Fuller, an en-
gineer and philosopher, master builder and
inventor.
Johann Wilhelm Schwedler
(1823 -1894)
Born in Berlin in the first part of the nine-
teenth century, Schwedler represents a major
figure in the field of structural engineering.
He specialized in metal structures when the
material was just at its early stages of applica-
tion, although cast iron was already in a ma-
ture stage of development in England. In the
progressive and highly industrialized world
of nineteenth-century Prussia, Schwedler ex-
panded the British innovative technology of
cast-iron structures for bridges and build-
ings and attained outstanding recognition
300
throughout Europe. His contributions in-
cluded both the construction aspects as well
as the statical analysis of structures. Innova-
tive structural design was codified through
his publications that spread throughout the
professional circles of Europe.
We will focus on Schwedler's major role in
the field of metal trussed domes. Six of his
papers written in 1866 proposed a new struc-
tural system for trussed domes that attained
major popularity in Europe as well as in the
United States. The Schwedler dome system
was very successful and continues to be used
today. Although the first prototypes were
built out of cast iron, the domes that followed
used the new material, steel. In the 1950s, a
Schwedler steel dome attained the world
record for reaching the largest trussed dome
diameter at its base. In a 1984 publication,l
Schwedler is referred to as the "father of
domed structures."
Schwedler started his career with a practi-
cal approach - by passing the licensing
exams as a surveyor first and then acquiring
considerable experience in hydraulics and
road construction as a construction inspector.
At 28, even before attaining an engineering
license, he won the competition for the de-
sign of a cast-iron railroad bridge over the
Rhine River at Cologne, basing his design on
theoretical statical analysis rather than the
empiricism and practical model analysis ap-
proach used by the engineering practice at
that time in England. In his publication
"Theory of Bridge Girder Systems" in 1851,
Schwedler proved scientifically the empirical
design formulas used in Britain. He began his
long career in the design of steel structures
through a series of government appoint-
ments and teaching positions. An exception-
ally brilliant engineer, he had a strong back-
ground in mathematics and physics. A major
part of his work included steel railroad
bridges through girders and suspension sys-
tems. His government appointments brought
him much recognition and gave him at one
time major control over on all government
buildings in Prussia and supervisory author-
ity on engineering licensing boards.
 Trussed Domes

With its practical and theoretical back-
ground, the Schwedler method for dome de-
sign was based on simple calculations since
the structures wer~ statically determinate.
The simplicity of the system and the clarity of
presentation that characterized his writing
explain the popularity and long-lasting suc-
cess of Schwedler's contributions to the de-
sign of trussed domes.
Hermann Zimmermann (1845-1935)
Born in Langensalza, Germany, Zimmer-
mann has an important place in the historical
development of the trussed metal dome. At
sixteen years of age, the young Zimmermann
went to sea. Eight years later, he entered the
Polytechnic of Karlsruhe where he began in
mechanical engineering and later changed to
civil engineering. After attaining a doctorate
in philosophy in 1874 and a doctorate in en-
gineering in 1875, he launched his engineer-
ing career with the German railroads in
Strasbourg, where he built his first steel
dome. He later moved to Berlin and contin-
ued his work in steel structures. A prolific
author in structural engineering for steel
constructions, he made a brilliant contribu-
tion in steel space frames which culminated
with the dome of the Reichstag in Berlin
(dome of the Parliament). The pattern of the
structural assembly that characterized his
steel domes constituted a structural typology
that gained exceptional popularity in Europe.
The specifics of the Zimmerman domes are
later illustrated in this chapter with other
major structural dome types.
far beyond architectural circles so that it is
known by laymen and professionals alike. No
other structural system has achieved such
popularity among the general public. As a
matter of fact, the popularity of this particu-
lar type of dome has made the modern dome
known to those who would otherwise have
remained unaware of dome structures in any
form.
Basically an engineer, Fuller was also rec-
ognized in architectural circles. Queen Eliza-
beth II decorated him with the Royal Gold
Medal for Architecture. His many design ef-
forts include a uniquely conceived prototype
housing unit, with which he was directly in-
volved in its mass production, as well as float-
ing cities, underwater human stations, and
space-frame construction systems. He was ba-
sically an engineer with a global vision of
world-scale problems (see Figure 14-2.)2
Fuller's accomplishments were numerous
and of a singular quality, though always in-
spired by basic essential human needs. He
should be regarded as an engineer, however,
even if the common usage of this term is
interpreted in a far more restrictive manner
than his career exemplified. By probing into
philosophy and looking at individual prob-

R. Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983)

In the history of the dome, Buckminster

Fuller represents the most significant con-
tributor from the United States. In terms of
twentieth-century dome architecture, Fuller
is definitely the most prominent personality
worldwide (Figure 14-1). His major achieve-
ment is the innovative design of the dome
typology referred to as geodesic. The popu-
larity of this structure has extended its fame 14- 1 Buckminster Fuller.

301
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meoadomes

14-2 A model by Buckminster Fuller illustratino a proposed meoadome

two miles in diameter to cover the island of Manhattan.

lems as only part of a universal system Fuller David H. Geiger (1935-1989)

became a fascinating figure with a superior
engineering genius. This American engineer acquired a major
Focusing on the geodesic dome as the reputation through scores of long-span struc-
major subject in this context, Fuller con- tures for sports and recreation facilities, ren-
ceived of a structural and geometric system ovations and feasibility studies of sports and
of such efficiency that it made possible the recreation facilities, controlled environments
creation of structures with spans never be- in large-scale encapsulations, convention and
fore seen. exhibition centers, and college and university
facilities (Figure 14-3). It is hard to do justice
William Mouton (1931- to the number of accomplished projects and
notable structures he was associated with or
William Mouton is a professor of Architec-
ture and Structures at Tulane University,
and is himself an engineering graduate of
that school. He holds various patents that cul-
minate in the complex structural system that
resulted in the Cajundome in Lafayette,
Louisiana. Proposed originally for a competi-
tion in New York and later again for the
structural system of the Superdome in New
Orleans, his patent finally found prominent
application in this dome covering the La-
fayette Civic Center. Designed by Mouton as
structural engineer under commission by ar-
chitect Neil Nehrbass, this dome stands out
for the way it utilizes the concept of space
frames in the overall structure of domes. (See
further details under the section below called
"Space-Frame Domes.") 14-3 David H. Geioer.

302
 Trussed Domes

responsible for. Most of his reputation is
based on his innovative work in tensile struc-
tures and his writings on cable domes, which
are particularly impressive. In this respect he
was the engineer of two domes in Seoul,
Korea, for the 1988 Olympics, for a dome
over the Illinois State University Arena , and
finally for the Florida Suncoast dome, the
largest dome in the world, 690 ft (210m) in
base diameter (see Figs. 14-4 and 14-5).
Also of great interest are other long-span
steel tensile structures with extraordinary, in-
novative structural concepts, among them
the following.

14-4 An aerial view of the Florida Suncoast Dome under construction.

14-5 The Suncoast Dome with its roof completed. (Courtesy of GeiBer
EnBineers)

303
 Sleeletal Steel Structures and Meeadomes

14-6 The Undsay Parle Sports Center, Caleary, by David H. Geieer.

Lindsay Park Sports Center,

Calgary, Alberta

This tensile roof structure, completed in

1982, includes a main arched member span-
ning 366 ft (120 m) and features a multi-
layered translucent skin roofing (see Fig.
14-6).

Ontario Pavilion, Expo 86,

Vancouver, British Columbia

This unique cable-and-strut space-truss struc-

ture is clad in a silicon-coated fiberglass fab-
ric. The structure, shaped into a semitoroidal
configuration, resists applied loads through
shell action (see Fig. 14-7).

Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill, N.C.

This dome at the University of North Caro-

lina, which is shown here under construction,
is a patented, skewed, girdered steel-roof sys- 14-7 The interior of the Expo 86 Pavillon,
tem (see Fig. 14-8). Vancouver, British Columbia, by David H. Geieer.

304
 Trussed Domes
14-8 An aerial view of the Dean Smith Center at the University of
North Carolina, by David H. Geiger.
TRUSSED·DOME GEOMETRY
AND TECHNOLOGY
As discussed earlier, the geometry used to
enclose large spans with curvilinear forms
was not originally based on structural consid-
erations of statics, because the structures pre-
ceded the development of such scientific
theories, but followed instead the intuitive
concept of enclosing a space with a minimal
amount of surface area. Obviously, the
sphere is the most efficient form to do so.
Thus, spherical domes using part of a com-
plete sphere were the most spontaneous ap-
plications adopted when continuously curved
structures were to be built.
If a structure consists of longitudinal rec-
tilinear elements made of timber or steel cov-
ered by a membrane, the form used to ap-
proximate an ideal sphere would actually be
a polyhedron. Obviously, polyhedra with a
large number of faces approach a sphere
more closely and, moreover, have an addi-
tional advantage of including shorter mem-
bers.
Trussed domes consisting of a framework
of rectilinear members are designed on the
305
basis of suitable polyhedra whose geometry is
analyzed in terms of its essential components.
These factors include the number, configura-
tion, and area of the faces, the number and
lengths of the members or sides, and the
number and coordinates of the vertices.
Polyhedra
As in plane geometry, a circle can be consid-
ered the limit toward which a polygon
evolves when the number of its sides tends
toward infinity. If this concept is extended
from planar to spatial forms, the sphere can
be considered the limit for a polyhedron
(multifaceted solid) whose number of faces
increases toward infinity. In designing domi-
cal structures to be built with rectilinear and
planar elements it is therefore convenient to
consider polyhedra that approach the shape
of a sphere by having the maximum number
of regular features possible, as for instance
equal edge lengths and face configurations
(equal triangles, squares, and pentagons).
Among regular polyhedra the first family,
known for their particular simplicity, is that
of Platonic solids, followed by the so-called
Archimedean solids.
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes

PLATONIC SOLIDS
The family of Platonic solids includes five
regular polyhedra: the tetrahedron, the octa-
hedron, the exahedron (cube), the dodecahe-
dron, and the icosoahedron, named, respec-
tively, for the number of faces they have.
One trait of these solids is that each type A
contains edges that are of equal length. An-
B
other characteristic is that each solid has all
its faces equal to each other. For instance, the
tetrahedron has four faces consisting of equal
equilateral triangles, and the dodecahedron
has twelve faces in the shape of equal penta-
gons (see Fig. 14-9).

ARCHIMEDEAN SOLIDS
Another group, with thirteen regular polyhe- c
dra, constitutes a family referred to as the
Archimedean solids, which are more com-
plex than the Platonic solids previously seen
(see Fig. 14-10). The solids involved are
given in Table 14-1.
In this family of geometric solids the faces
of any given solid are not all equal, as they
were in the case of the Platonic solids, and o E
not all the edges in each solid are of equal
length. 14-9 The Platonic solids. a) The tetrahedron,
with four vertices, four faces, and six edges; b)
DUALS an octahedron, with six vertices, eight faces, and
There is a certain relationship among some twelve edges; c) a cube or hexahedron, with eight
pairs of regular solids that is referred to as vertices, six faces, and twelve edges; d) a
duality. By virtue of this relationship two dodecahedron, with twen9' vertices, twelve faces,
solids are said to be duals if the sum of the and thiTo/ edaes, and e) an icosahedron, with
number of vertices, faces, and edges of one twelve vertices, twen9' faces, and thiTo/ edaes .

TAB L E 14-1 The Archimedean Solids

NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF
TYPE OF POLYHEDRON VERTICES FACES EDGES
Truncated Tetrahedron 12 8 18
Truncated Octahedron 24 14 36
Truncated Cube 24 14 36
Truncated Dodecahedron 60 32 90
Truncated Icosahedron 60 32 90
Rhombicuboctahedron 24 26 48
Cuboctahedron 12 14 24
Rhombicosidodecahedron 60 62 120
Icosadodecahedron 30 32 60
Truncated Cuboctahedron 48 26 72
Snub Cube 24 38 60
Snub Dodecahedron 60 92 105
Truncated Icosadodecahedron 120 62 108

306
 Trussed Domes

solid is equal to the sum of the vertices, faces, EULER'S LAW

and edges of the other. For instance, the oc-
tahedron and the hexahedron are duals be-
cause the octahedron has six vertices, eight
faces, and twelve edges, the sum of which is
twenty-six. Similarly, the hexahedron has
eight vertices, six faces, and twelve edges, the
sum of which is also twenty-six.
There is a relationship that ties together the
number of vertices, faces, and edges of regu-
lar polyhedra, including both the Platonic
and the Archimedean solids. This relation-
ship, called Euler's law, for the Swiss mathe-
matician Leonhard Euler (1707 -1783), is
stated as follows:

8 c

14-1 0 The Archimedean solids. a) a truncated tetrahedron; b) a truncated octahedron, c) a truncated

cube; d) a truncated dodecahedron; e) a truncated icosahedron; j) a rhombicuboctahedron; 0) a
cuboctahedron; h) a rhombicosidodecahedron; (i) an icosadodecahedron; j) a truncated cuboctahedron;
k) a snub cube; 1) a snub dodecahedron; m) a truncated icosadodecahedron.

307
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
Number of Vertices + Number of Faces =
Number of Edges + 2
For example, in a cube there are eight
vertices, six faces, and twelve edges. Thus,
8V + 6F = 12E + 2 = 14
From the previous expression one could
then write
V + F - E = 2 = Constant
The expression (V + F = E) is a quantity
called the Euler characteristic, which is used
in the relatively new discipline in mathemat-
ics called topology, which deals with the
properties of figures that remain valid when
the figures undergo continuous changes of
their configurations.
TYPES OF TRUSSED DOMES
Contrary to the structural continuum of the
masonry dome or the modern thin shell,
trussed domes are actually braced skeletal
constructions consisting of individual longi-
tudinal members framed to each other at
their nodal points. At each node the mem-
bers can either be hinged or fixed, depending
on the kind of construction in use. Masonry,
concrete, steel, and wood have all been em-
ployed to construct braced domes. Because of
their own inherent characteristics, each mate-
rial suggests the kind of connection that is
most feasible with it. For instance, concrete
usually suggests having fixed end connec-
tions, unless special circumstances recom-
mend hinges. In wood, all connections are
usually considered hinged. In steel, joints are
usually hinged, unless fixed ends are attained
by welding.
Trussed masonry domes have also been
constructed by using masonry with arches
built monolithically with their masonry shells,
as typical of Gothic structures and often of
308
Renaissance architecture. Really stretching
this point, one can say that even the dome of
Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence can be con-
sidered a trussed dome. Recall that in it an
interior and an exterior shell were connected
by an infrastructure of meridional and hori-
zontal ribs. Its octagonal dome included eight
major meridional ribs and sixteen additional
ribs. Horizontally, nine hoops connected
these ribs by means of masonry arches, giving
a clear outline of a skeletal framework.
Although trussed domes have been built
in various materials, as discussed, the most
valuable present-day techniques for braced
domes use wood, steel, and aluminum. Steel
currently dominates the field. Before steel,
cast iron was used in many applications, as for
instance the dome of the Capitol in Washing-
ton, D.C. (1851-1867), but at present it has
only historical value.
All trussed domes have their nodes ar-
ranged so that they lay on a continuous sur-
face of a solid of revolution that is most
commonly a sphere, but could have other
configurations as well. First, a broad classifi-
cation of steel braced domes subdivides them
into two basic categories:
Domes whose members are straight so that
consequently the dome itself is circum-
scribed by the surface that contains the
nodal points.
Domes whose members are curved and lay
on the same surface that contains the
nodes.
A second major classification for steel
trussed domes is as follows:
Framed or skeletal domes: single-layer
structures whose members are either
straight or curved. These domes are
thus assemblies of many longitudinal
members connected at their nodal
points.
Trussed domes: double-layer domes in
which not all the nodes lie on one
surface
 Trussed Domes
Stressed-skin domes: domes in which the
skin and the members are intercon-
nected and act structurally together
Surface domes: domes with the skin as the
structural part that consists of precut
panels of steel and aluminum con-
nected along the edges. The panels are
cut, and then their edges are bent per-
pendicularly to the surface creating a
standing lip that can be mechanically
fastened. Kaiser domes made of alumi-
num are included in this category.
A third classification of steel trussed
domes is the following: 3
Ribbed domes
Schwedler domes
Network domes
Zimmermann domes
Framed domes
Lamella domes
Grid domes (either two-way or three-way)
Geodesic domes
Space-frame domes
Cable (tensegrity) domes
Pneumatic domes
Ribbed Domes
Ribbed domes are structures with their main,
arched ribs arranged radially, connected at
the crown and base. They are also referred to
as stiffened domes, if the ribs are connected
to a horizontal ring at the base, and unstiff-
ened domes, if they are hinged to isolated
footings. The connections at the crown can
also be either hinged or fixed. With a hinge
at the crown, the ribs must be supported by
diagonal members. In general the ribbed
dome is completed by several horizontal rings
and the resulting trapezoidal panels are then
divided by a diagonal member into two trian-
gles. The diagonals are stressed only when
the load is asymmetrical. This type of dome
can be considered to consist of an assembly of
arches and is an expression therefore of an
309
intuitive structure that evolved from the no-
tion of arches. If the dome is conceived as
being an extension of arches rather than a
superposition of concentric rings, then the
ribbed dome is the most intuitive kind of
dome system.
Schwedler Domes
Schwedler domes, named after their inven-
tor, J. W. Schwedler, are essentially ribbed
domes characterized by each panel being en-
closed by two consecutive ribs and hoops and
braced by two diagonal members so thin as to
be able to carry only tension. No compression
can be allowed, since they would buckle from
their slenderness. When an asymmetrical
load generates tension in one diagonal and
compression in the other, the diagonal under
tension responds and provides the dome the
necessary equilibrium. When the load is re-
versed, the other diagonal will be stressed in
tension to do the necessary work. This type
of dome can be recognized by its network of
major ribs and hoops with slender, cross-di-
agonal bracing (see Fig. 14-11).
These domes appeared first at the end of
the last century in Germany. The largest
span, built in Vienna in 1874, had a diameter
of 210ft (64 m). The largest Schwedler
dome, built in 1955, covers the Charlotte
Coliseum in Charlotte, North Carolina (see
Fig. 14-12). 4 The architect for the project
was Odell Associates, the engineering firm
responsible for the design of the dome Fred
Severud Elstadt, and Kruger of New York.
This dome is supported by a series of con-
crete piers located at the springing points of
the meridian ribs. The major components of
the dome are these meridian ribs and hori-
zontal hoops, which produce trapezoidal sec-
tors that are diagonally braced. The struc-
tural steel employed for the meridians and
hoops is shaped out of wide flange sections.
The steel sections were welded together.
Covering the dome is a lightweight deck com-
posed of a mixture of fibers and cement that
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Menadomes

14-11 A Schwedler dome; a) elevation, b) plan.

14-12 The Charlotte Coliseum in Charlotte, N.C.

is supported by structural bulb tees. The
deck, of Porex, also provides thermal insula-
tion in addition to its structural sheeting ac-
tion. It is covered with a reflective aluminum
lamina that consists of a series of aluminum
panels with clamped edge seams that are al-
lowed to move under thermal expansion and
contraction. The dome has a diameter of 332
ft (101 m) and a rise of60 ft (18.3 m). It was
erected using nothing but scaffolds for the
crown ring. It is interesting to note that when
the welding of the base ring was completed,
contraction caused by temperature changes
made the crown spring up from the scaffold.
Network Domes
Network domes consist of a series of horizon-
tal polygonal hoops arranged so that each
hoop is rotated with respect to the hoop
below to an angle equal to 180 divided by the

310
 Trussed Domes

number of sides. In other words, the nodal Lamella Domes

points in any given hoop are aligned verti-
cally with the midpoint between the two
nodes below. Therefore, the nodes of alter-
nate hoops are aligned on the same vertical
plane. This dome consists only of horizontal
members and diagonal members, which form
isosceles or equilateral triangles. A peculiar
characteristic of these domes is that they are
stable-and statically determinate (isostatic)
-only if the number of their sides is odd.
Zimmermann Domes
Zimmermann domes, which are named after
their inventor, were particularly popular in
Germany, where they originated. From a
geometric standpoint they exhibit a series of
horizontal polygonal hoops whose number of
sides doubles with respect to the hoop imme-
diately above. These domes are statically de-
terminate. Their peculiarity consists in the
fact that the nodal points at the base consti-
tute simple supports providing only vertical
reactions, with horizontal reactions being
generated by special connections placed
along the horizontal members that constitute
the base hoop. These connections work like
ties that stress the members in tension only.
So the horizontal reactions that anchor the
dome to its foundation or supporting struc-
ture are tensile forces that are applied at spe-
cific points on the bottom hoop. In this type
of dome the number of horizontal connec-
tions must be equal to that of the simple
supports.
Lamella domes consist of an assemblage of a
large number of elements called lamella,
which are made up of two members that in-
tersect each other to form an X. Two X's side
by side form a lozenge approximating a dia-
mond. The length of each member forming
the X is equal to twice the length of the side
of the diamond. In order to transfer the load
and create a stable structure, the X's are built
so that one of the diagonals is continuous but
the other is connected with a pin to the con-
tinuous one (see Figs. 14-13 and 14-14).
This type of dome has been so popular in
the United States that a company in St.
Louis, Roof Structures, Inc., specializes in its
design and construction. The head of the
company invented a special type of lamella
dome referred to as the Kiewitt dome,
named for him, which is assumed to be eco-
nomically feasible for spans exceeding 120 ft
(36 m). The most famous application of these
patented structures is the dome for the
Harris County Sports Stadium in Houston
(see Fig. 14-15)5, widely called the Astro-
\ \

Framed Domes

Framed domes consist of meridional ribs and

horizontal polygonal hoops that intersect
each other at nodal points where the connec-
tions are of the moment-resistant type. These
are made either by welding them or using
brackets. There is an absence of diagonal
members because the dome is in reality a
moment-resistant frame rather than a trussed 14-1 3 The oeneral layout of a lamella-roofed
structure like the ones seen thus far. structure.

311
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
14-14 A lamella roof structure showing a
complete lamella element (two adjacent X's)
consistinn of interlaced X-shaped members. At
each nodal point one member is continuous, the
other not. The lennth of each member is 2A.
14-15 The Astrodome in Houston, Texas, during construction.
312
dome, the term under which it is discussed in
detail below.
A particular advantage of lamella domes
in general is their high speed of erection. For
instance, a 250-ft (76.2 m) diameter dome
over a university field house in Wichita,
Kansas, was erected in only twelve days.
FORCE DISTRIBUTION
IN LAMELLA DOMES
The distribution of axial forces among the
members in a lamella dome can best be illus-
trated with a practical example, as seen in
Figure 14-16. This example consists of a sin-
gle concentrated vertical load at the crown of
the dome. Although force distribution varies
according to the orientation and points of
application of loads, the drawing provides a
general indication of the relative magnitude
of the forces under vertical loads and speci-
fies the nature of the forces, whether of ten-
sion or compression.
The lamella dome in question is a rela-
tively shallow structure consisting of a series
of hoops and diagonal members. Notice that
it is possible to identify six modular sectors
(see the shaded one) arranged radially
around the center. The forces in each sector
are symmetrically distributed such that the
members in the hoops are all in tension,
whereas some of the diagonals are in tension
and some in compression. The thin lines in
 Trussed Domes
14-16 The distribution of axial forces in a
lamella dome under a sin8le vertical load at the
crown: this plan illustrates the modular sector
and the ma8niwde of the axial forces (the hemy
lines show compression members, the thin lines
tension members) .
the drawing indicate tension members, the
heavy lines compression members. In this
particular case, in which the load is singular
and concentrated at a point, the axial forces
diminish as the distance increases away from
the crown, because the load is progressively
distributed among a larger and larger num-
ber of members. This effect would not of
course appear in the case of a series of loads
being applied to all the joints.
THE ASTRODOME
This stadium covered with a lamella-type
steel dome is formally titled the Harris
County Stadium, for its location in Houston
within Harris County, Texas. The Astro-
dome, as it is generally referred to, was com-
pleted in 1965, nine years from its ground-
breaking. The architects for the project
included the firms of Lloyd and Morgan, and
Wilson, Morris, Crain and Anderson, both
from Houston. The contractors were H. A.
Lott and Johnson, Drake and Piper, the
structural engineers C. R. Kiewitt and L. O.
313
Bass. It was Kiewitt's firm of Roof Structures,
Inc., in St. Louis, that furnished the patented
lamella-dome system. The structural consul-
tants for checking the design were Praeger,
Kavanagh and Waterbury of New York, and
their consultant Dr. Henri Marcus. Addi-
tional consultants were Walter Moore of
Houston and Dr. Z. S. Makowsi of London
University.
The dome covering this stadium is the par-
ticular lamella-type structure in steel referred
to as a Kiewitt dome, a brilliant system ex-
pressed in the Astrodome with great success.
This dome marked the beginning of a new
era of giant domes covering large stadiums
that created a spirit of rivalry among munici-
palities competing with each other from civic
pride. New Orleans entered the competition
in 1966 with planning toward the Super-
dome, which set a record for overall size and
cost. Cost-wise, the total of $31 million in-
vested for the Astrodome fell way behind the
$178 million finally spent on the Superdome.
Nevertheless, the Astrodome's dome is only
38 feet (approximately 5 percent) less in di-
ameter than the Superdome.
It should be noted that these cost figures
are not those just for the domes but also in-
clude the overall buildings. The technical lit-
erature on the dome reported before its com-
pletion an estimated value of some $24
million, including $20 million for the struc-
ture and its mechanical system alone. More
specifically, a cost of $4.29 per square foot
was ultimately calculated to be the unit cost
of the structure, inclusive of patent rights
and engineering expenses.
The structure of the Astrodome basically
consists of trussed beams 5 ft (1.5 m) deep,
X-braced according to the geometrical struc-
tural scheme typical of the Kiewitt lamella
patent. The dome is covered with a solid-
metal skin over its lower third, with translu-
cent acrylic sheets over the middle third, and
with a solid-metal skin on its crown. The
clear span of the dome measures 641 ft 8 in
(195.7 m), and the outside span reaches 712
ft (217m). The height of the crown is 208 ft
(63.4 m) above the floor of the stadium,
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
which is below grade. The translucent third
of the roof includes 4,600 skylights. In to-
tal the roof surface measures 350,000 ft 2
(32,500 m 2 ) and includes 2,150 tons of steel.
The huge tension ring at the base of the
dome has a calculated weight of 376 tons
independent of the dome. The dome, with its
total dead load of 2,526 tons for the struc-
tural steel, carries a uniformly distributed
load of 16.6 psf (0.80 kPa). The circular floor
plan (see Fig. 14-17) allows a seating capacity
varying from 45,000 to 66,000 spectators ac-
cording to the type of events, from sports to
political conventions.
The structural steel dome adopted to
cover the clear span over this stadium was not
just an architectural solution based on form
configuration but rather the result of a care-
ful comparative study of various feasible sys-
tems. Among the systems taken into consid-
eration were geodesic domes in both steel
and aluminum, Kaiser domes, air-supported
pneumatic membrane structures, aluminum
geodesic space frames, wooden space frames,
and suspension-type cantilever trusses. Al-
though the Kiewitt type of lamella dome sys-
tem had previously been employed with suc-
cess, the largest span ever reached to date
had been only 285 ft (86.9 m), yet the engi-
neers felt confident that it was capable of
reaching the much larger span required for
this project.
The structural analysis performed for this
14-17 An interior view of the Astrodome, about one year from completion.
314
dome included aerodynamic wind-tunnel
testing on a 1/8 in = 1 ft 0 in (approximately
1 : 100) scale model by McDonnell Aircraft in
St. Louis. No fewer than forty-eight condi-
tions were analyzed, to consider different
angles of attack by the wind flow. Wind gusts
of 165 mph (265 km/h) and sustained speeds
of 135 mph (217 km/h) were considered.
Positive pressure of 40 psf (1.95 kPa) and
negative pressure (suction) also of 40 psf
were the recommended loading values de-
rived from this wind study. Then various
phases of analysis refined the design by read-
justing the structural sizing of the trussed
components.
In addition to these specific values, the
various loading conditions used included a
dead load of 30 psf (1.44 kPa), a live load of
15 psf (0.72 kPa), and a 7.5 psf (0.36 kPa)
asymmetric load on half of the structure.
Other conditions had to be investigated as
well, including temperature expansion and
contraction from variations within a 140 ° F
(78°C) range. Furthermore, particular con-
centrations of mechanical-system components
generated asymmetrical loads that also had to
be examined.
To visualize the scale of the individual
components in the Astrodome note that the
members within the tension ring had an ap-
proximate length of 32 ft (9.75 m), while
those within the lamella units in the roof
sometimes reached 122 ft (37.2 m) in length.
 Trussed Domes
The construction methods employed in
this project required erecting thirty-seven
steel towers, including one in the middle that
extended to a height of 212 ft (64.6 m).
These towers had a temporary function of
supporting the centering during construction
and were eventually disassembled and sal-
vaged. These towers tapered from 20 ft by
20 ft (6.1 m by 6.1 m) at the base to 10 ft by
10 ft (3.05 m X 3.05 m) at a height of 100 ft
(30.5 m). Looking like derricks, these towers
were increased in height as the erection of
the trussed, arched ribs progressed. After the
tension ring was completed, the erection of
the dome started with the trussed, arched
ribs going from the tension ring to the
crown. These trusses were fabricated in 55 ft
(16.8 m) sections in the shop, then brought to
the site. Two consecutive ribs were welded at
ground level to form one segment 110ft
(33.5 m) long. These segments were then
erected in sequence, using the towers as tem-
porary supports, while being connected to
each other by bolts. Between the twelve ribs
the X-shaped lamellae completed the struc-
ture of the dome. The length of the lamellae
legs was about 60 ft (18.3 m). As discussed
earlier, the various lamellae when connected
to each other form diamond-shaped patterns.
When the six hoop rings were installed, the
lamella diamonds became subdivided into
two triangles approximately 30 ft (9.1 m) in
length. Then each of these triangular areas
was filled with purlins, which finally com-
pleted the framing of the dome.
All the elements of the Astrodome were
made of curved shapes. These include the
tension ring, the domes ribs, the X-shaped
lamellae, the hoops, and the purlins. All these
trusses consisted of wide-flanged shapes for
the top and bottom chords, with the diagonal
members consisting of 3-in (7.6 cm) square
equal leg angles in various thicknesses. The
overall depth of the dome was a constant 5 ft
(1.5 m). The wide flange chords were placed
with their flanges oriented vertically and
their webs horizontally so that the diagonal
angles were welded between the inside faces
of the wide flanges.
315
At the bottom of the dome, under its ten-
sion ring, the dome rests on seventy-two
uniquely connected support columns. These
columns are free to translate radially with
respect to the tension ring but are semirigidly
fastened sideways in the tangential direction.
This kind of support prevents a bending mo-
ment between the dome and its supporting
columns.
This megastructure, which at the time of
its construction held the world record for
being the largest covered structure of its
kind, is unique in its construction. For one
thing, almost all its connections are welded.
Exceptions include the rolling connections
between the tension ring and the supporting
columns, which allow for free expansion and
contraction of the dome without stressing the
columns. Another unique characteristic is
that the connections between the 110 ft (33.5
m) segments of the trussed ribs were field
bolted, not welded. All the remaining con-
nections between the various components of
the trusses and the connections between
trusses were welded. The electrodes used
throughout were E7018 (low hydrogen) for
the tension ring and E60 10 for the field
splices on the main ribs and the hoop ring.
The difference in the electrodes come from
the differences in the thicknesses and types of
steel of the sections being welded. Butt welds
were used in the tension ring to connect
beams with flanges up to 23/4 in thick. The
steel used for the tension ring was high-
strength A 441, but for the rest of the dome it
was A36. To check the dependability of the
welds, the Magnaflux Corporation took 478
gamma-ray shots of critical welds. More spe-
cifically, the Engineering Testing Laboratory
of Houston, which was in charge of testing,
subcontracted the testing of welds to Magna-
flux (now MQS) specialists for field opera-
tions while retaining for itself the job of eval-
uating and certifying the welds. Magnaflux
MTL tested the welds by radiographing them
with cameras placed right over the welds to
be inspected. Cobalt 60 provided the energy
source for the gamma rays that were used to
sensitize the film placed in the camera. The
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Megadomes
results of the daily shootings were processed
in Magnaflux's laboratory and analyzed by
experts in the Engineering Testing Lab.
The dependability of a weld is often taken
for granted and subjected only to visual in-
spection, yet some imperfections may not be
visible. This was certainly proven in the case
of the tension ring for the Astrodome,
in which twenty-three welds inspected by
gamma rays, after previous usual acceptance,
were found to be faulty and had to be re-
moved and rewelded before certification
could be granted. The testing of the welds
within the lamella dome itself, not in the ring,
was performed by a team of inspectors with
portable testing cameras that used Radium
192 in a dosage of ten curies. Even some
welds in the lamella portion of the dome
were found faulty; ten of them had to be
removed and redone. Interestingly, the
checking operation for welds was extended to
evaluate the performance of the individual
welders on the project. This method con-
sisted of testing each welder at least once,
which turned up more defective welds.
THE SUPERDOME
After the competitive trend established by
the Astrodome, the New Orleans Superdome
took the record for being the largest steel
dome in the world. Actually, the competitive-
ness among stadiums with large domes mostly
concerns the overall capacity of the structure,
not the size of the dome itself. In fact, the
supremacy of the Superdome over the Astro-
dome is mostly in its seating capacity and in
the ancillary structures rather than its dome
size (see Figs. 14-18 and 14-19). 6
The seating arrangements for different
events in the Superdome can include more
than 20,000 seats for basketball, 63,524 seats
for baseball, 76,791 seats for football, and
95,427 seats as an auditorium, compared to
the 66,000 maximum seating capacity of the
Astrodome. On the other hand, the differ-
ence in dome diameters is not as great: 680 ft
(210 m) for the Superdome and 642 ft (196
m) for the Astrodome.
The various steps leading to the final real-
316
ization of the Superdome started with its
origination by a legislative act on November
8, 1966, followed by its initial construction
phase begun August 11, 1971, and its open-
ing day of August 3, 1975. The architects for
the Superdome included Curtis and Davis,
Edward Silverstein and Associates, Nolan,
Norman and Nolan, and Sverdrup and Par-
cel. The contractors were Huber, Hunt and
Nichols and Blount Brothers.
The total area of the Superdome's roof is
9.7 acres (39,254.4 m2 ). Its maximum height
measures 273 ft (82.3 m) The total cost of the
project, which included a great spectrum of
facilities, was $173 million. To place these
overall costs in perspective, consider the fol-
lowing data. The total area of the project
consisted of 52 acres (21 hectares) and fea-
tured 52 convention rooms, 68 restrooms, 64
private box suites, garages for 5,000 cars and
250 buses, 32 escalators, and 9 elevators.
The cost of the dome itself must of course be
separated from the costs of the rest of the
structure to make meaningful comparisons
among various structural systems involving
domes.
The Superdome has a spherical configura-
tion that is part of a sphere 600.4 ft (183 m)
in radius, so that the dome itself is relatively
shallow. The structural typology of this dome
is the same lamella type as the Astrodome,
but the construction process for the Super-
dome differed from the Kiewitt patented
process used in the Astrodome. For the Su-
perdome the structural configuration of the
lamella carried a special patent. This dome,
designed by Binkley Engineering Associates
of St. Louis, includes in its essential compo-
nents a trussed tension ring, a solid compres-
sion crown, and six basic hoop rings between
them. The tension ring at the base of the
dome has the configuration of a truss 8.9 ft
(2.7 m) deep. This truss consists of top and
bottom chords made of W14 X 426 struc-
tural shape that is butt welded to form a con-
tinuous ring around the dome. The individ-
ual lamellae consist of curved members that
follow the line of the spherical roof. These
members, 7.4 ft (2.25 m) deep, are intercon-
 Trussed Domes

14-18 and 14-19 The Superdome durina construction.

nected in their diamond-shaped assemblages Among the many considerations taken

by either welded or bolted connections. The
bolts used in this case are of the friction type.
The basic steel types used for the entire
dome are either ASTM-A36 or high-strength
A572 steel.
into account with the design data for the
dome, was wind load from hurricane forces,
including sustained wind speeds of 149 mph
(240 km/h) with gusts up to 199 mph (320
km/h). Wind-tunnel testing was again found

317
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
necessary, as in the Astrodome. The Super-
dome test model for wind loading was built to
a scale of 1 : 288. The gradient wind profiles
taken into consideration included those both
for open-country and city locations. Among
the various wind-loading conditions tested on
the model, the critical one was the one de-
rived from uplifting because of negative pres-
sure. This suction force was calculated to be
70 psf (3.4 kPa).
The Superdome is supported by ninety-six
steel columns consisting of W30 X 108 mem-
bers that are 8 ft (2.44 m) high. The pinned
connection between the column and the ten-
sion ring allows for free expansion and con-
traction of the tension ring, without employ-
ing restraints that could produce unwanted
stresses. The pin connection on the top of the
column allows radial movement, but the top
of the column is rigid in the direction tangen-
tial to the tension ring. This kind of connec-
tion ensures the lateral stability of the dome.
The ninety-six supporting columns, pin con-
nected at their bases, can move radially, as
mentioned, allowing maximum horizontal
displacement between the top and bottom
hinges.
Grid Domes
Grid domes consist of arched members whose
curvature follows the surface of the inner-
sphere. These domes are distinguished as
two-way and three-way types. The two-way
type consists of two families of arches inter-
secting each other. The three-way type con-
sists instead of two families of arched mem-
bers crisscrossing each other as in the pre-
vious case, plus another family of members
constituting a series of horizontal hoops. The
two-way subdivision creates a series of dia-
mond-shaped panels, while the three-way
type has a triangular configuration since the
hoops cut the diamonds in half. In addition,
grid domes can either be single-layer or dou-
ble-layer types. The members are continuous
along each rib, then the ribs themselves are
hinged together at the nodal points.
318
From a developmental point of view,
grid domes originated in Europe where they
are still the most popular type. Among the
designers whose names are associated with
such domes are: Stephane du Chateau from
France, F. Lederer from Czechoslovakia, and
Fujio Matsushita from Japan; all are struc-
tural engineers. Some examples of grid
domes include:
Market in Agadir, designed by Stephane
du Chateau. This structure is a single
layer three-way grid dome on three
supports spaced 36 m (118 ft) apart.
Electric power station at Grandval,
France, designed by Stephane du Cha-
teau. This grid spherical dome is a sin-
gle layer three-way type. The shallow
dome includes 313 joints intercon-
nected by members with an average
length of 2.14 m (7 ft), has a diameter
of 42 m (137 ft), and rises at the crown
of only 6 m (19.6 ft).
Municipal swimming pool in Drancy,
France. This structure designed by Ste-
phane du Chateau is a three-way single
layer spherical dome with a diameter of
47 m (154 ft) at base. The basic compo-
nents include tubular members of gal-
vanized steel with a constant outside di-
ameter of 11.4 cm (4.5 in) but with a
variable thickness according to the axial
forces that the members carry. Also the
tension ring at the base consists of a
galvanized steel tube of 40.6 cm (16 in)
and a thickness of 8.8 mm (0.35 ft).
Geodesic Domes
Geodesic domes derive their name from the
Greek geos (earth) in the sense that this
dome's geometry follows that of the geoid,
the spherical form of the earth in its spherical
geometry. Made extremely popular in the
United States by Buckminster Fuller, these
domes are just another type of trussed dome
characterized by a geometry that attempts to
make all members of equal length. Although
 Trussed Domes

this goal is theoretically not possible within
such a pattern of triangles as is necessary for
structural stability, the method produces
members whose lengths are in fact almost
identical.
The geometric subdivision of the dome is
that of the icosahedron, the Platonic solid
consisting of twenty identical triangles whose
vertices all lay on the surface of the same
sphere. In so doing one obtains a spherical
icosahedron with twenty identical spherical
triangles, that number being the maximum
one of equal equilateral triangles into which a
sphere can be subdivided. There are several
criteria that must be used in subdividing a
sphere in a regular pattern, which is usually
selected on the basis of how long the member
must be. Figure 14-20 illustrates the various
patterns possible. Each type of subdivision
produces a pattern called frequency and is
identified by its own number-the higher
the number, the larger the number of ele-
ments in the subdivision. Some patterns even
include hexagons and pentagons. In pin-con-
nected members these shapes are not stable,
so it becomes necessary to stabilize the struc-
ture with additional bracing.
The icosahedron used by Buckminster
Fuller for his patented domes is not the only
polyhedral form used in designing geodesic
domes, other polyhedra have also been used.
In 1976 Keno determined that in subdi-
viding a sphere it was possible to subdivide its
surface into a maximum of 120 equal trian-
gles. The configuration of the triangle used
in this subdivision is not regular, implying
that the sides of the triangle were all different
and that there would ultimately be three dif-
ferent groups of members of different
lengths. This knowledge was of course a
major factor in the continued development
of this system, because it established the im-
possibility of subdividing a sphere by using
triangles of equal sides in a number larger
than twenty and also postulated the opportu-
nity of using more than one length for a sin-
gle member dome.
Buckminster Fuller's major contribution
to the creation of the geodesic dome, as he
called it, was at first more in terms of his
devising a unique geometric subdivision of
the sphere than in structural terms.
Structurally speaking, Fuller's domes fall
into two basic groups: one-layer domes and

"-
FREQUENCY~16~~~ml '-...
'-.. FREQUENCY 1
'-
"-
"-
\

FREQUENCY 8

FREQUENCY 2

FREQUENCY 4

14-20 Subdividino a sphere into dijferent patterns of increasino

compleXity results in increasino the number of elements in it. The five
patterns shown here are classified in terms of their frequency, from 1 to 16.

319
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Menadomes
two-layer domes. The one-layer dome con-
sists of members that connect nodal points all
lying on the surface of one sphere. These
domes are applicable only to limited spans,
relatively speaking. More specifically, it is
useful to consider them as being subdivided
into three categories: small spans up to about
40 ft (12.2 m), medium spans up to 90 ft
(27.4 m), and large spans up to 120 ft (36.6
m). Each of these categories requires its own
pattern of triangular subdivisions.
Two-layer domes consist of two concentric
spherical domes spaced apart. These domes
can have spans that are larger than those of
single-layer domes. The nodal points of one
of the concentric domes are connected to the
nodal points of the other, creating structural
unity. The exterior layer is subdivided into
triangles only, but the interior layer can be
subdivided into triangles, hexagons, and pen-
tagons. This subdivision does not create a
lack of structural stability, though, because
the nodes of the inner layer are all stabilized
by the triangulated outer layer.
Besides single-layer and double-layer geo-
desic domes it is convenient to consider a
third type. The two previous types were char-
acterized by having a skin cover superim-
posed on the skeletal structure, without
structural interaction. In the third type of
geodesic dome the skin provides structural
action. Within this type occur two different
situations: when the members of the dome
and its skin are structurally connected so as to
work together in tension and compression
and when the skin carries the load alone and
the individual panels are joined together
along their folded edges to form a dome
without having skeletal members.
The stress distribution in geodesic domes
is very much like the distribution that occurs
in continuous domes. For instance, in both
types the gravity loads that are symmetrically
applied generate only compressive forces in
the members above a certain horizontal circle
of latitude, whereas below it tension and
compression occur. This follows the pattern
that in the upper part of a dome the meridio-
nal and hoop forces are in compression, but
320
in the lower part the meridional forces are
stilI in compression but the hoop forces are in
tension.
Some examples of popular geodesic domes
include the following:
Trade fair, Afghanistan, 1956, by Buck-
minster Fuller: temporary lightweight
structure erected in forty-eight hours
Kaiser Aluminum, Honolulu, 1957, by
Fuller: aluminum, 145 ft (44 m) in
diameter
V nion Tank Car Company plant, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, 1958-1959, by
Fuller: covers railroad-car rebuilding
plant and held the world record for the
largest clear-span building of the time.
Diameter: 384 ft (117 m). Rise: 120 ft
(36.5 m). Members: 321 hexagonal
steel panels integrated with a bracing
system of tubular compression mem-
bers and rod tension members (see Fig.
14-21)
Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis,
1961, by Murphy and Mackey: alumi-
num tubing in a double-layer hexago-
nalpattern
V.S. Pavilion, Expo 67, Montreal, by
B. Fuller and Sado: structure enclosing
two-thirds of a sphere with diameter of
250 ft (76.2 m), height of 200 ft (61 m).
SPACE-FRAME DOMES
A new structural system for dome construc-
tion that capitalizes on the basic concept of
space frames can be called space-frame
domes because of the structural systems from
which it arises. This structural typology can
expand in a variety of configurations. This
versatile application patented by William
Mouton can be applied to various kinds of
vaulting, including domes, using Mouton's
techniques.
By using a double-grid space-frame sys-
tem, or delta truss, Mouton established a fun-
 Trussed Domes
14-2 1 Steel dome over Union Tank Car Company plant, Baton Rouoe,
Louisiana, /959, by Buckminster Fuller.
icular configuration for a whole structure
under design loads. He built modular compo-
nents at ground level, then erected them on
temporary supports, bolting together the
modules. The bolted connections between
modules were not stressed. The modules
could have a rectangular square projection,
as in translational shells, or a triangular pro-
jection, as with domes. In both cases, how-
ever, the modules had to be curved to gener-
ate an overall vaulted structure. Since the
curvature was derived from the funicular po-
lygonal shape of the loads, the upper and
lower grids of the modules were equally
stressed, so that the diagonal members con-
necting the two were able not to be stressed
at all. Their design was based only on their
slenderness ratio, which was limited by a
value of 200.
The system as developed contained
welded connections at the joints instead of
expensive hubs and bolts. A further substan-
tial economy that resulted from the simpli-
fied welded connections was that the overall
weight of these structures was reduced to
perhaps as low as three to five pounds per
321
square foot for spans up to 200 ft (61 m). In
such welded connections the pipes used are
cut by shearing, which squeezes the end parts
to form an elliptical cross-section. The weld-
ing at the joints is not significantly stressed,
since all the members come together at the
joint so as to bear against each other in com-
pression and eliminate any tensile stress. Be-
sides reducing cost, welding also avoids weak-
ening the cross-sections as in bolted con-
nections and forms an uninterrupted connec-
tion that not only creates a more pleasing
visual effect but also offers more control over
the overall dimensions of the structure. The
ability to build a whole structure in large pre-
fabricated components reduces to a mini-
mum the problem usually encountered in er-
ecting space frames in situ member by
member. The only problem consists of con-
trolling the tolerance of each member at its
connection to close all gaps after the erection
process is complete.
A significant application is the Cajun-
dome, completed in 1985, conceived and de-
signed by William Mouton, which was intro-
duced earlier under dTrussed Domes and
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Menadomes
Their Builders." This dome covers the civic
center in Lafayette, Louisiana. The Cajun-
dome system involved assembling six basic
components connected at ground level to
form large pie-shaped spherical triangles.
These large elements were then lifted and
connected together to form the dome. They
were so large that only forty-eight of them
were necessary to complete the dome. Before
these pie-shaped elements were lifted and
connected, their vertices were connected by
cables and put in tension, creating bowstring
arches along their edges. Then, after they
had been lifted and connected to adjacent
elements, the tensioning cables were re-
moved as the dome was completed.
With an overall depth of 70 ft (21.3 m),
the dome included 3-in (7.6 cm) diameter
tubular members for its lower portion, 1.5-in
(3.8 cm) tubing for the diagonal members,
and L-shaped sections for the upper mem-
bers, facilitating the installation of the deck-
ing. These consisted of a corrugated metal
deck forming a composite system that had 3
in (7.6 cm) oflightweight concrete cover with
an ultimate strength of 28 days of f~ = 6,000
psi (41.4 MPa), protected in turn by roofing
material. The concrete topping, acting in
composite action with the steel deck, was
adopted basically to stiffen the metal deck
itself by eliminating the potential fluttering
and noise that could derive from having a
resonance problem in the steel deck.
Further studies by Mouton on possible ap-
plications for this system indicated the possi-
bility of having extremely slender structural
configurations for the tubular members of
various spans of domes. To give some idea of
the great efficiency of the system, domes 100
ft (30.5 m) in diameter could use tubing only
1 in (2.5 cm) in diameter, 60-ft (18.3 m)
domes could use s/4-in (1.9 cm) diameter tub-
ing, and 40-ft (12.2 m) domes needed only
In-in (1.3 cm) diameter tubing.
The composite action of the bottom
chord, top chord, steel deck, and concrete
topping makes the Cajundome extremely ef-
ficient and capable of carrying loads substan-
tially beyond its design loads. Each node is
322
capable of sustaining an additional 2,500 Ibs.
(1,135 kg). Numerous catwalks are sus-
pended throughout the structure to allow ad-
ditional loads at the suspension points.
It seems certain that the unique concept
underlying the delta truss has not reached its
maximum potential in the Cajundome, which
has opened the way for larger-scale ap-
plications.
CABLE (TENSEGRITY) DOMES
The latest to appear among the various struc-
tural systems for trussed domes is the cable
dome, sometimes referred to as the tense-
grity dome, as developed out of Buckminster
Fuller's work. As with most structures, the
cable dome can be looked at from different
points of view to emphasize various structural
aspects. The cable dome can be seen in
regard to its unique structural characteris-
tics that differentiate it from conventional
domes, or as simply another form of suspen-
sion structure. More specifically, one could
emphasize this kind of dome as a direct result
of Fuller's concept of tensegrity, from the ten-
sion integrity, explained below.
The structural behavior of the cable dome
is exactly opposite that of the traditional con-
ventional domes. The base ring is in com-
pression rather than tension, and the ring at
the crown is in tension rather than compres-
sion. Along its meridians the stresses are ten-
sile, contrary to the compressive stresses in
conventional domes. And of major conse-
quence is the fact that the space enclosed by
the cable dome, from its base to its crown, is
not totally free and unobstructed, as it is in
conventional domes, but includes instead
structural members that are in both tension
and compression. Although these members
are particularly light and diffuse, they are still
present within the dome space itself, so that
this space cannot technically be defined as
being free. This point could probably be ar-
gued in terms of practical significance. Shal-
 Trussed Domes
low domes springing on top of usable space
may reduce the difference between free and
nonfree space within the dome itself, yet
structurally a distinction still remains.
When a cable dome is seen as being part of
the inventory of tensile structures in general,
it should be evident that it follows all the
rules of such structures, without noticeable
differences arising from its spherical configu-
ration. From the compression ring at its base
the cable dome develops upward by means of
vertical compression members in various pat-
terns that reach the crown of the dome. All
the other members, with various geometric
patterns extending radially or around the pe-
rimeter, are in tension, forming creative as-
semblies of which Fuller's tensegrity is the
most striking.
The cable dome maximizes tension as its
principal condition of stress. Most of its mem-
bers consist of cables in tension, while some
other members are in compression. Such
three-dimensional structures consist only of
tension and compression members having the
unique characteristic of allowing compres-
sion members not to come in contact with
each other, thus giving almost the impression
of floating in space. As Fuller described it,
such an assembly can be defined as "small
islands in a sea of tension." In formulating
tensegrity, or tension integrity, Fuller ex-
pressed a concept in which tension members
flow with continuity while compression mem-
bers appear disconnected from each other.
Such structural systems, of course, acquire
maximum efficiency because they include
only axially loaded members, which are ex-
tremely efficient since all cross-sections in a
given member are equally stressed, as is also
each point in any given cross-section. In addi-
tion, tensegrity maximizes the number of
tensile members, which are by their nature
much more efficient than are compression
members.
Significant credit for expanding the tense-
grity concept to domes goes to David H.
Geiger. By applying the system to domes not
only did he devise new geometric schemes,
but he also reduced the number of members
323
required, by eliminating redundancies. He
thus succeeded in reducing statically in deter-
minant structures to statically determinant
ones. He was equally ingenious at setting up a
sequence in building that was both logical
and highly efficient. To date only two domes
of this type have been built, although others
are under construction. Already built are two
domes in Seoul, Korea, for the 1988 Olympic
games, which measure 393 ft (120 m) and
295 ft (90 m) in diameter, respectively. Two
structures presently under construction in-
clude an elliptical dome over the Illinois State
University Arena and a circular one over the
Florida Suncoast Dome in St. Petersburg (see
Figs. 14-4 and 14-5). The former measures
252 ft (76.8 m) along the minor axis of the
ellipse and 300 ft (91.4 m) along its major
axis. The Suncoast Dome has a diameter of
690 ft (210m) that surpasses even the diame-
ter of the Superdome.
To retain the characteristic lightness in-
herent in cable domes, the roofing surface
employs flexible fabric membranes. The two
stadiums in Korea are enclosed by four such
independent layers: an exterior membrane of
high-strength fiberglass fabric that is coated
on both sides with silicone, then an 8-in (20
cm) layer of silky fiberglass enclosed in poly-
ester bags to provide a thermal insulation
shield with a value of RIO, another layer of
Mylar six inches below the insulation to pro-
vide a vapor barrier, and, finally, two feet
below, a fiberglass fabric in an open weave
coated with silicone to provide an acoustic
layer.
These domes' very nature makes them un-
dergo major structural distortions, as is typi-
cal of cable structures in general. As their live
loads change, the nodal points translate, with
vertical displacements of great magnitude.
For instance, in the Florida Suncoast Dome a
live load of 12 psf (0.57 kPa) creates a maxi-
mum downward displacement of 3.35 ft
(1.02 m), and under a 22 psf (1.05 kPa) wind
load the maximum upward displacement
would be 1.22 ft (0.37 m). These major dis-
tortions, however logical they may be for
cable structures, are much larger than those
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
for conventional domes, so that rigid roofing
materials would not be easily adaptable for
use with cable domes, making flexible-fabric
membranes the logical solution for cable
domes. This aspect of the cable dome may
seem to give it a temporary nature in compar-
ison to the permanency associated with con-
ventional rigid domes, but the validity of the
cable dome remains untarnished. In reality,
the membrane itself can be considered to be
roofing, which by its very nature is assumed
to need replacement as part of its mainte-
nance even in more permanent surfaces. This
similarity eliminates any basic conceptual dif-
ference between the cable dome and others.
The cable domes just described were all
designed within a short time span by the same
design firm in New York and reflect a uni-
form approach with the same structural char-
acteristics. A typical unit dead load of 3 psf
(0.14 kPa) applies throughout all these cases,
even when the size of the dome increases
considerably, as it does in the Florida Sun-
coast Dome. Even the projected costs for
domes under construction in the United
States seem to be close to the twenty dollars
per square foot value of the two domes built
in Korea.'
The 690 ft (210m) diameter base of the
Florida Suncoast Dome has entered the cable
dome into the major leagues of the world's
largest domes, a status that could easily in-
crease even more, since cable structures have
proven themselves to be the most efficient
long-span structures in general. At this point
in the development of the dome three differ-
ent methodologies have reached almost equal
records. The Kingdome in Seattle, the Su-
perdome in New Orleans and the Suncoast
Dome in St. Petersburg have demonstrated
now that concrete shells, steel trussed frame-
works, and tension structures, followed
closely by wood domes, have all reached the
largest spans conceivable for domes. The de-
sign profession is stiIllearning from the dome
of the St. Petersburg project. This dome,
with the compressive concrete ring at its base
and double tension rings at its top, includes
four intermediate hoops constituting the
324
main circular assembly. The structure in-
cludes a series of radial cables, diagonal
cables, and compressive members completing
a complex geometric assembly that supports
a multilayered fabric membrane that encloses
the space. The horizontal projected area of
this circular dome includes an area of
371,764 ft 2 (34,556 m 2 ). The dead load for
the dome totals 1,860 kips (8,273 kN), which
includes the tension and compression mem-
bers as well as the roofing membranes. An
additional dead-load component includes
that of the mechanical room and fans,
speakers and platforms, catwalks, bridge cat-
walks, and lighting and electrical panels sus-
pended from the major hoops. All these add
an additional dead weight of 714 kips (3,176
kN). The overall dead weight of these two
values together amounts to 2,574 kips
(11,449 kN). Using these values, the distrib-
uted dead load per square foot of horizontal
projection of the dome becomes approxi-
mately 7 psf (0.34 kPa). The. wind analysis
conducted for this dome includes an evalua-
tion of vibration frequencies for ten different
modes from n = 9 to the fundamental mode
n = 1. The corresponding frequencies vary
from f= 9.791 cyc./sec. for n = 9 to f=
4.773 cyc./sec. for n = 1. The fact that the
fundamental frequency of free vibration is
estimated to be quite far from the frequency
of wind-induced vibrations guarantees a safe-
guard from resonance.
PNEUMATIC DOMES
There has been a proliferation of pneumatic
structures built in recent years. Their inher-
ent curved configuration of forms associates
the pneumatic to other curvilinear spatial
structures, but their statical mechanism is so
unique that they really stand out on their
own. Pneumatic structures are supported by
an interior air pressure and include single
membranes or multiple air-inflated mem-
branes made of special fabrics and usually
 Trussed Domes

stabilized by cables. To keep this work within
reasonable limits, pneumatic structures have
not been included. Several noticeable domes
of recent years were therefore excluded, in-
cluding the Tokyo Dome, the "Big Egg,"
which opened in early 1988. It is a cable-re-
inforced pneumatic dome by the structural
engineering companies Takenaka Komuten
Company and Nikken Sekkei Ltd., both of
Tokyo.

NOTES

1. See Z. S. Makowski, Analysis Design and Construction of Brand Domes (Nichols Publishing Co., 1984), p. 5.
2. Figures 14-2 through 14-8 courtesy of Geiger Engineers.
3. See Z. S. Makowski, Steel Space Structures (Michael Joseph, 1965).
4. Figure 14-12 courtesy of Aerial Photography Services, Inc.
5. Figures 14-15 and 14-17 courtesy Houston Sports Association.
6. Figures 14-18 and 14-19 courtesy Louisiana Superdome.
7. See David H. Geiger, Andrew Stefaniuk, and David Chen, "The Design and Construction of Two Cables
for the Korean Olympics" in Shells, Membranes and Space Frames, Proceedings, lASS Symposium, Osaka,
Japan, 1986, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986).

325
CHAPTER 15
Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes
The following analysis of a steel dome is illus-
trated by solving a specific problem, using
the powerful computer program that is inter-
nationally known and available world wide
wherever IBM services are provided. The
System STRUDL II was originally developed
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and it is still available, although new up-
graded versions are also offered such as the
one by Georgia Tech. The problem is pre-
sented to the attention of the reader as a
simple analytical tool and can be applied by
following the step-by-step sequence illus-
trated hereafter.
PROBLEM: The structure analyzed here, the
Schwedler dome, is a trussed steel dome with
a hexagonal floor plan. The dome is in-
scribed within a perfect hemisphere whose
diameter is 100 ft (30.5 m). All the nodal
points of the dome are thus located on the
hemisphere. The dome consists of 66 mem-
bers connecting 25 nodal points to form a
series of polygonal hoops and meridians.
These hoops and meridians form a series of
isosceles trapezoids that are triangulated by
diagonal stabilizing members. (See Figures
15-1 and 15-2 for a graphic illustration of the
dome's plan and elevation.)
The nodes from 1 through 6 are at
ground level and act as supports. The letter S
327
after the specifications of the coordinates of
these points indicates their function as sup-
ports. The apex of the dome coincides with
nodal point 25.
This dome is referred to a system of Car-
tesian coordinates, XYZ, so that the plan of
the dome is on the XY plane and Z is the
vertical axis oriented upward from the base
of the dome. In the program input the nodal
points or joints are described in terms of
their coordinates. The members are de-
scribed by means of their so-called member
incidence, which includes the number of the
joint at the start and end of each member.
Like the joints, all members are identified by
a number.
For a better understanding of the overall
geometry of the dome, consider the follow-
ing description. In this example, twenty-five
joints are arranged in four hoops that start
from the ground with hoop number 1 and go
up to hoops 2, 3, and 4. Joint 25 forms the
crown above the hoops. The dome's 66 mem-
bers are arranged into 24 hoop members, 24
meridian members, and 18 diagonal ones.
Members 1 through 6 are, as stated, in the
first hoop, at the base, 19 through 24 on the
second hoop, 37 through 42 on the third
hoop, and 55 through 60 on the fourth.
Meridian members 7 through 12 are be-
tween the first and second hoop, 25 through
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes
15-1 Plan view of Schwedler Dome analyzed in the problem.
30 between the second and third hoops, 44
through 48 between the third and fourth
hoops, and 61 through 66 between the
fourth hoop and the crown. Diagonal mem-
bers 13 through 18 are between hoops 1 and
2,31 through 36 between hoops 2 and 3, and
49 through 54 between hoops 3 and 4. No-
tice that all the diagonal members are equally
inclined. Facing the dome, the diagonal
members go from the lower right to the
upper left.
In the input, the geometry of t.he joints
and members is expressed in feet, with the
cross-sections of members AX given in
square inches. Notice also that because of the
absence of bending stresses in the members,
by the definition of space truss, the moment
328
of inertia of the members' cross-section is not
needed. Furthermore, because the members
are what is described as being prismatic, their
cross-sections remain constant.
All members of this sample dome are
made of steel, as indicated by the modulus of
elasticity E, specified to be 29,000 ksi for all.
There are two loading conditions for the
dome. The first consists of a series of concen-
trated loads applied vertically downward
(-Z) at each joint from 7 through 25, ex-
cluding the joints on the ground. Each load
in this first loading is - 1 kip. Loading two is
the wind load. After stating the data of the
problem in these terms, specify that the pro-
gram should perform a stiffness analysis of
the structure. Then, on another line, write a
 Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes
Z=50.6
z=46.1
Z=19(
15-2 Elevation of the Schwedler Dome analyzed in the problem.
command that requests the following: the
axial forces in the members, the reactions at
the supports, the distortions (the elongation
or contraction of the members), and the dis-
placement of the joints.
For simplicity'S sake, the example problem
has been kept short, without limiting its clar-
ity. The few joints and members shown are
enough to present the overall behavior of a
dome of this type. The process is of course
the same for any other type of trussed dome,
regardless of the complexity of its geometry.
The computer information in the output
provides the reactions at the six supports. It
has been assumed that these six supports at
the base are fixed hinges, which implies cer-
tain effects. First, the reactions in the XY
plane are radially oriented and equal to each
other, as shown in terms of their X and Y
components. Notice, for instance, that joints
1 and 4 have a Y component equal to 0, since
the orientation of the reaction is along the X
axis itself. Second, since the supports are
fixed hinges, the axial forces in the members
in the first hoop are all equal to 0, which
329
makes the first hoop unnecessary. If one
wants to avoid this and allow the first hoop to
work, it is necessary to release the X and Y
reaction components at their supports.
Consider that the total load on the dome is
equal to 19 kips (84.5 kN). Therefore, the
vertical reactions at the supports coincide
with
'6
19 = 3.16 k'IpS (14.1 kN)
OUTPUT: After the command "stiffening
analysis," indicated in the input, the com-
puter resolves the structure and generates
the answers to the questions that were asked.
The units used are specified in inches and
kips.
This step-by-step illustration of how to
enter the input of a problem can easily be
applied to other similar problems. It is now
essential to be able to read and understand
the solutions given by the computer (see Fig.
] 5-3). The output shown considers that the
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes

format in which the answers are given is con-
stant and will apply to other similar prob-
lems, independent of valid geometric con-
figurations.
The Schwedler dome used in this example
reflects certain characteristics that readily be-
come apparent in the results of the static
analysis. The geometry of this dome consists
of trapezoids braced by diagonal members all
inclined in the same direction, which gener-
ates a structure that is not totally symmetrical
with respect to its vertical central axis. The
symmetry is not in fact specular and there-
fore invalid. This accounts for the variations
in the values of the axial forces in the diago-
nals. Furthermore, in the results it is notice-
able that the axial forces in these members
are extremely low. Consequently, they can be
practically neglected when the structure is
loaded vertically at its nodal points. On the
other hand, under other loading conditions,
such as those of horizontal wind forces, these
members of course become more significant
than in the previous case.

INPUT

STRUDL IMGMI SCHWEDLER DOME

S TRUSS DOME WITH BASE RADIUS 50 FT. , HEIGHT 50 FT.

DEBUG ALL

TYPE SPACE TRUSS

UNIT KIP FEET
JOINT COORDINATES

1 X 0.0 Y50 Z 0 S (joint at first level)

2 X 25 Y 93 . 30 Z 0 S DO
3 X 75 Y 93 . 30 Z 0 S DO
4 X 100 Y 50 Z 0 S DO
5 X 75 Y 6 . 70 Z 0 S DO
6 X 25 Y 6.70 Z 0 S DO
7 X 3.81Y50 Z19.13 (joint at second level)
8 X 26.90Y90.01Z19.13 DO
9 X 73.09 Y 90.01 Z 19.13 DO
10 X 96. 19 Y 50 Z 19. 13 DO
11 X 73.09 Y 9.99 Z 19. 13 DO
12 X 26.90 Y 9.99 Z 19. 13 DO
13 X 14.65Y50 Z35.35 (joint at third level)
14 X 32.32 Y 80.61 Z 35.35 DO
15 X 67.67Y80.61Z35.35 DO
16 X 85 .35 Y 50 Z 35 . 35 DO
17 X 67.67 Y 19.39 Z 35 . 35 DO
18 X 32.32 Y 19.39 Z35.35 DO
19 X 30.87Y50 Z46.19 (joint at fourth level)
20 X 40.43 Y 66.56 Z46.19 DO
21 X 59.56 Y 66.56 Z46.19 DO
22 X 69. 13 Y 50 Z 46. 19 DO
23 X 59.56 Y 33.44 Z 46 . 19 DO
24 X 40.43 Y 33 . 44 Z 46. 19 DO
25 X 50 Y 50 Z 50 (joint at crown)
MEMBER INCIDENCES

15-3 Problem input. Each of the lines in the .ftaure represents an input command that is typed on
individual lines.

330
 Computer Analj'sis of Trussed Domes

S MEMBERS 1 TO 18 HAVE AX 10
1 1 2 (hoop member a t first level)
2 2 3 DO
3 3 4 DO
4 4 5 DO
5 5 6 DO
6 6 1 DO
7 1 7 (Meridian member from first to second hoop)
8 2 8 DO
9 3 9 DO
104 10 DO
11 5 11 DO
126 12 DO
136 7 (Diagonal member from first to second hoop)
141 8 DO
152 9 DO
163 10 DO
174 11 DO
185 12 DO
S MEMBERS 19 TO 36 HAVE AX 8
197 8 (Hoop member at second level)
208 9 DO
219 10 DO
221011 DO
231112 DO
24127 DO
257 13 (Meridian member from second to third hoop)
268 14 DO
279 15 DO
281016 DO
291117 DO
301218 DO
311213 (Diagonal member from second to third hoop)
327 14 DO
338 15 DO
349 16 DO
351017 DO
361118 DO
S MEMBERS 37 TO 54 HAVE AX 6
371314 (Hoop member at third level)
381415 DO
391516 DO
401617 DO
411718 DO
421813 DO
431319 (Meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
441420 DO
451521 DO
461622 DO
471723 DO
481824 DO
491819 (Diagonal member from third to fourth hoop)
501320 DO
511421 DO
521522 DO
531623 DO
541724 DO
S MEMBERS 55 TO 66 HAVE AX 1
55 1920 (Hoop member a t fourth level)
562021 DO
572122 DO
582223 DO
592324 DO

15-3 (continued)

331
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes

602419 DO
611925 (Meridian members from fourth hoop to crown)
622025 DO
632125 DO
642225 DO
652325 DO
662425 DO

UNITS KIP INCHES

MEMBER PROPERTIES PRISMATIC
1 TO 18 AX 10
19 TO 36 AX 8
37 TO 54 AX 6
55 TO 66 AX 1
CONSTANT E 29000 ALL
LOADING 1 (dead load only)
JOINTS 7 TO 25 LOADS FORCE Z -1
STIFFNESS ANALYSIS
LIST FORCES LOADS REACTIONS DISTORTIONS DISPLACEMENTS

OUTPUT

***************************
*RESULTS OF LATEST ANALYSES* (The following information will apply to all outputs.)
***************************

PROBLEM - SEFMOH TITLE - SCHWEDLER DOME

ACTIVE UNITS INCH KIP RAD DEGF SEC

ACTIVE STRUCTURE TYPE SPACE TRUSS
ACTIVE COORDINATE AXES X Y Z

LOADING - 1 (Dead load only. 1 K at each joint)

MEMBER FORCES
Note: Posi ti ve = Tension. Negative = Compression

[
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORCE.
MEMBER JOINT AXIAL

~ ; ~:~
(Zero hoop force because jOints are hinged support)
DO
3 4 0.0 DO
4 5 0.0 DO
5 6 0.0 DO
6 1 0.0 DO
(Compression force in meridian member from fi rst to second hoop)
7 7 [-3.2290678
8 8 -3.2286053 DO
9 9 -3.2275028 DO
10 10 -3.2294693 DO
11 11 -3.2288837 DO
12 12 -3.2285614 DO
(Force in diagonal member from first to second hoop)
13 7 [-0.0013212
14 8 0.0013976 DO
15 9 -0.0016562 DO
16 10 -0.0017128 DO
17 11 0.0017889 DO
18 12 0.0015042 DO
19 8 [0.8194115 (Tension force in hoop member at second hoop)
20 9 0.8197028 DO

15-3 (continued)

332
 Computer Ana~sis of Trussed Domes

21
22
10
11
[ 0.8191081
0.8195431 DO
DO
23 12 0.8181520 DO
24 7 0.8191823 DO
25
26
13
14 r2605985
-2.6062346
(Compression force in meridian member from second to third hoop)
DO
27 15 -2.6068220 DO
28 16 -2.6067934 DO
29 17 -2.6062260 DO
30 18 -2.6070166 DO
31
32
13
14
[-0.0019077
0.0019513 (Force in diagonal member from second to third hoop)
DO
33 15 -0.0000778 DO
34 16 0.0015883 DO
35 17 -0.0015439 DO
36 18 -0.0000100 DO
37
38
14
15
[ 0.2983205
0.2971213
(Tension force in hoop member at third hoop)
DO
39 16 0.2960368 DO
40 17 0.2978735 DO
41 18 0.2970852 DO
42 13 0.2972810 DO
43
44
19
20
[2.,011686
-2.1003036
(Compression force in meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
DO
45 21 -2.1002312 DO
46 22 -2.0996237 DO
47 23 -2.1000576 DO
48 24 -2.0992851 DO
49
50
19
20
[0.0016220
0.0016475
(Force in diagonal member from third to fourth hoop)
DO
51 21 -0.0000305 DO
52 22 0.0003698 DO
53 23 -0.0003424 DO
54 24 -0.0000244 DO
55
56
20
21 O.91"26'
r-0.9091491
(Compression force in hoop member at fourth hoop)
DO
57 22 -0.9091181 DO
58 23 -0.9087155 DO
59 24 -0.9091525 DO
60 19 -0.9102634 DO
61
62
25
25
[-0-0.8514645
.8543866 (Compression force in meridian member from fourth hoop to crown)
DO
63 25 -0.8539101 DO
64 25 -0.8525422 DO
65 25 -0.8539518 DO
66 25 -0.8514223 DO

MEMBERS DISTORTIONS (Elongation or Contraction in inches)

. . . . . . . . . DISTORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MEMBER AXIAL

)
1 0.0 (Hoop member at first level)
2 0.0 DO
3 0.0 DO
4 0.0 DO
5 0.0 DO
6 0.0 DO
7
8 -0-0.0026056
00260'' ] (Meridian member from first to second hoop)
DO
9 -0.0026049 DO
10 -0.0026066 DO
11 -0.0026060 DO
12 -0.0026056 DO
13 -0 . 0000028 ] (Diagonal member from first to second hoop)
14 0.0000030 DO

15-3 (continued)

333
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes

15 -0.0000036] DO
16 -0.0000037 DO
17 0.0000038 DO
18 0.0000032 DO
19 0.0019579] (Hoop member at second level)
20 0.0019584 DO
21 0.0019584 DO
22 0.0019574 DO
23 0.0019547 DO
24 0.0019573 DO
25 -0.0026296] (Meridian member from second to third hoop)
26 -0.0026307 DO
27 -0.0026313 DO
28 -0.0026305 DO
29 -0.0026307 DO
30 -0.0026315 DO
31 0.0000045] Diagonal member from second to third hoop)
32 -0.0000044 DO
33 -0.0000002 DO
34 0.0000037 DO
35 -0.0000036 DO
36 -0.0000000 DO
37 0.0007272] (Hoop member at third level)
38 0.0007244 DO
39 0.0007217 DO
40 0.0007262 DO
41 0.0007243 DO
42 0.0007246 DO
43 -0.0028294] (Meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
44 -0.0028261 DO
45 -0.0028260 DO
46 -0.0028249 DO
47 -0.0028258 DO
48 -0.0028248 DO
49 -0.0000036] Diagonal member from thi rd to fourth hoop)
50 o. 0000037 DO
51 -0.0000001 DO
52 0.0000008 DO
53 -0.0000008 DO
54 -0.0000001 DO
55 -0.0072125] (Hoop member at fourth level)
56 -0.0071967 DO
57 -0.0071951 DO
58 -0.0071919 DO
59 -0.0071967 DO
60 -0.0071985 DO
61 -0.0068891] (Meridian member from fourth to to crown)
62 -0.0068712 DO
63 -0.0068892 DO
64 -0.0068811 DO
65 -0.0068895 DO
66 -0.0068709 DO

RESULTANT JOINT
SUPPORTS

JOINT / - - - - - - - - -FORCE- - - - - - - - - /
X FORCE Y FORCE Z FORCE
1 GLOBAL 0.6300007 -0.0010781 3.1663551
2 GLOBAL 0.3160568 -0.5447277 3.1673689
3 GLOBAL -0.3153579 -0.5458395 3.1661491
4 GLOBAL -0.6298786 0.0013797 3.1666031
5 GLOBAL -0.3147978 0.5445471 3.1663170
6 GLOBAL 0.3139770 0.5457184 3.1672020

15-3 (continued)

334
 Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes

RESULTANT JOINT
FREE JOINTS

JOINT / - - - - - - - - -FORCE- - - - - - - - - /
X FORCE Y FORCE Z FORCE
7 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0,0000000 -0.9999996
8 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
9 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
10 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
11 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
12 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999999
13 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
14 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
15 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
16 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
17 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
18 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
19 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
20 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996
21 GLOBAL -0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999999
22 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999999
23 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999996
24 GLOBAL 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.9999999
25 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -0.0000000 -0.9999996

RESULTANT JOINT
SUPPORTS
DISPLACEMENTS -
JOINT . DISPLACEMENT
X DISP. Y DISP Z DISP.
1 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 (First hoop)
2 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 ] DO
3 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
4 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
5 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO
6 GLOBAL 0.0 0.0 0.0 DO

RESULTANT JOINT
FREE JOINTS (All except supports)
DISPLACEMENTS - (note that uni ts are inches)
JOINT . DISPLACEMENT ..
X DISP. Y DISP. Z DISP.
7 GLOBAL -0.0019522 0.0000436 -0.0022687] (Second Hoop)
8 GLOBAL -0.0009459 0.0017234 -0.0022662 DO
9 GLOBAL 0.0010125 0.0016761 -0.0022665 DO
10 GLOBAL 0.0019498 -0.0000441 -0.0022695 DO
11 GLOBAL 0.0009350 -0.0017183 -0.0022682 DO
12 GLOBAL -0.0010197 -0.0016782 -0.0022666 DO
13 GLOBAL -0.0007262 0.0000320 -0.0062509] (Thi rd Hoop)
14 GLOBAL -0.0003385 0.0006478 -0.0062576 DO
15 GLOBAL 0.0003859 0.0006058 -0.0062619 DO
16 GLOBAL 0.0007241 -0.0000323 -0.0062525 DO
17 GLOBAL 0.0003268 -0.0006414 -0.0062605 DO
18 GLOBAL -0.0003974 -0.0006150 -0.0062567 DO
19 GLOBAL 0.0072192 0.0057551 -0.0232507] (Fourth Hoop)
20 GLOBAL 0.0085688 -0.0033460 -0.0231849 DO
21 GLOBAL 0.0013721 -0.0091092 -0.0232026 DO
22 GLOBAL -0.0071888 -0.0057464 -0.0231765 DO
23 GLOBAL -0.0085834 0.0033661 -0.0232072 DO
24 GLOBAL -0.0013867 0.0091049 -0.0231991 DO
25 GLOBAL 0.0000035 0.0000014 -0.0222927 (Crown)

15-3 (continued)

335
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes

INPUT FOR LOADING 2

LOADING 2 (Horizontal wind load)

The program has been run again for load 2 in substi tution of load 1 in the input. The following
commands instruct the computer specifying the new load. All other commands remain unchanged.

LOADING 2 (horizontal wind load)

JOINTS 1 4 LOADS FORCE Y -1. 435 (positive pressure + suction)
JOINTS 2 3 LOADS FORCE Y -3.228 (positive pressure)
JOINTS 5 6 LOADS FORCE Y -1. 076 (suction)
JOINTS 7 10 LOADS FORCE Y -2.395 (positive pressure + suction)
JOINTS 8 9 LOADS FORCE Y -5.552 (positive pressure)
JOINTS 1112 LOADS FORCE Y -1.851 (suction)
JOINTS 13 16 LOADS FORCE Y -1.437 (positive pressure + suction)
JOINTS 14 15 LOADS FORCE Y -3 . 227 (posi ti ve pressure)
JOINTS 17 18 LOADS FORCEY-1.076 (suction)
JOINTS 1922 LOADS FORCE Y -.428 (positive pressure + suction)
JOINTS 2021 LOADS FORCE Y -.939 (posi ti ve pressure)
JOINTS 2324 LOADS FORCE Y -.313 (suction)
JOINTS 25 LOAD FORCEY -.439 (positive pressure + suction)
OUTPUT FOR LOADING 2

LOADING 2 - (Horizontal wind load)

MEMBER FORCES
MEMBER JOINT / - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - FORCE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - /
AXIAL
1 2 0.0 (Zero hoop force because joints are hinged support)
2 3 0.0 DO
3 4 0.0 DO
4 5 0.0 DO
5 6 0.0 DO
6 1 0.0 DO
7 7 0.0004548 (Compression force in meridian member from first to second hoop)
8 8 0.6681308 DO
9 9 7.6292801 DO
10 10 0.4753883 DO
11 11 -5.9938040 DO
12 12 -1.8730125 DO
13 7 -8.2662373 (Force in diagnol member from first to second hoop)
14 2 10.8226509 DO
15 9 -1.4507809 DO
16 4 -12.6774006 DO
17 11 8.5137644 DO
18 6 0.6472248 DO
19 8 -9.4929752 (Tension force in hoop member at second hoop)
20 9 -2.8740139 DO
21 10 4.7387848 DO
22 11 -4.8920145 DO
23 12 1.6189051 DO
24 7 6.1421947 DO
25 13 1.1346626 (Compression force in meridian member from second to third hoop)
26 14 -0.3914562 DO
27 15 2.7340355 DO
28 16 0.7175829 DO
29 17 -3.0081205 DO
30 18 -0.6486032 DO
31 13 -3.9879713 (Force in diagnonal member from second to third hoop)
32 8 3.5229559 DO
33 15 -0.8095253 DO
34 10 -4.5381279 DO
35 17 4.1774368 DO
36 12 0.3965685 DO

15-3 (continued)

336
 Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes

37 14 -3.4405384 (Tension force in hoop member at third hoop)

38 15 -1.3106489 DO
39 16 0.6654616 DO
40 17 -2.3581371 DO
41 18 0.9135219 DO
42 13 2.6321945 DO
43 19 1.3965158 (Compression force in meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
44 20 -0.2804738 DO
45 21 0.6108908 DO
46 22 0.3549191 DO
47 23 -1.5242672 DO
48 24 -0.1651973 DO
49 19 -1.6042547 (Force in diagnonal member from third to fourth hoop)
50 14 -0.0277439 DO
51 21 -0.4807160 DO
52 16 -0.5605590 DO
53 23 1.7583752 DO
54 18 0.2630093 DO
55 20 -0.5351181 (Compression force in hoop member at fourth hoop)
56 21 0.0077036 DO
57 22 -0.4474396 DO
58 23 -0.9417682 DO
59 24 0.5034653 DO
60 19 0.6843173 DO
61 25 1.1816597 (Compression force in meridian member from fourth hoop to crown)
62 25 -0.7976235 DO
63 25 -0.0399108 DO
64 25 1. 0096312 DO
65 25 -0.8845217 DO
66 25 0.4697953 DO

MEMBER FORCES
MEMBER / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISTORTION···· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. /
AXIAL SHEAR Y SHEAR Z
1 0.0 (Hoop member at first level)
2 0.0 DO
3 0.0 DO
4 0.0 DO
5 0.0 DO
6 0.0 DO
7 0.0000004 (Meridian member from first to second hoop)
8 0.0005392 DO
9 0.0061575 DO
10 0.0003837 DO
11 -0.0048375 DO
12 -0.0015116 DO
13 -0.0177401 (Diagonal member from first to second hoop)
14 0.0232264 DO
15 -0.0031133 DO
16 -0.0272121 DO
17 0.0182749 DO
18 0.0013889 DO
19 -0.0226823 (Hoop member at second level)
20 -0.0068664 DO
21 0.0113240 DO
22 -0.0116901 DO
23 0.0038678 DO
24 0.0146760 DO
25 0.0011450 (Meridian member from second to third hoop)
26 -0.0003951 DO
27 0.0027597 DO
28 0.0007241 DO
29 -0.0030363 DO
30 -0.0006547 DO

15-3 (continued)

337
 Skeletal Steel Structures and Meaadomes

31 -0.0092570 (Diagonal member from second to third hoop)

32 0.0081776 DO
33 -0.0018789 DO
34 -0.0105327 DO
35 0.0096956 DO
36 0.0009205 DO
37 -0.0083864 (Hoop member at third level)
38 -0.0031953 DO
39 0.0016223 DO
40 -0.0057488 DO
41 0.0022271 DO
42 0.0064160 DO
43 0.0018805 (Meridian member from third to fourth hoop)
44 -0.0003774 DO
45 0.0008220 DO
46 0.0004775 DO
47 -0.0020510 DO
48 -0.0002223 DO
49 -0.0035962 (Diagonal member from third to fourth hoop)
50 -0.0000622 DO
51 -0.0010778 DO
52 -0.0012568 DO
53 0.0039423 DO
54 0.0005897 DO
55 -0.0042318 (Hoop member at fourth level)
56 0.0000610 DO
57 -0.0035412 DO
58 -0.0074535 DO
59 0.0039854 DO
60 0.0054117 DO
61 0.0095280 (Meridian member from fourth to crown)
62 -0.0064367 DO
63 -0.0003220 DO
64 0.0081491 DO
65 -0.0071362 DO
66 -0.0037912 DO

RESULTANT JOINT SUPPORTS

JOINT / - - - - - - - - -FORCE - - - - - - - - - /
X FORCE Y FORCE Z FORCE
1 GLOBAL -0.0000888 0.0 -0.0004461
2 GLOBAL 5.7020416 9.0562611 -4.1121044
3 GLOBAL 0.7471076 1.2868929 -7.4827566
4 GLOBAL -2.0670614 16.3445892 1.0692272
5 GLOBAL -0.5869516 1.0110245 5.8786907
6 GLOBAL -3.7950497 7.1761904 4.6473856

RESULTANT JOINT -FREE JOINTS

JOINT / - - - - - - - - -FORCE - - - - - - - - - I
X FORCE Y FORCE Z FORCE
7 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -2.3949986 -0.0000000
8 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -5.5519915 -0.0000000
9 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -5.5519915 -0.0000000
10 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -2.3949986 0.0000000
11 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -1.8509989 0.0000000
12 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -1.8509989 0.0000000
13 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -1.4369984 0.0000000
14 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -3.2269983 0.0000000
15 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -3.2269983 -0.0000000
16 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -1.4369984 -0.0000000
17 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -1.0759983 0.0000000
18 GLOBAL 0.0000000 -1.0759983 0.0000000
19 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -0.4279997 -0.0000000
20 GLOBAL -0.0000000 -0.9389994 -0.0000000

15-3 (continued)

338
 Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes

21 GLOBAL 0,0000000 -0,9389994 0,0000000

22 GLOBAL -0,0000000 -0 4279997 -0,0000000
23 GLOBAL -0,0000000 -0 ,3129995 -0,0000000
24 GLOBAL -0,0000000 -0 3129995 -0,0000000
25 GLOBAL 0,0000000 -0 ,4389997 0,0000000

RESULTANT JOINT DISPLACEMENTS -SUPPORTS

JOINT / , ,DISPLACEMENT, , /
X DISP, Y DISP, Z DISP,
1 GLOBAL 0,0 0,0 0,0 (Fi rst hoop)
2 GLOBAL 0,0 0,0 0, 0 DO
3 GLOBAL 0,0 0 ,0 0, 0 DO
4 GLOBAL 0,0 0 ,0 0, 0 DO
5 GLOBAL 0,0 0, 0 0, 0 DO
6 GLOBAL 0,0 0 ,0 0, 0 DO
RESULTANT JOINTS -FREE JOINTS (All except supports)
DISPLACEMENTS (Note that uni ts are in inches)
JOINT / - - - - - - - - - - - -DISPLACEMENT- - - - - - - - - - - - /
X DISP , Y DISP , Z DISP ,
7 GLOBAL -0,0056905 -0,0245344 0,0011337 (Second hoop)
8 GLOBAL 0,0012354 -0,0547199 -0,0089837 DO
9 GLOBAL -0,0056310 -0,0386253 -0,0009270 DO
10 GLOBAL 0,0094212 -0,0430106 0,0022676 DO
11 GLOBAL 0,0033276 -0,0259938 -0,0001296 DO
12 GLOBAL -0,0005402 -0,0385068 0,0051350 DO
13 GLOBAL -0,0123695 -0,0532574 0,0069745 (Third hoop)
14 GLOBAL 0,0010798 -0,0707045 -0,0186707 DO
15 GLOBAL -0,0021155 -0,0625436 -0,0102934 DO
16 GLOBAL 0,0090743 -0,0579540 0 ,0029067 DO
17 GLOBAL 0,0013929 -0,0468785 0 0076742 DO
18 GLOBAL -0,0008342 -0,0540068 0,0134283 DO
19 GLOBAL -0,0144919 -0,0585036 0,0135414 (Fourth hoop)
20 GLOBAL -0,0004845 -0,0714568 -0,0191549 DO
21 GLOBAL -0,0004235 -0,0656953 -0,0116330 DO
22 GLOBAL 0,0029003 -0,0596845 -0,0054722 DO
23 GLOBAL 0,0002825 -0,0495631 0,0066313 DO
24 GLOBAL -0,0037029 -0,0585337 0,0210419 DO
25 GLOBAL -0,0031984 -0,0597433 0,0056266 (Crown)

15-3 (continued)

339
 Epilogue
The historical continuum of human progress
finds what is probably its clearest expression
in the evolution of architectural forms.
The morphology of curvilinear structures in
present architecture is connected directly to
the forms developed over thousands of years
of experience with them. Thus, only by
knowing the historical development of var-
ious curvilinear forms is it possible to fully
understand their present applications. Ob-
viously, the steel and concrete materials of
the present differ substantially from the ma-
sonry of the past, yet the overall structural
concepts can be applied equally to the
present and the past. The recent large-scale
megastructures over stadiums are not iso-
lated creations but expressions of a gradual
progressive development of engineering pro-
cesses that include structural analysis and ex-
amining the strength of materials. From the
primitive prehistoric prototypes of masonry
vaulting to the large-span steel and concrete
domes of the late twentieth century, it is fun-
damental to recognize and apply the continu-
ous thread linking together so many struc-
tures. It is on this basis that the historical
development of domes has been particularly
emphasized in this work, hoping that the
present-day design applications of curvilinear
forms would be perceived adequately in their
proper historical context.
341
The demographic growth of the last part
of the twentieth century has created a world
population on an unprecedented scale, with
needs of an astonishing magnitude. Spectacu-
lar sporting events, for instance, have begun
to demand huge enclosed spaces for
hundreds of thousands of spectators in a new
generation of stadiums with immense pro-
portions. The long-span roofing systems nec-
essary to enclose column-free spaces had thus
to be developed through the ingenuity of
structural engineering to extend the limits of
existing systems enough to satisfy the new
demands. Although some solutions have ex-
panded along new directions such as im-
proved suspension systems, a major impulse
has concentrated on improving the dome
that since ancient times has been used to en-
close the largest-spanned spaces. It is of
major importance, therefore, that domical
structures be properly discussed and right-
fully placed within the ranks of the other
important structural options of the present.
This must be done to correct the erroneous
perception that many members of the design
profession have of curvilinear structures in
general. Whether they are of steel, rein-
forced concrete, or wood, domes do repre-
sent the most logical structural system for the
largest column-free space, but they also have
major practical applications for much shorter
 Epilo8ue
spans. The religious architecture of the Mos-
lem world alone clearly indicates, with its
domes over present-day mosques worldwide,
that domes still constitute a reality on a scale
that should not be ignored.
The computer has been responsible to a
great extent for facilitating structural analysis
in the megadomes of the present. This tool
has revolutionized the structural engineering
profession not only by simplifying the design
of contemporary domes but also in promising
great potential expansion for even larger
domes in the future. Especially for optimiza-
tion procedures that make available quick
verifications, the computer offers an extra-
ordinary ability to analyze a great variety
of configurations and loading conditions.
Within this context, the architectural and en-
gineering team can visibly scan a virtually
limitless spectrum of rational and imaginative
forms with ease, resulting in the expansion of
the existing morphology.
Although the use of curvilinear forms in
342
present-day Western architecture is at a low
point, interest in the engineering aspects of
shells is extraordinarily high. A recent engi-
neering index for the United States alone
shows a remarkable number of papers pub-
lished in a recent year under the general
heading of domes and shells. For instance,
the 1989 annual, included in Appendix B,
indicates 326 papers for that year alone,
while the 1988 annual shows 261 papers. N0-
tice that the 1988 and 1989 years were by no
means an exceptional period, since high
numbers of papers were published in pre-
vious years as well. On the basis of such data
it seems obvious that the engineering aspects
of curvilinear structures rests on solid foun-
dations that are unaffected by ephemeral ar-
chitectural trends. When architects even-
tually rediscover the inherent structural
integrity of curvilinear forms they will find a
substantial body of engineering knowledge
on which they can depend in creating a new
morphology of shells.
APPENDIX A

ACI Building Code Requirements for Thin

Shells and Folded Plates*

Since concrete is the basic, most common material for the construction of thin shells,
the requirements of such specific codes as those of the American Concrete Institute
must be followed. Unfortunately, for many years these codes did not address in
specific terms the unique problems related to thin shells, so that in the absence of
special provisions only the common rules on concrete structures could in general be
followed. One major result has been a great thickness for shells being imposed by
minimum cover requirements for steel reinforcement. Naturally, code requirements
vary from country to country, so that although ACI restrictions were enforced in the
United States, shells only three-quarters of an inch thick were legally possible in
Mexico, as demonstrated by the numerous thin shells there by Felix Candela.
The ACI's design provisions for shells and folded plates are covered in Chapter
19 of its code. These include such major topics as definitions, criteria for structural
and model analysis, reinforcement, prestressing, and construction. In separating the
supporting members of a thin shell structure from its whole, the code explicitly
specifies that Chapter 19's provisions apply only on the thin shell portion of the
structure. The edge beams, columns, footings, and other supporting members are
covered by other chapters in the code. Naturally, thin shell designs should also be
controlled by the rest of the code, except for provisions that may conflict with those
in Chapter 19.

*From Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-89). The full text of
Chapter 19 and its Commentary are reprinted with the permission of the American Concrete
Institute, Detroit.

343
 ACI Buildina Code Requirements
[Code]
19.0-NOTATION
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (see
8.5.1)
Fe = specified compressive strength of concrete,
psi
= square root of specified compressive strength
of concrete, psi
= specified yield strength of nonprestressed re-
inforcement, psi
= thickness of shell or folded plate, in.
= develop length, in.
= strength reduction factor (see 9.3)
19.1 Scope and Definitions
19.1.1 Provisions of Chapter 19 shall apply to
thin shell and folded plate concrete structures,
including ribs and edge members.
344
[Commentary]
This code and commentary provides building
code information on the design, analysis, and
construction of concrete thin shells and folded
plates. The process began in 1964 with the pub-
lication of a practice and commentary by ACI
Committee 334,19.1 and continued with the in-
clusion of Chapter 19 in ACI Building Code
ACI 318-71 and in later editions. The current
revision reflects additional experience in de-
sign, analysis, and construction gained since the
earlier publications, and was influenced by the
publication of the "Recommendations for
Concrete Shells and Folded Plates" of the In-
ternational Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures (lASS) in 1979. 19 .2
Since Chapter 19 applies to concrete thin
shells and folded plates of all shapes, extensive
discussion of their design, analysis, and con-
struction in the commentary is not possible. Ad-
ditional information can be obtained from the
references listed at the end of this chapter,
which are provided for the assistance of the
designer. They are not an official part of the
code. The designer is responsible for their in-
terpretation and use. Particular emphasis on de-
velopments and practice in the United States is
given in "Concrete Thin Shells," ACI
SP_28. 19-3
R 19 .1.1 Chapter 19 is intended to apply to
thin shells and folded plate concrete structures
in building construction. Discussion of the ap-
plication of thin shells in special structures such
as cooling towers and circular prestressed con-
crete tanks may be found in the reports of ACI-
ASCE Committee 334 19.4 and ACI Committee
344. 19 .5
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code]
19.1.2 All provisions of this code not specifi-
cally excluded, and not in conflict with provi-
sions of Chapter 19 shall apply to thin-shell
structures.
19.1.3 Thin shells: three-dimensional spatial
structures made up of one or more curved slabs
or folded plates whose thicknesses are small
compared to their other dimensions. Thin shells
are characterized by their three-dimensional
load-carrying behavior which is determined by
the geometry of their forms, by the manner in
which they are supported, and by the nature of
the applied load.
19.1.4 Folded plates: a special class of shell
structures formed by joining flat, thin slabs
along their edges so as to create a three-dimen-
sional spatial structure.
19.1.5 Ribbed shells: spatial structures with
material placed primarily along certain pre-
ferred rib lines, with the area between the ribs
filled with thin slabs or left open.
19.1.6 Auxiliary members: ribs or edge beams
which serve to strengthen, stiffen, and/or sup-
port the shell; usually, auxiliary members act
jointly with the shell.
345
[Commentary]
R 19.1. 3 Common types of thin shells are
domes (surfaces of revolution), 19.3. 19.6-19.9 cy-
lindrical shells, 19.3. 19.6. 19.8. 19.10-19.15 conoids,
19.6. 19.16-19.18 elliptical paraboloids, 19.6. 19.19 hy-
perbolic paraboloids, 19.3. 19.6. 19.8. 19.19-19.28 and
groin vauIts.19.3. 19.19. 19.29. 19.30 Considerable in-
formation on the experience gained in the de-
sign, analysis and construction of these shells
may be found in the cited references.
Less experience is available regarding other
shell types or shapes, including free-form shells.
However, a number of these have been success-
fully built.
Thin shell elements are slabs or plates with
thicknesses less than one-fifth the transverse
width and less than one-twentieth the radius of
curvature on span lengths.
R19.1.4 Folded plates may be prismatic,19.3.
19.6. 19.31-33 nonprismatic,19.34 or faceted. The
first two types, which are the most common,
consist generally of planar thin slabs joined
along their longitudinal edges to form a beam-
like structure spanning between supports. Fac-
eted folded plates, which are much less com-
mon, are made up of triangular and/or poly-
gonal planar thin slabs joined along their edges
to form three-dimensional spatial structures
similar to continuously curved thin shells such
as domes or other shell forms. Only limited ex-
perience is available on the design, analysis, and
construction of faceted folded plates.
R19.1.5 Ribbed shells I9.3. 19.35. 19.36 generally
have been used for larger spans where the in-
creased thickness of the curved slab alone be-
comes excessive or uneconomical. Ribbed shells
also have been used because of the construction
techniques employed and to enhance the aes-
thetic impact of the completed structure.
R 19.1.6 Most thin shell structures require ribs
or edge beams at their boundaries to carry the
shell boundary forces, to assist in transmitting
them to the supporting structure, and to accom-
modate the increased amount of reinforcement
in these areas.
 ACI BUilding Code Requirements
[Code]
19.1.7 Elastic analysis: an analysis of defor-
mations and internal forces based on equilib-
rium, compatibility of strains, and assumed elas-
tic behavior, and representing to suitable
approximation the three-dimensional action of
the shell together with its auxiliary members.
19.1.8 Inelastic analysis: an analysis of defor-
mations and internal forces based on equilib-
rium, nonlinear stress-strain relations for con-
crete and reinforcement, consideration of
cracking and time dependent effects, and com-
patibility of strains. The analysis shall represent
to suitable approximation the three-dimen-
sional action of the shell together with its auxil-
iary members.
19.1.9 Experimental analysis: an analysis pro-
cedure based on the measurement of deforma-
tions and/or strains of the structure or its
model; experimental analysis is based on either
elastic or inelastic behavior.
346
[Commentary]
R 19.1. 7 Elastic analysis of thin shells and
folded plates means any method of structural
analysis which is based on assumptions which
provide suitable approximations to the three-
dimensional behavior of the structure. The
method must provide the internal forces and
displacements needed in the design of the shell
proper, the rib or edge members, and the sup-
porting structure. Equilibrium of internal
forces and external loads and compatibility of
deformations must be satisfied.
Methods of elastic analysis based on classical
shell theory, simplified mathematical or analyti-
cal models, or numerical solutions using finite
e1ement,19.37 finite differences, or numerical in-
tegration techniques, are described in the cited
references.
The choice of the method of analysis and the
degree of accuracy required depend on certain
critical factors. These include: the size of the
structure, the geometry of the thin shell or
folded plate, the manner in which the structure
is supported, the nature of the applied load and,
finally, the extent of personal or documented
experience regarding the reliability of the given
method of analysis in predicting the behavior of
the specific type of shell or folded plate.
R19.1.8 Inelastic analysis of thin shells and
folded plates means a refined method of analy-
sis based on the specific nonlinear material
properties, nonlinear behavior due to the crack-
ing of concrete, and time dependent effects
such as creep, shrinkage, temperature, and load
history. These effects are incorporated in order
to trace the response and crack propagation of a
reinforced concrete shell through the elastic,
inelastic and ultimate ranges. Such analyses usu-
ally require incremental loading and iterative
procedures to converge on solutions which sat-
isfy both equilibrium and strain compatibil-
ity.19.38 Analysis of this type generally requires
extensive computer time.
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates

[Code] [Commentary]

19.2 Analysis and Design

19.2.1 Elastic behavior shall be an accepted
basis for determining internal forces, and dis-
placements, of thin shells. This behavior may be
established by computations based on an analy-
sis of the uncracked concrete structure in which
the material is assumed linearly elastic, homoge-
neous, and isotropic. Poisson's ratio of concrete
may be assumed equal to zero.
R19.2.1 For types of shell structures where
experience, tests, and analyses have shown that
the structure can sustain reasonable overloads
without undergoing brittle failure, elastic analy-
sis is a generally acceptable procedure. The de-
signer may assume that reinforced concrete is
ideally elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic,
having identical properties in all directions.
Poisson's ratio may be assumed equal to zero
since in concrete shells the three-dimensional
effects of Poisson's ratio are not very signifi-
cant. In shells of unusual size, shape, or com-
plexity, the analysis should consider behavior
through the elastic, cracking, inelastic, and fac-
tored load.
For unusual shell types, it is important to
verify that the elastic behavior is not terminated
by a brittle failure.

19.2.2 Inelastic analyses may be used where it R19.2.2 Inelastic analysis procedures will gen-
can be shown that such methods provide a safe erally require extensive use of computer proce-
basis for design. dures. Several references indicate possible solu-
tion methods.19.~8-19.40

19.2.3 Equilibrium checks of internal resist-

ances and external loads shall be made to en-
sure consistency of results.

347
 ACI Buildino Code Requirements
[Code]
19.2.4 Experimental or numerical analysis
procedures may be used where it can be shown
that such procedures provide a safe basis for
design.
19.2.5 Approximate methods of analysis not
satisfying compatibility of strains either within
the shell or between the shell and auxiliary
members may be used where it can be shown
that such methods provide a safe basis for
design.
348
[Commentary]
R19.2.4 A wide range of numerical analysis
procedures is available. The designer must en-
sure that the method selected is appropriate.
The finite element method can be used to sat-
isfy displacement compatibility and boundary
conditions. It does not necessarily satisfy overall
or local equilibrium with sufficient accuracy un-
less a fine enough finite element mesh size is
used. Other computational techniques include
finite difference and numerical integration
methods. Experimental analysis of elastic
models has been used as a substitute for an ana-
lytical solution of a complex shell structure. Ex-
perimental analysis of reinforced micro-con-
crete models through the elastic, cracking,
inelastic, and ultimate ranges should be consid-
ered for shells of unusual size, shape, complex-
ity, or importance.
For model analysis, only those portions of
the structure which affect significantly the items
under study need be simulated. Every attempt
should be made to ensure that the experiments
reveal the quantitative behavior of the proto-
type structure.
Similarly, wind tunnel tests of a scaled-down
model do not necessarily provide usable results
and should be conducted by a recognized ex-
pert in wind tunnel testing of structural
models. 19.41
R19.2.5 In general, solutions that include
both membrane and bending effects and satisfy
compatibility of strains and equilibriums are
preferred. Approximate solutions which satisfy
statics but not the compatibility of strains may
be used only when extensive experience has
proved that safe designs have resulted from
their use. Such methods include beam-type
analysis for barrel shells and folded plates hav-
ing large ratios of span to either width or radius
of curvature, simple membrane analysis for
shells of revolution, and others in which the
equations of equilibrium are satisfied, while the
strain compatibility equations are not.
However, in complex structures where sev-
eral shells join together, or where shells join
auxiliary members, a more accurate analysis
should be used.
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code]
19.2.6 In prestressed shells, the analysis must
also consider behavior under loads induced
during prestressing, at cracking load, and at
factored load. Where prestressing tendons are
draped within a shell, design shall take into ac-
count force components on the shell resulting
from tendon profile not lying in one plane.
19.2.7 The thickness h of a thin shell, and its
reinforcement, shall be proportioned for the
required strength and serviceability. All ele-
ments shall be proportioned by the same
method, using either the strength design
method of 8.1.1 or the alternate design method
of 8.1.2.
349
[Commentary]
RI9.2.6 If the shell is prestressed, the analysis
must include its strength at factored loads as
well as its adequacy under service loads, the
load which causes cracking, and the behavior
under loads induced during prestressing. This
was recommended in ACI 318R-77, 19.2.3,
and was moved to the code for clarity. Axial
forces due to draped prestressed tendons may
not lie in one plane and due consideration must
be given to the resulting force components.
The effects of post-tensioning of supporting
members on the shell must be taken into
account.
RI9.2.7 In general, Chapter 19 assumes the
use of the strength design method of 8.1.1. On
this basis the thin shell's thickness and rein-
forcement must be proportioned to satisfy the
strength provisions of this code, so as to resist
internal forces obtained from an analysis, an
experimental model study, or a combination
thereof. The thickness of the shell is often dic-
tated not by the requirements of strength, but
by the limitation of deflection of edge members,
by the requirements of stability imposed by
19.2.8, or by the required reinforcement cover
and the construction exigencies.
The necessary thickness and reinforcement
may be also provided by using the alternate
design method prescribed in 8.1.2. The design
method chosen shall be used consistently
throughout the structure.
If composite action is involved, the provi-
sions of Chapter 17 must be satisfied. Chapter
16 applies if elements are precast. When shell or
folded plate elements are precast and connected
by cast-in-place segments, composite action
must be considered.
 ACI BUilding Code Requirements

[Code] [Commentary]

19.2.8 Shell design shall investigate and pre- R19.2.8 Thin shells, like other structures that
clude the possibility of general or local insta- experience in-plane compressive forces, are
bility. subject to buckling when the applied load
reaches a critical value. Because of the surface-
like geometry of shells, the problem of calculat-
ing buckling load is complex. If one of the prin-
cipal membrane forces is tensile, the shell is less
likely to buckle than if both principal mem-
brane forces were compressive. The kinds of
membrane forces that develop in a shell depend
on its initial shape and the manner in which the
shell is supported and loaded. In some types of
shells, post-buckling behavior must be consid-
ered in determining safety against instability. 19.2
Investigation of thin shells for stability shall
consider the effect of the following factors: (1)
anticipated deviation of the geometry of the
shell surface as built from the idealized, perfect
geometry, (2) large deflections, (3) creep and
shrinkage of concrete, (4) inelastic properties of
materials, (5) cracking of concrete, (6) location,
amount, and orientation of reinforcement, and
(7) possible deformation of supporting ele-
ments.
For shells of moderate size, the smallest
practical shell thickness used in reinforced con-
crete construction is such that the danger of
buckling is usually minimal and simplified anal-
yses suffice. Practical measures to improve re-
sistance to buckling successfully used in the past
include the provision of two mats of rein-
forcement - one near each outer surface of the
shell, a local increase of shell curvatures, the use
of ribbed shells, and the use of concrete with
high tensile strength and low creep.
A practical procedure for determining criti-
cal buckling loads of shells is given in the lASS
recommendations. 19.2 Some recommendations
for buckling design of domes used in industrial
applications are given in ACI Committee 344
Report. 19.5 Approaches for other shells are con-
tained in "Concrete Shell Buckling," ACI
SP_67. 19,42

350
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code]
19.2.9 Auxiliary members shall be designed
according to the applicable provisions of this
code. The design method selected for shell ele-
ments under 19.2.7 shall also be used for auxil-
iary members. A portion of the shell equal to
the flange width specified in 8.10 may be as-
sumed to act with the auxiliary member. In
such portions of the shell, the reinforcement
perpendicular to the auxiliary member shall be
at least equal to that required for the flange of a
T-beam by 8.10.5.
19.3 Design Strength of Materials
19.3.1 Specified compressive strength of con-
crete!,. at 28 days shall not be less than 3,000
psi.
19.3.2 Specified yield strength of nonpre-
stressed reinforcement J, shall not exceed
60,000 psi.
19.4 Shell Reinforcement
19.4.1 Shell reinforcement shall be provided
to resist tensile stresses from internal membrane
forces, to resist bending and twisting moments,
to control shrinkage and temperature cracking,
and as special reinforcement at shell bounda-
ries, load attachments, and shell openings.
19.4.2 Membrane reinforcement shall be pro-
vided in two or more directions in all parts of
the shell.
19.4.3 The area of shell reinforcement at any
section as measured in two orthogonal direc-
tions shall not be less than the slab shrinkage or
temperature reinforcement required by 7.12.
351
[Commentary]
RI9.2.9 Auxiliary members must be designed
in accord with the general provisions of the
code, using one of the two methods prescribed
in 8.1, which is consistent with the design
method of the shell elements. Portions of the
shell may be utilized as flanges for transverse or
longitudinal frames or arch-frames and beams.
Such flanges may be curved or sloping. Canti-
lever action of the flanges must be investigated
in determining reinforcement in the flange per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis of the sup-
porting member, as required by Chapter 8. In
all cases, at least the minimum shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement must be used.
R19.4.1 At any point in a shell, two different
kinds of internal forces may occur simulta-
neously: those associated with membrane ac-
tion, and those associated with bending of the
shell. The membrane forces are assumed to act
in the tangential plane midway between the sur-
faces of the shell and are the two axial forces
and the membrane shears. Flexural effects in-
clude bending moments, twisting moments, and
the associated transverse shears.
R19.4.2 Membrane reinforcement should be
provided to carry the full calculated membrane
tension forces with no tensile stress carried by
concrete. Throughout the shell membrane re-
inforcement must be provided in at least two
approximately orthogonal directions. In high
stress areas, a third layer of membrane rein-
forcement may be utilized.
R19.4.3 Minimum membrane reinforcement
corresponding to slab shrinkage and tempera-
ture reinforcement must be provided in at least
two approximately orthogonal directions even
if the calculated membrane forces are compres-
sive in one or more directions.
 ACI BuiJdina Code Requirements
[Code]
19.4.4 Reinforcement required to resist shell
membrane forces shall be provided so that the
design strength in every direction shall be at
least equal to the component of the principal
membrane forces in the same direction due to
factored loads.
19.4.5 The area of shell tension reinforce-
ment shall be limited so that the reinforcement
will yield before crushing of concrete in com-
pression can take place.
352
[Commentary]
R19.4.4 The requirement of ensuring
strength in every direction is based on safety
considerations. Any method of design which as-
sures sufficient strength consistent with equilib-
rium is considered acceptable. The direction of
the principal membrane tensile force at any
point may sometimes vary depending on the
direction, magnitudes, and combinations of the
various applied loads.
The magnitude of the internal membrane
forces, acting at any point due to a specific load
system, generally is calculated on the basis of an
elastic theory in which the shell is assumed un-
cracked. The computation of the required
amount of reinforcement to resist the internal
membrane forces has been traditionally based
on the assumption that concrete cannot resist
tension. A great many shell structures have
been successfully designed and constructed
over the years. This experience provides evi-
dence of the adequacy of this approach. The
associated deflections, and the possibility of
cracking, should be investigated in the service-
ability phase of the design.
Where reinforcement is not placed in the
direction of the principal tensile forces and
where cracks at the service load level would be
objectionable, the computation of reinforce-
ment may have to be based on more refined
approaches I9 .43. 19.44 which consider the exis-
tence of cracks. In the cracked state, the con-
crete is assumed unable to resist either tension
or shear. Thus, equilibrium is attained by
means of tensile resisting forces in reinforce-
ment and compressive resisting forces in
concrete.
R19.4.5 The requirement that the tensile re-
inforcement yield before the concrete crushes is
consistent with 10.3.3. In shells, initial crushing
of the concrete is not likely to occur. However,
it has been suggested that such crushing would
occur in some portions of some shells where the
principal membrane forces are approximately
equal and opposite in sign. It can be shown l9 .45
that a limit on the maximum amount of rein-
forcement effective in resisting the principal
tensile membrane force will insure that the
crushing of concrete does not take place before
the yielding of reinforcement. The limit sug-
gested on the ratio of reinforcement in any por-
tion of shell is the smaller of 0.6f'. J, or 2,400/
J,. These limits are the same as those used in
ACI 318-77 but are expressed here in ratio
form.
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates
[Code]
19.4.6 In regions of high tension, membrane
reinforcement shall, if practical, be placed in
the general directions of the principal tensile
membrane forces. Where this is not practical, it
is permitted to place membrane reinforcement
in two or more component directions.
19.4.7 If the direction of reinforcement varies
more than I 0 deg from the direction of princi-
pal tensile membrane force, the amount of rein-
forcement may have to be increased to limit the
width of possible cracks at service load levels.
19.4.8 Where the magnitude of the principal
tensile membrane stress within the shell varies
greatly over the area of the shell surface, rein-
forcement resisting the total tension is to be
concentrated in the regions of largest tensile
stress where it can be shown that this provides a
safe basis for design. However, the ratio of shell
reinforcement in any portion of the tensile zone
shall be not less than 0.0035 based on the over-
all thickness of the shell.
19.4.9 Reinforcement required to resist shell
bending moments shall be proportioned with
due regard to the simultaneous action of mem-
brane axial forces at the same location. Where
shell reinforcement is required in only one face
to resist bending moments, equal amounts shall
be placed near both surfaces of the shell even
though a reversal of bending moments is not
indicated by the analysis.
353
[Commentary]
RI9.4.6 It is generally desirable for all shells
and particularly important in regions of sub-
stantial tension that the directions of reinforce-
ment approximate the directions of the princi-
pal tensile membrane forces. However, in some
structures it is not always possible or practical
for the reinforcement to follow the stress trajec-
tories. For such cases, orthogonal component
reinforcing is allowed.
RI9.4.7 When the directions of reinforce-
ment deviate significantly (10 deg) from the di-
rections of the principal membrane forces,
higher strains in the shell must occur to develop
the capacity of reinforcement. 19.44 This might
lead to the development of unacceptably wide
cracks. The crack width should be estimated
and controlled if necessary.
Permissible crack widths for service loads
under different environmental conditions are
given in the report of ACI Committee 224.19.46
Crack width can be limited by an increase in the
amount of reinforcement used, by reducing the
stress at the service load level, by providing re-
inforcement in three or more directions in the
plane of the shell, or by using closer spacing of
smaller diameter bars rather than wider spaced
larger bars.
RI9.4.S The practice of concentrating tensile
reinforcement in the regions of maximum ten-
sile stress has led to a number of successful and
economical designs, primarily for long folded
plates, long barrel vault shells, and for domes.
The requirement of providing the minimum re-
inforcement in the remaining tensile zone is in-
tended to control cracking.
RI9.4.9 The sign of bending moments may
change rapidly from point to point of a shell.
For this reason, bending reinforcement, where
required, is to be placed near both outer sur-
faces of the shell. In many cases, the thickness
required to provide proper cover and spacing
for the multiple layers of reinforcement may
govern the design of the shell thickness.
 ACI Buildino Code Requirements
[Code]
19.4.10 Shell reinforcement in any direction
shall not be spaced farther apart than 18 in. nor
five times the shell thickness. Where the princi-
pal membrane tensile stress on the gross con-
crete area due to factored loads exceeds 4cp if.
reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart
than three times the shell thickness.
19.4.11 Shell reinforcement at the junction of
the shell and supporting members or edge
members shall be anchored in or extended
through such members in accordance with the
requirements of Chapter 12, except that the
minimum development length shall be 1.2t" but
not less than 18 in.
19.4.12 Splice development lengths of shell
reinforcement shall be governed by the provi-
sions of Chapter 12, except that the minimum
splice length of tension bars shall be 1.2 times
the value required by Chapter 12 but not less
than 18 in. The number of splices in principal
tensile reinforcement shall be kept to a practical
minimum. Where splices are necessary they
shall be staggered at least t" with not more than
one-third of the reinforcement spliced at any
section.
19.5 Construction
19.5.1 When removal of formwork is based on
a specific modulus of elasticity of concrete be-
cause of stability or deflection considerations,
the value of the modulus of elasticity E. shall be
determined from flexural tests of field-cured
beam specimens. The number of test speci-
mens, the dimensions of test beam specimens,
and test procedures shall be specified by the
Engineer.
19.5.2 The Engineer shall specify the toler-
ances for the shape of the shell. If construction
results in deviations from the shape greater
than the specified tolerances, an analysis of the
effect of the deviations shall be made and any
required remedial actions shall be taken to en-
sure safe behavior.
354
[Commentary]
RI9.4.10 The value of cp to be used is that
prescribed in 9.3.2.2(a) for axial tension.
RI9.4.11 and RI9.4.12 On curved shell sur-
faces it is more difficult to control the alignment
of precut reinforcement. This must be consid-
ered to avoid insufficient splice and develop-
ment lengths. Sections 19.4.11 and 19.4.12
specify extra reinforcement length to maintain
the minimum lengths on curved surfaces.
RI9.5.1 When early removal of forms is nec-
essary, the magnitude of the modulus of elastic-
ity at the time of proposed form removal must
be investigated in order to insure safety of the
shell with respect to buckling, and to restrict
deflections. 19.s. 19.47 The value of the modulus of
elasticity E. must be obtained from a flexural
test of field-cured specimens. It is not sufficient
to determine the modulus from the formula in
8.5.1, even if f. is determined for the field-
cured specimen.
RI9.5.2 In some types of shells, small local
deviations from the theoretical geometry of the
shell can cause relatively large changes in local
stresses and in overall safety against instability.
These changes can result in local cracking and
yielding which may make the structure unsafe
or can greatly affect the critical load producing
instability. The effect of such deviations should
be evaluated and any necessary actions should
be taken promptly.
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates

REFERENCES

19.1. ACI Committee 334, "Concrete Shell Structures-Practice and Commentary," (ACI
334.IR-64) (Revised 1982), ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 61, No.9, Sept. 1964, pp. 1091-
1108. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 4. See also, Discussion, ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 62, No.3, Part 2, Mar. 1965, pp. 1755-1765.
19.2. lASS Working Group No.5, "Recommendations for Reinforced Concrete Shells and
Folded Plates," International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, Madrid, 1979, 66 pp.
19.3. Concrete Thin Shells, SP-28, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 424 pp.
19.4. ACI Committee 334, "Reinforced Concrete Cooling Tower Shells-Practice and
Commentary," (ACI 334.2R-77) (Revised 1982), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1977,
10 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 4.
19.5. ACI Committee 344, "Design and Construction of Circular Prestressed Concrete
Structures," (ACI 344R-70) (Reaffirmed 1981), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1970,
16 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 4.
19.6. Billington, David P., Thin Shell Concrete Structures, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1982,373 pp.
19.7. Ketchum, Milo S., "Design of Shell Structures-Short Shells and Domes of
Revolution," Consulting Engineer, V. 17, No.1, July 1962.
19.8. Tedesko, Anton, "How Have Concrete Shell Structures Performed?," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 73, Aug. 1980,
pp.3-13.
19.9. Christiansen, j. V., "The King County Multipurpose Domed Stadium," Proceedings,
lASS World Congress on Space Enclosures (Montreal, 1976), Building Research Centre,
Concordia University, Montreal, 1976, V. 2, pp. 11)49-1061.
19.10. "Design of Cylindrical Concrete Shell Roofs," Manual of Engineering Practice No. 31,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1952, 1977.
19.11. Chinn,j., "Cylindrical Shell Analysis Simplified by Beam Method," ACIJoURNAL,
Proceedings V. 55, No. 11, May 1959, pp. 1183-1192. Also, Discussion, ACIJoURNAL,
Proceedings V. 55, No.6, Part 2, Dec. 1959, pp. 1583-1603.
19.12. Gibson, j. E., The Design of Shell Roofs, 3rd Edition, E. & F. Spon Limited, London,
1968, 300 pp.
19.13. Bryant, Anthony H., and Scrivener, John C., "Cylindrical Shell Roofs with Draped
Prestressing," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, ST4, Apr. 1969, pp. 611-634.
19.14. Harris, Harry G., and White, Richard N., "Inelastic Behavior of RC Cylindrical Shells,
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 98, ST7, July 1972, pp. 1633-1653.
19.15. Mast, Paul E., "Design and Construction of Northlight Barrel Shells," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 59, No.4, Apr. 1962, pp. 481-525. Also, Discussion, ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 59, No. 12, Dec. 1962, pp. 1903-1910.
19.16. Hadid, H. A., and Chandra, R., "An Experimental Investigation of a Reinforced
Mortar Parabolic Conoidal Shell," Bulletin, International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures (Madrid), No. 28, Dec. 1966, pp. 53 - 62.
19.17. Hadid, H. A., "Variational Methods for the Analysis of a Conoidal Shell," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 35, Sept. 1968,
pp. 23-36.
19.18. Medwadowski, S. j., "Bending of Thin Shell Conical Frustum Segments," Proceedings,
lASS Symposium on Simplified Calculation Methods (Brussels, 1961), North-Holland
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1962.
19.19. Parme, Alfred L., "Hyperbolic Paraboloids and Other Shells of Double Curvature,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 82, ST5, Sept. 1956, pp. 1057-1081. Also, Discussion, V. 83, ST2,
Mar. 1957.
19.20. Candela, Felix, "General Formulas for Membrane Stresses in Hyperbolic Paraboloidal
Shells," ACIJoURNAL, Proceedings, V. 57, No.4, Oct. 1960, pp. 353-371.

355
 ACI Building Code Requirements

19.21. Scordelis, Alexander C.; Ramirez, H. D.; and Ngo, D., "Membrane Stresses in
Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells Having an Arbitrary Quadrilateral Shape in Plan," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 67, No. I,Jan. 1970, pp. 36-44.
19.22. Schnobrich, William C., "Analysis of Hipped Roof Hyperbolic Paraboloid Structures,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 98, ST7,July 1972, pp. 1575-1583.
19.23. Shaaban, Ahmed, and Ketchum, Milo S., "Design of Hipped Hypar Shells," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 102, STll, Nov. 1976, pp. 2151-2161.
19.24. Schnobrich, W. C.; Mohraz, B.; and Hoebel, J. L., "Influence of Edge Beam Properties
on the Stress in Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells," Proceedings, lASS International Colloquium on
Progress of Shell Structures in the Last Ten Years and Its Future Development (Madrid,
1969), International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, Madrid, 1970, V. 3.
19.25. Gioncu, V., "Stresses and Deflections in Umbrella Roof HP Shells," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 56, Dec. 1974,
pp.31-38.
19.26. White, Richard N., "Reinforced Concrete Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 101, ST9, Sept. 1975, pp. 1961-1980.
19.27. Scordelis, Alexander C., and Ketchum, Mark A., "Structural Behavior and Design of
Saddle HP Shells," Proceedings, lASS World Congress on Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid,
1979), Laboratorio Central de Ensayo de Materiales de Construccion, Madrid, 1980, V. 2,
pp. 4.239-4.254.
19.28. Tedesko, Anton, "Shell at Denver-Hyperbolic Paraboloidal Structure of Wide
Span," ACIJoURNAL, Proceedings, V. 57, No.4, Oct. 1960, pp. 403-412.
19.29. Csonka, P., "Composite Sectorial Shells with Cantilevered Front Side," Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (Madrid), No. 28, Dec. 1966,
pp.25-36.
19.30. Scordelis, Alexander C., "Analysis and Design of HP Groined Vaults," Proceedings,
lASS World Congress on Space Enclosures (Montreal, 1976), Building Research Centre,
Concordia University, Montreal, 1976, pp. 561-568.
19.31. Pultar, Mustafa; Billington, David P., and Riera, Jorge D., "Folded Plates Continuous
Over Flexible Supports," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 93, ST5, Oct. 1967, pp. 253-277 .
. 19.32. Cheung, Yau-Kai, "Folded Plate Structure by the Finite Strip Method," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 95, STl2, Dec. 1969, pp. 2963-2979.
19.33. Klaiber, F. Wayne; Gutzwiller, MartinJ.; and Lee, Robert H., "Analytical and Model
Studies of Prestressed Folded Plates," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 99, ST6, June 1973, pp.
1287-1307.
19.34. Johnson, Claude D., and Lee, Ti-Ta, "Long Nonprismatic Folded Plate Structures,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 94, ST6, June 1968, pp. 1457 -1484.
19.35. Esquillan, Nicholas, "The Shell Vault of the Exposition Palace, Paris," Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 86, STl,Jan. 1960, pp. 41-70.
19.36. Esquillan, Nicholas, "Olympic Ice Stadium at Grenoble," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V.
66, No.7, July 1969, pp. 513-521.
19.37. Ashwell, D. G., and Gallagher, R. H., Editors, Finite Elementsfor Thin Shells and Curved
Members, John Wiley & Sons, London, 1976, 268 pp.
19.38. Lin, Cheng-Shung, and Scordelis, Alexander C., "Nonlinear Analysis of RC Shells of
General Form," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 101, ST3, Mar. 1975, pp. 523-538.
19.39. Hand, Frank R.; Pecknold, David A.; and Schnobrich, William C., "Nonlinear Layered
Analysis of RC Plates and Shells," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 99, ST7, July 1973, pp. 1491-1505.
19.40. Kabir, Ahmad F., and Scordelis, Alexander C., "Analysis of RC Shells for Time
Dependent Effects," Bulletin, International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures
(Madrid), No. 69, Apr. 1979, pp. 3-13.
19.41. Models for Concrete Structures, SP-24, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1970, 448 pp.
19.42. Concrete Shell Buckling, SP-67, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981,234 pp.
19.43. Gupta, Ajaya K., "Membrane Reinforcement in Shells," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 107,
STl, Jan. 1981, pp. 41-56.

356
 Thin Shells and Folded Plates

19.44. Baumann, T., "On the Question of Multi-Directional Reinforcement of Plate and Shell
Structure," Der Bauingenieur (Heidelberg), V. 97, No. 10,1972 (in German).
19.45. Fialkow, Morris N., "Ductility Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Cylindrical Shells
and Folded Plate Structures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 77, No.2, Mar.-Apr. 1980, pp.
82-86.
19.46. ACI Committee 224, "Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures," (ACI 224R-80),
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1980, 42 pp. Also ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 3.
19.47. Tedesko, Anton, "Construction Aspects of Thin-Shell Structures," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings, V. 49, No.6, Feb. 1953, pp. 505-520.

357
APPENDIX B

Excerpts from The Engineering Index

Annual 1989

The latest bibliographical references on shell structures are extremely significant to

anyone interested in exploring this field in all its ramifications. It is essential to find
access to the latest bibliographical data, especially for researchers outside the United
States.
The original source of the following reference material is The Engineering Index
Annual 1989, a major publication that describes itself as "the world's first and most
comprehensive collection of time-saving abstracts on engineering developments."
This work, published annually since 1884, has been compiled by Engineering
Information, Inc., a nonprofit organization.
Because the list of publications in this field is quite extensive, it has been found
necessary to give only the references to the 1989 Index. It should be kept in mind
that for each group of publications published each year the Index classifies the
various articles into different areas that may vary from year to year. In the 1989
Index, for instance, fifty-four subtitles were selected.
The abstracts for the individual articles can be found within the Annual Index.
The six-digit number at the beginning of each listing here is used to locate the
abstract for that particular article. Any major research library should have the
engineering indexes.

Reprinted with the permission of Engineering Information, Inc. The full text of most of
articles referred to herein can be ordered directly from Engineering Information, Inc., 345
East 47 St., New York, NY 10016.

359
 Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
036954 Numerical Study of Axisymmetric
Waves in an Elastic Cylindrical Shell
Partially Filled with a Viscous Liquid. This
paper is devoted to a study of the natural
longitudinal-transverse waves in an elastic
cylindrical shell of the Kirchoff-Love type,
filled with a viscous compressible liquid.
Direct numerical integration of the equations
of motion is the basis of this study. Examples
of the calculation of the eigenvalues of
natural and steady oscillations in this
formulation of the problem are discussed. For
a shell with a viscous compressible liquid there
are an infinite number of modes with
complex eigenvalues. The Wien effect is
observed for the upper conical waves. 12 Refs.
Nochkin, I.M. (Moscow Inst of Electronics and
Mechanical Engineering, Moscow, USSR); Pashkov,
LA.; Troyanovskii, I.E. Sov Appl Meek v 24 n 2 Aug
1988 P 144-148.
036955 Axisymmetric Problem of the
Penetration of a Compressible Fluid by
Thin Elastic Spherical Shells. This article
describes the solution of a linear axisymmetric
problem concerning the penetration of a
compressible fluid by thin elastic spherical
shells. The problem is solved in four
formulations with different boundary
conditions on the free surface of the fluid. In
the first two formulations, the free surface is
assumed to be movable. However, its rise near
the penetrating shell is not considered in
formulation 1 and is accounted for in
formulation 2. In the other two formulations,
the free surface is constrained by a rigid
shield in formulation 3 and by a deformable
shield in formulation 4. It is assumed that the
wetted surface of the shell is impermeable to
the fluid and that the disturbances generated
in the fluid by the shell decay at infinity. 6 Refs.
Kubenko, V.D. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Gavrilenko, V.V. Sov Appl Meek
Oct 1988 p 374-384.
036956 Geodesic Dome of Polystyrene and
Concrete. Structurally, the geodesic dome is a
space truss and is the strongest known
straight-line form enclosing space. It is
efficient as well as strong; there is no straight-
line geometric form that requires less surface
skin to enclose a given amount of space than
a geodesic dome. In the concrete and
polystyrene dome described, folds in the
concrete shell replace the straight bars. The
folds, however, act just as the bars would to
360
transmit loads to the foundation. The article
discusses the foundation requirements, cutting
and assembling the triangular panels; setting
steel and applying concrete; interior and
exterior finishes; and the costs and material
quantities.
Hurd, M.K. Caner Constr v 33 n 11 Nov 1988 4p.
036957 Transient Waves in Inhomogeneous
Anisotropic Elastic Shells. This paper
considers the problem of transient wave
propagation in linearly elastic Cosserat shells
of constant thickness that may be anisotropic
and inhomogeneous. The methods of rays and
of singular wave curves are combined to find
and integrate the transport equations
governing growth-decay behavior of the six
possible wave modes. Conditions on material
parameters and wave geometry are obtained
for various different uncouplings of the wave
modes. Some special cases of propagation
conditions and of decay equations are worked
out in detail. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Cohen, H. (Univ of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manit,
Can); Thomas, R.S.D. Acta Meek v 77 n 1- 2 Apr
1989 p 47-67.
036958 Elasto/Visco-Plastic Dynamic
Response ofAxisymmetrical Shells Under
Mechanical and/or Thermal Loading. An
analytical method for the e1asto/visco-plastic
dynamic problems of axisymmetricaI thin
shells subjected to mechanical and/or thermal
loads is developed. The equations of motion
and the relations between the strains and
displacements are derived by extending
Sanders' elastic shell theory. For the
constitutive relations, Perzyna's elasto/visco-
plastic equations including the temperature
effect are employed. The derived fundamental
equations are numerically solved by the finite
difference method. As numerical examples,
the simply supported cylindrical shells made of
mild steel are treated and the following two
cases are analyzed: a nonuniform temperature
cylinder subjected to impulsive internal
pressure, and an internal pressure cylinder
subjected to impulsive thermal load. In both
cases the variations of displacements and
internal forces with time are discussed.
(Author abstract)
Tao, Katsumi (Toyohashi Univ of Technology,
Toyohashi, jpn); Takezono, Shigeo; Taguchi,
Toshihiro; Hotada, Kazuo. ]SME Int] Ser 1 ]SME
Int] Ser 1 v 32 v32 n3 n3 jul jul 1989 1989 P
341-347.
 Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
ACOUSTIC WAVE EFFECTS
036959 Interaction of Unsteady Acoustic
Waves with Plates and Hollow Shells in a
Fluid. A method is developed for solving
coupled problems for the unsteady interaction
of acoustic waves with plates and hollow
spherical or cylindrical shells in a fluid by
applying double integral transforms and
investigating them simultaneously. Analytical
solutions of unsteady hydroelastic problems
are obtained for spherical and cylindrical
shells. These solutions can be used to study
transient processes and their effect on the
stress and deformation of the structural
elements for a wide range of parameters of
the hydroelastic system. 15 Refs.
Kubenko, V.D. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Moseenkov, Yu. B. Sov Appl
Meek v 23 n 10 Apr 1988 p 951-957.
036960 Investigation of Axisymmetric
Electroacoustic Waves in a Cylindrical
Sandwich Shell by Three-Dimensional and
Applied Theories. The power series method
is utilized in the present paper to solve
problems on axisymmetric electroacoustic
wave propagation in a cylindrical sandwich
shell on the basis of the three-dimensional
electroelasticity equations. Approximate
dispersion dependences are obtained on the
basis of the theory of vibrations of
piezoceramic shells with finite shear stiffness
extended to the case of inhomogeneity over
the thickness, and comparison of these
dependences with the exact solutions found
permits estimation of the limits of applied
theory applicability. 6 Refs.
Shul'ga, N.A. (Acad of the Sciences of the
Ukrainian SSR, Kiev, USSR); Rudnitskii, S. 1.;
Evseichik, Yu. B. Sov Appl Meek v 23 n 10 Apr 1988
p 1005-1011.
036961 Action of Acoustic Waves on a
Spherical Shell Filled by a Viscous,
Compressible Fluid. This paper considers
within the axisymmetric problem, the action
of acoustic waves on a spherical shell, filled by
a viscous compressible fluid. The limitations
for an imcompressible, viscous, and ideal fluid
follow from the results. The tangential and
bending stresses are shown as functions of the
angular coordinate at relatively high
frequency when the shell is filled by air, oil,
and kerosene. When the shell is filled by air,
the stresses created by the plane wave are
larger than for a shell filled by kerosene or
oil. 8 Refs.
361
Guseinov, I.G. (Acad of Sciences of the
Azerbaidzhan SSR, Baku, USSR). Sov Appl Meek v
24 n 2 Aug 1988 P 138 - 144.
036962 Soundproof Characteristics of
Orthotropic Cylindrical Shells. This paper is
concerned with the soundproof characteristics
of infinitely long, cylindrical sandwich shells
composed of orthotropic face layers and a
honeycomb core. The shell is excited by
axisymmetric acoustic waves traveling within
the shell. To simplify the shell governing
equations it is assumed that the facings resist
only bending moments and the honeycomb
core resists only transverse shear forces. The
sound transmission loss for the shell wall, TL,
is derived and calculated numerically for
various values of the physical parameters
involved. (Author abstract) 11 Refs. In
Japanese.
Chonan, Seiji. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunsku A
Hen v 54 n 505 Sep 1988 p 1684-1691.
036963 Soundproof Characteristics of
Cylindrical Sandwich Shells with a
Honeycomb Core. An analysis is presented
for the soundproof characteristics of infinitely
long sandwich cylindrical shells subjected to
inner axisymmetric acoustic waves. To
simplify the shell equation it is assumed that
the core material resists only transverse shear
forces and that the facings do not resist
transverse shear forces. Acoustic waves in the
air surrounding the shell is denoted by the
Helmholtz equation. Sound transmission loss
TL is calculated for various values of the
physical parameters of the core and the
facings. (Author abstract) 6 Refs. In Japanese.
Chonan, Seiji. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C
Hen v 54 n 505 Sep 1988 p 2156-2163.
036964 Sound Insulation Characteristics of
Finite Length Orthotropic Shells. An
analysis is presented of the acoustic
characteristics of orthotropic cylindrical shells
excited by axisymmetric plane sound waves
traveling within the shells. The shell is
exposed in a free field in the range of length
L, and is otherwise covered with an infinite
rigid baffle. The problem is studied on the
basis of a thick shell theory in which account
is taken of the effects of shear deformation
and rotatory inertia. The air outside the shell
is described by the Helmholtz linear acoustic
equation. The sound transmission loss
through the shell wall, TL, is obtained and
calculated for various values of the physical
parameters involved. (Author abstract) 10 Refs.
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
Chonan, s. (Tohoku Univ, Sendai, Jpn); Koriyama,
H.i Sound Vib v 126 n 3 Nov 8 1988 P 525-532.
036965 Simplified Method for a
Hydrodynamic Loading Prediction of an
Acoustic Wave. This paper discusses existing
methods for the hydrodynamic loading
prediction on a circular cylindrical shell
subjected to an underwater weak shock wave.
To this end, a new, special purpose finite
element program was developed. The new
program treats the acoustic fluid medium by
an equation which defines the incident
particle velocity in the fluid in the absence of
the structure. This is then coupled to the
structure to yield the total fluid loading.
Tensile pressures are not allowed by
restricting the water pressure to above
ambient level. (Edited author abstract) 14 Refs.
Moussouros, Minos (US Naval Surface Warfare
Cent, Silver Spring, MD, USA). Am Soe Meeh Eng
Pap Preprint - American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Houston, TX, USA, Jan 22-25 1989.
Publ by American Soc of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1989 OCN12 18p.
036966 Inelastic Response of an Infinite
Cylindrical Shell to Transient Acoustic
Waves. The geometrically and constitutively
nonlinear response of an infinite, circular,
cylindrical shell submerged in an infinite fluid
medium to a transverse, transient acoustic
wave is analyzed. Circumferential Fourier
series solutions are obtained through the
numerical integration of coupled ordinary
differential equations and convolution
integrals. Numerical results are presented in
the form of response histories, response
snapshots, and iso-damage curves for incident
waves of rectangular pressure profile.
Response solutions obtained with the first-
order doubly asymptotic approximation are
compared with their 'exact' counterparts.
(Edited author abstract) 25 Refs.
Geers, T.L. (Univ of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA);
Yen, C.-L. AMD Symp SeT ASME Appl Meek Div v 94
1988 Large-Scale Interaction Problems, Presented
at the Winter Annual Meeting of the ASME,
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27-Dec 21988. p 13-45.
ANALYSIS
036967 Analysis of the Stress-Strain State of
a Nonshallow-Orthotropic Cylindrical Shell
with an Elliptical Hole. The method of
expansion in a series in a small parameter has
been applied successfully in analyzing isotropic
362
cylindrical shells weakened by a curvilinear
hole. A modified method of series expansion
in a small parameter is proposed in this paper,
which can be utilized in analyzing cylindrical
composite orthotropic shells weakened by
small and medium elliptical holes. 13 Refs.
Revenko, V.P. (Scientific-Production Organization,
USSR). Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 368-373.
036968 Fourier Integral Representation of
Curvilinear Influence Functions Applied to
Surface Structures. The paper proposes the
application of curvilinear influence functions
represented by Fourier integrals to problems
of surface structures. It investigates in detail
characteristic properties of such integrals.
Particular attention is called to differentiation
of the integrals representing functions with
curvilinear discontinuities, as in this case their
distributional features are most visible. The
problem is illustrated by an example of an
infinite plate. (Author abstract) 12 Refs.
Muc, A. (Technical Univ of Cracow, Cracow, Pol);
Zielinski, A.P. Thin-Walled StTuct v 7 n 2 1989 P
85-98.
036969 Co Shell Plate and Beam Elements
Free From Their Deficiencies. The author
proposes a generally applicable new
formulation which removes all shear and
membrane locking mechanisms from the finite
element equations of the structural Co shell,
plate, and beam elements. Employment. of full
integration with the proposed formulatIon
eliminates also the zero energy modes problem,
and!or softening effects, associated with the
use of the technique of reduced integration in
Co plate and shell element applications. The
formulation proposed is obtained through a
simple and cost effective scheme. (Edited
author abstract) 52 Refs.
Briassoulis, Demetres (Agricultural Univ of Athens,
Greece). Comput Methods Appl Meeh Eng v 72 n 3
Mar 1989 p 243-266.
036970 Analysis of Simply-Supported
Laminated Circular Cylindrical Shell
Roofs. An elasticity solution has been
presented for the analysis of a laminated
circular cylindrical shell roof with simply.
supported edges, and the displacements and
stresses of the solution are expressed in terms
of infinite series. A solution according to the
classical shell theory (CST) is also developed.
Computations are made for various ratios of
midsurface radii to thicknesses and the results
of the CST have been examined in the light of
the elasticity solution results. (Author abstract)
 Excerpts from The Ensineerins Index Annual 1989
Ren, J.G. (Changsha lnst of Technology, Hunan,
China). Compos Struct v 11 n 4 1989 P 277 - 292.
036971 Continuum-Based Stiffened
Composite Shell Element for Geometrically
Nonlinear Analysis. A continuum-based,
laminated, stiffened shell element is used to
investigate the static, geometrically nonlinear
response of composite shells. The element is
developed from a three-dimensional continuum
element based on the incremental, total
Lagrangian formulation. The Newton-Raphson
method or modified Riks method is used to
trace the nonlinear equilibrium path. A
number of sample problems of un stiffened and
stiffened shells are presented to show the
accuracy of the present element and to
investigate the nonlinear response of laminated
composite plates and shells. (Author abstract)
28 Refs.
Liao, C.L. (Virginia Polytechnic lnst & State Univ,
Blacksburg, VA, USA); Reddy,J.N. AlAAJ v 27 n 1
Jan 1989p95-101.
036972 Accurate Rigid-Body Modes
Representation for a Nonlinear Curved
Thin-Shell Element. For certain highly curved
shells, such as bellows, the formulation of a
curved-shell finite element with curvilinear
displacement components may fail to properly
model some rigid body modes, even with
either the explicit inclusion of rigid-body terms
or the use of high-order displacement
functions. It is suggested in this paper that the
rigid-body modes can be properly included if
the Cartesian displacement components are
used. A 48-degree-of-freedom (DOF) curved
thin-shell element is formulated, and both the
curvilinear and the Cartesian forms are used
for this investigation. Examples of the
nonlinear analyses of a bellows shell and a
spherical cap are given to demonstrate the
advantage of using the Cartesian formulation.
Curved elements may also suffer from
membrane locking, which is caused by the
inability of an element to bend without
stretching. (Edited author abstract) 53 Refs.
Yang, T.Y. (Purdue Univ, West Lafayette, IN,
USA); Kapania, Rakesh K.; Saigal, Sunil. AlAAJ v 27
n 2 Feb 1989 p 211-218.
036973 Eigensolutions of Joined/Hermetic
Shell Structures Using the State Space
Method. A substructure synthesis method
based on state space mathematics is proposed
for the eigensolution of axisymmetric joined/
hermetic thin shell structures. In the state
space method (SSM), a system of eight
363
coupled first order differential equations is
solved for each shell substructure using the
Pade approximation for matrix
exponentiation. The substructures are then
joined by matching all of the displacement and
force boundary variables. The strength of
SSM from the substructure synthesis viewpoint
is demonstrated by analyzing several shell
structures including a hermetic capsule and a
refrigeration compressor shell. In all
examples, finite element method (FEM)
predictions are used to support SSM results.
For the compressor shell, SSM results compare
well with the limited experimental data.
(Edited author abstract) 58 Refs.
Tavakoli, M.S. (Georgia lnst of Technology,
Atlanta, GA, USA); Singh, R. ] Sound Vib v 130 n 1
Apr 8 1989 P 97 -123.
036974 Extending Life of LD Converter
Vessel. At Kakogawa Works, all three LD
converter vessels were renewed for 1987-
1988 because of working limits caused by shell
deformation. In renewing the vessels, an
analytical method was developed to quantify
deformation of the barrel shell, which is the
dominant factor in vessel life. Based on the
analytical results, an air jet cooling technique
and steel plate were developed and applied to
the new vessels. As a result, it is now possible
to extend the life of vessels using a high ratio
of MgO-C bricks. (Author abstract) 4 Refs. In
Japanese.
Kita, Ryuji; Nishikawa, Tsuneaki; Okazaki,
Toshiyuki; Mine, Takao; Nishijima, Akifumi;
Kawasaki, Hiroya. R&D Res Dev Kobe Steel Ltd v 39
n 1 Jan 1989 p 61-64.
036975 Review on the Analysis of
Laminated Shells. Laminated shell structures
are increasingly being used in chemical,
mechanical, marine and aerospace
applications. A significant amount of research
has been conducted in the past on studying
the structural response of these structures. A
review of various investigations on the analysis
of these shells is given here. Specifically, this
review deals with the development of various
theories for modeling the thick laminated
shells, including shear effects; analytical
studies, development of various finite elements
to model these shells, including applications to
tire modeling; buckling and post-buckling
analysis of perfect and imperfect laminated
shells; and vibration and dynamic response
analysis of various laminated shells. (Author
abstract) 157 Refs.
Kapania, R.K. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA). J Pressure Vessel
Tecknol Trans ASME v III n 2 May 1989 p 88-96.
036976 Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis of
Shallow Shells Using Higher Order Finite
Elements. Based on K. Marguerre's shallow
shell theory, a family of higher-order finite
elements each consisting of 17 - 25 nodes and
with separate in-plane and bending
displacement variables has been developed for
the geometrically nonlinear analysis of shallow
shells subjected to lateral loads. A step-
iteration Newton-Raphson scheme has been
adopted in solving the final system of
recurrent nonlinear equations. Several
numerical examples, including a spherical cap
and a square shallow shell with surface in
double sine curves, are presented to
demonstrate the versatility and convenience of
the use of higher-order elements in modelling
shallow shells and also the sufficient accuracy
of the predictions made by the present
formulation in the context of geometrically
nonlinear analysis. (Author abstract) 13 Refs.
Chan, H.C. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong);
Chung, W.C. Comput Struct v 31 n 3 1989 P
329-338.
036977 Nonlinear Analysis of Shell
Structures by Degenerated Isoparametric
Shell Element. Two rotation strategies
termed the finite rotation method and the
mixed rotation method are proposed to
described the rotation of the shell normal and
four rotation strategies in the literature are
reviewed. The rotation variables of the finite
rotation method are chosen to be the
incremental rotations with respect to the Xl
and X2 axes of a moving coordinate system
rigidly tied to the shell. Both the rotation
increments between two successive increments
and the rotation corrections between two
successive iterations are used as the
incremental rotations. The previous covergent
stress is employed to update the geometric
stiffness matrix and its performance is
compared with that of the standard geometric
stiffness matrix update method. (Edited
author abstract) 20 Refs.
Hsiao, Kuo-Mo (Nat! Chiao Tung Univ, Hsinchu,
Taiwan); Chen, Yeh-Ren. Comput Struct v 31 n 3
1989 P 427 -438.
036978 On the Analysis of Shallow Shells
with Complex Contours. In this paper, we
offer a variational method and some solutions
for the problem of determining the stress-
strain state of thin-walled structural elements
364
in the form of elastically or rigidly fastened
plates and shallow shells. We employ
Timoshenko's theory of shells. The desired
unknown functions are represented as series in
the coordinate functions, each of which may
not necessarily satisfy the specified attachment
conditions for the structure. We employ
solution methods for problems of plates and
shells based on the use of complete functionals
and of the contour equation of the domain in
setting up the approximating function. (Edited
author abstract) 11 Refs.
Serazutdinov, M.N. Meek Solids v 23 n 3 1988 P
136-14l.
036979 Analysis of Simply Supported
Orthotropic Cylindrical Shells Subject to
Lateral Impact Loads. An analytic solution is
given for the problem of simply-supported
orthotropic cylindrical shells subject to impact
loading. The closed-form solution has not
been obtained previously. The analysis is based
on an expansion of the loads, displacement
and rotations in a double Fourier series which
satisfies the end boundary conditions of
simple support. Each expansion is assumed to
be separable into a function of time and a
function of position. By neglecting in-plane
and rotary inertia the problem becomes a
second order ordinary differential equation in
time for the Fourier coefficients of the radial
deflection. For a given loading impulse the
solution can be found by invoking the
convolution integral. The results show that
for impact by a heavy mass, the solution is
equivalent to that obtained by an approximate
procedure of neglecting the mass of the shell,
which leads to a simple single degree of
freedom analysis. For problems of impact by
smaller masses, the higher response
frequencies of the cylinder become important.
The impact duration, peak force, and peak
deflection relative to the quasi-static response.
(Edited author abstract) 17 Refs.
Christoforou, A.P. (Univ of Utah, Salt Lake City,
UT, USA); Swanson, S.R. ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD
v 13 Recent Advances in the Macro- and Micro-
Mechanics of Composite Materials Structures,
Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27-Dec 21988. Publ by
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 77-84.
ANISOTROPY
036980 Membrane Theory for Anisotropic
Laminated Shells of Revolution. The
present paper discusses the derivation and
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual J989
application of the membrane theory equations
governing the small deformation of laminated,
anisotropic, elastic shells of revolution. The
equations are derived by use of the Hellinger-
Reissner variational principle in conjunction
with the asymptotic expansion technique.
They are then used to analyze specific shells
under loadings of practical interest. (Author
abstract) 3 Refs.
Logan, D.L. (Rose-Hulman lnst of Technology,
Terre Haute, IN, USA); Widera, G.E.O. J Pressure
Vessel Technol Trans ASME viii n 2 May 1989 p
130-135.
BENDING
036981 Plane Bending of a Long Cylindrical
Shell During Simple Thermomechanical
Deformation. This paper examines dynamic
processes in a long cylindrical shell-tube in the
case of simple thermomechanical deformation
under the influence of mechanical and
thermal loads. Since the shell is long it is
regarded as a beam with corrected stiffness in
bending, tension, and torsion. Governing
relations for small strains and finite
displacements are obtained on the basis of
thermodynamic relations from the nonlinear
theory of elasticity. Nonlinear equations of
motion for the plane bending of such a
shell-tube are obtained. 10 Refs.
Kayuk, Ya. F. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); KiI'chinskaya, G.A. Sov Appl
Mech v 24 n 2 Aug 1988 P 157-162.
036982 Monomial Test: Testing the Flexural
Behavior of the Degenerated Shell
Element. Shear locking of the degenerated
shell element is a result of the development of
spurious shear strain by the element, when
subjected to high order Kirchhoff
displacement fields. The shear locking
phenomenon is analyzed in this paper using
an analytical test. The effects of the
integration scheme, order of the element,
order of the modeled Kirchhoff field and the
element distortion are analyzed explicitly and
quantitatively for the four-node, eight-node
and nine-node degenerated shell elements.
(Author abstract) 23 Refs.
Briassoulis, Demetres (Univ of Illinois,
Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA). Comput Struct v 29 n
6 1988 P 949-958.
036983 New Approach for the Bending
Problem of Shallow Shell by the Boundary
Element Method. A very simple method is
suggested in this paper to analyze shallow
365
spherical shells with simply supported
boundaries. Numerical examples show that
the approach developed in the paper is
effective. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Ye, Jianqiao (Hefei Polytechnical Univ, Hefei, Jpn).
Appl Math Modelling v 12 n 5 Oct 1988 p 467 - 470.
036984 Optimal Design of a Cylindrical
Shell Under Overall Bending with Axial
Force. The problem of optimal design of a
cylindrical shell loaded by bending moment
Mo and axial force N is presented. As a
criterion of optimality we assume the
minimum value of the cross-sectional area for
given values of external loadings. In the
general case the shape of the central line of
the profile and thickness of the wall of a shell
are used as design variables. The constraints
are connected with strength and with local
stability of the wall of a shell. The concept of
a 'shell of uniform stability' is applied and two
different types of profiles of uniform stability
are looked for, namely the uniform stability
profile with variable thickness and a constant
thickness profile of uniform stability. (Author
abstract) 9 Refs.
Kruzelecki, Jacek (Technical Univ, Cracow, Pol).
Bull Pol Acad Sci Tech Sci v 36 n 3-4 1988 P
141-150.
036985 Theory and Numerics of Thin
Elastic Shells with Finite Rotations. A
bending theory for thin shells undergoing
finite rotations is presented, and its associated
finite element model is described. The
kinematic assumption is based on a Reissner-
Mindlin theory. The work-conjugate stress
resultants and stress couples are integrals of
the Biot stress tensor. This tensor is invariant
with respect to rigid body motions and
therefore appropriate for the formulation of
constitutive equations. The rotations are
described by using Eulerian angles. The finite
element descretization of arbitrary shells is
performed using isoparametric elements. The
advantage of the proposed shell formulation
and its numerical model is shown by
application to different non-linear plate and
shell problems. Finite rotations can be
calculated within one load increment. Thus
the step size of the load increment is only
limited by the local convergence behaviour of
Newton's method or the appearance of
stability phenomena. (Edited author abstract)
27 Refs.
Gruttmann, F. (Univ Hannover, Hanover, West
Ger); Stein, E.; Wriggers, P. Ing Arch v 59 n 1 1989
P 54-67.
 Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
BLASTING
036986 Using Geometry to Improve
Survivability. The research effort has
concentrated on developing the Hyperbolic
Paraboloid (HYP AR) structural system for
buried shelters. Individual HYPAR panels-
hyperbolic paraboloidal curved surfaces-are
joined together in varying geometries to form
protective shelters. The HYP AR structure has
several advantages: reduced wall thickness;
reduced materials and field labor costs; and
reduced field erection time. The HYP AR
panel uses its geometry and construction
materials to efficiently dissipate the energy
released by the detonation of conventional
weapons. The HYPAR panel is a composite
consisting of an outer layer of fiberglass-
reinforced asphalt, a middle layer of steel-
reinforced portland cement concrete, and an
inner layer of polyester fabric. The reinforced
asphalt and concrete layers are structural ones
which help dissipate blast energy through
deformation and cracking, while the polyester
fabric provides a spall protection. 4 Refs.
Burkett, William R. Mil Eng v 80 n 523 Aug 1988
P 450-452.
BUCKLING
036987 Influence of Initial Imperfections
on the Buckling of Orthotropic Truncated
Spherical and Conical Shells. The influence
of small geometric imperfections in the shape
of the middle surface on the non-
axisymmetric buckling and post-critical
behavior of thin elastic shallow orthotropic
truncated spherical shells under uniform
external pressure truncated conical shells
under axial compression is studied by
Lyapunov-Schmidt method. Cases of buckling
are investigated when the least bifurcation
load of non-axisymmetric buckling of a
corresponding ideal shell is a double
eigenvalue of the linearized problem and
either two unstable eigenmodes or one stable
and one unstable eigenmode interact. It is
obtained that small imperfections lower the
value of the upper critical load of an ideal
shell. Examples are presented of special
non-axisymmetric shell buckling cases. 14 Refs.
Bermus, I.M. (Rostov Univ, USSR); Srubshchik,
L.S. Sov Appl Meeh v 24 n 2 Aug 1988 P 149 -156.
036988 Static and Dynamic Numerical
Analysis Studies of Hemispheres and
Spherical Caps. Part I. Background and
Theory. Shell-like structures are prevalent in
nature. However, because of their slenderness
366
they are prone to buckling, and to such an
extent that this is often the dominant
consideration in their design. Early attempts
to determine buckling pressures were
unsatisfactory. Although initial geometric
distortions are now recognised as the cause of
this, little comprehensive work has been
conducted on doubly-curved shells,
particularly hemispheres, subjected to external
pressure and having asymmetric initial shapes.
This paper presents the results of such a
study, in two parts. In Part I, the background
research on doubly-curved shells is briefly
reviewed. The kinematic, equilibrium and
constitutive equations used in the work are
stated. The adopted numerical procedure
which can generate static or dynamic solutions
is described along with the results of
convergence studies. (Edited author abstract)
44 Refs.
Shao, W.J. (Ministry of Communications, Shanghai,
China); Frieze, P.A. Thin-Walled Struet v 8 n 2 1989
p99-118.
036989 Simple Buckling Problems Within
the Shell Theory of Rubber-like
Materials. In an earlier paper, the authors
have formulated a fairly general theory of
finite strains deformation of shells of an
incompressible hyperelastic material. The
basic equations of this theory were derived,
from 3-D finite elasticity under the single
assumption: material fibers initially normal to
the shell reference surface remain straight in
the process of an isochronic deformation.
Consequently the resulting 2-D model of the
shell incorporates effects due to transverse
shear and transverse normal deformations as
well as higher order effects accommodated in
the dependency of the 2-D strain energy
function on the gradient of strain measures.
In this note they present some further results
for the buckling of initially straight rods
under axial end forces. They illustrate
limitations of particular variants of the general
shell theory. 5 Refs.
Makowski, J. (Ruhr-Univ, Bochum, West Ger);
Stumpf, H. Z Angew Math Meeh v 68 n 6 1988 P
251-252.
036990 Zwei Varianten der
Schalenbeulrechnung im Elastoplastischen
Bereich. [Two Different Methods'for Shell
Buckling Calculation in the Elastic-Plastic
Region]. The material behavior in the
elastic-plastic region depends on the fact
whether the concerned point is loaded or
unloaded. For buckling calculations one
transfers generally the criterion for loading or
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
unloading from the prebuckling mode of the
ideal shell. But there are no ideal shells. Every
real shell has initial imperfections, and real
events start with the growing of one buckle.
Hence it corresponds better to the reality to
transfer the criterion for loading or unloading
from the buckling mode. A calculation
procedure of that kind is presented; its
applications demonstrated by numerical
examples. (Edited author abstract) In German.
Esslinger, Maria (DFVLR, Braunschweig, West Ger);
Poblotzki, Gert. Forschungsber Dtsch Forsch
Versuchsanst Luft Raumfahrt DFVLR n FB 88-26
1988pl-49.
036991 On Buckling of Ellipsoidal Cups
Under Internal Pressure. A method for the
calculation of the critical load for a semi-
ellipsoidal shell with a stiffening rib at the edge
is presented. The external and internal
buckling energy of the shell is described. The
Rayleigh quotient is used as the static buckling
criterion, assuming the deflection function to
depend on four shape parameters. Some
numerical examples are presented showing the
influence of the rib stiffness and the shell
dimensions on the critical pressure value.
(Author abstract) 6 Refs.
Magnucki, K. (Technical Univ of Poznan, Poznan,
Pol); Wegner, T.; Szye, W. Ing Arch v 58 n 5 1988 P
339-342.
036992 Schalenbeulen: Von der DASt-
Richtlinie 013 zur DIN 18800, Tell 4. [Shell
Buckling: From DASt Guideline 013 to DIN
18800. Part 4]. Following a review of the
buckling safety proof for shells according to
DASt guideline 013 which must be kept in two
stages, the method of representation in DIN
18800, Part 4 is explained in detail. It is shown
that the large rlt dependency of the reduction
factor ex which exists for the axially compressed
cylinder can be suppressed for the building
material steel. In this way, it is possible to
conduct the buckling safety proof in a single
stage for all shells examined analogous to the
buckling of columns. Only two basic buckling
curves, for K) 'normal' and K2 for 'very'
imperfection-sensitive shells, are sufficient.
With the aid of detailed investigations, it is
shown that the K2 curve may possibly be raised
slightly. As compared with dimensioning
methods according to DASt guideline 013 used
in the past, economic benefits would be
possible using this method. (Author abstract)
14 Refs. In German.
Bornscheuer, Friedrich Wilhelm. Bautechnik v 65 n
10 Oct 1988 p 325-33l.
367
036993 Beulversuche an Duennwandigen
Fluessigkeitsgefuellten Schalen. [Buckling
Tests on Thin-Walled Fluid-Filled
Shells.]. This paper deals with the problem of
the buckling of thin walled cylindrical tanks
under the action of a fluid filling and an axial
load. In addition, the partial removal of the
bottom membrane of such tanks is studied. The
experimental results obtained can be used for
the testing of mathematical models. 3 Refs. In
German.
Rammerstorfer, Franz Georg (Technische Univ
Wien, Vienna, Austria); Billinger, Wolfgang; Fischer,
Franz Dieter. DIAl Desterr Ing Archit l v 133 n 8
Aug 1988 P 430-43l.
036994 Numerical Analysis of Diamond
Buckles. Both linear and nonlinear analyses
are performed on the buckling of a cylindrical
shell under axial compression. Among the
post buckling shapes of the cylindrical shell, a
number of diamond modes are found to be
possible. The analysis is compared to those
conducted by A. Maewall and W. Nachbar,
M.A. Crisfield, and Y. Yoshida et al.
Agreement is established in conceiving the
deformed shape with circumferential number
of 14 as the stable postbuckling mode of the
cylindrical shell. The transition from the
axisymmetric mode to a diamond mode of
collapse is shown to be an instantaneous
process triggered in the proximity of the
critical state by a small perturbation of the
load increment. (Edited author abstract) 17
Refs.
Liu, Wing Kam (Northwestern Univ, Evanston, IL,
USA); Lam, Dennis. Finite Elem Anal Des v 4 n 4
Feb 1989 p 291-302.
036995 Theoretical and Experimental Study
of a Curved Strip Compressed by a Flat
Plate. The quasi-static loading of a curved
strip compressed by a flat, rigid plate is
considered, with particular reference to large
deformations and the ensuing buckling
behavior. Experiments were performed on
curved strips of constant width but of different
thickness. The strips were initially deformed
to a fixed radius of curvature and stress
relieved before pinning the ends. The span
was held constant at about 305 mm. The
deformation characteristics have been
analyzed using an incremental finite element
technique. Particular attention has been paid
to modeling the situation when a node
contacts the plate and the condition for
separation of the strip from the plate. The
predicted loads and deformation modes
agreed well with experimental results from
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
tests on steel and aluminum specimens.
(Edited author abstract) 9 Refs.
Iseki, H. (McMaster Univ, Hamilton, Ont, Can);
Sowerby, R.; Bhattacharyya, D.; Gatt, P. J Appl Meeh
Trans ASME v 56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 96-104.
036996 Buckling of Edge Damaged,
Cylindrical Composite Shells. The stability
of thin composite layered anisotropic
cylindrical shells under axial compression is
considered for the case of nonuniform
boundary conditions. Such conditions are
employed to model the situation where there
is edge damage to the shell. The influence of
weakening or a crack at an edge on the
critical buckling load of a variety of single and
multilayered shells is investigated. Results
indicate that isotropic shells exhibit a rather
sudden steep reduction in the critical buckling
load for relatively small edge damage.
However, some anisotropic composite shells
may not be so sensitive and, in contrast, only
a gradual reduction may be brought about by
the edge damage. The degree of sensitivity to
edge damage appears to be dependent, in
some complex fashion, on the various
geometric and physical shell parameters.
(Author abstract) 8 Refs.
Sabag, M. (Technion - Israel Inst of Technology,
Haifa, Isr); Stavsky, Y.; Greenberg, J.B. J Appl Meeh
Trans ASME v 56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 121-126.
036997 Bifurcation Buckling of Circular
Cylindrical Shells Under Uniform External
Pressure. This paper presents asymptotic
solutions for the eigenvalue problems of
buckling under uniform external pressure of a
circular cylindrical shell having an arbitrary
combination of the boundary conditions for
the simply supported, clamped, and free ends.
A simple formula for the buckling pressure is
derived, which is shown to be accurate
enough for engineering purposes by
comparison with available results. The
eigenvalues calculated for all possible
combinations of the boundary conditions show
that the buckling pressures are affected
significantly by the presence of a free end as
well as axial constraint at a supported end.
(Author abstract) 17 Refs.
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn);
Morimatsu, Shigeyuki. AIAA J v 27 n 2 Feb 1989 p
242-248.
036998 Postbuckling Analysis of Circular
Cylindrical Shells Under External
Pressure. The postbuckling behavior of
circular cylindrical shells of finite length under
368
uniform external pressure is analysed using
the spline finite strip method. A Total
Lagrangian formulation on the displacement
dependent pressure load in the orthogonal
curvilinear reference frame is derived. An
improvement for the arc-length iteration
method is presented. The postbuckling
equilibrium path and the contour map of
equal radial deflection computed an~ in good
agreement with the experimental and
analytical results reported in Esslinger, M. and
Geier, B., Postbuckling Behaviour of
Structures, Springer-Verlag, Wien, New York,
1975. (Author abstract) 14 Refs.
Cheung, Y.K. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong);
Zhu, D.S. Thin-Walled Struet v 7 n 3-4 1989 P
239-256.
036999 Non-probabilistic Models of
Uncertainty in the Nonlinear Buckling of
Shells with General Imperfections:
Theoretical Estimates of the Knockdown
Factor. A nonprobabilistic, set-theoretical
treatment of the buckling of shells with
uncertain initial geometrical imperfections is
presented. The minimum buckling load is
determined as a function of the parameters
which describe the (general infinite) range of
possible initial imperfection profiles of the
shell. The central finding of this paper is a
theoretical estimate of the knockdown factor
as a function of the characteristics of the
uncertainty in the initial imperfections. Two
classes of set-theoretical models are employed.
The first class represents the range of
variation of the most significant N Fourier
coefficients by an ellipsoidal set in N-
dimensional Euclidean space. The minimum
buckling load is then explicitly evaluated in
terms of the shape of the ellipsoid. (Edited
author abstract) 29 Refs.
Ben-Haim, Yakov (Technion - Israel Inst of
Technology, Haifa, Isr); Elishakoff, Isaac. J Appl
Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n 2 Jun 1989 p 403 -41 o.
037000 Post-buckling Behavior and
Imperfection Sensitivity of Spherical Shells
Based on Nonlinear Elastic Stability
Theory. Using the nonlinear elastic stability
theory and its applications to shells, we have
investigated the post-buckling behavior and
imperfection sensitivity of spherical shells with
amplitude modulation. For this purpose, we
assume that the buckling modes have the
form of Legendre polynomials with an
exponential function as a modulating factor.
We use a numerical analysis technique with
high precision. The amplitudes of the post-
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
buckling modes and the critical loading
factors of the spherical shell with various
imperfection modes are presented. (Edited
author abstract) 10 Refs.
Fan, Q.S. (Tsinghan Univ, Beijing, China).
Thin-Walled Struct v 8 n I 1989 P 1-18.
037001 Postbuckling Analysis of Shells by
Spline Finite Strip Method. The postbuckling
analysis of shells is studied by the spline finite
strip method. The selection of higher order
terms in the incremental variational principle
is discussed. An improvement on the arc-
length iteration method is presented. The
examples all demonstrated the versatility and
accuracy of the present method. The
computed results for a circular cylindrical
shell under axial compression correlate very
well with the experiment results. (Author
abstract) 15 Refs.
Zhu, D.S. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong);
Cheung, Y.K. Comput Struct v 31 n 3 1989 P
357-364.
037002 Transverse Shear Effects in Stability
Problems of Laminated Shallow Shells. This
paper presents the analysis of the accuracy of
the classical shell theory in the prediction of
buckling loads of laminated shallow shells of
revolution loaded by external pressure or
axially compressed. The shells studied are
circular cylinders, barrels, inverse barrels and
spherical sections. In each case the boundary
conditions are simple supports. (Author
abstract) 7 Refs.
Muc, Aleksander (Univ of Liverpool, Liverpool,
Engl). Compos Struct v 12 n 3 1989 P 171-180.
037003 Zur Stabilitaet von ZyIindern Vnter
Axiallast und Randmomenten. [Stability of
Cylindrical Shells V nder Axial Loads and
Edge Moments]. Existing methods of
determining the critical axial loads of
cylindrical shells take into account only the
membrane stress state. However, parts of the
shell structures are loaded by additional edge
moments. These result from external forces,
from the edge conditions themselves or from
the deviation of the membrane forces due to
a break in the generatrix. This paper reports
on a study, which investigated the influence of
edge moments on the nonlinear bifurcation
loads of axially compressed cylinders. Edge
moments are shown to reduce the bifurcation
load irrespective of the length of the cylinder.
The results obtained were approximated by
easy to handle formulas. After some remarks
on the imperfection sensitivity, a practical
369
design procedure is suggested. (Edited author
abstract) 15 Refs. In German.
Knoedel, Peter (Univ Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, West
Ger); Maierhoefer, Dieter. Stahlbau v 58 n 3 Mar
1989 p 81-86.
037004 Experimental Investigation on the
Dynamic Buckling of a Cylindrical Shell
Due to Seismic Excitation. (lst Report:
Plastic Buckling Due to Bending Load). The
fundamental characteristics of plastic dynamic
buckling of a thin cylindrical shell due to
seismic excitation, where bending load was
predominant, were clarified experimentally.
The relationship between seismic response
displacement acceleration, strain of cylindrical
shell model and input acceleration was
investigated. The dynamic buckling load was
compared with that for static buckling, and
the differences between them were discussed
as well as the threshold for postbuckling.
(Author abstract) 6 Refs. In Japanese.
Fujita, Katsuhisa; Ito, Tomohiro; Wada, Hiroshi.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 515
Jul 1989 P 1634-1637.
037005 New Solution for Vessel Liner
Buckling Analysis. The thermally
constrained and perfectly confined cylindrical
shell finds its critical buckling load in infinity.
Disturbances such as shape or support
imperfections are required to yield finite
critical buckling loads. Based on a conservative
imperfection model, the new solution allows
the quantification of the influence of
imperfections on buckling stress. As a large
deflection solution, it follows the load
displacement path under increasing prestress
up to neutral equilibrium. Thus, the
occurrence of subcritical limit load conditions
due to non-linear bending can be determined.
(Edited author abstract) 12 Refs.
Tschiersch, R.T. (Thyssen Henrichshuette AG,
Hattingen, West Ger); Huessler, W. ASME Pressure
Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 139 Design and
Analysis of Piping, Pressure Vessels and
Components, 1988, Presented at the 1988 ASME
Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA,Jun 19-23 1988. Publ by American Soc
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 133-138.
037006 Static Buckling of the Shells of
Revolution Due to the Asymmetric
Loading. Finite element buckling analysis
program of the shells of revolution under an
asymmetric loading was developed. In this
program, the buckling mode for asymmetric
 Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
loading is presented as a summation of free
vibration modes. The program was verified by
comparing with the test and the theoretical
results. (Author abstract) 7 Refs.
Chiba, T. (Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries
Co, Yokohama, Jpn); Sugino, H.; Mieda, T.;
Yoshida, M.; Ohya, H.; Kobayashi, N. ASME
Pressure Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 150
Application of Modal Analysis to Extreme Loads,
Presented at the 1988 ASME Pressure Vessels and
Piping Conference, Pittsburgh, P A, USA, Jun
19 - 23 1988. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1988 P
1-7.
037007 Nonlinear Investigations of
Composite Shells by Finite Element
Method. For investigations of structures
consisting of layered fiber composite shells a
special shell finite element has been developed
and applied to some illustrative problems.
The element's features are: geometrically
nonlinear formulation; arbitrary set-up of the
composite (i.e. symmetric or non-symmetric
stacking sequences with different layer
materials); material non-Iinearities in terms of
stiffness degradation due to layer cracking;
thermal loading. Due to the FE-formation
used, buckling analyses can be conducted by
solving accompanying eigenvalue problems.
(Author abstract) 19 Refs.
Dominger, K. (Vienna Technical Univ, Vienna,
Austria); Rammerstorfer, F.G. ASME Pet Div Publ
PD v 24 Composite Material Technology 1989,
Twelfth Annual Energy-Sources Technology
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX, USA,
Jan 22-25 1989. Publ by American Soc of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 117-125.
037008 Buckling Design of Vierendeel
Recticular Shells. Double layer reticular shell
structures carry very little transverse shear,
thus, it may be appropriate to substitute the
inter-layer diagonal members with 'space'
members perpendicular to the middle surface.
In this paper the shear stiffness of double
layer grids without diagonals is presented and
used to calculate the design buckling load for
domes built with this geometry. (Author
abstract) 8 Refs.
Castano, Francisco (Unistrut Space Frame Systems,
Canton, MI, USA). Proe Sess Relat Steel StTUet StTUet
Congr Proceedings of the Sessions Related to Steel
Structures at Structures Congress '89, San
Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ by
ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 195-204.
370
COMPOSITE
037009 Finite Deformations of Thin
Anisotropic and Composite Shells and
Defining Relations. Defining relations for
composite shells formed by superposition of
layers with specified structure of the
reinforcement were derived using Green's
strain formula and the Cauchy stress tensor as
a starting point. An asymptotic analysis was
carried out for revealing the kind of functions
contained in the defining relations, with
plastic and creep deformations taken into
account. A system of experiments was
suggested for finding these functions on the
assumption that with finite deformations the
material is nonlinearly elastic. The cause of a
deviation of the obtained results from given
computational conditions was suggested as a
noticeable manifestation of inelastic properties.
Evaluations for glass reinforced plastics are
presented. 12 Refs.
Teregulov, I.G. (Kazan Inst of Civil Engineering,
USSR). Meek Compos Mater v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p
453-458.
037010 Stress-strain State of a Composite
Shell with Circular Slit. A shell of revolution
with an infinitely thin slit cut on the
circumference was subjected under
mathematical simulation to a distributed load.
A system of coordinates was introduced to
describe the state of stress and strain of the
shell. The elasticity relations were derived and
the state of stress and strain of each shell was
determined and reduced to the solution of a
system of equations. The boundary-value
problem of the slit was solved with the network
method. A calculation algorithm system was
recommended which was based on Godunov's
orthogonal matching method. It was found
from analyzing the curves that a
circumferential slit with axisymmetric load
induces an inhomogeneous state of stress and
strain. 3 Refs.
Gerasimenko, P.V. (All-Union Extramural
Polytechnic Inst, Moscow, USSR); Preobrazhenskii,
I.N. Meek Compos Mater v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p
459-462.
037011 Allowing for Binder Stiffness and
Reinforcement Extensibility in Designing a
Shell of Revolution Made of a Composite
Material. A method for determining the
configuration and equilibrium state of a shell
under the effects of internal pressure with
allowance for the extensibility of the fibers and
the elasticity of the threads was devised. The
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
boundary value problem for linearized
equations was solved by the method of initial
parameters with the use of Godunov's
procedure for orthogonalization. Two cases
are given: a shell with a movable head made by
spiral winding wherein the initial form of the
shell is designed as being equilibrium for a
recticular shell with a geodesic winding, and a
geodesic shell wound on a mandrel of the same
profile for which the strains were calculated
under internal pressure and a compressive
force applied to the head. The method makes
it possible to determine the geometry of the
shell and its stress state. 6 Refs.
Biderman, V.L. (N.E. Bauman Moscow Higher
Technical lnst, USSR); Mart'yanova, G.V.; Sorokin,
F.D. Meek Compos Mater v 23 n 5 Mar 1988 p
579-585.
037012 Optimization of Structures of
Reinforced Cylindrical Shells Made of
Composites. A method is given for selecting
the parameters for the design optimization of
reinforced cylindrical shells which satisfies the
system of restrictions and minimizes the target
function. The active physical restrictions
included general and local stability, the
strength of the material of the cloth of the
shell, and the reinforcing set. The design and
technological restrictions imposed on the
geometrical parameters of the shell were also
taken into account. Two possible forms of the
loss of stability of the reinforced shells were
evaluated. Strength calculations of the cloth
were based on a macromodel according to
which the load-carrying capacity of the entire
packet was exhausted when the limiting stress
state was reached in at least one layer. An
algorithm was constructed for optimum design
on the basis of heuristic combinatorial analysis.
It was shown that longitudinal-transverse
reinforcement in respect of mass is 1.5-2.0
times more effective than the unidirectional
longitudinal reinforcement. 4 Refs.
Tomashevskii, V.T. (Marshall A.A. Grechko Naval
Military Acad, Leningrad, USSR); Anufriev, A.P.;
Shalygin, V.N.; Yakovlev, V.S.; Kalimulin, R.l. Meek
Compos Mater v 23 n 5 Mar 1988 p 603-607.
037013 Model of Composite Shallow Shells
and Plates for Solving Problems of Statics,
Dynamics, and Contact Interaction. In an
earlier paper, the authors constructed a
theory for the evaluation of the stress-strain
state of composite structures for the case of
laminated composite shallow shells and plates
of orthotropic materials in which the principal
directions of orthotropy coincided with the
371
coordinate axes of the shell. To expand the
possibility of the model for evaluating the
stress-strain state at the microscopic level, the
order and number of resolvent equations
were independent of the number of layers as
well as the ratio of the physico-geometric
properties. In this paper, the model is
generalized to the case of laminated shallow
shells made of anisotropic layers. The model
considers transverse shear and compression,
tangential and normal forces of inertia, and
geometric nonlinearity. Kinematic hypotheses
are introduced to reduce the three-
dimensional problem to two dimensions. Two
examples illustrating the ability of the model
to reflect the three-dimensional nature of the
stress-strain state of multilaminate plates and
shells are examined. 12 Refs.
Prisazhnyuk, V.K. (Kiev Highway lnst, USSR);
Piskunov, V.G. Meek Compos Mater v 23 n 6 May
1988 p 719-726.
037014 Analysis of Thermoelastic Stresses
in Laminated Shells of Double Curvature. A
curvilinear coordinate system was used to
construct a model describing the thermoelastic
stresses in laminated shells of double
curvature. It was assumed that the stresses
depended linearly on strains and temperature.
Near the edges of the outer layer the shell
element was regarded as two finite elements;
one element modeled the packet of inner
layers and the second modeled the outer shell
layer. The solution of the thermoelastic
problem satisfied the condition of the
minimum of potential energy of the shell.
Shear stress distributions were determined.
The method was applied to a stiff cylindrical
shell with a thin outer layer heated uniformly
from within. The stresses determined on the
edge of the outer layer were compared with
results of holographic measurements of strains
of a steel shell with a sheet made of carbon-
fiber plastic stuck to it and were found to
agreed qualitatively with the experimental
data. 4 Refs.
Bakulin, V.N. (S. Ordzhonikidze Moscow lnst,
USSR); Kaledin, V.O.; Rassokha, A.A. Meek Compos
Mater v 23 n 6 May 1988 p 732-737.
037015 Axisymmetric Divergence of
Ring-stiffened Composite Cylindrical Shells
Subject to Axial Compression. Static
aeroelastic instability of structures, which is
also called divergence, represents an important
theoretical and practical problem. Divergence
of composite structures has been intensively
studied due to increasing utilization of
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
composite materials in the aerospace industry.
In this paper, axisymmetric divergence of
simply supported, internally ring-reinforced
composite shells is considered. The shell is
subject to an air flow, directed parallel to the
shell axis, and to static axial loading. The
analytical conditions of divergence are
obtained both for discrete ring stiffeners and
based on the smeared stiffeners technique. 4
Refs.
Birman, Victor (Univ of New Orleans, New
Orleans, LA, USA).] Appl Meek Trans ASME v 55
n 4 Dec 1988 p 984-985.
037016 Design of Composite Cylindrical
Vessels for Fluid Loading. A theoretical
approach is presented to examine the problem
of the fluid loading of a simply supported
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) composite
cylindrical pipe. The shell layup is composed
of specially orthotropic layers, the
arrangement of which may be nonsymmetrical
through the wall thickness. The theory is
developed using Sanders' thin shell theory,
neglecting the effect of transverse shear. An
example of the use of the method is given,
where the behavior of a horizontal pipe is
examined when it is partially or totally filled
with fluid. Three layups are examined, one of
an isotropic construction using chopped
strand mat (CSM) and two of a laminated
construction. (Author abstract) 5 Refs.
Banks, W.M. (Univ of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scod);
Tooth, A.S.; Wilson, P.M.] Pressure Vessel Teeknol
Trans ASME v III n 2 May 1989 p 102-108.
037017 Shear Deformable Theory of
Laminated Composite Shallow Shell-type
Panels and Their Response Analysis: II.
Static Response. In the second part of this
paper, by using the static counterparts of the
governing equations derived in Part I, the
static response of shallow composite shell-type
panels subjected to a sinusoidal transverse
load is investigated. The numerical
applications, encompassing a large number of
boundary conditions and various lamination
schemes, allow one to obtain some conclusions
which are formulated in the paper. (Edited
author abstract) 1 Ref.
Khdeir, A.A. (Virginia Polytechnic lost & State
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Librescu, L.;
Frederick, D. Acta Meek v 77 n 1- 2 Apr 1989 p
1-12.
037018 Sandwich Shells of Absolute
Minimum Volume. We consider a number of
new solutions of optimal design problems for
372
three-layer plastic structures fabricated from
an ideally plastic material that obeys the Hill
plasticity condition. We also compare designs
obtained by the constant-dissipation method
and equal-strength designs; we demonstrate
that equal-strength designs display a greater
volume of the supporting layers. For the
sandwich shells considered here, equal-
strength designs are understood to mean
those for which, at each meridian point, the
plasticity condition is realized as an equality in
one of the supporting layers, and as a
nonstrict inequality in the other. (Edited
author abstract) 16 Refs.
Nemirovskii, Yu.V.; Shul'gin, A.V. Meek Solids v 23
n 51988 P 104-112.
037019 Finite-element Method in Problems
of Nonline Deformation of Reinforced
Shells of Arbitrary Shape. A method of
calculation of reinforced shells of arbitrary
shape is proposed. It applies the finite element
method to problems of nonlinear deformation
of these shells and it is based on specification
of primary geometrical information regarding
the object. Such information can be provided
by the radius vectors of the nodes of the
elements and the positions of the unit normal
vectors to the surface at these nodes.
Differences in the geometry of the shells
under consideration are unimportant from the
standpoint of algorithmization of the
calculations, since the same node-by-node
information is required for calculations. A
universal approach can &pan an extensive class
of calculation problems for reinforced shells
of arbitrary shape, operating in the large-
displacement region. As an example the
problem of compression of a cylindrical panel
of rectangular shape is considered. The
method used allows the problem to be solved
for arbitrary elastic displacements.
Kuznetsov, V.V.; Soinikov, Yu.V. Meek Solids v 23
n 31988 P 129-135.
037020 Hygrothermal Effects on the
Stability of a Cylindrical Composite Shell
Panel. In this paper the finite element
method is applied to study the problem of
moisture and temperature effects on the
stability of a general orthotropic cylindrical
composite shell panel subjected to axial or
in-plane shear loading. The element employed
is a 9-node isoparametric shell element. Since
the hygrothermal effects on the elastic
properties of the matrices and the fibers are
very different, the degrading of the matrices
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
and the fibers are very different, the
degrading of elastic moduli, the transverse
shear effect and the induced initial stress are
all considered in the present study. Numerical
investigation shows that if the temperature
increase from 300 K to 422°K and the
0 instability of a simply supported orthotropic
moisture concentration is saturated, the
buckling load with both the degrading of
elastic moduli and transverse shear
deformation considered is approximately 12%
lower than Snead/Papazoto's result where
only the degrading of elastic moduli is
considered. (Edited author abstract) 10 Refs.
Lee, S.Y. (Nat! Cheng-Kung Univ, Tainan,
Taiwan); Yen, W.J. ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD v 13
Recent Advances in the Macro- and Micro-
Mechanics of Composite Materials Structures,
Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (AS ME),
New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 21-31.
037021 Delamination Effects on Composite
Shells. An analytical investigation was
performed to study the effect of delamination
on the response of cylindrical composite shells
subjected to external loadings. It was of
particular interest to determine the buckling
load and the post-buckling behavior of
externally pressurized cylindrical composite
shells containing delamination. An analytical
model was developed which consists of a
structural analysis for calculating the global
deformations of the structures and a fracture
analysis for determining the delamination
growth in the structures. A nonlinear finite
element code based on the updated Lagrange
formulation was developed for the model.
Based on the results of calculations, it was
found that delamination can significantly
effect the buckling load and response of
cylindrical composite shells subjected to
externally pressurized loadings, depending
upon the initial length and location of the
delamination, ply orientation and laminate
curvature. The calculated strain energy
release rate at the crack tips indicates that
delamination growth occurs at the wake of
buckling due to Mode II shear fracture.
(Author abstract) 24 Refs.
Chang, F.-K. (Stanford Univ, Stanford, CA, USA);
Kutlu, Z. ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD v 13 Recent
Advances in the Macro- and Micro-Mechanics of
Composite Materials Structures, Presented at the
Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Chicago, IL, USA, Nov
27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by American Soc of
373
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 71-76.
037022 Divergence Instability of Reinforced
Composite Cylindrical Shells. Divergence
composite shell reinforced in both axial and
circumferential directions is considered. The
shell is subject to an axial static load and to an
action of an outside supersonic gas flow in the
direction parallel to the shell axis. Two
variants of the solution considered in the
paper include discrete widely spaced stiffeners
and closely spaced stiffeners; the latter case
can be treated using a smeared stiffeners
technique. It is proven that divergence
instability of shells treated by smeared
stiffeners technique can occur only if they are
subject to axial compressive loads exceeding
the static buckling value. (Author abstract) 9
Refs.
Birman, V. (Univ of New Orleans, New Orleans,
LA, USA). ASME Aerosp Div Publ AD v 13 Recent
Advances in the Macro- and Micro-Mechanics of
Composite Materials Structures. Presented at the
Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Chicago, IL, USA, Nov
27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by American Soc of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 169-175.
037023 Failure Prediction for Composite
Shells: Shear Deformable Finite Element
Formulation. Piecewise smooth stress-based
failure criteria are implemented in a shear
deformable finite element formulation. Both
plate and shell elements are utilized to
represent thin to moderately thick laminated
structures. Accurate stresses are obtained both
in the plane of each ply as well as in the
through-the-thickness direction. Such stress
information is essential in differentiating
between fiber, matrix and delamination
failures. (Author abstract) 14 Refs.
Engblom, JJ. (Texas A&M Univ, College Station,
TX, USA). ASME Pet Div Publ PD v 24 Composite
Material Technology 1989, Twelfth Annual
Energy-Sources Technology Conference and
Exhibition, Houston, TX, USA, Jan 22 - 25 1989.
Publ by American Soc of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 37-41.
037024 Computer-Aided Manufacturing of
Filament-Wound Composite Shells. An
interactive CAM system developed for
automated manufacturing of filament-wound
axisymmetric shells is reported.
Microprocessors are designed to drive motors
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
for multi-axes control of mandrel rotation,
carriage and cross feeder translations, and eye
rotation. A personal computer system is used
as host and has software to initiate the
microprocessors, to supervise the motions of
the rotating mandrel and of the robot-like
assembly of carriage, cross feeder, and eye.
Operator interactive capability of the software
make it possible to manually interrupt and
perform on-the-spot adjustment and reset.
The variety of filament-wound shells made by
this automated system is reported. (Edited
author abstract) 12 Refs.
Pao, Y.C. (Univ of Nebraska, Lincoln, NB, USA);
Karamooz, S.; Spencer, B.E.; Keester, PJ. Comput
Eng Proc Int Comput Eng Con! Exhib v 1 (of 2),
Proceedings of the 1989 ASME International
Computers in Engineering Conference and
Exposition, Anheim, CA, USA, Jul 30-Aug 3
1989. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1989 P
553-557.
COMPUTER AIDED ANALYSIS
037025 Strength Analysis Algorithm of
Discrete Stiffened Conic Shells. Computer
aided analysis algorithm is developed for the
stressed-strain state of circular conic shells of
irregular structure stiffened by stringers and
frames under the effect of arbitrary loads
applied to the frames. The problem solution
is obtained in the Fourier series using the
method of the matrix pass by means of the
computer BESM-6-programmed algorithm.
Contrary to known algorithms of the method
of finite elements the suggested algorithm
does not need considerable expenditures of
machine time and time for preparation of the
initial data necessary for the calculation. A
stressed state in the casting of the shell
supported as a cantilever under the effect of
tangential concentrated load, the effect of the
shell taper angle and frame elasticity on this
state are investigated. The beam theory to
calculation of broad fuselage of planes under
the effect of local forces is shown to be
nonapplicable. (Author abstract) 4 Refs. In
Russian.
Kabanov, V.V.; Levitskaya, T.E. Probl Prochn n 7
Jul 1988 P 97 -100.
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
037026 Geodesign: A Computer Program
for Geodesic Dome Geometries. A computer
algorithm is described for obtaining the
coordinates of vertices, chord factors, and
374
dihedral angles of n-frequency spherical and
ellipsoidal octahedral and icosahedral geodesic
domes with or without truncation, for plotting
orthographic and axonometric projections,
and for tabulating the chord lengths and
dihedral angles for sawing the structural
elements for construction. (Author abstract) 4
Refs.
Teter, W.D. (Univ of Delaware, Newark, DE,
USA); Nicholls, R.L. Bull Int Assoc Shell Spat Struct
v 29-2 Aug 1988 P 47-53.
037027 Das System VWMESH zur
Idealisierung von Tragstrukturen im
CAE-Konzept. [VWMESH System for an
Ideal Design of Supporting Structures in the
CAE Concept. Presentation of an Interactive
Module for the Eiasto-Mechanical Ideal
Design of Thin-walled Supporting
Structures, Available for Instance in the
CAD Medium in Carbody Design, Aircraft
Construction, Mechanical Engineering or in
the Shipbuilding Sector]. The development
of weight and cost optimized supporting
structures requires an early safe statement on
the performance criteria of the component
which must be made available to the designer
in the design phase by way of suitable
forecasting media. To this end the most
important test results obtained by the
application of modern simulation methods
must be brought to the attention and desk of
the designer and must be made available for
interpretation without passing the construction
stage before. For the physical relationships
which can be forecast by means of the FEM
analysis idealizing networks are needed for
the original structure. (Edited author abstract)
7 Refs. In German.
Sorgatz, Ulrich (RWTH, Aachen, West Ger);
Deuter, Helmut. VDI Z v 131 n 3 Mar 1989 p 26-32.
037028 Modeling of Plate and Shell
Structures with P-Version of the FEM. Finite
element models for the analysis of plates and
shells, based on the concept of hp-extension
are presented. A methodology for the control
and analysis of the error of the finite element
solution is developed. Numerical results
obtained using the proposed methodology are
given. (Author abstract) 16 Refs.
Sahrmann, Glenn J. (Sverdrup Technology Inc,
Middleburg Heights, OH, USA). Comput Util Stroct
Eng Computer Utilization in Structural
Engineering, Proceedings of the sessions at
Structures Congress '89, San Francisco, CA, USA,
May 1-51989. Publ by ASCE, New York, NY,
USA, 1989 p 277-285.
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
CONCRETE
037029 Effect of Support Movement on
Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells. For many
hyperbolic paraboloid shells, the horizontal
reaction is provided by horizontal ties between
the supports. It is shown that the horizontal
movement of the supports associated with the
elongation of these ties will alter sufficiently
the stresses in the shell membrane and the
axial forces and moments in the supporting
edge members that these movements must be
considered in the analysis. The effect of the
outward support movement for gable-type HP
shells supported on four corners is to reduce
the arching effect across the diagonal supports,
resulting in behavior that resembles more
closely that predicted by membrane theory.
When such shells are placed to form continuous
structures, the effect of the outward support
movement causes the portion of shell in the
vicinity of the first rows of interior supports to
behave as inverted umbrella HP shells.
(Author abstract) 8 Refs.
Simmonds, Sidney H. (Univ of Alberta, Edmonton,
Alberta, Can). J Struct Eng v 115 n 1 Jan 1989 p
19-31.
037030 Collapse Load Analysis of
Prestressed Concrete Surface Structures with
Unbonded Tendons by the Finite Element
Method. The basis of the theoretical
investigation is a formulation of the principle
of virtual work which is suitable for
incremental-iterative analysis of PC surface
structures by the finite element method (FEM).
It contains the expression for the virtual work
of forces exerted by the tendons on the
remaining part of the surface structure, treated
as a free body. Geometric nonlinearity is
considered on the basis of W.T. Koiter's shell
theory of small displacements and moderately
large rotations. Physical nonlinearity is taken
into account by means of appropriate
constitutive equations for intact and cracked
concrete, respectively, reinforcing steel and
prestressing steel. The numerical investigation
consists of collapse load analysis of a PC slab
with unbonded tendons. It demonstrates the
usefulness of the theoretical concept. (Edited
author abstract) 17 Refs.
Hofstetter, Guenter (Technical Univ of Vienna,
Vienna, Austria); Mang, Herbert A. Finite Elem Anal
Des v 5 n 2Jul1989 p 141-165.
037031 Manipulation of Shell and Fabric
Structure Form. Fabric structures and
concrete shells are readily compared because
375
of their curving shapes and the apparent
structural derivation of their forms. Every
fabric structure includes compression elements,
just as most shells include both tension and
bending elements. Furthermore, both forms,
through the introduction of stiffening
elements, have enormous range for subjective
manipulations of form to achieve desired
sculptural effects. Both fabric structures and
concrete shells rely on an interplay of tension
and compression, and much of their aesthetic
success is a function of the skill with which this
interplay is handled by the designer.
Huntington, Craig G. (Huntington Design Associates
Inc, Oakland, CA, USA). Proc Sess Relat Steel Struct
Struct Congr Proceedings of the Sessions Related to
Steel Structures at Structures Congress '89, San
Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ by ASCE,
New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 706-715.
CONTROL
037032 Optimal Control of a Pre-stressed,
Orthotropic Thin Cylindrical Shell Subjected
to a Constant Pressure at Its Interior
Wall. The open loop optimal control of a
pre-stressed, orthotropic thin cylindrical shell
subjected to a constant pressure at its interior
wall relative to a given index of performance
is investigated. The optimal control function
is obtained by using a calculus of variations
approach on the basis of a thin-shell theory.
The response and the hoop stress
(circumferential stress) of the controlled shell
are presented in graphical form and
compared with those of an uncontrolled shell.
Moreover, it is observed that the time
required for the effectiveness of the control
increases as the orthotropy coefficient
increases. An interesting aspect of the
investigation is the singularity of the mass
matrix. (Author abstract) 6 Refs.
Sadigh-Esfandiari, R. (California State Univ, Long
Beach, CA, USA); Sloss, J.M.; Bruch, J.C. Jr. J
Sound Vib v 125 n 1 Aug 221988 P 123-130.
CORROSION
037033 Corrosion Wear of a Thick-Walled
Cylindrical Shell of a Nonlinearly Elastic
Material. During service the elements of
many structures are subject to the combined
action of loads, temperatures, and corrosive
working media. In this work the case in which
the corrosive medium does not influence the
mechanical properties of the material but does
cause corrosion failure of the surface layers
was considered. The depth of corrosion wear
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
was used as the parameter characterizing the
process of corrosion failure of the surface.
Algorithms were constructed and used to
develop a program in FORTRAN-4 language
with the use of which a series of problems was
solved. The method makes it possible to quite
effectively evaluate the behavior of shells of
nonlinearly elastic materials in a corrosive
medium with the relationship of the properties
of the material and the corrosion rate to
temperature. 4 Refs.
Ovchinnikov, I.G. (Saratov Polytechnic lnst, USSR);
Garbuz, E. V. Sov Mater Sci v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p
405-408.
037034 Optimization of the Life and Cost of
Cylindrical Shells Subject to Mechanical and
Chemical Failure. The purpose of this work
is to create mathematical models of
optimization of cylindrical shells for general
cases in which the corrosion rate is a function
of stresses. A thin-walled cylindrical shell of
specified radius and length and pivotsupported
on the ends and compressed with an axial
load was taken as the model structure. Two
optimization problems were formulated. The
first, in which the corrosion rate was assumed
as a linear function of the stress intensity, was
written in the form of linear mathematical
programming. The second, in which the
limitation in time was introduced, was
formulated in the form of nonlinear
programming and accounted for both the
initial cost and expenditures made on the
structure at various times. Certain results of
calculation using the two models are
considered. 5 Refs.
Zelentsov, D.G. (Ferrous Metallurgy Mechanization
Scientific & Production Union, Dnepropetrovsk,
USSR); Pochtman, Yu. M. Sov Mater Sci v 23 n 4
Jan 1988 p 400-412.
CREEP
037035 Creep of Anisotropic Multi-Layered
Moderately Thick Shells of Revolution. This
paper describes an analytical formulation and
a numerical solution for creep problems of
anisotropic multilayered moderately thick
shells of revolution with application to a
cylindrical shell. The analytical formulation is
developed by extending the Reissner-Naghdi
theory for elastic shells with consideration
given to the effect of shear deformation. For
the constitutive relation, Hooke's law for
orthotropic materials is used in the elastic
deformation, and equations based on the
orthotropic creep theory derived from the
376
orthotropic plastic theory by Hill are
employed in the creep range. The creep
strains are related to the stresses by McVetty's
equation with a thermal effect multiplier by
Arrhenius. The basic differential equations
derived are numerically solved by a finite
difference method. As a numerical example,
the creep of a two-layered, anisotropic
cylindrical shell composed of mild steel and
stainless steel subjected to uniform internal
pressure is analyzed. (Edited author abstract)
14 Refs. In Japanese.
Takezono, Shigeo; Migita, Kohji. Nippon Kikai
Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 54 n 507 Nov 1988 p
2019-2027.
DEFECTS
037036 Plates and Shells with Crack-like
Flaws. The formulation of new hierarchial
finite elements for the analysis of laminated
plates and shells in the presence of flaws are
discussed. The performance of the elements is
elevated with the help of a number of
example problems and the results available in
the published literature. (Author abstract) 19
Refs.
Basu, P.K. (Vanderbilt Univ, Nashville, TN, USA);
Ahmed, N.U.; Woo, K.S. Comput Vtil Struct Eng
Computer Utilization in Structural Engineering,
Proceedings of the sessions at Structures Congress
'89, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ
by ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 286-295.
DEFLECTION
037037 Deflection and Snapping of Ring-
Loaded Spherical Caps. The axisymmetric
behavior of both shallow, and deep, ring-
loaded spherical caps, which are simply
supported but otherwise unconstrained at
their edges, is investigated using a large-strain
shell theory based on a variational principle.
A numerical technique is used to extract the
solution. Particular attention is paid to highly
nonlinear phenomena such as snapthrough,
single and multiple snapback, and load-free
everted states. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Brodland, G. Wayne (Univ of Waterloo, Waterloo,
Ont, Can); Cohen, H. J Appl Mech Trans ASME v
56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 127-132.
037038 Elastic-Plastic Large Deflection
Analysis of Axisymmetric Shells. A new
finite element formulation for elastic-plastic
large deflection analysis of shells of revolution
is presented. The new formulation contains
 Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
most of the best features of nonlinear finite
element analyses currently available in the
literature, together with some new numerical
schemes to improve the capability, accuracy
and speed of the computation. It is thoroughly
verified using a variety of problems. The
doubly curved thin shell finite element used
has been widely applied to linear elastic stress
analysis and linear stability analysis by the
present authors and their co-workers. In place
of the widely-used relations of Donnell,
Novozhilov or Sanders, more comprehensive
nonlinear thin shell strain-displacement
relations are used, which account for
nonlinear strains caused by in-plane
displacements. Unlike most previous nonlinear
axisymmetric shell formulations, in-plane
shearing is included throughout the treatment.
For plastic analysis, a multi-layered approach
is adopted employing the Prandtl-Reuss
normal flow rule with isotropic hardening or
perfect plasticity. (Edited author abstract)
Teng, J.G. (Univ of Sydney, Sydney, Aust); Rotter,
J.M. Comput Struet v 31 n 2 1989 P 211-233.
037039 Assumed Strain Finite Element
Model for Large Deflection Composite
Shells. A nine node finite element model has
been developed for analysis of geometrically
non-linear laminated composite shells. The
formulation is based on the degenerate solid
shell concept and utilizes a set of assumed
strain fields as well as assumed displacement.
Two different local orthogonal co-ordinate
systems were used to maintain in variance of
the element stiffness matrix. The formulation
assumes strain and the determinant of the
Jacobian matrix to be linear in the thickness
direction. This allows analytical integration in
the thickness direction regardless of ply
layups. The formulation also allows the
reference plane to be different from the shell
midsurface. The results of numerical tests
demonstrate the validity and the effectiveness
of the present approach. (Author abstract) 17
Refs.
Yeorn, C.H. (Univ of Maryland, College Park, MD,
USA); Lee, S. W. Int J Numer Methods Eng v 28 n 8
Aug 1989 P 1749-1768.
DEFORMATION
037040 Numerical Study of the
Axisymmetric Deformation of Composite
Shells of Revolution Under Shock Loads. A
method was proposed of numerically solving
problems of transient deformation of
composite shells composed of rigidly joined
377
orthotropic layers of variable thickness. The
shells were deformed by shock loads. This
method is based on a Timoshenko-type
geometric equation of nonlinear shell theory
and physical relations from the theory of
effective moduli. The boundary value problem
was solved by finite difference discretization
of the Lagrange-D'Alembert variational
equation and by integrating over time.
Equations of motion were obtained.
Computations were performed on a BESM-6
computer. Experimental and numerical results
were compared. For the experiment the
dynamic deformation of a viscoelastic shell of
poly methyl methacrylate was used. The shells
were formed by multiple-zone spiral winding
of glass-plastic strip. It was found that by
varying the number of zones and layers in the
winding, the stress level in the region of the
pole opening could be reduced. 15 Refs.
Abrosirnov, N.A. (Gorkii State Univ, Gorky, USSR).
Meeh Compos Mater v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p 447 - 453.
037041 Nonlinear Theory of the Central
Bending of Three-Layer Shells with Defects
in the Form of Sections of Bonding
Failure. Thin three-layer shells with a
light-weight filler and having sections of
bonding failure on one of the surfaces of
contact between the filler and an external
layer were theoretically examined. For the
case of central bending of such shells, a
complex of nonlinear relations was
constructed which were used to formulate
nonlinear problems concerning contact
interaction of the external layers with the
filler, with allowance for unilateral contact on
the sections of bonding failure. The
Kirchhoff-Love hypotheses traditionally used
in the theory of three-layer shells were
adopted to describe the mechanics of
deformation of the external layers. 11 Refs.
Pairnushin, V.N. (Kazan Aviation Inst, USSR). Sov
Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May 1988 p 1038 -1 043.
037042 Approaches to Numerical Solution
of Linear and Nonlinear Boundary-value
Problems of the Theory of Layered
Anisotropic Shells. Certain approaches to the
numerical solution of boundary-value
problems are presented, describing the
stress-strain state of layered shells with
isotropic and anisotropic layers of variable
thickness in the linear and geometrically
nonlinear formulations on the basis of classical
and improved models for nonuniform force
and temperature interactions. The proposed
approaches to the numerical solution of the
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
static shell problems are realized by programs
in FORTRAN and tested on many examples.
Solutions of some problems based on the
discussed methods are demonstrated. 10 Refs.
Grigorenko, Va. M. (Acad of Sciences of the
Ukranian SSR, Kiev, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n
10 Apr 1988 p 923-927.
037043 Deformation of a Spherical Shell
Under Internal Loading by a Shock
Generated by an Underwater Electrical
Discharge. This article is devoted to a
theoretical and experimental study of the
nonsteady hydroelastic deformation of a thin
spherical shell subjected to an underwater
electrical discharge at its center. The range of
application of model representation of the
latter in the form of a point source and a
source of finite dimensions with an ideally
flexible boundary is determined. The test shell
was composed of two stamped hemispheres
which were subsequently welded about their
perimeters. 8 Refs.
Saprykin, Yu. V. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Tsurkin, V.N.; Shvets, I.S.;
Sholom, V.K. Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 392-396.
037044 Stability of a Viscoelastic Shell of
Double Curvature. In this paper, we consider
the stability of a viscoelastic ellipsoidal shell.
We examine the behavior of the shell in
relation to the load, curvatures, and
eccentricity of the support ellipse. We
establish the conditions for 'snapping' of the
shell to occur, and for asymmetrical
equilibrium forms to appear and develop. 1
Ref.
Vorovich, 1.1.; Drobysheva, T.P. Meeh Solids v 22 n
61987 P 174-178.
037045 Application of the Two-Dimensional
Hermitian Finite-Difference Method to
Linear Shear Deformation Theory of Plates
and Arbitrarily Curved Shells. In this paper
the linear shear deformation theory of thin
shells formulated by Basar/Kratzig has been
used to demonstrate a special kind of the
Hermitian finite-difference method. The
governing differential equation system
established in an appropriate matrix form
contains only first derivatives of the unknown
tensor components. After transformation into
an algebraic form by applying two-
dimensional operators and solving the global
system, no further differentiation of the
unknown field functions is necessary. The
procedure shows fast convergence and, in
general, numerical instabilities like the
378
well-known shear locking that appears in some
finite element representations, were not
observed. However, in connection with
kinematically slightly supported boundaries,
such as corresponding to membrane theory,
oscillating solutions may occur. 21 Refs.
Wimmer, H. (Univ of Innsbruck, Innsbruck,
Austria). Aeta Meeh v 73 n 1-4 Aug 1988 P 163 -175.
037046 Betti's Theorem for Rotationally
Symmetric Infinitesimal Deformations
Superimposed on the Finite Deformation of
a Thin Shell of Revolution. It is intuitively
clear that the tangent stiffness matrix for a
finitely deformed shell, treated as a two-
dimensional continuum, should be symmetric.
The governing differential equations for
continuing rotationally symmetric quasi-static
bending and extensional deformation of thin
shells of revolution with no shear deformation
are employed to derive Betti's theorem from
which symmetry of the tangent stiffness
matrix follows, provided the pressure load is
conservative. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
DaDeppo, D.A. (Univ of Arizona, Tuscon, AZ,
USA); Keppel, W.J. Ind Math v 38 pt 1 1988 P
71-82.
037047 FDM in Arbitrary Curvilinear
Co-ordinates-Formulation, Numerical
Approach & Applications. The basic concept
of automatization of operations in curvilinear
co-ordinate systems are briefly presented and
applied to the analysis of large deformations of
membrane shells by the FDM. Several
examples provide the basis for a comparison of
this approach with other descriptions of
deformation. 23 Refs.
Tworzydlo, Wlodzimierz, W. (Technical Univ of
Krakow, Cracow, Pol). Intl Numer Methods Eng v 28
n 2 Feb 1989 p 261-277.
037048 Consistent Linearization in Elasto-
Plastic Shell Analysis. The present paper is
directed towards elasto-plastic large
deformation analysis of thin shells based on the
concept of degenerated solids. The main
aspect of the paper is the derivation of an
efficient computational strategy placing
emphasis on consistent elasto-plastic tangent
moduli and stress integration with the radial
return method under the restriction of 'zero
normal stress condition' in thickness direction.
The advantageous performance of the
standard Newton iteration using a consistent
tangent stiffness matrix is compared to the
classical scheme with an iteration matrix based
on the infinitesimal elasto-plastic constitutive
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
tensor. Several numerical examples also
demonstrate the effectiveness of the standard
Newton iteration with respect to modified and
quasi-Newton methods like BFGS and others.
(Author abstract) 21 Refs.
Ramm, E. (Univ of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, West Ger);
Matzemiller, A. Eng Comput (Swansea Wales) v 5 n 4
Dec 1988 p 289- 299.
037049 Whole-Field Optical Examination of
Cylindrical Shell Deformation. An optical
technique for the measurement of radial
deformation in circular cylindrical shells is
discussed. The technique is a modification and
improvement of an earlier method, using a
conical mirror of simple geometry to view a
grating reflected from the inner surface of the
shell. The new system allows more precise
alignment of the components of the optical
system with the shell. Fringes obtained by
superposition as in the Ligtenberg moire
method, or deviations of lines from a regular
pattern in a photographic image provide a
measure of the slope changes on the surface of
the shell. Theoretical relations are presented
for three grid orientations, at least two of
which have to be used in conjunction to
determine the two components of slope.
Illustrations for the use and accuracy of the
technique are presented for two cases. (Edited
author abstract) 8 Refs.
Krishnakumar, S. (Univ of Tasmania, Hobart, Aust);
Foster, C.G. ExpMeeh v 29 n 1 Mar 1989 p 16-22.
037050 New Method of Multisegment
Integration for the Nonlinear Analysis of
Shells of Revolution. A new method of
multi segment integration has been developed
for solving boundary value problems of a
system of nonlinear ordinary differential
equations as encountered in the large
deflection analysis of the axisymmetric
deformations of the shells of revolution. The
method developed here involves much less
computational work than the multisegment
integration developed by Kainins and Lestingi.
The new method has been applied to a number
of problems to ascertain its soundness and
accuracy. (Edited author abstract) 28 Refs.
Uddin, Md. Wahhaj (Bangladesh Univ of
Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh). Int
J Pressure Vessels Piping v 38 n 1 1989 P 39-55.
037051 Elastic-plastic Unstable Deformation
of Shells in Contact (Case of a Spherical
Shell). This paper deals with the numerical
analysis of large elastic-plastic deformation of
shells in contact with each other. The penalty
379
function method is used accurately to treat the
contact condition involving a finite amount of
sliding. Axisymmetric large deformations of
contacting spherical shells are analyzed, and it
is shown that elastic unloading resulting from
the sliding definitely affects the crushing of
one shell by another. The possibility of
nonaxisymmetric bifurcation of deformation is
examined on the basis of the J2-deformation
theory. (Author abstract) 10 Refs.
Kitagawa, Hiroshi (Osaka Univ, Suita, Jpn); Hiura,
Seiji.]SME Int] Ser 1 v 32 n 2 Apr 1989 p 199-207.
037052 Determination of Shell
Constructions Deformations with
Application of Linear Transformation
Theory. In this paper concepts for
determining shell structure deformations are
presented for the case of the surface of a
tria pial ellipsoid. Observations by the spatial
incision method in a rectangular xyz
coordinate system are assumed. The method
of determining the deformation components
in the points under examination in the
t = T - To time interval is based on the
principle of a minimum sum of the squares of
the (vx' vy ' v,) corrections. (Edited author
abstract) 8 Refs. In Russian.
Baran, P.1. (Kiev Engineering-Constructional lnst,
Kiev, USSR); Przewlocki, Stefan. Zesz Nauk Politeeh
Lodz Budownietwo n 39 1988 P 151-159.
037053 Experimental Study of Deformation
of Thin Conical Shells During Penetration
into Soil. The penetration of various solids
into deformable media has been previously
considered. At the same time, insufficient
attention has been paid to deformation of thin
shells in the process of penetration into soil.
This paper describes an experimental study of
deformation of thin-walled shells upon
indentation into soil; it determines the effect
of the angle of taper, the shape of the tip,
and the manner of attachment of the
concentrated mass to the shell structure on
the deformation process. The authors
employed an experimental setup consisting of
a pneumatic gun with a control panel for
regulating the delivery of compressed gas, a
target, and measurement and recording
equipment with an automatic control unit.
The gun was capable of accelerating shells to
specified velocities. 5 Refs.
Bakulin, V.N.; Ovcharov, P.N.; Potopakhin, V.A.
Meeh Solids v 23 n 41988 P 183-186.
037054 Deformation of Slender Shells with
Openings. Cutouts of various shapes are
often made in shell structures for design
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
purposes or fabrication convenience. This
paper describes a numeric method for solving
a wide range of problems of the stressed-
strained state of shells with cutouts. Results of
some specific studies are reported. 21 Refs.
Dmitriev, V.G.; Preobrazhenskii, I.N. Meek Solids v
23 n 1 1988 P 169-175.
037055 Dynamic Deformation of
Orthotropic Cylinders. The theory of thick
orthotropic shells is used here to analyze a
cylinder subjected to dynamic loads. The
formulation includes shear deformation and
rotatory inertia effects similar to the
first-order, shear deformation, laminated plate
theory. Dynamic line loads (along the
longitudinal direction) and patch loads are
considered. The time-dependent part of the
load is a step pulse or a half sine wave.
(Author abstract) 11 Refs.
Cederbaum, G. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Heller, R.A. ASME
Pressure Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 146 Advances
in Macro-Mechanics of Composite Material Vessels
and Components, Presented at the 1988 ASME
Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA,jun 19-23 1988. Publ by American Soc
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 43-48.
037056 Large Elastic Deformation of Shear
Deformable Shells of Revolution: Numerical
and Experimental Results. Through an
integrating matrix approach, a numerical
solution is obtained to the equations governing
large elastic deformation of a clamped circular
cylinder due to internal pressure. The shell
equations include the effects of large strains,
thickness changes, and transverse shear
deformation. The numerical solution is
compared to results from asymptotic analysis
and experiments on rubber cylinders. A
specialized Rivlin-Saunders strain energy
density function is assumed for the rubber,
with material constants determined from
tensile tests and deformed cylinder profiles at
a high inflation pressure. (Author abstract) 15
Refs.
Kempski, M.H. (Rochester Inst of Technology,
Rochester, NY, USA); Taber, L.A.; Su, Fong·Chin.
Am Soe Meek Eng Pap Preprint-American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, Presented at the Winter
Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27-Dec 2
1988. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1988
WA/APM486.
380
037057 Modelling of the Progressive
Extensible Plastic Collapse of Thin-Walled
Shells. A theoretical model describing the
progressive extensible plastic collapse of
thin-wall conical and cylindrical shells is
presented. The proposed theory enables the
load-deflection curves during axial
compression following the deformation history
of the shell to be evaluated. The comparison
of theoretical curves with experimental ones
shows a fair degree of accuracy. (Author
abstract) 14 Refs.
Mamalis, A.G. (Natl Technical Univ of Athens,
Athens, Greece); Manolakos, D.E.; Viegelahn, G.L.;
johnson, W. Int] Meek Sei v 30 n 3-41988 Some
Papers Presented at the International Symposium
on Structural Failure, Second International
Symposium on Structural Crashworthiness,
Cambridge, MA, USA,jun 6-81988 P 249-261.
DESIGN
037058 Design of Barrel Shells by the
Strength Method. For shells and folded plates,
the ACI Code (318-83), Section 19, permits
the reinforcing to be selected by strength
design. The method of applying this to barrel
shells is not specified. Possible procedures and
the results for an interior barrel of a multiple
series of barrel shells is described and
compared to other methods of selecting
reinforcing. (Author abstract)
Ketchum, Milo S. Stroet Eng Praet v 4 n 3-4
1987-1988 P 165-177.
037059 Formwork for Spiral Ramps at
Dolphins' Stadium. The problems presented
by forming spirals included: wider forms
needed for the ramps' slabjoist system at
outer edge; forms needed to provide for
ramp's slope; after the first revolution,
formwork had to be supported on the
structure below, and had to be designed to be
removed readily from one section to another.
These problems were solved by assembling a
number of modules, each consisting of a beam
table section and its shoring. The shoring
incorporated adjustable scaffold frames that
could be lowered 6 to 8 inches to facilitate
stripping of concrete and repositioning of the
module at another level. The article discusses:
forming the first 180 ° of ramp, the second
180 ° of ramp and the ramp beyond the first
360°.
Kathe, Chris (Ceco Corp, jacksonville, FL, USA).
Coner Constr v 33 n 11 Nov 1988 4p.
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
037060 Pure Building. This paper outlines
the need for building integration in the
design of fabric structures by examining the
different necessary components and how they
fit together. It provides examples of this
integrated process that suggests its use in
conventional construction. (Author abstract)
Goldsmith, Nicholas S. (FTL Associates, New York,
NY, USA). Proe Sess Relat Steel Struet Struet Congr
Proceedings of the Sessions Related to Steel
Structures at Structures Congress '89, San
Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ by
ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 726-735.
ELASTICITY
037061 Application of Generalized Ray
Methods in Hydroelasticity Problems of
Thin Shells of Noncanonical Shape. A
substantial simplification in the solution of
hydroelasticity problems, for primarily shells
of noncanonical shape, can be utilization of
generalized ray methods based on replacement
of the wave equation by its equivalent
first-order vector differential equation, a
generalized transport equation, and by the
analysis of the wave fronts that occur during
shell interaction with the fluid. A further
development of the method proposed earlier
to the case of nonstationary radiation
problems and to stationary problems is
examined in this paper. The approach is
apparently applicable for shells of arbitrary
shape, however its realization is shown in
axisymmetric and plane problems. 24 Refs.
Podil'chuk, Yu. N. (Acad of Sciences of the
Ukrainian SSR, Kiev, USSR); Rubtsov, Yu. K. Sov
Appl Meeh v 23 n 10 Apr 1988 p 981-988.
037062 On Drilling Degrees of
Freedom. Variational principles employing
independent rotation fields are investigated. In
the two-dimensional case these lead to
membrane elements with 'drilling degrees of
freedom', of practical use in shell analysis. We
argue that convenient interpolatory patterns
require modifications of the classical
variational framework. Several formulations
are proposed and shown to be convergent for
displacement/rotation interpolations of all
orders. (Author abstract) 29 Refs.
Hughes, Thomas J.R. (Inst for Computer Methods
in Applied Mechanics & Engineering, Stanford, CA,
USA); Brezzi, F. Comput Methods Appl Meeh Eng v
72 n 1 Jan 1989 p 105-12l.
381
037063 Nonuniqueness of Equilibrium
States for Axisymmetric Elastic Shells in
Tension. The problem of non uniqueness of
static axisymmetric solutions for a non-
linearity elastic cylindrical shell in which the
ends are pulled apart with a constant traction
while retaining the radii of its ends fixed is
studied. In the elastic case, we prove the
existence of buckled states and the possibility
of necking. In the hyperelastic case a global
existence and nonuniqueness theorem is
proved, via the energy criterion. (Author
abstract) 19 Refs.
Pastrone, Franco (Univ di Torino, Turin, Italy);
Tonon, Maria Luisa. J Elast v 21 n 1 1989 P 43-59.
037064 Nonlinear Analysis of Elastomeric
Keyboard Domes. The large deflection of an
elastomeric dome is studied using the finite
element method. The material properties of
the elastomer are described by a hyperelastic
model in order to capture the strain energy
stored in the dome during deformation. The
nonlinear responses are determined by the
modified Riks procedure. The calculated
load-deflection curve agrees well with
experimental results. In addition, a pressurized
thick-walled spherical hyperelastic shell is
analyzed and the stress results obtained by the
finite element method are in excellent
agreement with the closed-form solutions.
The results provide a better understanding of
the mechanical behavior of elastomeric
keyboard domes and demonstrate the
usefulness of the finite element method in
designing such structures. (Author abstract)
15 Refs.
Lau, John H. (Hewlett-Packard Lab, Palo Alto, CA,
USA); Jeans, Albert H. Am Soc Meeh Eng Pap
Preprint-American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting,
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
New York, NY, USA, 1988 WA/EEP8 9.
ELASTOPLASTICITY
037065 Elastic-Plastic Analysis of a Radially
Loaded Spherical Shell. An elastic-plastic
analysis of a spherical loaded radially through
a rigid inclusion is performed. The sphere is
modeled as a shallow shell of infinite extent.
The Tresca yield condition is used to derive
the elastic-plastic moment-curvature
relationship in a simple form. This is used to
develop a computationally efficient solution
method. (Author abstract) 22 Refs.
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
Brooks, G.N. (Univ of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN,
USA); Leung, C.-P. J Pressure Vessel Technol Trans
ASME v III n 1 Feb 1989 p 39-46.
037066 Elastojvisco-plastic Dynamic
Response of Thin Shells of Revolution by
Means of Overlay Model. The numerical
analysis of the elasto/visco-plastic dynamic
response of axisymmetricaI thin shells
subjected to arbitrary loads is carried out by
the elasto/visco-plastic overlay model which is
able to express the Bauschinger effect and the
strain rate dependence. Namely, Perzyna's
equation is used for the constitutive relation
of each layer of the overlay model, and as a
whole, the Bauschinger effect and the
influence of viscosity in plastic range of the
material are taken into account. The equations
of motion and the relations between the
strains and displacements are derived by
extending the Sanders linear theory in elastic
shells. The numerical method selected for this
problem is a method using finite difference in
both space and time. (Edited author abstract)
16 Refs. In Japanese.
Tao, Katsumi; Takezono, Shigeo; Ohtsubo, Kazumi;
Mochidone, Hiroyuki; Matsuoka, Hironobu. Nippon
Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 55 n 513 May
1989 p 1145-1152.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS
037067 Elastic Conducting Shells in
Alternating Electromagnetic
Fields. Problems of excitation of elastic
vibrations of shells by variable electromagnetic
fields are considered. For problems of this
type, we give the equations in vector form, the
corresponding initial and boundary conditions,
and the limits of applicability of the equations,
and we provide a description of the general
technique for solving them. For the
electrodynamic part of the problem, we give
an expression for the total-power functional,
and we formulate the orthogonality conditions
for the eigensolutions of the corresponding
equations; for problems involving shells in
specified harmonic fields, we write out the
expansion formula for the magnetic potential
of the eddy currents in eigensolutions. As an
example, we consider the problem of relative
rotation of a thin-walled elastic sphere and a
constant oblique magnetic field, considered in
the rigid-shell approximation in some earlier
papers; we also obtain formulas for
determining the magnetic pressure on the
sphere when a constant magnetic field is
applied. (Edited author abstract) 6 Refs.
382
Radovinskii, A.L. Meeh Solids v 23 n 5 1988 P
117-122.
ENERGY DISSIPATION
037068 Energy Dissipation in Braced
Cylindrical Shells. This paper presents an
experimental and numerical investigation of
the energy dissipation characteristics of mild
steel cylindrical shells subjected to large
deformations under line loadings acting
parallel and perpendicular to the shells'
longitudinal axes. The effects of diametrical
bracing, cylindrical length and external
loading orientation on the deformation
patterns and energy dissipation capacities are
described. The results are applied to the
design of a new impact attenuation system
used in highway safety applications. (Author
abstract) 9 Refs.
Carney III, J.F. (Vanderbilt Univ, Nashville, TN,
USA); Pothen, S. Int J Meeh Sci v. 30 n 3 -4 1988
Some Papers Presented at the International
Symposium on Structural Failure, Second
International Symposium on Structural
Crashworthiness, Cambridge, MA, USA, Jun 6-8
1988 P 203-216
FAILURE
037069 Influence of Geometry on Limit
States of Elastic-Plastic Toroidal Shells
Under Pressure with Bending. A study of
the limit states of elastic-plastic toroidal shells
under combined bending and pressure is
presented. Generally, two different modes of
failure have been observed, however, the
possibility of their existence depends on the
value of pipe factor. It is shown that the
appearance of the determined limit state is
also strongly connected with the elastic
carrying capacity of the torus and in this way
with the position of hoop stresses peak. The
numerical results explain, in detail, the
discussed problem. (Edited author abstract) 11
Refs.
Muc, Aleksander (Technical Univ of Cracow,
Cracow, Pol). Thin-Walled Struet v 7 n 3-4 1989 P
197-212.
FRACTURE
037070 Local Stresses and Strains in Axially
Cracked Cylindrical Shells. A perturbation
solution is obtained for the local stress-strain
fields in an axially cracked cylindrical shell.
The tenth-order differential equations are used
that take into account the transverse shear
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
deformation. The perturbation of a curvature
parameter, A., is employed. The stress intensity
factors for finite size cylindrical shells subjected
to bending and internal pressure are evaluated.
Sufficient accuracy can be obtained without
using fine mesh sizes in regions near the crack
tip. Also analyzed are the influence of cylinder
diameter and shearing stiffness on bulging.
(Edited author abstract) 7 Refs.
Liu, C.T. (Acad Sinica, Beijing, China); Wu, X.J.
Theor Appl Fraet Meeh v 11 n 1 Apr 1989 p 51 - 58.
037071 Finite Element Analysis of a
Circumferentially Cracked Cylindrical Shell
Loaded in Torsion. Finite element methods
are used to evaluate all possible fracture modes
at the tip of a circumferential crack in an
isotropic cylindrical shell subjected to torsion.
The finite element results are compared with
shallow-shell theory data for cylinders with
different geometries. The results indicate that
there is good agreement between the
membrane stress intensity factors calculated
from finite element displacements at the crack
tip and the factors found using shallow-shell
theory for small crack lengths. For longer
cracks, disagreement between these two
approaches is very pronounced. In particular,
the bending stress intensity factors from the
finite element analysis are significantly greater
than the corresponding values determined
from the shallow-shell theory. It is observed
that the out-of-plane, antisymmetric
deformation near the crack produces mixed
mode fracture with crack opening and tearing
displacements. (Author abstract) 14 Refs.
Kumosa, M. (Univ of Cambridge, Cambridge, Engl);
Hull, D. Eng Fraet Meeh v 32 n 1 1989 P 123 -136.
HEAT TREATMENT
037072 Technological Monolithic Character
of Shells Formed from Polymeric
Composition Materials. Solution of the
problem of maintaining a monolithic character
throughout production requires the
development of such a heat-treatment regime
that would make it possible to obtain
monolithic thick-wall wound articles formed
from reinforced plastics. The heat-treatment
process includes two stages: hardening of the
initially liquid polymer-binder in the
composition of the structure and cooling of the
already hard polymeric composite. In this
paper, an attempt was made to demonstrate
the need for conducting detailed investigations
of the mechanical phenomena in the complex
hardening process for the final solution of the
383
problem of maintaining monolithic character
throughout production. Optimal hardening
regimes were assessed for cylinders made of
fiberglass based on the VM-I fiber and binder
EDT-I0 or binder EKR. To establish the
causes of the differences in the test results the
variations in the physicomechanical properties
of the solid polymers EDTI0 and EKR as
functions of temperature were investigated.
The optimization problem was solved
numerically. 10 Refs.
Turusov, R. A. (Acad of Sciences of the USSR,
Moscow, USSR); Korotkov, V.N.; Rogozinskii, A.K.;
Kuperman, A.M.; Sulyaeva, Z.P.; Garanin, V.V.;
Rozenberg, B.A. Meeh Compos Mater v 23 n 6 May
1988 p 773-777.
MANUFACTURE
037073 On the Determination of the
Redrawing Ratio in the Redrawing of
Cylindrical Shells with a Numerical
Simulation (2nd Report, on the
Determination of the Redrawing Ratio by
the Reduction of the Maximum Deep
Drawing Force). A determination method for
the redrawing ratios has been proposed by
analyzing the redrawing process of cylindrical
shells from flat circular blanks using the
elementary theory of plasticity. These
redrawing ratios were calculated using the
criterion based on the reduction of the
maximum deep drawing forces. These
theoretical results on the variations of the
redrawing ratios with the profile radius, the
blank thickness, the frictional force, the
blankholder load and the strain-hardening
exponent are presented using a developed
computer program aimed at rationalizing,
planning and simulating the redrawing
process. It is shown that the maximum deep
drawing forces decreased at about 10-40%
comparing the predicted drawing force with
the usual drawing force. This is based on the
experience of many years standing and skilled
labor. (Author abstract) 13 Refs. In Japanese.
Iseki, Hideo; Murota, Tadao; Katoh, Kazunori.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 505
Sep 1989 p 2249-2256.
037074 Reduction of the Metal Volume in
Pressed Conical Shells. A reduction in the
metal volume in pressed axisymmetric shells of
narrowing form (high-pressure containers,
transition elements, fairings etc.) can be
achieved by improving the uniformity of
thickness of the components being produced.
An improvement in the uniformity of
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
thickness of pressed axisymmetric shells of
narrowing form is attained by combining
compression and drawing operations while
producing such shells. A technology of
multi-stage pressing, in which the concluding
drawing operations have been replaced by
compression of the bottom region of the
blank, has been developed for manufacture of
axisymmetric shells with a large relative
height. 2 Refs.
Maslov, V.D.; Popov, I.P.; Gostev, A.1. Sov Eng Res
v 8 n 1 1988 P 59-61.
037075 On the Determination of the
Redrawing Ratio in the Redrawing of
Cylindrical Shells with a Numerical
Simulation (3rd Report, on the
Determination of the Redrawing Ratio by
the Reduction of the Maximum Deep
Drawing Energy). A determination method
for redrawing ratios has been proposed by
analyzing the redrawing process of cylindrical
shells from flat circular blanks using an
elementary theory of plasticity. These
redrawing ratios were calculated using a
criterion based on the reduction of the
maximum deep drawing energy. Variation of
redrawing ratio with profile radius, blank
thickness, frictional force, blankholder load
and strain-hardening exponent were obtained
using a developed computer program aimed
at rationalizing, planning and simulating the
redrawing process. It is shown that the
maximum deep drawing energy decreased
about 10-40%, comparing the predicted
drawing energy by the usual determination
method for the redrawing ratios. (Author
abstract) 14 Refs. In Japanese.
Iseki, Hideo; Sowerby, Robert; Katoh, Kazunori.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 508
Dec 1988 p 3106-3114.
037076 On the Determination of the
Redrawing Ratio in the Redrawing of
Cylindrical Shells with a Numerical
Simulation (4th report, on the Determination
of the Redrawing Ratio by the Minimax
Optimization of Compromise
Programming). A determination method for
the redrawing ratios has been proposed by
analyzing the redrawing process of cylindrical
shells from flat circular blanks using the
elementary theory of plasticity, and by
applying multi-objective optimization theory.
These redrawing ratios were calculated using
the minimax optimization of a compromise
solution of multi-objective optimization
theory. These theoretical results on the
384
variation of redrawing ratio with profile
radius, blank thickness, frictional force,
blankholder load and strain-hardening
exponent are presented using a developed
computer program aimed at rationalizing,
planning and simulating the redrawing
process. It is shown that the maximum non-
attainment value decreased to about 20-70%
compared to those values of other
optimization criteria. (Author abstract) 16
Refs. In Japanese.
Iseki, Hideo; Sowerby, Robert. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 508 Dec 1988 p 3115-3121.
MATHEMA TICAL MODELS
037077 Elastic-Plastic Ring-Loaded
Cylindrical Shells. The elastic plastic solution
for an infinitely long cylindrical shell with an
axisymmetric ring load is presented. Except
for the material nonlinearity, the standard
assumptions of small deflection shell theory
were made. Because the principal directions
are known for the axisymmetric problem, the
Tresca yield condition was used. This made it
possible to obtain closed-form expressions for
the elastic-plastic, moment-curvature relations,
greatly simplifying the computational task.
The actual stress distribution through the
thickness was used, making these relations
exact. Yielding was contained near the load.
Thus, for the analysis the cylinder was divided
along its axis into elastic-plastic and purely
elastic regions. Solutions were obtained for
each region which were then matched at their
intersection to give the complete solution. All
results are given in dimensionless form so that
they may be applied to any shell. (Author
abstract) 12 Refs.
Brooks, Gregory N. (Univ of Tennessee, Knoxville,
TN, USA).] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n 4 Dec
1988 p 761-766.
037078 Mechanics and Finite Elements of
Shells. This article begins with a brief review
of the foundations: The classical theory of
Love is described with attention to the
underlying hypothesis and consequent
limitations. A more general theory is described
which removes the constraints of Love; the
inclusion of transverse strains admits simpler
finite elements, accommodates the thick shell
via layers and even a transition to the three-
dimensional approximation. The concept of
the finite element is reviewed in the context of
the discrete approximation of shells. Specific
attention is given to those problems which are
peculiar to shells: The predominant roles of
 Excerpts from The En8ineerin8 Index Annual 1989
flexural and extensional deformations, the
lesser role of transverse shear, can lead to
excessive stiffness ('locking'). Origins and
procedures are described to circumvent these
problems. (Edited author abstract) 147 Refs.
Wempner, Gerald (Georgia Inst of Technology,
Atlanta, GA, USA). Appl Meek Rev v 42 n 5 May
1989 p 129-142.
NOISE ABATEMENT
037079 Statistical Theory of Internal
Soundproofing in Cylindrical Shells. In a
number of cases of practical interest, an
interesting question is about the capability of
thin-walled shells of localizing wave energy
close to the radiator encased in this shell, i.e.,
is separated by it from the environment. This
phenomenon represents the concept of
internal soundproofing (isolation). The paper
concludes that as the case of soundproofing of
a shell from the external field (enclosure), the
following physical phenomena are important:
1. Increase of soundproofing effectiveness is
nonmonotonous with respect to the frequency.
2. Dips (notches) in the spectral characteristic
of soundproofing are due to resonant
phenomena in the shell and in air volume
within the shell. 3. The experimental analysis
of the internal soundproofing of shells (using
standard measuring techniques) does not
reveal these dips (notches) in soundproofing
due to averaging in the octave frequency
bands. 4 Refs.
Guzhas, D.R. Vib Eng v 3 n 1 1989 P 21- 26.
037080 Evaluation of Active Noise Control
in a Cylindrical Shell. This paper examines
the physical mechanisms governing the use of
active noise control in an extended volume of
a cylindrical shell. Measured data were
compared with computed results from a
previously derived analytical model based on
infinite shell theory. For both the analytical
model and experiment, the radiation of
external monopoles is coupled to the internal
acoustic field through the radial displacement
of the thin, elastic, cylindrical shell. An active
noise control system was implemented inside
the cylinder using a fixed array of discrete
monopole sources, all of which lie in the plane
of the exterior noise sources. Good agreement
between measurement and prediction was
obtained for both internal pressure response
and overall noise reduction. (Edited author
abstract) 6 Refs.
Silcox, R.J. (NASA Langley Research Cent,
385
Hampton, VA, USA); Lester, H.C.; Abler, S.B. J
Vib Acoust Stress Reliab Des v III n 3 Jul 1989 P
337-342.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
037081 Non Contacting Testing and NDT
for Composite Shells. There is, today, a
strong need for reliable large-field ways of
inspecting for the initial quality of composite
structures and for monitoring, over long
times, the continued integrity of such
structures. This paper introduces two new
methods which, when used in combination,
has strong promise of meeting this need. The
first, called Spectral Density Analysis is a
purely optical method for full field
measurement of surface displacements. The
second is a fiber-optic laser based method to
generate and detect ultrasonic waves for
interrogating the interior of structures. It is
called Thermal Acousto Photonic NDE.
(Author abstract) 5 Refs.
Burger, C.P. (Texas A&M Univ, College Station,
TX, USA). ASME Pressure Vessels Piping Div Publ
PVP v 146 Advances in Macro-Mechanics of
Composite Material Vessels and Components,
Presented at the 1988 ASME Pressure Vessels and
Piping Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Jun
19- 23 1988. Publ by American Soc of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), New York, NY, USA, 1988 P
167-171.
PLASTICITY
037082 Numerical-Analytical Solution of
the Thermoplasticity Problem for Locally
Heated Shallow Shells. We construct a
numerical-analytic solution of the
thermoplasticity problem for locally heated
shallow shells. The solution is obtained by
using the method of integral equations and
the self-correcting method of successive
loadings. As an example, we investigate the
thermally stressed state in plates heated by
normal-circular heat sources. In the case of
unilateral heating of a plate by normal-circular
heat sources, we estimate the accuracy of our
solution. We consider the problem of
optimization of the heating parameters of a
plate with the aim of bringing the residual
compressive stresses into a specified region of
favorable values (from the standpoint of
strength). (Author abstract) 10 Refs.
Maksimovich, V.N.; Khomlyak, L.V. Meek Solids v
23 n 51988 P 123-129.
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
PLASTICS APPLICATIONS
037083 Use of Semimomentless Theory to
Design Multiply Closed Cylindrical Shells of
a Reinforced Plastic. Multiply closed,
convex, thin-walled cylindrical shells of
arbitrary cross section are widely used in
different types of power plants.
Semimomentless theory was used in this paper
to account for the effect of any distributed or
concentrated loads if they were discontinuous
along the shell and was illustrated using a
composite shell as an example. A onceclosed
cylindrical shell of rectangular cross section
was examined. The shell was secured in
cantilever fashion and loaded by a transverse
force distributed uniformly over the length.
After minimizing the potential energy
functional, a system of resolvent equations was
obtained, and the calculations were performed
for an orthotropic material with given
stiffness characteristics. The structure of the
material was assumed to be constant for each
panel used in the shell. 3 Refs.
Dudchenko, A.A. (S. Ordzhonikidze Moscow
Aviation Inst, Moscow, USSR). Meeh Compos Mater
v 23 n 4 Jan 1988 p 437 -443.
037084 Experimental Study of Coefficients
of Variation of Strength Characteristics of
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Shells under
Internal Shock Loading. Variation
coefficient estimates were obtained of the
limit load and limit strain on cylindrical
glass-fiber-reinforced plastic shells under
impulsive loading. The test objects were free
cylindrical glass-fiber-reinforced plastic shells
into which steel 20 reinforcing shells were
inserted. The glassplastic shells were made by
the method of 'wet' winding of the fabric and
impregnated with binder EDT-IO. Loading
was accomplished by exploding a spherical
charge in the center of the shell. Estimates of
the mathematical expectation and the
standard deviation were calculated by the
method of functional probabilities and
statistical modeling. It was found that under
extreme shock loads, glass-plastic shells have
higher strength than under static loading,
according to the limit strain criterion. 10 Refs.
Vorontsova, O.S.; Syrunin, M.A.; Fedorenko, A.G.;
Khomutinin, Yu.V.; Tsypkin, V.I.; Bilyk, N.A.;
Ivanov, A.G. Meeh Compos Mater v 23 n 4 Jan 1988
p 443-447.
386
PRESSURE EFFECTS
037085 Improved Asymptotic Early-Time
Response Formulae for Submerged Elastic
Shells Impinged Upon by an Incident
Pressure Pulse. The early-time solutions for
this class of problems have often been
obtained by the use of integral transform
techniques and the method of steepest
descents to asymptotically evaluate the inverse
transform integrals. These steepest descent
solutions overestimated the elastic restoring
force of the shell for the early time period in
which the shell response is of practical
interest. The accuracy of the early-time
solution is improved by a correction of this
elastic restoring force term. 13 Refs.
Huang, H. (US Naval Surface Warfare Cent, Silver
Spring, MD, USA). Am Soe Meeh Eng Pap Preprint
- American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Houston, TX, USA, Jan 22-251989. Publ by
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
New York, NY, USA, 1989 OCNll 5p.
SOUND INSULATION
037086 Soundproof Characteristics of
Sandwich Cylindrical Shells with a
Honeycomb Core Partially Exposed in Free
Field. An analysis is presented for the sound-
proof characteristics of sandwich cylindrical
shells with honeycomb core excited by axially
propagating internal plane acoustic waves. The
shell is exposed in a free field by the length of
I, however is otherwise covered with infinitely
long rigid cylindrical walls. To simplify the
shell equations, it is assumed that the core
material resists only transverse shear forces
and that the facing resist only bending
moments. The sound transmission loss of the
shell wall, TL, is derived and calculated
numerically for various values of the physical
parameters involved. (Author abstract) 20
Refs. In Japanese.
Chonan, Seiji. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu CHen
v 54 n 508 Dec 1988 p 2883-2889.
STABILITY
037087 Determination of Critical Parameters
of Momentary External Pressure for a
Spherical Shell with Initial De8ection. A
solution is presented for the problem of the
dynamic loss of stability of a spherical shell
subjected to momentary external pressure. The
shell, reinforced in two directions, is regarded
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
as being structurally orthotropic. The critical
value of compressive forces in the radial
sections of the shell are determined within the
framework of a linear formulation of the
problem, with the use of analytical criteria of
dynamic instability, for linear and parabolic
laws of change in the compressive forces over
time. 3 Refs.
Amiro, I. Va. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n 10 Apr 1988
p 903-907.
037088 Stability of Shells of Revolution of
Fiber Composites with Initial Cracks in the
Microstructure. A method of calculating the
stability and initial postcritical behavior of
shells of revolution of composite materials with
variable mechanical characteristics dependent
on microstructural damages at the interface
between the components is presented. The
stability of glass-plastic cylindrical and conical
shells with different degrees of damage to the
material is examined. The method makes it
possible to study the stability of shells of
composite materials in which the components
separate from one another during mechanical
or other types ofloading. 9 Refs.
Vanin, G.A. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR,
Kiev, USSR); Semenyuk, N.P. Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n
10 Apr 1988 p 908-914.
037089 In8uence of Conditions of End
Fixing on the Stability of Longitudinal
Compressed Multilayer Conical Shells. The
problem of the stability of multilayer
orthotropic conical shells-and also cylindrical
shells, as a particular case - is considered, and
the influence of the boundary conditions on
the critical values of the longitudinal
compressive force is analyzed. A family of
curves of the critical load as a function of the
current value of L/Rme for shells with different
conditions at the ends is shown. Analysis of the
results offers the possibility of dividing the
consideration of the boundary conditions into
two groups with four versions in each. 9 Refs.
Shul'ga, N.A. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Primak, A.P. Sov Appl Meeh Oct
1988 p 348 - 352.
037090 Stability of a Sloping Panel of
Negative Gaussian Curvature. The problem
of the stability of a thin elastic shell of the
hyperbolic paraboloid type, rectangular in the
plane, when the contour lines coincide with the
direction of the principal curvatures is
387
considered. The linear stability problem and
the deformation of the shell under large
deflections with the construction of the 'load-
deflection' graphs is investigated. 2 Refs.
Samol'yanov, 1.1. (L'vov Polytechnic Inst, USSR).
Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 353-357.
037091 Stability of a Multilayer Cylindrical
Shell in Interlayer Pressure. The problem of
the stability of a cylindrical shell or circular
ring with one-side connection with the
surrounding elastic or absolutely rigid space
has been studied in a number of investigations.
In solving this problem for thin shells it is
possible to neglect the variation of the shell
geometry as a result of subcritical behavior,
and also changes in the area of contact with
the surrounding space during the loss of
stability. Consequently, the solution can be
obtained in linear formulation, as carried out
in the present paper. 4 Refs.
Pal'chevskii, A.S. Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p
358-362.
037092 Analysis of Parametric Oscillations
of Shells of Revolution with Variable
Parameters. This paper examines the
parametric oscillations of thin shells of
revolution of arbitrary contour closed in the
annular direction. The shells were assembled
from a certain number of orthotropic and
isotropic layers of variable thickness. The
material of each layer is assumed to be elastic
and governed by Hooke's generalized law.
The problem is solved on the basis of the
linear theory of shells and assuming that the
hypothesis of nondeformable normals for the
entire packet of the shell as a whole is
satisfied. 9 Refs.
Vasilenko, A.T. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Cherin'ko, P.N. Sov Appl Meeh
Oct 1988 p 363-367.
037093 Initial Post-Critical Behavior and
Flaw Sensitivity of Composite Cylindrical
Shells with Difference Reinforcement
Schemes. Results of the stability of reinforced
shells are used to study the character of their
post-critical behavior and sensitivity to the
initial geometrical defects. The formulated
problem is solved through the theory of initial
post-critical behavior and Koiter's special
theory. A circular cylindrical shell of the
length L, radius R, and thickness t consisting
of N layers with different fiber orientations is
examined. 6 Refs.
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
Semenyuk, N.P. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Zhukova, N.B. Sov Appl Meeh
Oct 1988 p 385-392.
037094 Loss of Stability for a Spherical
Shell. On the basis of three-dimensional
linearized stability theory, we obtain the
characteristic equation for determining the
critical inner radius of a spherical support,
whose outer surface is acted upon by a load
equal to the contact pressure on the boundary
of the support and the rock mass. The
magnitude of the contact pressure is
determined in solving the problem of the
precritical stress-strain state of the support and
the elastic-plastic mass, which has an interface
between zones of elastic and plastic
deformation. (Edited author abstract) 7 Refs.
Meshkov, S.I.; Shashkin, A.I. Meeh Solids v 23 n 5
1988 P 113-116
037095 Numerische Stabilitaetsanalyse
Linear und Nichtlinear, Deformierbarer,
Parametererregter Schalentragwerke.
[Numerical Stability Analysis of Linearly
and Nonlinearly Deformable Shell
Structures Under Parametric
Excitation]. The present contribution derives
a numerical concept for the stability analysis
of linearly and nonlinearly responding shell
structures under parametric excitation.
Starting from a displacement discretization of
the incremental principle of virtual
displacements and using Ljapunow's stability
definitions, handy stability bounds are
presented, especially also for nonlinear
fundamental motions. Two of many computed
examples demonstrate their applicability; the
correctness of the results is checked by
properties of line-search evaluated
neighbouring motions. (Author abstract) 15
Refs.
Eller, Conrad (Ruhr-Univ Bochurn, Bochurn, West
Ger); Kraetzig, W. B. lng Areh v 59 n 5 1989 P
345-356.
037096 Zur Stabilitaet Flacher
Eckgestuetzter Hyparschalen aus Holz mit
Geradlinigen Randtraegern. [On the Stability
of Shallow, Wooden Hypar-shells with
Straight, Point-Supported Edge Beams]. This
paper is concerned with finite element
stability analysis of shallow, thin hypar-shells
made of timber, with straight, COrner-
supported edge beams. A feature of the
analysis model is the direct consideration of
the structural anisotropy of the shell
membrane consisting of two layers of wooden
388
boards, orthogonally attached to each other
by nails. As far as the investigated hypar-shells
are concerned, reaching of the ultimate load
(in this paper the term 'ultimate load' is used
in a restrictive sense) is found to be the
relevant mode of loss of stability. This agrees
with experimental results reported in the
literature. (Author abstract) 23 Refs. In
German.
Rattasepp, T. (Technische Univ Tallinn, Tallinn,
USSR); Mang, H.A. Bauingenieur v 64 n 6 Jun
1989 p 255-266.
STEEL
037097 Optimized Wall Thickness of Shells
of Revolution. The aim of this paper was to
develop a concept for the design of shells of
revolution with different Gaussian curvature
using a simplified finite element buckling
analysis. A cooling tower shell was used as an
example for calculations. 7 Refs.
Wittek, Udo (Univ Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern,
West Ger). Proe Sess Relat Steel Struet Stroet Congr
Proceedings of the Sessions Related to Steel
Structures at Structures Congress '89, San
Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ by
ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 686-695.
STRAIN
037098 Deformation Bounds for Cyclically
Loaded Shell Structures Operating under
Creep Conditions. Constitutive relations,
based on the Bailey-Orowan's creep theory,
are used to develop a maximum work
condition which includes the influence of an
internal state. A bounding theorem on
displacement is obtained for structures
subjected to cyclic loading. An application of
the bound is illustrated. (Author abstract) 6
Refs.
Cocks, Alan C.F. (Univ of Leicester, Leicester,
Engl); Leckie, F.A. J Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n
3 Sep 1988 p 509-516.
037099 Refined Small Strain and Moderate
Rotation Theory of Elastic Anisotropic
Shells. A general refined shell theory that
accounts for the transverse deformation, small
strains, and moderate rotations is presented.
The theory can be reduced to various existing
shell theories including: the classical (i.e.,
linear Kirchhoff-Love) shell theory, the
Donnell-Mushtari-Vlasov shell theory, the
Leonard-Koiter-Sanders moderate rotations
shell theory, the von Karman type shear-
deformation shell theory and the moderate-
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
rotation shear-deformation plate theory
developed by Reddy. The present theory is
developed from an assumed displacement
field, nonlinear strain-displacement equations
that contain small strain and moderate
rotation terms, and the principle of virtual
displacements. (Edited author abstract) 47 Refs.
Schmidt, R. (Univ of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, West
Ger); Reddy, IN. ] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n
3 Sep 1988 p 611 - 61 7.
037100 Assumed Strain Stabilization
Procedure for the 9-Node Lagrange Shell
Element. An assumed strain (strain
interpolation) method is used to construct a
stabilization matrix for the 9-node shell
element. The stabilization procedure can be
justified based on the Hellinger-Reissner
variational method. It involves a projection
vector which is orthogonal to both linear and
quadratic fields in the local co-ordinate system
of each quadrature point. All terms in the
development involve 2 X 2 quadrature in the
9-node element. Example problems show
good accuracy and an almost optimal rate of
convergence. (Author abstract) 40 Refs.
Belytschko, Ted (Northwestern Univ, Evanston, IL,
USA); Wong, Bak Leong; Stolarski, Henryk. IntJ
Numer Methods Eng v 28 n 2 Feb 1989 p 385-414.
037101 Refined Small Strain and Moderate
Rotation Theory of Elastic Anisotropic
Shells. A general refined shell theory that
accounts for the transverse deformation, small
strains, and moderate rotations is presented.
The theory can be reduced to existing shell
theories including the classical (i.e., linear
Kirchhoff-Love) shell theory, Donnell-
Mushtari-Vlasov shell theory, Leonard-Koiter-
Sanders moderate rotations shell theory, von
Karman type shear-deformation shell theory
and moderate rotation shear deformation
plate theory developed by J.N. Reddy. The
present theory is developed from an assumed
displacement field, nonlinear strain
displacement equations that contain small
strain and moderate rotation terms, and the
principle of virtual displacements. The
governing equations exhibit strong coupling
between the membrane and bending
deformation which should alter the bending,
stability, and post-buckling behavior of certain
shell structures as predicted using available
theories. (Edited author abstract) 47 Refs.
Schmidt, R. (Univ of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, West
Ger); Reddy, IN. Am Soe Meeh Eng Pap Preprint-
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, Chicago,
389
IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by American
Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York,
NY, USA, 1988 WA/APM37 7.
STRESSES
037102 Analysis of an Axisymmetric
Thermoelastic Plastic Stress-Strain State of a
Laminar Shell Under Repeated Loading.
Simple repeated loading processes were
considered on laminar shells of revolution by
loads of both the same and the reverse sign as
for the initial loading. The investigation was
done within the framework of the Kirchhoff-
Love hypothesis. It was assumed that the
creep strain is negligibly small as compared to
the instantaneous elastic-plastic strains. A thin
shell of revolution with meridian section of
arbitrary shape and consisting of variable-
thickness layers was considered. The shell was
subjected, from an initially unstressed and
unstrained state, to axisymmetric loads and
nonuniform heating that varied in time in
such a way that plastic strain domains
occurred in which unloading then took place.
The results of the analysis showed that the
active loading process occurred in the first two
steps in the shell in the form of a plastic strain
zone at the shell inner surface. 6 Refs.
Babeshko, M.E. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR); Prokhorenko, l.V.;
Sokolovskaya. V.l. Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May
1988 p 1054-1058.
037103 Combined Theoretical and
Experimental Method of Determining
Residual Stresses in Wound Composite
Shells. A combined theoretical and
experimental method of determining residual
stresses, and the strains of wound composite
shells induced by these stresses, is suggested.
The method makes use of shells of revolution
that are formed by a system of layers of
unidirectional composite material placed at
given angles to the generatrix. Each of the
elementary unidirectional layers is allotted
rigidities in tension and compression as well as
in shear. The elastic constants of such a layer,
including the modulus and Poisson's ratio, are
determined experimentally in tests of
circularly wound tubular specimens. For
determining residual stresses it is assumed that
the deformations of the layer are composed of
elastic, thermal, and curing components and
deformations induced by prestressing of the
reinforcing elements. The method was
experimentally verified in tests of cylindrical
shells made of glass reinforced plastic
 Excerpts from The En8ineerin8 Index Annual 1989
comprised of glass fiber VMPS and epoxy
resin ED-20 binder. The results confirm the
possibility of using the combined theoretical
and experimental method for determining
technological stresses and deformations of
wound composite shells. 5 Refs.
Morozov, E.V. (K.E. Tsiolkovskii Moscow lnst of
Aviation Technology, USSR). Meeh Compos Mater v
23 n 6 May 1988 p 802-807.
037104 Axisymmetric Elastoplastic Stress
State of Branched Shell Systems with
Nonisothermal Loading Processes. The
axisymmetric elastoplastic stress state of a
branched shell with a complex form of the
meridian and poles is investigated, in
conditions of quasistatic thermal and force
loading which varies over time. A shell of
revolution with a branched meridian is
considered in conditions of axisymmetric
connective heat transfer with the surrounding
medium, under the action of a variable load.
The problem is solved within the framework
of the Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis in a
geometrically linear, quasistatic formulation;
creep deformation is neglected in comparison
with the instantaneous elastoplastic
deformation. The equations of state employed
are the relations of the theory of simple
loading processes, taking account of their
previous history which are linearized by the
method of variable elasticity parameters. 8
Refs.
Galishin, A.Z. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Kiev, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh Sep 1988 p
234-38.
037105 Large Elastic Deformation of Shear
Deformable Shells of Revolution: Numerical
and Experimental Results. Through an
integrating matrix approach, a numerical
solution is obtained to the equations governing
large elastic deformation of a clamped circular
cylinder due to internal pressure. The shell
equations include the effects of large strains,
thickness changes, and transverse shear
deformation. The numerical solution is
compared to results from an asymptotic
analysis and from experiments on rubber
cylinders. A specialized Rivlin-Saunders
strain-energy density function is assumed for
the rubber, with material constants
determined from tensile tests and deformed
cylinder profiles at a high inflation pressure.
(Author abstract) 15 Refs.
Kempski, M.H. (Rochester lnst of Technology,
Rochester, NY, USA); Taber, L.A.; Su, Fong-Chin.
390
J Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n 3 Sep 1988 p
629-634.
037106 Stress-Strain Fields at Crack Tip in
Axially Cracked Cylindrical Shells and the
Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors. A
perturbation solution for stress-strain fields
(including modes I, II, III) at crack tip in
axially cracked cylindrical shells is given. The
analysis, using 10th-order differential
equations which take the transverse shear
deformations into account, involves
perturbation in a curvature parameter y2,
(y2 = [12(Inv2) J'a 2/Rh). Stress intensity
factors for finite size cylindrical shells under
bending and internal pressure loading are
evaluated. A good accuracy can be obtained
without using fine meshes in a region near
the crack tip. Besides, the influence of the
finite size and the shearing stiffness on
bulging factors, which are commonly used in
engineering, are analyzed. (Author abstract) 6
Refs.
Liu, Chuntu (Acad Sinica, China); Wu, Xijia. Aeta
Meeh Sin v 3 n 3 1987 P 223-230.
037107 Surface Crack in Shells Under
Mixed-Mode Loading Condition. The
problem of a shallow shell containing a surface
crack and subjected to general loading
conditions is considered. It is shown that, as
in the three-dimensional elasticity formulation,
the mode I state can be separated whereas
modes II and III remain coupled. A line
spring model is developed to formulate the
part-through crack problem under mixed-
mode conditions. A shallow shell of arbitrary
curvature having a part-through crack located
on the outer or the inner surface of the shell
is then considered. Reissner's transverse shear
theory is used to formulate the problem by
assuming that the shell is subjected to all five
moment and stress resultants. The uncoupled
antisymmetric problem is solved for
cylindrical and toroidal shells having a surface
crack in various orientations and the primary
and the secondary stress intensity factors are
given. (Edited author abstract) 20 Refs.
Joseph, P.F. (Lehigh Univ, Bethlehem, PA, USA);
Erdogan, F. J Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 55 n 4 Dec
1988 p 795-804.
037108 Investigation of the Spherical
Membrane Cap Under Partial Load. It is
shown how the internal forces due to an
axially non-symmetric load of a spherical cap
can be determined within the framework of
the membrane theory. We present the
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
method of internal forces for the terms of the
Fourier expansion. In a numerical example
these forces are computed for a spherical cap
with the half central angle cPo = 38 As can
0
• asymptotic formula is derived to characterize
be seen, for n = 2,3,4 closed formulae can be
obtained, while for n ~ 5 the calculation has
to be carried out numerically. (Edited author
abstract) 4 Refs.
Olitzscher, Frank. Acta Tech (Budapest) v 100 n 3-4
1987 P 225 - 238.
037109 Shallow Shells with Local Deviations
in Shape. A simple solution is presented for
the stress analysis of shallow shells with
imperfections in the geometry. The model is
based on the bending equations of the shell,
and the imperfection is considered by an
equivalent load method. A Ritz solution for a
given shape of local imperfection is obtained in
explicit form, and the expressions are applied
to the case of an elliptical paraboloidal shell.
(Author abstract) 14 Refs.
Godoy, L.A. (Univ Nacional de Cordoba, Cordoba,
Argent); Quinones, D.; Wagner, R. Bull Int Assoc
Shell Spat Struct v 29 - 2 Aug 1988 P 55 - 62.
037110 Stress Distribution by the
Misalignment of Spherical and its Allowable
Limit. The expressions for stress distribution
in the region of misalignment of spherical
shells have been derived on the basis of the
theory of plates and shells. The analytical
expressions are verified with the results
obtained by FEM and photoelastic experiment.
The effect of several parameters on stress
concentration has been analyzed with the
expressions derived. The regressions of the
analytical results of 76 misalignment have been
made and the expressions for engineering
calculations are given. The nomograph for the
allowable limits of geometric irregularities is
presented. (Edited author abstract)
Kui, Jishan (Nanjing Inst of Chemical Technology,
Nanjing, China); Wang, Jiuqing. HuagongJixie v 15 n
61988p341-347,353.
037111 Solution of the Axisymmetric
Problem for a Shallow Conical Shell by the
Small Parameter Method. By the method of
small parameters, an approximate solution is
constructed for the problem of a rotating
shallow conical shell. The error of the method
is estimated by comparing it with the results
obtained by a numeric computer simulation.
(Author abstract) 2 Refs.
Sakharov, V.Yu. (Leningrad Univ, Leningrad,
USSR). Leningrad Univ Mech Bull n 2 1988 P 60 - 61.
391
037112 Bifurcation of Axisymmetric
Equilibrium of Thin Shells of Revolution
with Regular Shaped Imperfections. An
the effect of a regular axisymmetric shape
imperfection upon the classical critical load of
a perfect convex shell belonging to a certain
class. 4 Refs.
Teterin, I.Yu. (Leningrad Univ, Leningrad, USSR).
Leningrad Univ Mech Bull n 2 1988 P 62-64.
037113 Assessment of Assumed Strain
Methods in Finite Rotation Shell Analysis. A
critical assessment of the 4-node assumed strain
element as proposed by E.N. Dvorkin and K.J.
Bathe is made. The element performed
excellently in all investigated shell problems
which sometimes caused difficulties for other
assumed strain techniques. For efficient
computation in the non-linear range,
linearization of the virtual work equation is
done to yield the consistent tangent stiffness.
The shell formulation is done for stress and
strain tensors based on local element
coordinates. To demonstrate the effectiveness
and rapid convergence of the non-linear
formulation, three examples are tested for
large displacements. (Edited author abstract)
19 Refs.
Stander, Nielen (Univ Stuttgart, Stuttgart, West
Ger); Matzenmiller, Anton; Ramm, Ekkehard. Eng
Comput (Swansea Wales) v 6 n I May 1989 p 58 - 66.
037114 Investigation of Partially
Pressurized Thick Cylindrical Shells. In
applications of thick cylinders, such as gun
barrels and hydraulic jacks, the internal
pressure is not only variable, but the pressure
front at each moment moves along the length
of the cylinder leading to the division of these
cylinders into two segments with
discontinuous loading. In this work, the FEM
has been applied to investigate the state of
stress existing at the discontinuity zone of
thickness or pressure (transition zone). Results
indicate the existence of a considerable
bending moment due to the variation of
longitudinal stress across the thickness at the
transition zone. These results could help the
designers to optimize the thicknesses of the
cylinders in such applications as mentioned
above. (Edited author abstract) II Refs.
Mahmood, Najdat A. (Military Engineering Coli);
Jweeg, Muhsin J.; Rajab, Mumtaz Y. Modell Simul
Control B v 25 n 3 1989 P 47-64.
037115 Thick General Shells Under General
Loading. Three equilibrium equations in
terms of three displacements are derived in
 Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
scalar mathematics form, by linear, small-strain
elasticity principles, for the case of general
thick-walled shells under general loading.
These reduce to well-known forms for the
particular cases of flat-plates and thick circular
cylindrical shells. (Author abstract)
Donnell, Lloyd H. ] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n
2Jun 1989 p 391-394.
037116 Shear Deformable Finite Element
for the Analysis of General Shells of
Revolution. A 64-dof isoparametric
quadrilateral finite element is presented for
the analysis of generally laminated shells of
revolution. The effects of shear deformation
and rotary inertia are accounted for by using
shear deformation theory that employs the
parabolic shear strain variation across the
thickness. The classical thin shell theory is the
special case of shear deformation theory used
in the present study. Thus, the thin shell
element also can be obtained from the present
thick shell element by simply having the
displacement parameters (UI and VI) associated
with the shear rotations as zeros. The
numerical results presented illustrate the
performance of the element and the effects of
shear deformation. (Author abstract) 33 Refs.
Bhimaraddi, A. (Univ of Canterbury, Christchurch,
NZ); Carr, A.J.; Moss, P.J. Comput Struet v 31 n 3
1989 P 299-308.
037117 Stressed State of Inhomogeneous
Elastic Shells of Revolution. An extension is
discussed regarding an averaging technique
for the case of quasi-periodic structures with
curvilinear anisotropy, as applied to problems
of elasticity written in the displacements. In
this paper, the authors employ the technique
to reduce the static problem of
inhomogeneous elasticity in the stresses,
utilizing hypotheses of shell theory (i.e., the
problem of equilibrium of an inhomogeneous
anisotropic shell of quasi-periodic structure to
a recursive sequence of problems for a
homogeneous anisotropic shell. The authors
offers a solution for the problem of
equilibrium of a shell formed by a winding or
coil that is acted upon by internal pressure. 8
Refs.
Levin, V.D.; Pobedrya, B.E. Meeh Solids v 23 n 4
1988 P 140-145.
037118 Simulation of Temperature and
Elastic-Plastic Stresses in Solid Shell During
Continuous Casting Process. An analytical
method to simulate the temperature and the
stress fields in a continuous casting slab under
392
steady operating conditions is presented. The
heat conduction equation incorporating heat
generation due to solidification was solved by
finite element method to obtain the spatially
steady temperature distribution when
considering material flow. Elastic-plastic
stresses in the solidified shell were also
evaluated. A parameter study was carried out
in order to obtain the optimal operating
condition such as shell thickness, site of crater
end, and stress distribution as functions of the
casting speed and cooling condition. (Author
abstract) 6 Refs. In Japanese.
Tatsumi, Naohisa; Wang, Zhi-Gang; Inoue, Tatsuo.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 55 n 514
Jun 1989 p 1389-1393.
037119 Elastic Stress Analysis of Two
Oblique Intersecting Cylindrical Shells
Subjected to Internal Pressure. In this paper,
the elastic stress distribution in two oblique
intersecting cylindrical shells subjected to
internal pressure is discussed. We first
investigated the elastic stresses and
displacements to the intersected shell
(cylindrical vessel) with an arbitrary curved
hole under internal pressure. In making this
analysis, a curvilinear coordinate system (e, ~)
e eo
is used and one of which = is made to
coincide with the hole contour r. The
governing equation is the equation of shallow
shell in this coordinate system. When the hole
contour is an ellipse, the obtained solution is a
complex function expressed in Mathieu
function. Then, we discussed the stresses and
displacements expressed in the edge effect
form on the basis of Flugge's equations for the
intersecting shell (nozzle). At last, a boundary
condition along the intersection curve is
derived. Numerical computation was
conducted, and the results are compared with
experiments. (Author abstract) 10 Refs.
Chien, Huei-Lin (Nanjing lnst of Chemical
Technology, Nanjing, China); Wu, Shao-Jun. ASME
Pressure Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 139 Design
and Analysis of Piping, Pressure Vessels and
Components, 1988, Presented at the 1988 ASME
Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA,Jun 19-23 1988. Publ by American Soc
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 119-124.
037120 Cutouts in Laminated Plates and
Shells. A finite element method for evaluating
stresses around cutouts in thin to moderately
thick laminated composite plate and shell
structures is presented. Ahmad's eight noded
isoparametric quadrilateral shell element
 Excerpts from The Eneineerine Index Annual 1989
(Ahmad et aI., 1970) is extended to laminated
composite structures by incorporating the
thickness concept. The element includes an
arbitrary number of bonded layers, each of
which may have a different thickness,
orientation of principal material directions
and elastic properties. The transverse shear
deformation is taken into account in
developing the stiffness matrix. (Author
abstract) 9 Refs.
Widera, G.E.O. (Univ of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, IL, USA); Moumene, M. ASME Pressure
Vessels Piping Div Publ PVP v 146 Advances in
Macro-Mechanics of Composite Material Vessels and
Components, Presented at the 1988 ASME Pressure
Vessels and Piping Conference, Pittsburgh, PA,
USA,Jun 19-23 1988. Publ by American Soc of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1988 P 155-158.
037121 Thermal Stresses in Thick Spherical
Shell with Internal Heat Generation. The
elastic thermal stresses in thick spherical shells
with internally uniform heat generation have
been studied analytically. The dimensionless
stress functions have been developed. The
computer generated graphs for the stress
functions for various outside to inside radii
ratios are presented to facilitate computation
of the stresses at any radial location of the
shell. The stress functions for the thermal
stresses for solid sphere with internal heat
generation have also been developed. The
radial location for the maximum values of the
dimensionless stress functions have been
determined and shown on the graphs. The
graphs for the stress functions are general
enough to compute the radial and hoop
stresses which are produced by the
temperature gradient encountered in the
shells. Additional aspects of the subject are
discussed. (Edited author abstract) 8 Refs.
Bhaduri, S. (Univ of Texas at EI Paso, EI Paso, TX,
USA); Kapoor, P.S. ASME Pet Div Publ PD v 21
Technical Economics, Synfuels, and Coal Energy-
1989, Presented at the Twelfth Annual Energy-
Sources Technology Conference and Exhibition,
Houston, TX, USA, Jan 22 - 25 1989. Publ by
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (AS ME),
New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 65-70.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
037122 Step Pressure and Blast Responses
of Clamped Orthotropic Hemispherical
Shells. This paper is concerned with studies
on the axisymmetric free vibration and
dynamic response of polar orthotropic
393
clamped hemispherical shells subjected to
suddenly applied loads, including idealized
step pressure, a rectangular pressure impulse
of finite duration and realistic blast pressure
over the total or partial area. The
mathematical model is formulated in terms of
the mid-surface displacements and cross-
section rotation with effects of transverse
shear strain and rotary inertia taken into
account. The Rayleigh-Ritz method is
employed to solve the hemispherical shell
vibration problem by assumed modes in
Legendre polynomials, and the normal mode
superposition is used in the analysis of its
dynamic response. Numerical results for the
natural frequencies, mode shapes, structural
deformation and dynamic stresses are obtained
with the fiber orientation parallel or
perpendicular to the meridian direction as a
design guide. (Edited author abstract) 20 Refs.
Chao, C.C. (Nat! Tsing Hua Univ, Hsinchu,
Taiwan); Tung, T.P. Int J Impact Eng v 8 n 3 1989
P 191-207.
037123 Elasto/Visco-Plastic Dynamic
Response ofAxisymmetrical Shells Under
Mechanical and/or Thermal Loading. An
analytical method for the e1asto/visco-plastic
dynamic problems of axis ymmetrica I thin
shells subjected to mechanical and/or thermal
loads is developed. The equations of motion
and the relations between the strains and
displacements are derived by extending
Sanders' elastic shell theory. For the
constitutive relations, the Perzyna elasto/
visco-plastic equations including the
temperature effect are employed. The
fundamental equations derived are
numerically solved by the finite difference
method. As numerical examples, the simply
supported cylindrical shells made of mild steel
are treated and the following two cases are
analyzed; a nonuniform temperature cylinder
subjected to impulsive pressure, and an
internal pressure cylinder subjected to
impulsive thermal load. In both cases the
variations of displacements and internal forces
with time are discussed. (Author abstract) 13
Refs. In Japanese.
Tao, Katsumi; Takezono, Shigeo; Taguchi,
Toshihiro; Hotada, Kazuo. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Ronbunshu A Hen v 54 n 503 Ju1 1988 p 1457 -1464.
037124 Investigation of the Spherical
Membrane Cap under Partial Load. This
paper shows how the internal forces due to an
axially non-symmetric load of a spherical can
cap be determined in the frame of the
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
membrane theory. It presents the method of
internal forces for the terms of the Fourier
expansion. In a numerical example these
forces are computed for a spherical cap with a
particular half central angle. Calculation
results are discussed. (Edited author abstract)
5 Refs.
Olitzscher, Frank. Acta Tech (Budapest) v 100 n 2-3
1987 P 225-238.
037125 Formulation and Accuracy of a
Circular Cylindrical Shell Theory Due to a
Higher-Order Approximation. In this paper,
the most general higher-Qrder equations of
three-dimensional static and dynamic theories
for a circular cylindrical shell are derived by
expanding the displacements into an infinite
power series with respect to the radial
coordinate of the shell. The present
formulation can be taken into account actually
any higher-order terms for both cases of static
and dynamic problems. Several theories which
were proposed previously, can be deduced by
the employment of the lower-order terms in
our theory. Three typical theories such as
3-order theory, Levinson-type theory and
Levinson-Voyladjis-Baluch-type theory are also
newly derived from the present formulation.
Numerical results of natural frequencies for
simply-supported cylindrical shells are
compared to the exact solution as well as
many theories. (Author abstract) 8 Refs. In
Japanese.
Hirano, Kisaburou; Hirashima, Kenichi. Nippon
Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 54 n 506 Oct 1988
p 1915-1919.
037126 Dynamic and Static Behavior of
Cable Dome Model. The static and dynamic
behavior of a cable dome was studied by
testing a 1/50 scale model. Three different
pretension levels were considered. The static
response of the model under a symmetric and
an antisymmetric loading was investigated.
The cable dome's behavior changes from a
compressive to a tensile membrane with
increasing applied central load. The cable
model exhibits a hardening response,
especially in the antisymmetric mode. The
nonlinearity becomes more pronounced with
decreasing pretension. The stiffness in the
antisymmetric mode is dominated by the
geometric stiffness from pretensioning. In the
vertical acceleration (symmetric) test at the
intermediate pretension the first dominant
mode was antisymmetric. A sail exciter was
also used to apply a single asymmetric
controlled force. Up and down harmonic
394
excitation sweeps showed a dynamic instability.
The frequency range over which the response
is unstable decreases with increasing
pretension. The dynamic to static strain ratio
decreased from 20% to 2.3% as pretension
increased from the lowest to the highest
value. (Author abstract) 20 Refs.
Gasparini, D.A. (Case Western Reserve Univ,
Cleveland, OH, USA); Perdikaris, P.C.; Kanj, N.]
Struct Eng v 115 n 2 Feb 1989 p 363 - 381.
037127 Infinite, Elastic, Cylindrical Shell
with a Finite Number of Ring
Constraints. The axisymmetric excitation of
an infinite, elastic, cylindrical shell with a
finite number of ring constraints is discussed.
Exact solutions are presented for the cases of
one and two constraints. These are then
examined in an asymptotic limit that
corresponds to light fluid-loading and small
curvature. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Lawrie, J.B. (Univ of Bristol, Bristol, Engl).] Sound
Vib v 130 n 2 Apr 22 1989 P 189-206.
037128 Membrane Shell as an Under-
constrained Structural System. Statical-
kinematic analysis is employed to provide a
new perspective on the structural behavior of
membrane shells and the related limitations of
the linear membrane theory. The obtained
results include a resolution of an apparent
paradox in the statics of membranes, a
description and explanation of the peculiar
behavior of toroidal membranes with an
arbitrary cross-section, and a stronger version
of a central theorem in the membrane theory.
(Author abstract) 7 Refs.
Kuznetsov, E.N. (Univ of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA).] Appl Meek Trans
ASME v 56 n 2 June 1989 p 387 - 390.
037129 Modal Analysis of a Shell's Acoustic
Radiation in Light and Heavy Fluids. A
modal analysis study of acoustic radiation by a
finite cylindrical shell immersed in light of
heavy fluid is presented. Attention is focused
on the explanation of radiation phenomena in
both fluids. The concepts of radiation,
structural and evenly damped modes are
explained. These lead to clarification of the
shells' vibro-acoustic behaviour in heavy fluid
and to confirmation of the well known case of
light fluid. Relationships between these new
concepts and the more classical one of radiating
and non-radiating modes are presented. It is
shown that this previous classification of modes
is insufficient to clarify the heavy fluid-shell
coupling, especially in the critical frequency
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
range. In this range the behaviour of a shell in
water is very different from that of one in air,
and is entirely controlled by modes which are
overdamped by radiation. In particular, it is
shown that structural damping is ineffective in
reducing radiated power in the critical
frequency range when the fluid is water.
(Author abstract) 22 Refs.
Laulagnet, B. (INSA, Villeurbanne, Fr); Guyader,
J.L.] Sound Vib v 131 n 3 Jun 22 1989 P 397 - 415.
037130 Analysis of Elasto/Visco-Plastic
Dynamic Response of General Thin Shells by
Means of Overlay Model. The numerical
analysis of the elasto/visco-plastic dynamic
response of the general thin shells to arbitrary
loads is carried out by the use of the elasto/
visco-plastic overlay model which is able to
express the Bauschinger effect and the strain
rate dependence. Namely Perzyna's equation is
used for the constitutive relation of each layer
of the overlay model and as a whole the
Bauschinger effect and the influence of
viscosity in the plastic range of the material are
taken into account. The equations of motion
derived from the Sanders nonlinear theory for
thin shells by adding the inertia terms are used,
and the relations between strains and
displacements where rotations of the shell are
considered for the membrane strains are
employed. (Edited author abstract) 18 Refs. In
Japanese.
Tao, Katsumi; Takezono, Shigeo. Nippon Kikai
Gakkai Ronbunshu A Hen v 55 n 514 Jun 1989
p 1453-1460.
037131 Theoretical Analysis of a Multi-
Layered Thin Shell Coupled with
Piezoelectric Shell Actuators for Distributed
Vibration Controls. Structural dynamics and
controls of distributed mechanical systems have
drawn much attention in recent years. In this
paper, a multilayered thin shell coupled with an
active distributed vibration actuator-
polymeric piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF)-is proposed and evaluated. Dynamic
equations for the generalized multi-layered
thin shell coupled with the polymeric
piezoelectrets are derived based on Love's
theory and Hamilton's principle. Each layer of
the shell can be a polymeric piezoelectric
control layer subjected to feedback voltages
resulting in a local control force to suppress the
vibration of the shell. To demonstrate the
derived equations, a cantilever beam coupled
with the polymeric piezoelectric actuator is
derived by directly simplifying the modified
Love's equations. An experimental model was
395
also built and tested in laboratory to validate
the results. (Author abstract) 24 Refs.
Tzou, H.S. (Univ of Kentucky, Lexington, KY,
USA); Gadre, M.] Sound Vib] Sound Vib v 132 v
132 n 3 n 3 Aug 8 Aug 819891989 P 433-450.
037132 Analysis of Laminated Shells.
Laminated shell structures are increasingly
being used in chemical, marine and aerospace
applications. A significant amount of research
has been conducted in the past on studying
the structural response of these structures. A
review of various investigations on the analysis
of these shells is given here. Specifically, this
review deals with the development of various
theories for modelling the thick laminated
shells including shear effects; analytical
studies, development of various finite elements
to model these shells including applications to
tire modelling; buckling and post buckling
analysis of perfect and imperfect laminated
shells; vibration and dynamic response analysis
of various laminated shells. (Author abstract)
148 Refs.
Kapania, R.K. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA). ASME Aerosp Div Publ
AD v 13 Recent Advances in the Macro- and
Micro-Mechanics of Composite Materials Structures,
Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Chicago, IL, USA, Nov 27 - Dec 2 1988. Publ by
American Soc of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
New York, NY, USA, 1988 P 177-187.
037133 Analysis of Glulam Lattice Dome.
Glued-laminated timber (glulam) domes have
become competitive in the engineering of
large-span roof structures. Three-way glulam
grid domes, such as the Triax and Varax
domes, are particularly well-suited for glulam
construction because the members lie on great
circles and, thus, have the same radius of
curvature. The curved members are
interconnected by patented steel hubs. The
restraints offered by these connectors are the
major differences in the designs of the Triax
and Varax domes. The domes rest on tension
rings made of steel or reinforced concrete.
Because of their economy and acoustic
quality, Triax and Varax domes are widely
used for multipurpose facilities involving
sports, recreational, and social activities. The
purpose of this paper is to report on a project
that was initiated to formulate a finite
element method of analysis that can predict
the complete structural response of glulam
space frames and lattice domes up to collapse.
25 Refs.
 Excerpts from The Enoineerino Index Annual 1989
Holzer, S.M. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst & State
Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Huang, C.Y.;
Davalos, J.F.; Loferski, J.R. Struet Des, Anal Test
Structural Design, Analysis and Testing,
Proceedings of the sessions at Structures Congress
'89, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 1- 5 1989. Publ
by ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1989 P 914-921.
037134 Why Bifurcation: A Study of a
Recticulated Dome. Numerical results for a
hexagonal lattice dome subjected to uniform
gravity loading are presented. We demonstrate
that a perfect nonlinear bifurcation analysis
plays a crucial role in the identification of the
critical imperfection. In the process we also
advertise the capabilities of some recently
developed techniques for computational
bifurcation problems with symmetry. (Author
abstract) 6 Refs.
Healey, Timothy L. (Cornell Univ, Ithaca, NY,
USA). Struet Des, Anal Test Structural Design,
Analysis and Testing, Proceedings of the sessions at
Structures Congress '89, San Francisco, CA, USA,
May 1-5 1989. Publ by ASCE, New York, NY,
USA, 1989 P 942 - 948.
037135 Application of Mathematical
Programming to the Limit Analysis of Shell
Structures. Limit analysis of a shell structure
has been expressed, in the present paper, as a
nonlinear programming problem, where the
principle of virtual displacement in
combination with rigid perfect-plastic
assumption and von Mises yield criterion are
used. The structure is separated into several
rigid and plastic regions for the purpose of
saving computer storage, since the
displacement functions should be generated
only in plastic regions. By use of the Lagrange
multiplier method, the primary problem can
be expressed as a non-linear programming
problem without restrictions. By using the
gradient of the object function, a set of
suitable displacement velocities can be found
by iteraction to minimize the object function
and obtain an upper bound solution of the
ultimate load of the structure. A cylindrical
shell and a tubular T-joint are computed and
the results are satisfactory in comparison with
classical solutions or experimental results.
(Author abstract) 7 Refs.
Chen, T.Y. (Shanghai Jiao Tong Univ, Shanghai,
China); Chen, W.M.; Wang, Y.Q. Proe Int Offshore
Meeh Arct Eng Symp v II (of VI), Proceedings of the
Eighth International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering-1989, Hague,
Neth, Mar 19-23 1989. Publ by American Soc of
396
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1989 P 743-751.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
037136 Carrying Capacity and Optimal
Design of Reinforced Cylindrical
Shells. Models were constructed for
calculating the carrying capacity and
optimizing the design of cylindrical shells
reinforced by regular frames and supported
by discrete 'saddle' supports of various
configurations or resting on a continuously
plastic base. The closed shell was considered
to be made from an ideal rigidly plastic
material with constant thickness with a given
yield point and to be filled with fluid. It was
assumed that exhaustion of the shell carrying
capacity occurs with rupture. Calculations of
the upper boundaries of the limit loads were
performed in a broad range of thicknesses.
Parameters for the analysis of the shell
carrying capacity reinforced by regular
annular ribs were established. Analysis of the
optimal designs shows that the models first
tend to assure a given carrying capacity
because of an increase in thickness and only
then are the frames introduced. 4 Refs.
Dekhtyar, A.S. (Kiev Art Inst, Kiev, USSR). Sov
Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May 1988 p 1049-1054.
037137 Wplyw Geometrycznych I
Fizycznych Parametrow Trojwarstwowej
Powloki Wnlcowoj Nn Jej Statecznosc Przy
Obclazenlach Zlozonych. [Influence of
Physical and Geometrical Parameters of
Sandwich Cylindrical Shell Under Composed
Load for its Stability]. The paper presents
numerical analysis results of stability loss for
an elastic, open, cylindrical sandwich shell
with light-weight core and with thin faces of
equal thickness. The shell is loaded by
composed load, i.e. compression longitudinal
forces, lateral surface pressure and shear edge
forces. The influence of shell curvature, shell
length, the thickness of each layer, and the
core elasticity modulus on the values of upper
and lower critical load is investigated. (Edited
author abstract) 4 Refs. In Polish.
Sekulski, Zygmunt; Szyc, Waclaw. Arch Budowy Masz
v34n31987p321-336.
TESTING
037138 Deformation and Fracture of
Two-Layer Metal-Plastic Shells Under
Internal Shock Loading. The goal of this
paper was to study the feasibility of making
 Excerpts from The En8ineerin8 Index Annual 1989
fuller use of the strength reserves of a
glass-plastic in a thin-walled shell under
internal shock loading. We studied the
deformation and fracture of cylindrical two-
layer metal-plastic shells (a shell of steel 20
was inserted without a gap inside the glass-
plastic shell) under an internal explosion.
Fracture was established from the break-
through of explosion products, ruptures of
the strain gages, and external inspection. We
determined the maximum hoop strains in the
first phases of tension and compression for
the most heavily loaded central section of the
shells. The deformation process took the form
of rapidly decaying vibrations. We also
evaluated the effect of the steel on the decay
of vibrations in the shell in a simplified
formulation for the case of decaying sinusoidal
free vibrations of a system with Coulomb
friction. Characteristic chronograms and
oscillograms of the strains of the glass-plastic
and steel shells are shown with a cross section
of the metal-plastic shells. Test results are
analyzed. 6 Refs.
Tsypkin, V.I.; Rusak, V.N.; Ivanov, A.G.;
Fedorenko, A.G.; Vorontsova, O.S. Meeh Compos
Mater v 23 n 5 Mar 1988 p 586-590.
THEORY
037139 Numerical Solution Method for
Dynamical Problems of Shell Theory. The
forced vibrations of shells of revolution
subjected to a load changes in an arbitrary
manner with time was examined. The
majority of the existing algorithms for
numerical analysis of thin elastic shell
vibrations are based on the method of
expansion of eigenmodes and on asymptotic
method. This paper describes a method that is
not associated with the constraints of the
above-mentioned algorithms. Analysis of the
results shows that the vibration mode of a
shell subjected to a unit rectangular pulse
differs noticeably from the lowest eigenmodes.
6 Refs.
Naraikin, O.S. (M.E. Bauman Higher Technical
Inst, USSR). Sov Appl Meeh v 24 n 2 Aug 1988 P
126-132.
037140 Stress State of Thin-Walled
Elements of Structures Fabricated from
Nonlinearly Elastic Orthotropic Composite
Materials. Experimental results indicate that
the material of certain composites (glass-plastic
on a fabric base, organic plastics, etc.)
possesses nonlinear properties; the elastic
characteristics and strain diagram of the
397
mentioned composites vary significantly as a
function of the component content by
volume, the bonding scheme and a number of
other technological factors. Taking account of
the real properties of composites, including
the anisotropy and nonlinearity of the strain
diagram attention must be paid in formulating
the problems, compiling the governing
equations, refining the computational schemes,
and performing the strength analyses of
structural elements (rods, plates, shells) or the
typical structures of complex geometric shape.
9 Refs.
Guz', A.N. (Acad of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR,
Kiev, USSR); Chernyshenko, I.S.; Georgievskii,
V.P.; Maksimyuk, V.A. Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p
337-342.
037141 Refinement of Shear Theory of
Laminar Orthotropic Sloping Shells. This
paper proposes refinement of the shear
theory. A second-approximation model is
proposed, allowing this effect to be described
on the basis of an approach invariant with
respect to the number of layers in the system
and allowing the distortion of the normal in
the course of shell deformation to be taken
into account. The discontinuities in the
smoothness of the functions between the
outer layers are observed both for tangential
and for normal stress, which allows the
lamination process of the structure to be
modeled. 12 Refs.
Rasskazov, A.O. (Kiev Highway Inst, USSR);
Burygina, A.O. Sov Appl Meeh Oct 1988 p 343-347.
037142 Higher Order Theories for Thick
Cylindrical Shells. A variational derivation is
used to obtain 10th and 12th order shell
theories along with the associated boundary
conditions. A computer program produces the
coefficients in the reductions of the sets of
equilibrium equations to equivalent single
10th and 12th order equations. Exact
solutions for closed shells which decay in the
axial direction are obtained and compared
with exact three dimensional solutions in
order to assess the accuracy of the shell
theory as an approximation to the elasticity
theory. (Author abstract) 9 Refs.
Faraji, Susan (Univ of Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA);
Archer, R.R. Aeta Meeh v 74 n 1-4 Oct 1988 p 9-24.
037143 Self-Equilibrated Singular Solutions
of a Complete Spherical Shell: Classical
Theory Approach. The elastic response of a
complete spherical shell under the influence of
concentrated loads (normal point loads,
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
concentrated tangential loads, and
concentrated surface moments) which apply in
a self-equilibrating fashion is obtained. The
mathematical analysis incorporates the classical
uncoupled system of equations for the
transverse displacement Wand a stress
function F. The solution formulae for all
three types of singular loading are in closed
form and they are expressed in terms of
complex Legendre and other elementary
functions. The two latter portions of the
analysis are associated with a multivalued
stress function F which leads to a single-valued
stress and displacement formulae. (Edited
author abstract) 19 Refs.
Simos, Nikolaos (City Univ of New York, New
York, NY, USA); Sadegh, Ali M.] Appl Meeh Trans
ASME v 56 n 1 Mar 1989 p 105-112.
037144 On a Stress Resultant Geometrically
Exact Shell Model. Part I: Formulation and
Optimal Parametrization. The main thrust
of this work is to demonstrate that classical
shell theory, phrased as one-director Cosserat
surface, leads itself to an efficient numerical
implementation which is free from
mathematical complexities and suitable for
large scale computation. Examples are given
which contain simulations involving extremely
large displacements and rotations obtained
with the formulation described. It is shown
that this approach is able to reproduce the
exact solutions of standard benchmark linear
problems often used to assess the performance
of numerical formulations based on the
degenerated solid approach. 48 Refs.
Simo, J.C. (Stanford Univ, Stanford, CA, USA);
Fox, D.D. Comput Methods Appl Meek Eng v 72 n 3
Mar 1989 p 267-304.
037145 On a Stress Resultant Geometrically
Exact Shell Model. Part II: The Linear
Theory; Computational Aspects. Computa-
tional aspects of a linear stress resultant
(classical) shell theory, obtained by systematic
linearization of the geometrically exact
nonlinear theory are examined in detail. In
particular, finite element interpolations for the
reference director field and the linearized
rotation field are constructed such that the
underlying geometric structure of the
continuum theory is preserved exactly by the
discrete approximation. A discrete canonical,
singularity-free mapping between the five and
the six degree of freedom formulation is
constructed by exploiting the geometric
connection between the orthogonal group
(SO(3)) and the unit sphere (S2). The
398
proposed numerical treatment of the
membrane and bending fields, based on a
mixed HeIlinger-Reissner formulation,
provides excellent results for the 4-node
bilinear isoparametric element. (Edited author
abstract) 46 Refs.
Simo, J.C. (Stanford Univ, Stanford, CA, USA);
Fox, D.O.; Rifai, M.S. Comput Methods Appl Meeh
Eng v 73 n 1 Apr 1989 p 53-92.
037146 Maguerre-Mindlin Shallow Shell
Elements. Two isoparametric Lagrangian
shallow shell elements are presented: a 4-node
element Quad4 and a 9-node element Quad9.
These elements are based on Mindlin/
Reissner plate elements. These elements are
sophisticated by adding conventional
membrane stiffness and membrane-bending
coupling terms based on Maguerre's
approximate shallow shell theory. This results
in double curved shell elements which
originally possess severe membrane locking
behavior. This defect is overcome in the same
way as the shear locking problem is solved.
(Edited author abstract) 10 Refs.
Kraus, Gerhard (Ingenieurbuero fuer
Strukuranalyse, Berlin, West Ger). Eng Comput
(Swansea Wales) v 6 n 1 Mar 1989 p 44-48.
037147 Work-Conjugate Boundary
Conditions in the Nonlinear Theory of Thin
Shells. Work-conjugate boundary conditions
for a class of nonlinear theories of thin shells
formulated in terms of displacements of the
reference surface are discussed. Applying
theorems of the theory of differential forms it
is shown that many of the sets of static
boundary conditions which have been proposed
in the literature do not possess work-conjugate
geometric counterparts. The general form of
four geometric boundary conditions and their
work-conjugate static boundary conditions is
constructed and three particular cases are
analyzed. The boundary conditions given here
are valid for unrestricted displacements,
rotations, strains and/or changes of curvatures
of the reference surface. (Author abstract) 30
Refs.
Makowski,J. (Ruhr Univ, Bochum, West Ger);
Pietraszkiewicz, W.] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n
2June 1989 p 395-402
037148 Formulation and Accuracy of the
Circular Cylindrical Shell Theory Due to
Higher Order Approximation. The most
general higher order equations of the three-
dimensional static and dynamic theories for a
circular cylindrical shell are derived by
 Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
expanding the displacements into an infinite
power series with respect to the radial
coordinate of the shell. The present theory
takes into account any higher order terms for
both the static and dynamic problems. Several
theories, which have been proposed, can be
deduced by using the lower order terms of our
theory. Three typical theories are the third-
order theory, the Levinson theory and the
Levinson-Voyiadjis-Baluch theory, which are
redefined according to the present theory.
Numerical results of natural frequencies for
the simply supported cylindrical shell, as well as
many other theories, are compared with the
exact solutions. (Author abstract) 8 Refs.
Hirano, Kisaburou (Oita Natl Coil of Technology,
Oita, Jpn); Hirashima, Kenichi.JSME IntJ Ser 1 v 32
n 3Jul1989 p 337-340.
THERMAL EFFECTS
037149 Parabolic Shells Subjected to Solar
Radiation. Questions of the theory and
analysis of parabolic shells under solar side and
central illumination were considered. A
thermal balance equation was constructed
incorporating the heat fluxes and coefficients
of thermal conduction and radiation transfer
along with expressions for the optical
coefficients of metals. Equations were derived
for determining the temperature fields. Using
these fields, the stress-strain states for a
parabolic shell closed at the apex and for the
domain of connection of the shell to a stiffener
ring were examined. 6 Refs.
Gudramovich, V.S. (Acad of Sciences of the
Ukrainian SSR, Dnepropetrovsk, USSR); Diskovskii,
l.A.; Sel'skii, Yu, S. Sov Appl Meeh v 23 n 11 May
1988 p 1043-1049.
037150 Transient Temperature Distribution
in an Internally and Externally Insulated
Cylindrical Shell. This paper presents the
analytical solution for unsteady state
temperature distribution in a cylindrical shell
having thin layer of thermal insulation coating
at the inner and outer surfaces. The formula
has been derived assuming different initial
temperatures of shell and insulation coating
while the contact between them has also been
assumed to be imperfect. The internal and
external surfaces of the shell and coatings are
exposed to the convective boundary
conditions of third kind. The generalized
formula obtained has been used to obtain the
warming-up-period of the cylindrical wall of a
Diesel engine coated internally and externally
by ceramic insulation material. A plot of
399
Temperature-time history and heat flow rates
have been obtained. The problem considered
has got its application in the transient thermal
analysis of an adiabatic engine. Any other
similar problem in metallurgical, aeronautical,
furnace design, boiler design applications may
be solved by the formula obtained. (Author
abstract) 8 Refs.
Prasad, Ravindra (Banaras Hindu Univ, Varanasi,
India); Samria, N.K. Appl Sci Res (The Hague) v 46 n
2Jun 1989 p 141-157
THERMOELASTICITY
037151 Thermoelasticity of a Regularly
Nonhomogeneous Thin Curved Layer with
Rapidly Varying Thickness. A regular
nonhomogeneous (composite), anisotropic,
thin curved layer with rapidly oscillating
material parameters and thickness is
considered for the case when mean thickness
and period scale have small magnitudes of the
same order. A three-dimensional
thermoelasticity problem for this layer is
reduced to a homogenized shell model by
means of an asymptotic homogenization
method for periodic structures. This general
model is applied to the derivation of
thermoelastic and thermal constitutive
equations for network periodic shells. The
relations obtained lay the foundation for a
new continuous model of thermoelasticity and
heat conductivity for network period shells
and plates. (Edited author abstract) 15 Refs.
Parton, Vladimir Z. (Moscow Inst of Chemical
Engineering, Moscow, USSR); Kalamkarov,
Aleksandr L. J Therm Stresses v 11 n 4 1989
P 405-420.
037152 Stochastic Thermoelasticity of
Laminated Shells. The paper proposes a
theory and develops a numeric method for
computing the stochastic characteristics of
stress fields in the layers of a multilayer shell
needed for estimating its reliability and
longevity. The statistical characteristics of the
external temperature field are assumed to be
known. Centered fields of temperatures and
displacements are considered, assuming that
the expectations of the fields have already
been evaluated. The assumptions adopted in
the construction of the theory are divided
into three kinds. Thermophysical hypotheses:
thermophysical parameters of the materials of
the layers are temperature independent.
Mechanical hypotheses: the rigid layers of a
multilayer shell conform to the Kirchhoff-
Love hypothesis. Stochastic hypotheses: the
 Excerpts from The Ennineerinn Index Annual 1989
statistical characteristics of displacement fields
and stress fields are analyzed in the
framework of a correlation theory. The
external temperature field is a stationary
time-random, space-homogeneous field.
(Edited author abstract) 14 Refs.
Butko, A.M.; Novichkov, Yu.N. Mech Solids v 23 n
21988 p 133-143.
VIBRATIONS
037153 Nonlinear Analysis of Doubly
Curved Symmetrically Laminated Shallow
Shells with Rectangular Plan form. A
multi-mode solution to the dynamic
Marguerre-type nonlinear equations is
presented for the nonlinear free vibration of
doubly curved, symmetrically laminated,
imperfect shallow shells of rectangular
plan-form on a Winkler-Pasternak elastic
foundation. The shell edges are assumed to
be transversely supported and the variation of
rotational stiffness is identical along opposite
edges. Generalized double Fourier series with
time-dependent coefficients and the method
of harmonic balance are used in the solution.
The boundary condition for the varying
rotational stiffness is fulfilled by replacement
of bending moments along the four edges by
an equivalent lateral pressure. Based on a
single-mode approximation numerical results
for the amplitude-frequency response of
doubly curved isotropic, orthotropic, cross-ply
and angle-ply shallow shells with square
plan form are presented for various boundary
conditions, material properties, curvature
ratios, initial imperfections, edge tensions, and
moduli of the elastic foundation. (Edited
author abstract) 25 Refs.
Chia, C.Y. (Univ of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Can).
Ing Arch v 58 n 4 1988 P 252 - 264.
037154 Free Vibration of a Spinning
Spherical Shell. An analysis is presented for
the free vibration of a spinning spherical shell.
For this purpose, the governing equations and
the boundary conditions of the shell are
derived by applying Hamilton's principle to
the strain and kinetic energies of the shell.
The variables in the equations can be written
as summation of the quasi-static components
which are independent of time and the
dynamic ones. The linear equations on the
vibration about the deformed state are solved
by using the transfer matrix method. The
method is applied to a spinning clamped-free
spherical shell. The quasi-static and dynamic
displacement and the frequency parameters
400
are calculated numerically, and the effects of
the spinning of the shell on the free vibration
are studied. (Author abstract) 7 Refs. In
Japanese.
Yamada, Cen; Kobayaski, Yukinori; Sawae,
Tatsuhiro; Irie, Toshihiro. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 505 Sep 1988 p 2009-2015.
037155 Evaluation of the Modal Density of
Paraboloidal and Similar Shells. Modal
densities of various structures have been found
both theoretically in terms of expressions
involving integrals, and also experimentally.
They are of interest to designers of, for
example, satellite aerials and spacecraft
structures. The theoretical method is
hampered by the difficulty of evaluating the
integrals. For certain shells such as a thin
plate, spherical cap or circular cylinder, the
integrals can be evaluated analytically. In this
paper a numerical method is presented for
the computation of modal densities of other
shell geometries, in particular the paraboloidal
shell. Both the isotropic and honeycomb types
are considered. Enough details of the
numerical method are given to allow the
reader to adapt it to other shapes for which
analytic integration is not possible. (Author
abstract) 3 Refs.
Elliott, C.H. (Portsmouth Polytechnic, Portsmouth,
Engl). ] Sound Vib v 126 n 3 Nov 8 1988 P 477 -483.
037156 Non-Linear Vibration Analysis of
Fluid-Filled Cylindrical Shells. A theoretical
analysis is presented for determining the
elastic non-linear vibrations of a prestressed
thin-walled cylindrical shell filled with an ideal
fluid. For the vibrations of the shell itself, the
dynamic version of the Sanders non-linear
equations for the case of moderately small
rotations is employed. Modal expansions are
used for the displacements of the shell middle
surface that are required to satisfy the
'classical simply supported' boundary
conditions and the circumferential periodicity
condition. The fluid is taken as non-viscous
and incompressible, and the coupling between
the deformable shell and this medium is taken
into account. The velocity potential is
expanded in terms of harmonic functions
which satisfy the Laplace equation term by
term. The Galerkin method is used to reduce
the problem to a system of coupled algebraic
non-linear equations for the modal amplitudes.
Solutions are presented to show the effects of
fluid and shell parameters on the non-linear
vibrations of the shell. (Author abstract) 27
Refs.
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
Goncalves, P.B. (Pontificia Univ Catolica, Rio de
Janerio, Braz); Batista, R.C. J Sound Vib v 127 n 1
Nov 221988 P 133-143.
037157 Hydroelastic Vibrations of Liquid-
Filled Finite Length, Rotating Cylindrical
Shells. A theoretical investigation is presented
for the hydroelastic vibration of finite length,
rotating cylindrical shells partially filled with
incompressible and nonviscous liquid. Gravity
and surface tension is neglected, while the
initial tension due to the rotation is
considered. On the basis of the Fluegge-type
equations, the shell with both edges clamped is
analyzed by the variation of parameters. It is
found that the magnitude of the initial
tension due to the centrifugal force depends
on the rotating speed and the quantity and
density of liquid. The frequency increases
with the initial tension, while it decreases with
the inertia of liquid. (Author abstract) 7 Refs.
In Japanese.
Tani, Junji; Zhang, Hebing. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Ronbunshu C Hen v 54 n 507 Nov 1988 P
2633-2639.
037158 Theoretical and Experimental Study
of Vibrations of Thick Circular Cylindrical
Shells and Rings. The free vibrations of
thick circular cylindrical shells and rings are
discussed in this paper. The well-known
energy method, which is based on the
three-dimensional theory of elasticity, is used
in the derivation of the frequency equation of
the shell. The frequency equation yields
resonant frequencies for all the
circumferential modes of vibration, including
the breathing and beam-type modes.
Experimental investigations were carried out
on several models in order to assess the
validity of the analysis. This paper first
describes briefly the method of analysis. In
the end, the calculated frequencies are
compared with the experimental values. A
very close agreement between the theoretical
and experimental values of the resonant
frequencies for all the models was obtained
and this validates the method of analysis.
(Author abstract) 14 Refs.
Singal, R.K. (Communications Research Cent,
Ottawa, Ont, Can); William, K. J Vib Acoust Stress
Reliab Des v 110 n 4 Oct 1988 p 533-537.
037159 Asymmetric Vibrations of Thick
Shells of Revolution Having Meridionally
Varying Curvature. An exact method using
power series expansions is presented for
solving asymmetric free vibration problems
401
for thick shells of revolution having
meridionally varying curvature. Based on the
improved thick shell theory, the Lagrangian
of the shells of revolution are obtained, and
the equations of motion and the boundary
conditions are derived from the stationary
condition of the Lagrangian. The method is
demonstrated for thick shells of revolution
having elliptical, cycloidal, parabolical,
catenary and hyperbolical meridional
curvature. The results by the present method
are compared with those by the thin shell
theory and the effects of the rotary inertia
and the shear deformation upon the natural
frequencies are clarified. (Author abstract) 11
Refs.
Suzuki, Katsuyoshi; Yachita, Takumi; Kosawada,
Tadashi. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 54
n 508 Dec 1988 p 2822 - 2829.
037160 Asymmetric Vibrations of Shells of
Revolution Having Meridionally Varying
Curvature and Thickness. An exact method
using power series expansions is presented for
solving asymmetric free vibration problems
for shells of revolution having meridionally
varying curvature and thickness. The
governing equations of motion and the
boundary conditions are derived from the
stationary conditions of the Lagrangian of the
shells of revolution. The method is
demonstrated for shells of revolution having
elliptical cycloidal, parabolical, catenary and
hyperbolical meridional curvature. The
natural frequencies are numerically calculated
for these shells having second degree
thickness variation. (Author abstract) 8 Refs.
In Japanese.
Suzuki, Katsuyoshi; Miura, Kazuyuki; Kosawada,
Tadashi. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 54
n 508 Dec 1988 p 2830- 2836.
037161 Free Vibration Analysis of Singly
Curved Shell by Spline Finite Strip
Method. The spline finite strip method has
been applied to the free vibration analysis of a
singly curved shell panel. The convergence of
the method is reviewed. Additional numerical
examples on shells of different geometrical
shapes are employed to demonstrate the
accuracy and versatility of the method. Design
charts showing the variations of the four
lowest modes with the geometry of such panels
are presented. (Edited author abstract) 20 Refs.
Cheung, Y.K. (Univ of Hong Kong, Hong Kong);
Li, W.Y.; Tham, L.G. J Sound Vib v 128 n 3 Feb 8
1989 P 411-422.
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
037162 Effect of Boundary Conditions on
the Free Vibrations of Circular Cylindrical
Shells. A simple formula for the natural
frequency is derived as an asymptotic solution
for the eigenvalue problems of the breathing
type of free vibrations of a circular cylindrical
shell. It is applicable under any possible
combinations of the boundary conditions for
the simply supported, the clamped, and the
free ends. A characteristic value involved in
the formula depends on the combination of
three representative boundary conditions
SR(w = u = 0), SF(w = N = 0), and FR(N =
S = 0), indicating that the free vibration
characteristics depend on whether an end is
free or supported and whether the supported
end is allowed or not to move freely in the
axial direction. The accuracy of the formula is
examined by a comparison with numerical
solutions and experimental results. (Author
abstract) 9 Refs.
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn).
AIAAJ v 26 n 11 Nov 1988 P 1387-1394.
037163 Inextensional Free Vibrations of
Circular Cylindrical Shells. Asymptotic
solutions are obtained for the eigenvalue
problems of the inextensional free vibrations
of circular cylindrical shells, considering all 45
possible combinations of the boundary
conditions, characterizing the simply
supported, the clamped, and the free ends. In
addition to the well-known L. Rayleigh and
A.E.H. Love types of inextensional vibrations
for shells with the free ends, a type
represented by a linear combination of those
classical ones is found in cases where one end
is free and the other is supported in such a
manner that it can move freely in the axial
direction. The existence of the three types of
inextensional mode is proved by an
experiment, and the mode shapes are
visualized by holographic interferometry.
(Author abstract) 7 Refs.
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn);
Saito, Arihumi. AIAA J v 26 n 12 Dec 1988 p
1499-1505.
037164 Small Radial Vibrations of Layered,
H yperelastic, Spherical Shells of Arbitrary
Wall Thickness Subjected to Finite, Initial
Radial Deformations. Small, radial vibrations
of layered spherical shells of arbitrary wall
thickness and subjected to initial external
and/or internal pressure causing finite radial
deformations are investigated. The material of
each layer is assumed to be of neo-Hookean
type. The governing equations of both the
402
finitely deformed static state and the
superposed secondary dynamical state which
are obtained, respectively, by the theory of
finite elasticity and the theory of small
deformations superposed on large, elastic
deformations are solved analytically and in
closed form to yield the frequency expression.
Some numerical results are provided to study
the effect of several parameters. (Author
abstract) 12 Refs.
Evirgen, H. (Cazi Univ, Ankara, Turk); Ertepinar,
A.J Sound Vib v 130 n 2 Apr 221989 P 177-187.
037165 Vibration Analysis of Thick
Rotating Cylindrical Shells Based on the
Two-dimensional Elasticity Theory. Vibra-
tion analysis of infinite thick rotating
cylindrical shells is described on the basis of
the two-dimensional elasticity theory. Starting
from the state of plane strain, the basic
equation in the steady rotating state, which is
used to obtain the initial stresses, is derived
from Hamilton's principle, and the frequency
equation, including the effect of the initial
stresses due to the rotation, is formulated by
Ritz's method. The numerical results for the
frequencies in the non-rotating and rotating
state are compared with those based on
Timoshenko type shell theory and the
available range in the latter theory is
examined about the thickness and rotating
speed of a shell. (Author abstract) 7 Refs. In
Japanese.
Saito, Takashi; Endo, Mitsuru; Fujimoto, Kohji.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 511
Mar 1989 p 525-53l.
037166 Free Vibration Analysis of Coupled
External Fluid-Elastic Cylindrical Shell-
Internal Fluid Systems. The free vibrations
of an infinitely long cylindrical shell under
axisymmetrical hydrodynamic pressures due to
external and internal fluids are studied
theoretically. The basic equations of motion
for axisymmetric vibrations of such a shell are
given, based on the bending theory. These
equations are solved analytically by means of
Fourier cosine transformation, and the general
frequency equation for the coupled systems is
obtained by consideration of the dynamic
interaction between the shell surface and fluids.
Furthermore, seven cases are derived from the
general coupled frequency equation. The
general frequency equation is calculated for
some kinds of mass density of the internal
fluid. (Edited author abstract) 6 Refs.
Endo, Ryuji (Inst of Vocational Training, Aihara,
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual J989
Jpn); Tosaka, Nobuyoshi. jSME Int j SeT 1 v 32 n 2
Apr 1989p217-221.
037167 Dynamic Stability of Fluid-Coupled
Coaxial Cylindrical Shells under Vertical
Excitation. Theoretical analyses are presented
for the dynamic stability of a free-clamped
coaxial cylindrical shell partially filled in the
annular gap with incompressible, in viscid
liquid and subjected to vertical excitation. The
dynamic version of the Donnell equations and
the velocity potential theory are used for the
motions of the shell and the liquid, respectively.
The problem is solved by using the modified
Galerkin method so as to satisfy the boundary
conditions, and the governing equation is
reduced to a type of coupled Mathieu's
equation. The instability boundaries where
parametric resonance occurs are determined
by using Hsu's method. It is found that a
principal instability resonance and a
combination instability resonance of the sum
type of two natural vibrations, each of which
has the same circumferential wave number and
different axial mode of vibration, are likely to
occur. (Edited author abstract) 6 Refs. In
Japanese.
Tani, Junji; Sakai, Tatsuyoshi; Chiba, Masakatsu.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 512 Apr
1989 p 870-876.
037168 Vibration Analysis of Thick Rotating
Prestressed Cylindrical Shells (1st Report.
The Case of Exposure to an Initial Torque).
Vibration analysis of thick rotating cylindrical
shells subjected to an initial torque is
described. The basic equations, including the
effects of the initial tensions and resultant
shear stresses due to rotation, torque, external
pressure and axial compression load, are
derived by the Timoshenko-type shell theory.
By the modified Galerkin's method, frequency
analysis is carried out for four boundary con-
ditions (i.e., both ends (A) clamped with axial
constraint. (B) Simply supported without
axial constraint. (C) Simply supported with
axial constraint and (D) clamped without axial
constraint). Numerical results are compared
with those based on the Flugge-type shell
theory and the difference between both
theories is examined. (Author abstract) 6 Refs.
In Japanese.
Saito, Takashi; Endo, Mitsuru. Nippon Kikai Gakkai
Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 n 512 Apr 1989 p 878-885.
037169 Vibration Analysis of Cylindrical
Shells Connected with Bellows. For the
purpose of decreasing the lower critical speed
403
of circular cylindrical shells, which are used in
centrifugal separators to enrich uranium, and
rotating at higher speeds, it is considered that
circular cylindrical shells are connected with
bellows. Vibration analysis of circular
cylindrical shells connected with bellows is
carried out by the substructure synthesis
method for various numbers and dispositions
of bellows, and the optimum ones are
examined. Moreover, the transfer matrix
method, by which the critical speeds are simply
obtained, is described and the results are
examined by the substructure synthesis
method. (Author abstract) 5 Refs. In Japanese.
Saito, Takashi; Endo, Mitsuru; Yachigo, Katsuyuki.
Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu C Hen v 55 512 Apr
1989 p 887 -893.
037170 Vibrations of a Cylindrical Shell
Acted Upon by Concentrated Loads. We set
up Green's matrix of harmonic vibrations of a
circular cylindrical shell of finite length with
hinging conditions on the edges. The solution
is represented by a trigonometric Fourier
series in the circumferential coordinate. The
coefficients of the series are expressed in
terms of elementary functions. The response
of shells of infinite and finite length to
concentrated actions is compared. The
solution obtained is the kernel of the integral
equations of contact problems of shell
vibrations. It also enables us, by using simple
integration, to calculate the amplitude of
oscillation of a shell acted upon by arbitrarily
distributed surface loads. (Author abstract) 8
Refs.
Averbukh, A.Z.; Mavlyutov, I.G. Meeh Solids v 23
n 51988 P 130-135.
037171 Free Vibrations of the Rotating
Shells of Revolution. This paper is devoted
to the problems of free vibrations of thin
rotating shells. The theory of vibration of
rotating shells is part of the theory of an
arbitrary rotating body and the results which
are valid for an arbitrary body are also valid
for the shells. Though numerical methods are
the main approach to the investigation of the
dynamics of rotating bodies, some analytical
results have been obtained for some simple
bodies like rotating beams and discs. The
mathematical theory of nonrotating thin shells
is well developed. Several of the most
successful are two-dimensional theories of the
Kirchoff-Love type. The aim of this paper is
to apply asymptotic methods to the solution of
the eigenvalue problem for a rotating shell.
The authors use Novozhilov's two-dimensional
 Excerpts from The Engineering Index Annual 1989
shell theory to obtain the equations of the
vibration of the shell and the theory of
asymptotic integration of the differential
equation to solve the eigenvalue problem for
these equations. 23 Refs.
Smirnov, Andrei (Leningrad Univ, Leningrad,
USSR).] Appl Meeh Trans ASME v 56 n 2 Jun 1989
p 423-429.
037172 Dynamic Boundary Layer in
Problems of Vibration of Shells. Within the
framework of the three-dimensional theory,
the authors consider a thin elastic
axisymmetric shell of revolution of arbitrary
profile, that executes steady-state oscillations
under the action of an edge load. It was
established on the basis of the equations of
the classical two-dimensional theory, that for
fixed m and increasing w the variability of the
stress-strain state of the shell increases, and
there exist critical frequency values above
which the solution of the force-oscillation
problem becomes a solution of differing
variability. In this paper, the authors consider
approximate methods of setting up solutions
of differing variability for the equations of
elasticity, and consider the use of such
solutions for purposes of approximate
investigation of forced oscillations of shells at
frequencies that preclude the use of the
classical two-dimensional theory. 5 Refs.
Gol'denveizer, A.L. (Kaplunov, Yu.D.) Meeh Solids v
23 n 41988 P 146-155.
037173 Spline Finite Element for
Axisymmetric Free Vibrations of Shells of
Revolution. A new isoparametric element
suitable for the analysis of axisymmetric free
vibrations of shells of revolution is developed
in this paper. This element, which is based on
classical thin shell theory, employs a set of
B-spline shape functions for the interpolation
of the geometry as well as the displacements.
It inherits the merits of both the finite
element method and spline interpolation. The
efficiency and accuracy of the proposed
element are illustrated by examples in the
paper. (Author abstract) 20 Refs.
Fan, S.C. (Nanyang Technological Inst, Singapore);
Luah, M.H.] Sound Vib v 132 n 1 Jul 8 1989 P
61-72.
037174 Nonlinear Free Flexural Vibration
of Thin Circular Cylindrical Shells. The
early development on the topic of nonlinear
vibrations of isotropic circular cylindrical
shells is well documented by Evensen.
Subsequently, Prathap pointed out some
404
inconsistencies in the mathematical analysis
carried out by Evensen and also in the
physical behavior of the three-term model of
Dowell and Ventres. The comments made by
Prathap led to reinvestigation of the earlier
problem in the present study. The
axisymmetric part of the assumed deflected
shape plays an important role in the nonlinear
behavior of the shell, and so two appropriate
three-term mode shapes for the transverse
displacement are chosen. The modal equations
obtained by the Galerkin method are solved
by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method to
obtain the amplitude-frequency relationship.
The numerical results based on the present
study and on the analysis of Evensen are
compared with the existing experimental
values. (Edited author abstract) 10 Refs.
Varadan, T.K. (Indian Inst of Technology, Madras,
India); Prathap, G.; Ramani, H.V. AIAA] v 27 n 9
Sep 1989 p 1303-1304.
037175 Free Vibrations of Circular
Cylindrical Shells. The eigenvalue problem
of the free vibrations of thin elastic circular
cylindrical shells is a well-established classical
topic in structural mechanics. All the
characteristic values of interest can now be
calculated to a desired degree of accuracy as
routine work with the aid of high-speed
digital computers. A number of analytical
solutions have been proposed, and they may
help us gain good insight into the physical
nature underlying the numerical data. This
paper reviews the historical background and
provides a unified view of the current state of
the art through asymptotic solutions recently
obtained by the author. Emphasis is placed on
the effects of the boundary conditions.
(Edited author abstract) 33 Refs.
Koga, Tatsuzo (Univ of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Jpn).
]SME Int] Ser 1 v 32 n 3 Jul 1989 P 311-319.
037176 Improved Multi-Segmental Transfer
Matrix Method for Closed Axisymmetric
Shells. In literature the vibrating problem of
thin, elastic axisymmetric shells is modeled by
a set of ordinary differential equations, which
are singular at closed ends. This paper
presents an improved multi-segmental transfer
matrix method to overcome the numerical
difficulties resulted from the singularities.
Examples are given for the calculations of
several typical axisymmetric shells. (Author
abstract) 5 Refs.
Jian, Zhao (Zhong Shan Univ, Guangzhou, China);
Hong-zhen, Wang; Wu-hua, Zhu. Proe Int Offshore
Meeh Aret Eng Symp v II (of VI), Proceedings of the
 Excerpts from The Enaineerina Index Annual 1989
Eighth International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering-1989, Hague,
Neth, Mar 19-23 1989. Publ by American Soc of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY,
USA, 1989 P 713-718.
VISCOELASTICITY
037177 Refined Dynamic Theory for
Viscoelastic Cylindrical Shells and
Cylindrical Laminated Composites, Part 1:
General Theory. Through the use of a new
technique, approximate theories are developed
for the dynamic response of viscoelastic
cylindrical shells and cylindrical laminated
composites. The work is divided into two
parts. The first part is devoted to the
development of the approximate theories and
the second part to the assessment. In this
part, first the approximate equations of a
single viscoelastic cylindrical shell are derived.
Then, a discrete model (DM) is proposed for
a composite made of viscoelastic laminae. In
establishing DM, it is noted that the equations
of a single shell hold also in each lamina of
the composite. The equations of DM are
completed by adding the interface continuity
conditions to the above-mentioned equations.
Finally, a continuum model (CM) is developed
for a composite shell made of two alternating
layers by using a smoothing operation. eM
simplifies the determination of dynamic
behavior of composite shells when the number
of laminae is large. (Edited author abstract)
10 Refs.
Mengi, Y. (Cukurova Univ, Adana, Turk); Birlik,
G.A.] Sound Vib v 130 n 1 Apr 81989 P 55-67.
037178 Refined Dynamic Theory for
Viscoelastic Cylindrical Shells and
Cylindrical Laminated Composites, Part 2:
An Application. In this study, the general
approximate theory developed in Part 1 for
shells is assessed for axially symmetric elastic
waves propagating in a dosed circular
cylindrical shell (hollow rod). The spectra
predicted by zeroth and second order
approximate theories are determined for
various values of shell thicknesses and the
Poisson ratios and they are compared with
those of exact theory. It is found that the
agreement between the two is good.
Approximate and exact cut-off frequencies
match almost exactly. The approximate
theory is valid for thin as well as thick shells.
These results, which are obtained without
using correction factors, give an indication of
the power of the general theories proposed in
Part 1. (Author abstract) 6 Refs.
405
BirIik, G.A. (Middle East Technical Univ, Ankara,
Turk); Mengi, Y.] Sound Vib v 130 n 1 Apr 8 1989
P 69-77.
WA VE EFFECTS
037179 Wave Forces on Hemicylinders.
Potential solutions describing the flow about
two-dimensional marine structures on or near
the ocean bottom are formulated, based on
Airy's wave model. The solutions for a
half-cylinder and semicircular shell are
considered in detail and evaluated in the case
of deep submergence. The formulation with
and without flow underneath the structure is
given and, in particular, the existence of a
large difference between the two cases in. the
vertical forces is shown. The effect of
introducing vorticity at the edges of the shell
is investigated. Numerical results for
hemicylinders resting on the bottom and
slightly raised off the bottom are presented.
The results obtained for the wave forces are
compared with experimental results obtained
for a slightly raised, open hemicylinder.
(Author abstract) 17 Refs.
Chakrabarti, Subrata K. (CBI Research Corp,
Plainfield, IL, USA); Naftzger, Rober A. Ocean Eng
(Pergamon) v 16 n 1 1989 P 49-69.
WIND EFFECTS
037180 Stability of Wind-Loaded Cylindrical
Shells. Stability analysis of perfect and
imperfect cylindrical shells under wind
pressures is performed using the finite element
method. A 48 degree-of-freedom thin shell
element previously developed by the present
authors is used. The element is free from
both shear and membrane locking and is
capable of modelling shells with arbitrary
imperfections. Nonlinear effects due to
pre buckling rotations are taken into account.
The nonlinear response is obtained using
Riks-Wempner algorithm. Effects of the
imperfection amplitude and that of the
material orthotropy on the limit load points
are studied. Wherever possible, the present
results are compared with existing results. A
favorable agreement is observed. (Author
abstract) 17 Refs.
Kapania, Rakesh K. (Virginia Polytechnic Inst &
State Univ, Blacksburg, VA, USA); Yang, T.Y.]
Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn v 28 pt 1 n 1- 3 Aug 1988
Proceedings of the 7th International Congress on
Wind Engineering, Held under the Auspices of the
International Association for Wind Engineering,
Aachen, West Ger,juI6-10 1987. p 281-290.
 Selected Biblionraphy
AasJakobsen, A. 1973. Beitrag zur Theorie der
Kugelschale auf Binzelstutzen, 22. Ingenieur
Archiv.
Abu Ghazeleh, B.N. 1966. Analysis of plate
type prismatic structures, Ph.D. Diss. Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley.
ACI Building Code Requirements for Rein-
forced Concrete (ACI 318-89) and Com-
mentary-ACI 318R-89.
ACI Committee 334. Concrete Shell Structures
-Practice and Commentary. Proceedings,
ACI. (Detroit) vol. 61, no. 9 (Sept. 1964):
1091-1108.
Adler, F., and Lusher,]. K. 1967. The analysis
and design ofWrexham swimming pool shell
roof. Proceedings, International Congress on
the Application of Shells in Architecture,
Mexico City.
Ahmad, S.; Irons, B. M., and Zienkiewicz, o. C.
1969. Curved thick shell and membrane ele-
ments with particular reference to axi-sym-
metric problems. Proceedings, Second Con-
ference on Matrix Methods in Structural
Mechanics, Air Force Institute of Technol-
ogy, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
(Oct. 1968). Also available in AFFDL-TR-
68-150 (Dec. 1969).
Aimond, F. 1936. Etude statique des voiles
minces in parabolodide hyperbolique travail-
lantsans flexion. Memoires, Association Inter-
nationale des Ponts et Charpentes (Zurich).
Aldstedt, E. 1969. Shell analysis using planar
triangular elements. Finite Element Methods
in Stress Analysis. I. Holand and K. Bell, eds.
(Trondheim, Norway: TAPIR 1969),
255-86.
407
Allen,]. E. Construction of long-span concrete
arch hangar at Limestone Airforce Base. J.
ACI vol. 21 (1950): 405.
Apeland, K. and Popov, E. V. 1962. Analysis of
bending stresses in translation shells. Proceed-
ings, Colloquium on Simplified Calculation
Methods. Brussels. Amsterdam: North-HoI-
land Publishing Company, Sept. 1961, p. 9.
Baker, E. H. 1964. Analysis of symmetrically
loaded sandwich cylinder. J. American Insti-
tute Aeronautics Astronautics. Oan.).
- - - ; Capelli, A. P.; Kovalevsky, L.; Rish, F.
L.; and Verette, R. M., 1968. Shell Analysis
Manual. NASA CR-912 (April).
Batdorf, S. B. 1974. A simplified method of
elastic stability analysis for thin cylindrical
shells. NASA Report 874.
Bauserfeld, W. 1963. Development of the Zeiss-
Dywidag Process. Shell Architecture. New
York: Reinhold, 281-83.
Becker, Wiliam C. E. 1955. St. Louis air termi-
nal, intersecting ribs carry concrete shell
roof. Civil Engineering no. 7: 58.
- - - . 1962. Elastic stability of orthopedic
shells. J. Aerospace Science vol. 29, no. 5
(May).
Beles, Aurel A., and Soare, Mircea, 1964.
Paraboloidul Eliptic si Hiperbolic in Con-
structii. Editura Academiei Populare Romine.
In Romanian. Bethlehem Steel Corp. 1968.
Cable Roof Structures. Bull. 5 (Feb.).
Bill, Max. 1969. Robert Maillart, Bridges and
Constructions. 3 ed. New York: Frederick A.
Praeger, 184.
- - - . 1969. Robert Maillart. 3 ed. Zurich:
Les Editions d' Architecture (Artemis).
 Selected Bibliography
Billington, David P. 1958. An American engi-
neer views precast and prestressed concrete
in the Soviet Union. (ASCE). Civil Engineer-
ing vol. 28, no. 10. (Oct.), 53-57.
- - - . 1967. Nonlinear theories of thin elas-
tic shells with reference to axisymmetric
shells of revolution. Delft, Netherlands: Lab-
oratory for Applied Mechanics, Technical
University of Delft, Oan.).
- - - . Note on finite symmetrical deflections
in thin shells of revolution. Applied Mechanics
vol. 34, no. 3 (Sept.):763-74.
- - - . 1970. From theory to practice via re-
search in thin shell concrete structures. Pro-
ceedings, International Colloquium on Pro-
gress of Shell Structures, International
Association for Shell Structures, Madrid,
1969 Madrid, Session 3.
- - - . 1982. Thin-shell concrete structures.
2 ed. In Structural Engineering Handbook, E.
H. and C. N. Gaylord, eds. New York:
McGraw-HilI.
- - - . 1985. The Tower and the Bridge.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Bleich, H. H., and Salvadori, M. G. 1959.
Bending moments on shell boundaries. ACSE
Proceedings vol. 85 ST 8 (Oct.):91-101.
Block, D. L. 1966. Buckling of eccentrically
stiffened orthotropic cylinders under pure
bending. NASA, TN-D-3351 (Mar.).
- - - ; Card, M. F.; and Mikulas, M. M., Jr.
1968. Buckling of eccentrically stiffened
orthotropic cylinders. NASA, TN-D-2960
(Aug.).
Blum, R. E., and McComb, H. G., Jr. 1968.
Buckling of an equatorial segment of a
spherical shell loaded by its own weight.
NASA, TN-D-4921.
Bongard, Werner. 1959. Zur Theorie und Be-
rechnung von Schalentragwerken in Form
gleichseitiger hyperbolischer Paraboloide.
Berlin, Bautechnik-Archiv, no. 15.
Bonnes, G.; Chatt, G.; Giroux, Y.; and Robi-
chaud, L. 1968. Curved triangular elements
for the analysis of shells. Proceedings, Second
Conference on Matrix Methods in Structural
Mechanics, Air Force Institute of Technol-
ogy, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
Also available in AFFDL-TR-68-150 (Dec.
1969).
Bouma, A. L. 1959. Some applications of the
bending theory regarding doubly curved
shells. Proceedings, Symposium on the
Theory of Thin Elastic Shells. Amsterdam,
North-Holland Publishing Company.
- - - . 1964. On approximate methods of
shell analysis. A general survey. Proceedings,
World Conference on Shell Structures (San
408
Francisco, 1962). Washington D. C.: Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, 475-86.
- - , and Ligtenberg, F. K. 1958-1959.
Model tests for proving the construction of
the pavilion. [The Philips Pavilion at the
1958 Brussels World's Fair.] Eindhoven,
Netherlands: Philips Technical Review vol. 20,
no. 1.
- - - ; Van Riel, A. C.; Van Koten, H.; and
Beranek, W. J. 1961. Investigations on
models of eleven cylindrical shells made of
reinforced and prestressed concrete. Pro-
ceedings, Symposium on Shell Research
(Delft, 1961). New York: Wiley Interscience
and Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing
Company, 79-101.
Bradshaw, Richard R. 1961. Application of the
general theory of shells. ACI. (Aug.).
- - - . 1963. Some aspects of concrete shell
buckling. ACI vol. 60, no. 3 (Mar.).
Brebbia, C. 1965. On the bending solutions
for hyperbolic paraboloid shells. University
of Southhampton, Department Report
CE/9/65.
- - - . 1967. On the calculation of shallow
hyperbolic paraboloid shells. Revue de Me-
canique Appliquee vol. 12, no. 4. (Bucharest):
873-98.
- - - . Umbrella hyperbolic paraboloidal
shells. Proceedings, International Congress
on the Application of Shells in Architecture.
Mexico City.
Brielmaier, A. A. 1962. Prismatic folded plates.
ACI vol. 59. (Mar.):407.
Broadbent, B. H., and Jenkins, R. S. 1960.
Complete cylindrical shell roofs precast on
the ground. International Association for
Shell Structures, Madrid, Bull. no. 2, Paper
A-9.
Buckling of Thin-Walled Doubly Curved Shells.
1969. NASA. SP-8032 (Aug.).
Buyer, K. 1957. Beispiele neuer Schalenbauten.
Beton-und Stahlbeton. no. 1.
Candela, Felix. 1950. Cubierta Prismatica de
Hormigon Armado en la Cuidad de Mejico.
Resista Nacional de Arquitectura no. 99: 126
ff.
- - - . 1951. Las Cubiertas Laminares en la
Arquitectura Industrial. Espacios no. 7.
- - - . Simple concrete shell structures. ACl.
(Dec.):321 ff.
- - - . 1952. Una Pequena Demonstracion
Practica de la Validez de la Teoria de la
Membrana en Superficies Alabeadas. Revista
Ingenieria no. 4:43 ff.
- - - . 1953. Divagaciones Estructurales en
torno al Estilo. Espacios no. 15.
 Selected Biblioeraphy
- - - . Skew shell utilized in unusual roof.
ACI. (Mar.):657 ff.
- - - . 1954. Construccion. Caracas. Ouly).
- - - . The shell as a space encloser. Proceed-
ings, Conference on Thin Concrete Shells.
MIT Oune):5 ff.
- - - . Stereo-structures. Progressive Architec-
ture. Oune):84 ff.
- - - . Structural digressions around style in
architecture. Student Publications, School of
Design, North Carolina State College, vol. 5,
no. 1:18 ff.
- - - . Toward a new philosophy of struc-
tures. Student Publications, School of De-
sign, North Carolina State College, vol. 5,
no. 3:2 ff.
- - - . Warped surfaces. Proceedings, Confer-
ence on Thin Concrete Shells. MIT, June.
91 ff.
- - - . 1955. Durmientes de Concrete Pre-
tensado. La Construccion Moderna. July.
- - - . Estructuras Laminares Parabolico-
hiperbolicas. In/ormes de la Construccion no.
76 (Dec.).
- - - . II Gusico Sinonimo della Delimita-
zione dello Spazio. Civilta della Machine no.
5:35 ff.
- - - . Structural applications of hyperbolic
paraboloidal shells. ACI. Oan.):397 ff.
- - - . Thin shell roofs for large buildings.
Consulting Engineer. (May):35 ff.
- - - . Toward a new philosophy of struc-
tures. Student Publications, School of De-
sign, North Carolina State College, vol. 6,
no. 1:16 ff.
- - - . 1956. Iglesia de la Virgen Milagrosa.
In/ormes se la Construccion no. 86 (Dec.): 140
ff.
- - - . Intuition as synthesis. Dimension, Stu-
dent Publications, College of Architecture
and Design, University of Michigan
(Feb.):50 ff.
- - - . Les Voutes Minces et I'Espace Archi-
tectural. L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui no. 64:
22 ff.
- - - . Toward a new structure. Architectural
Forum. (Feb.):82 ff.
- - - . 1957. Lezioni di Modestia. L'Architet-
tura no. 22:218.
- - - . 1958. Cascarones de Hormigon Ar-
mado, Ingenieria Internacional Construccion.
New York, June, August, Manuel del Con-
structor. 3 ff.
- - - . Understanding the hyperbolic para-
boloid. Architectural record. Ouly): 191 ff.
(Aug.):205 ff.
- - - . 1959. EI Arquitecto Felix Candela.
Viajes. Mexico City, no. 41:22 ff.
409
- - - . Les Paraboloides Hyperboliques et les
Coques en Beton Arme. Aujourd'hui no.
23:62 ff.
- - - . Strutture e strutturalismo. Casabella
no. 232:48 ff.
- - - . Weg zu einer neuen Strukturauffas-
sung. Bauknust und Werkform no. 9:466 ff.
- - - . 1985. En Defensa del Formalismo. Y
Otros Escutos. Xarait Ediciones, pp. 172.
Cantin, R., and Clough, R. 1968. A curved cy-
lindrical shell discrete element. AIAAJournal
vol. 6, no. 5 (May): 1057 - 68.
Carr, A. j., and Clough, R. W. 1969. Dynamic
earthquake behavior of shell roofs. Proceed-
ings, Fourth World Conference on Earth-
quake Engineering, Santiago, Chile Oan.).
Cauchy, A. 1828. Sur l'equilibre et Ie mouve-
ment d'une plaque solide. Exercise de mathi-
matique. (10) 3.
Chetty, S. M. K., and Tottenham, H. 1964. An
investigation into the bending analysis of hy-
perbolic paraboloid shells. Indian Concrete
Journal. Bombay, vol. 38, no. 7:248-58.
Cheung, Y. K. 1969. Folded plate structures by
finite strip method. Proceedings, ACSE vol.
95, ST12 (Dec.):2963-79.
Chinn, j. 1959. Cylindrical shell analysis simpli-
fied by beam method. J. ACI, Proceedings,
vol. 55, no. 11 (May):1l83-92.
Chronowicz, A. 1963. Reinforced concrete
roof to swimming pool. Civil Engineering
and Public Works Review, London, vol. 58
(Mar.):319-24.
Chu, K. H., and Pinjarkar, S. G. 1966. Multiple
folded plate structures. Proceedings, ASCE
vol. 92, ST2 (Apr.):297 -321.
Clebsch, A. 1883. Theorie de I'elasticite des
corps solides. Paris, Translated from the
German, with notes by B. de St. Vanant.
Clough, R. W., and Johnson, C. P. 1971. Finite
element analysis of arbitrary thin shells. Sym-
posium, concrete thin shells, American Con-
crete Institute, SP-28:333-64.
Collins, P. 1960. Antonio Gaudi. New York:
Braziller, 24.
- - - . 1964. Concrete shell structures, prac-
tice and commentary. Report of ACI Com-
mittee 334, J. ACI vol. 61, no. 9
(Sept.): 11 04.
Connor, j. j., and Will, G. T. 1969. A mixed
finite element shallow shell formulation. Pro-
ceedings, U. S.-Japan Seminar on Matrix
Methods of Structural Analysis and Design,
Tokyo, (Sept.).
- - - , and Brebbia, C. 1967. Stiffness ma-
trix for shallow rectangular shell element.
Proceedings, ASCE vol. 93, EM5 (Oct.):
43-65.
 Selected Biblionraphy
- - - . 1959. La Construction Moderne. Spe-
cial No.: Le Palais des Expositions du
C.N.LT., no. 1.
Cowan, H. J. 1961. Some applications of the use
of direct model analysis in the design of ar-
chitecutral structures. Journal of the Institu-
tion of Engineers, Australia Ouly-Aug.).
Creasy, L. R. 1961. Prestressed concrete cylin-
drical tanks. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Cretu, Mircea. 1963. Criteria for the design of
reinforced concrete shell structures and
folded plates. New Delhi: Indian Standard
Institution, Indian Standard 2210-1962.
Croll, J. G. A., and Scrivener, J. C. 1969. Edge
Effects in Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells. Pro-
ceedings, ASCE vol. 95, ST3 (Mar.):457 -78.
- - - . Convergence of hypar finite differ-
ence solutions. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 95,
ST5 (May):809-30.
Crowley, F. X. 1969. Precast 150 ft. diameter
dome. J. ACI, Proceedings vol. 66, no. 9
(Sept.):698 -702.
Csonka, P. 1955. Calculations of calotte shells
over rectangular bases. Acta Technica. Aka-
demiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest.
Tomus XI, Fasciculi 3-4.
- - . 1956. The buckling of spheroidal
shell curved in two directions. Acta Technica.
Akaademiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Buda-
pest. vol. 14, no. 3-4:25-37.
Dabrowski, Ryszard. 1963. Analysis of pre-
stressed cylindrical shell roofs. Journal of the
Structural Division, Proceedings, ASCE, ST-5
(Oct.).
Daganoff, Ilia. 1957. Der Sweigelenkbogen mit
parabelformiger Achse unter der Wirkung
von Schalenlasten. Bautechnik no. 2:49.
1958. Vorgefertigte, doppelt
gekrummte Schalenkonstruktionen. Proceed-
ings, Second Symposium on Concrete Shell
Roof Construction, Oslo Ouly 1- 3, 1957).
- - - . 1959. Schalen und Faltwerkdacher
aus vorgefertigten, zusammengespannten
Stahlbetonelementen. Bauplanug no. 10:441
ff; no. 11:511 ff.
- - - . Der Zweigelenkbogen mit kreisfor-
miger Achse unter der Wirkung von Scha-
lenlasten. Bautechnik no. 6:235.
- - - . 1961. Betrachtungen uber die Be-
rechnungsverfahren Rechteckiger Kugleca-
lotten. Proceedings, International Collo-
quium on Simplified Calculation Methods,
International Association for Shell Struc-
tures, Brussels (Sept. 4-6).
Daganoff, Ilia; Hoffman, Claus; and Ruhle,
Herrmann. 1960. Shell and fold structure
roofs out of precast, prestressed reinforced
410
concrete elements. Bull. International Asso-
ciation for Shell Structures, no. 3 A-12
(Madrid).
Das Gupta, N. C. 1962. Edge disturbances in a
hyperbolic paraboloid. Civil Engineering and
Public Works Review. London, vol. 58 (Feb.
1963):220-22.
- - - . 1962. Using finite difference equa-
tions to find the stresses in hypar shells. Civil
Engineering and Public Works Review. Lon-
don, vol. 56 (Feb. 1961):199-201.
Dayaratnam, P., and Gerstle, Kurt H. 1964.
Buckling of hyperbolic paraboloids. Pro-
ceedings, World Conference on Shell Struc-
tures, San Francisco, Oct. 1-4 1962. Wash-
ington D.C. National Academy of Sciences-
National Research Council Publication
1187: 289-96.
De Cossio, R. D. 1961. Discussion of the paper
"hyperbolic paraboloidal umbrella shells
under vertical loads" by H. P. Harrenstien.
J. ACI vol. 32, no. 12 Oune):1603.
DeFries-Skene, A., and Scordelis A. C. 1964.
Direct stiffness solution for folded plates.
Proceedings, ASCE vol. 90, ST4 (Aug.):
15-47.
Dickson, J. N., and Brolliar, R. H. 1966. The
general instability of ring-stiffened corru-
gated cylinders under axial compression.
NASA, TND-3089 Oan.).
Dischinger, Franz. 1925. Fortschritte im Bau
von Massivkuppeln. Bauingenieur no. 10:
362. Also Deutsche Bauzeitung, no. 49
(1925).
- - - . 1927. Eine Neue Konstruktion fur
Grossmarkthallen in Leipzig. Deutsche Bau-
zeitung no. 23:161.
- - - . 1928. Schalen-und Rippenkuppein.
Handbuch fur den Eisenbetonbau. F. Em-
perger, ed. 4 ed. vol. 6. Berlin: Ernst und
Sohn.
- - - . 1929. Die Theorie de Vieleckkuppein
und die Zusammenhange mit einbeschrie-
benen Rotationsschalen. Beton und Eisen nos.
5,6, 8, 9:100 ff., 119 ff., 150 ff., 169 ff.
- - - . 1930. Eisenbetonsc alendacher Zeiss-
Dywidag zur Uberdachung Weitgespannter
Raume. Lecture, Liege, 1930. Also Tech-
nique des Travaux (Dec.).
- - - . Die Grossmarkthalle Leipzig. Verein
Deutscher Ingenieure. Zeitschrift no. 1.
- - - . 1932. Shells. Grosstroiizdat.
- - - . 1935. Die strenge Theorie der Kreis-
zylinderschale in ihrer Anwendung auf die
Zeiss-Dywidag-Schalen. Beton und Eisen nos.
16, 18:257 ff., 283 ff.
- - - . 1936. Der Spannungszustand in af-
finen Schalen und Raumfachwerken unter
 Selected Bibiiooraphy
Anwendung des Prinzips des statischen Mas-
senaugleichs. Bauingerieur nos. 23 - 28:228
ff.
- - - . 1950. Neue Wege im Stahlbetonbau
(Bogenstaum aus Zylinderschalen). Deutscher
Betonverein, Vortrage auf der Hauptversam-
mung (14 ff.).
- - - . Schlenkuppel mit 72 m Spannweite
(Mod. Projket fur die Bunaweke). Bau-
planug-Bautechnik no. 6: 191 ff.
- - - , and Finsterwalder, Ulrich. 1928. Ei-
senbetonschalen System Zeiss-Dywidag.
Bauingenieur nos. 44-46:807 ff., 823 ff.,
842 ff.
- - - . 1929. Die Frankfurter Grossmark-
thalle. lement, no. 12.
Distefano, N., and Torregiani, C. 1966. A sim-
plified method to evaluate critical loads of
hyperbolic paraboloidal shells. Proceedings,
Symposium on Shell Structures in Engineer-
ing Proactive, Budapest, 1965, Epitestudo-
menyi Intazet.
Dong, S. B. 1966. Analysis of laminated shells
of revolution. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 92,
EM6 (Dec.):135-55.
Donnell, L. H. 1934. A new theory for the
buckling of thin cylinders under axial com-
pression and bending. Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers vol.
56:108.
- - - ,and Wan, C. C. 1950. Effect of imper-
fections of buckling of thin cylinders and col-
umns under axial compression. Applied Me-
chanics vol. 17, no. 1 (Mar.).
Dubois, F. 1917, Uber die Festigkeit der Ku-
gelschale. Zurich: Promotionsarbeit.
E/ AC EASE. 1969. Elastic analysis for str"uc-
tural engineering. Program Applications
Guide. Data Centers Division, Control Data
Corporation (Aug.).
- - - . Elastic Analysis for Structural Engi-
neering. Program User's Manual. Data
Centers Division, Control Data Corporation
(Aug.).
Engineering News Record. 1956. Dome roof
formed on mound needs no shoring vol. 157
(Sept. 27):35 ff.
- - - . 1957. Biggest wood dome span 300
feet vol. 158 Oan. 10):32 ff.
- - - . 1960. For an economical roof: precast
barrels vol. 165, no. 12 (Sept. 15):42-44.
- - - . 1964. Flying buttress holds off thrust
from precast, pleated half-dome vol. 173
(Nov. 19):40-42.
- - - . 1965. Precast dome spans 202 feet
vol. 174, no. 4 Oan. 8):66 - 67.
- - - . 1976. Montreal's XXI Olympiad
411
sports a lavish design at record costs Oune
10):22-37.
Ergauoudis, I.; Irongs, B. M.; and Zienkiewicz,
O. C. 1968. Cured isoparametric, "Quadri-
lateral" elements for finite element analysis.
Intern. J. of Solids and Structures vol. 4 Lon-
don: Pergamon Press.
Esquillan, Nicholas. 1952. Le hangar a deux
nefs de 101,50 m de portee de l'Aeroport de
Marignane. Annales de l'Institute Technique
due Batiment et des Travaux Publics no. 57
(Sept.).
- - - . 1958. The design and construction of
the shell roof of the exhibition palace of the
National Center of Industries and Technol-
ogy, Paris. Cement and Concrete Associa-
tion, London (Dec.).
- - - . 1959. C.N.I.T. Paris. Informes de la
Construccion III (May).
Evan-Iwanowski, R. M.; Cheng, H. S.; and Loo,
T. C. 1962. Experimental investigations and
deformation and stability of spherical shells
subjected to concentrated loads at the apex.
Proceedings, 4th U.S. Natl. Eng. Appl. Mech.:
563-75.
Feber, C. 1963. Candela: The Shell Builder. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Finsterwalder, Ulrich. 1926. Die Dywidaghalle
auf der Gesolei. Bauingenieur no. 48:929.
Fitch, J. R. 1968. The buckling and post-buck-
ling behavior of spherical caps under con-
centrated load. Intern. J. of Solids and Struc-
tures vol. 4, no. 4(Apr.):421-46.
Fletcher, Sir B. 1967. A History of Architecture,
17 ed. Rev. by R. A. Cordingley, New York:
Charles Schribner's Sons, 198.
Flint, A. R., and Low, A. E. 1960. The con-
struction of hyperbolic paraboloid type shells
without temporary formwork. Bull. Interna-
tional Association for Shell Structures, Ma-
drid, no. 4, paper no. A-15.
Flugge, Wilhelm. 1957. Statik und Dynamic der
Schalen Berlin: Springer-Verlag OHG.
- - - . 1960. Stresses in Shells. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.
Fuchssteiner, Wilhelm. 1954. Die Berechnung
von Industriesc ornsteinen mit Fuchsoffnun-
gen. Bauingenieur no. 7.
- - - . 1955. Kreiszylinderschalen: Die ele-
men tare Behandlung der Kampferrandstor-
ungen. Beton-und Stahlbetonbau no. 5.
- - - . 1960. Kreiszylinderschalen, Berech-
nung mit Polynomen. Benton-und Stahlbeton-
bau no. 5.
- - - , and Schader, Alois. 1956. Allege-
meine Schalengrundgleichungen. Beton-und
Stahlbetonbau no. 7.
 Selected Bibli08raphy
1959. Einige neuere Schalenbauten
mit besonderer Beachtung wirtschaftlic en
Austfuhrung. Beton-und Stahlbetonbau no. 5.
Gaafar, I. 1954. Hipped plate analysis, consid-
ering joint displacements. Transactions,
ASCE vol. 119, paper 2696:743-84.
Galantay, E. Y. 1956. Les voiles minces et la
courverture autoportante. L'Architecture d'
Ajourd'hui no. 64:28 ff.
Galerkin, B. G. 1934. On the theory of elastic
cylindrical shells 2:4:5 - 6.
Gallager, R. H. 1969. Analysis of plate and shell
structures. Application of Finite Element
Methods in Civil Engineering. Nashville: Van-
derbilt University.
- - - , and Yang, H. 1968. Elastic instability
predictions for doubly curved shells. Pro-
ceedings, Second Conference on Matrix
Methods in Structural Mechanics, Air Force
Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio. AFFDL-TR-68-150
(Dec. 1969).
Geckeler, J. 1926. Uber die Festigkeit Achsen-
symmetrischer Schalen (Strengths of axially
symmetric shells). Forschungsarbeiten auf dem
Gebeit des Ingenieurwesens no. 276.
- - - . 1932. Statics of elastic bodies. OGIZ.
Gerard, George. 1962. Compressive stability of
orthotropic cylinders. J. Aerospace Sci. (Oct.).
- - - . Introduction to structural stability
theory. New York: McGraw-HilI.
- - - , and Becker, H. 1957. Handbook of
Structural Stability Part III: Buckling of
Curved Plates and Shells NACA TN 3783.
Gibson, J. E. 1961. The Design of Cylindrical
Shell Roofs. 2 ed. Princeton, N.J.: D. Van
Nostrand.
Girkmann, K. 1959. Flachentragwerke. 5 ed.
Vienna: Springer-Verlag.
Giroux, Y. M. 1967. Finite difference tech-
niques for multiple shells with edge mem-
bers. Proceedings, International Congress on
the Application of Shells in Architecture,
Mexico City.
Goldberg, J. E.; Bogdonoff, J. L.; and Al-
spaugh, D. L. 1964. Stresses in spherical
domes under arbitrary loading including
thermal and shrinkage effects. Proceedings,
Symposium on Non-Classical Shell Prob-
lems. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publish-
ing Company: 116-38.
Goldenweizer, A. L. 1939. Additions and cor-
rections to the theory of thin shells. Plates
and Shells. Gosstroiizdat.
- - - . Analysis of thin-walled shells and
structures, based on rigid diaphragms, tak-
ing into account bending and twisting mo-
ments. Plates and Shells. Gosstroiizdat.
412
- - - . 1944. On the applicability of the gen-
eral theorems of the theory of elasticity of
thin shells. Prikl. Mat. Mekh. Academiya
Nauk., S.S.S.R. 1 (8): 1.
- - - . 1947. On appropriate methods for
the analysis of thin shells of zero Gaussian
curvature. Prikl. Mat. Mekh. Academiya
Nauk., S.S.S.R. 1 (11):4.
- - - . 1961. Theory of elastic thin shells.
New York: Pergamon Press, 474-83.
- - - ; Mroshchinskii, A; and Repman, Iu. V.
1939. Methods of analysis of spherical domes
using membrane theory. Plates and Shells.
Gosstroiizdat.
Grafton, P. E., and Strome, D. R. 1963. Analy-
sis of axisymmetrica I shells by the direct stiff-
ness method. AIAA Journal vol. 1, no. 10
(Oct.):2342-47.
Gvozdev, A. A. 1932. On the analysis of thin-
walled cylindrical shells. Streitel'naia pro-
myshlennocm' 16:1.
Haas, A. M. 1962. Design of thin concrete shells
vol. 1. New York: John Wiley, 108.
Hajnal-Konyi, K. 1959. Construction of a hy-
perbolic paraboloid shell roof over the gar-
age of the Lincolnshire Motor Company,
Ltd., Lincoln. International Colloquium on
Construction Processes of Shell Structures,
Madrid, Paper A-8.
Hamilton, R. J. 1938. Great Bend Auditorium.
And Anton Tedesko, Great Bend's Z-D
Roof. Architectural Concrete no. 3 (Oct.).
- - - . 1941. Large concrete warehouse built
with moving falsework. Engineering News-
Record (Apr. 24): 1.
- - - . 1942. Hangars at Wright Field and
San Diego. Architectural Concrete 2:8, 24.
Hampe, E. 1964. Statik Rotationssymmetrischer
Flachentragewerke. In German. vols. 1-4,
Berlin: VEB Verlag fur Bauwesen.
Harrenstein, H. P. 1961. Configuration of shell
structures for optimum stresses. Proceedings,
Symposium on Shell Research. Delft, Aug.
30-Sept. 2, 1961. Amsterdam: North-HoI-
land Publishing Company, 232.
Hartin, R. L. 1935 Construction features of the
Z-D dome for the Hayden Planetarium
Building. J. ACI (May-June):449.
Huang, N. C. 1964. Unsymmetrical buckling of
thin shallow spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech.
vol. 31, no. 3 (Sept.):447-57.
Hutchinson, J. W. 1967. Initial post-buckling
behavior of toroidal shell segments. Intern. J.
Solids and Structures vol. 3, no. lOan.):
97-115.
Hyman, B. I. and Healey, J. J. 1967. Buckling
of prolate spheroidal shells under hydro-
static pressure. J. American Institute of Aero-
 Selected Biblionraphy
nautics and Astronautics vol. 5, no. 8 jones, L. L. 1960. Tests on a one-tenth scale
(Aug.): 1469 -77.
Iljushin, A. A. and Lenskij, V. S. 1959.
Strength of materials. In Russian. Fizmatgiz.
International Colloquium on Construction Pro-
cesses of Shell Structures. Dresden, March
1961.
International Colloquium on Construction Pro-
cesses of Shell Structures. Madrid, Sept.
1959.
Irons, B. M. 1970. A frontal solution program
for finite element analysis. Intern. J. for
Numerical Methods in Engineering vol. 2, no.
lOan.).
Isler, Heinz. 1955. Instability of prestressed
shells. Second Congress, Federation Interna-
tiona Ie de la Precontrainte, Amsterdam:736.
- - - . 1958. Discussion, shell research. Pro-
ceedings, Second Symposium on Concrete
Shell Roof Construction, july 1- 3 1957
(OsI0):327.
- - - . 1959. Dreidimensionales Gestalten.
Bauen & Wohnen no. 8:287 ff.
- - - . Groblichtkuppein. Bauen & Wohnen
no. 5:28.
- - - . New shapes for shells. International
Colloquium on Construction Processes of
Structures, Madrid, Report C-3.
- - - . 1961. Experimental shell design. Pro-
ceedings, Symposium on Shell Research,
Delft, Aug. 30-Sept. 2. Amsterdam: North-
Holland Publishing Company, 356.
- - - . 1967. Twelve years of application of
bubble shells. Proceedings, International
Congress on the Application of Shells in Ar-
chitecture, Mexico City. See also Reference
6, pp. 172-75.
- - - , and Weder, A. 1955. Die Buckel-
schale, ein interessantes Bauelement. Schwei-
zerische Bauzeitung no. 23.
jenkins, R. S. 1958. A variational method for
design of cylindrical shells. Proceedings, Sec-
ond Symposium on Concrete Shell Construc-
tion, july 1- 3 1957 (Oslo): 157 ff.
- - - ,and Broadbent, B. H. Complete cylin-
drical shell roofs precast on the ground.
- - - . 1959. International Colloquium on
Construction Processes of Shell Structures,
Madrid, Paper A-9.
johnson, C. P. 1967. The analysis of thin shells
by a finite element procedure. Structural En-
gineering Laboratory, University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley. Report No. 67-22.
- - - , and Smith, P. G. 1969. A computer
program for the analysis of thin shells. Struc-
tural Engineering Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley. Report No. 69-5.
413
model of a hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof.
Technical Report TRA/334. London: Ce-
ment and Concrete Association, (Aug.).
- - - . 1961. Tests on a one-sixth scale
model of a hyperbolic paraboloid umbrella
shell roof. Technical Report TRA/347. Lon-
don: Cement and Concrete Association,
Oan.).
jones, R. E., and Strome, D. R. 1966. Direct
stiffness method analysis of shells of revolu-
tion utilizing curved elements. AIAA Journal
vol. 4, no. 9 (Sept.):1519-25.
Kalnins, A. 1964. Analysis of shells of revolu-
tion subjected to symmetrical and nonsym-
metrical loads. J. Applied Mechanics vol. 31,
no. 3 (Sept.).
Kemp, K. D., and Croll,]. C. A. 1975. Collapse
of a cooling tower due to geometric imper-
fections. Paper presented at Second Collo-
quium on Hyperbolic Cooling Towers, Brus-
sels Oune).
Kemper, ]. 1960. Unified thin-shells theory.
Symposium on Mechanics of Plates and
Shells for Industry Research Associates.
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, PIBAL
no. 566 (Mar. 9-11).
Keshava Rao, M. N., and Sharma, S. P. 1962.
Application of the methods of finite differ-
ences for the analysis of a conoid shell using
the bending theory. Indian Concrete Journal
vol. 36, no. 3 (Mar.):84.
Key, S. W., and Beisinger, Z. 1968. The analy-
sis of thin shells with transverse shear strains
by the finite element method. Proceedings,
Second Conference on Matrix Methods in
Structural Mechanics, Air Force Institute of
Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, 1968. AFFDL-TR-68-150 (Dec.
1969).
Khojasteh-Bakht, M., and Popov, E. P. 1970.
Analysis of elastic-plastic shells of revolution.
Proceedings, ASCE vol. 96, EM6 Oune):
327 -40.
Kiciman, M. 0., and Konishi, D. Y. 1961. Sta-
bility of honeycomb sandwich cylinders.
ASME Paper 61-AV-36.
Kilchevskii, N. A. 1940. The basic equations of
equilibrium of elastic shells and some
methods for their integration. Zbirnik Prats
Inst. Mat. A.N. U.S.S.R. 3, 4, 5, 6 (1940) 6,
(1941 ).
Kirchhoff, G. 1876. Vorlesungen uber Mathe-
matische Physik. vol. 1: Mechanik.
Knittel, Georg. 1960. Zur Vorspannung der
Flachentragwerke des Massivbaus. VDI-
Zeitschrift vol. 102, no. 7:253 ff.
Kohnke, P. c., and Schnobric, W. C. 1969. A
 Selected Bibliography
finite element analysis of eccentrically stiff-
ened circular cylindrical shells. Structural
Research Series no. 351. Urbana: University
of Illinois, Oct.
Leet, K. 1966. Study of stability in the hyperbo-
lic paraboloid. Proceedings, ASEC vol. 92,
EMI (Feb.):121-42.
Lin, T. Y., and Kulka, F. 1964. Concrete shell
prestressed for load balancing. Proceedings,
World Conference on Shell Structures, San
Francisco, 1962. Washington D.C.: National
Academy of Sciences, 29 - 38.
Loo, T. C., and Evan-Iwanowski, R. M. 1966.
Interaction of critical concentrated loads act-
ing on shallow spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech.
vol. 33, no. 3 (Sept.):612-16.
Lundgren, H. 1960. Cylindrical Shells Vol. 1:
Cylindrical Roofs 3 printing, 1960. Copen-
hagen: Danish Technical Press, Institution of
Danish Civil Engineers.
Makowski, Z. S. Analysis, Design, and Construc-
tion of Braced Domes, New York: Nichols
Publishing Co., 1984, 684.
March, H. W., and Kuenzi, E. W. 1958. Buck-
ling of sandwich cylinders in torsion. Forest
Products Report 184 Oan.).
Marshall, W. T. 1954. The elimination of mo-
ments in shell roofs by prestressing. Proceed-
ings, Institution of Civil Engineers London,
vol. 3, part III (Apr.):276-82.
Martin, D. W., and Scriven, W. E. 1961. The
calculation of membrane stresses in hyperbo-
lic cooling towers. Proceedings, Institution of
Civil Engineers, London, vol. 19, no. 4
(Aug.):503 -14.
Mast, Paul E. 1962. Design and construction of
northlight barrel shells. J. ACI vol. 59, no. 4
(Apr.).
Medwadowski, S. J. 1962. Discussion of "De-
sign and construction of northlight barrel
shells," by Paul E. Mast J. ACI. Proceedings,
vol. 59, no. 12 (Dec.):1903-5.
- - - . 1963. Thin shell structures. Discovery,
London, vol. 24, no. 11 (Nov.):29-35.
- - - ,and Dawson, W. R. 1960. Design and
construction of precast-prestressed thin shell
roofs for a cement plant at Redding, Califor-
nia. Proceedings, International Colloquium
on Precast Shell Structures, Dresden.
Megard, G. 1969. Analysis of thin shells using
planar and curved finite elements. Report
No. 69-1. Trondheim, Norway: Division of
Structural Mechanics, Technical University
of Norway.
- - - . Planar and curved shell elements. Fi-
nite elements methods in stress analysis.
414
I. Holand and K. Bell, eds. Trondheim,
Norway: TAPIR, 287-319.
Meissner, E. 1915. Uber Elastizitat und Festig-
keit dunner Schalen, Viertelschr. Zurich: D.
natur. Ges., Bd. 60.
Meng, Ching-Hung, and Laushey, Louis M.
1960. Stresses in hyperbolic paraboloid
shells loaded laterally. Bull., International
Association for Shell Structures, Madrid,
no. 15.
Mescall, J. F. 1965. Large deflections of spheri-
cal shells under concentrated loads. J. Appl.
Mech. vol. 32, no. 4 (Dec.):936-38.
Meyer, C., and Scordelis, A. C. 1970. Com-
puter program for prismatic folded plates
with plate and beam finite elements. Division
of Structural Engineering and Structural
Mechanics, Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, University of California, Berkeley,
Structures and Materials Research Report
SESM 70-3. (Feb.).
Meyer, R. R. 1967. Buckling of ring-stiffened
corrugated cylinders subjected to uniform
axial load and bending. Douglas Aircraft Co.
Report DAC-60698 Ouly).
- - - , and Harmon, M. B. 1963 Conical seg-
ment method for analyzing open crown
shells of revolution for edge loading. AIAA
Journal vol. 1, no. 3 (Apr.):886-91.
- - - , and Bellinfante, R. J. 1964. Fabrica-
tion and experimental evaluation of com-
mon domes having waffle-like stiffening.
Douglas Aircraft Company. Report
SM-47742.
Michael, K. C., and Munro, J. 1967. Approxi-
mating functions and indirect solutions of
shell problems. Proceedings, International
Congress on the Application of Shells in Ar-
chitecture, Mexico City.
Mihailescu, M., and Ungureanu, I. 1959. A new
shell form for prestressed sheds. Interna-
tional Colloquium on Construction Processes
of Shell Structures, Madrid, Paper A-13.
Mirza, J. 1967. Stresses and deformations in
umbrella shells. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 93,
ST2 (Apr.):27i -86.
Mokk, L. 1964. Prefabricated concrete for in-
dustrial and public structures. Budapest:
Akademiai Kiado (Publishing House of Hun-
garian Academy of Sciences), 398.
Molke, E. C., and Kalinka,J. E. 1938. Principles
of concrete shell dome design. J. ACI
(May-June):649
- - - . 1941. Navy builds concrete hangars
at San Diego. In Engineering News-Record
(Dec. 4):64.
Muller, G.; Kabir, A. F.; and Scordelis, A. C.
Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete
 Selected Bibliography
hyperbolic paraboloid shells. Proceedings,
Conference on Nonlinear Behavior of Rein-
forced Concrete Spatial Structures vol. 1.
Darmstadt, West Germany Ouly 1978):
191-203.
Muriel, Emanuel. 1980. Contemporary Archi-
tects. New York: St. Martin's.
Nasser, A. R. 1964. Construction of a but-
tressed dome segment. J. ACI, Proceedings
vol. 61, no. 5 (May):509-20.
- - - ,andJohnson, C. B. 1962. Semigraphi-
cal analysis of long prestressed concrete
vaulted shells. J. ACI, Proceedings vol. 59,
no. 5 (May):659-72.
Natural Draught Cooling Towers-Ferrybridge
and After. 1967. Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, London.
Nazarov, A. A. 1949. On the theory of their
shallow shells. Prikl. Mat. Mech. vol. 13:547-
50. In English in NACA TM1426 (1956).
Nervi, Pier Luigi. 1956. Structures. Translated
by Guiseppina and Mario Salvadore. New
York: F. W. Dodge.
- - - . 1957. Palazzetto dello Sport, Rom.
Bauwelt, no. 49.
- - - . 1957. The Works of Pier Luigi Nervi.
New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
- - - . 1965. Aesthetics and Technology in
Building. Translated by R. Einaudi. Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press.
Noor, A. K., and Veletsos, A. S. 1963. A study
of doubly curved shallow shells. Champaign:
Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Illinois, Structural Research Series no.
274.
Novodvorskii, V. 1938. On the so-called mem-
brane theory of shells. Stroitelnaia promysh-
learocm' 16:l.
Novozhilov, V. V. 1964. The Theory of Thin
Shells translated from Russian by P. G.
Lowe. New York: Erven P. Noordhoff.
Otto, Frei. 1954. Das Hangende Dach-Gestalt
und Struktur. Berlin: Bauwelt Verlag.
Pape, P. F. 1935. Thin concrete shell dome for
New York Planetarium. Engineering News-
Record Ouly 25):105.
Parme, A. L. 1960. Elementary analysis of hy-
perbolic paraboloid shells. Indian Concrete
Journal (Bombay) vol. 34, no. 12
(Dec.):464 -70 and 35, no. 2 (Feb.):52 - 59.
- - - . 1970. Report of Session Proceedings,
International Colloquium on Progress of
Shell Structures, Madrid, 1969. Madrid: In-
ternational Association for Shell Structures.
415
Pauw, Adrian, and Jenny, Daniel P. 1962.
Lightweight aggregate for thin concrete
shells. Proceedings, World Conference on
Shell Structures, (Oct. 1-4), San Francisco.
Publication 1187. Washington D.C.: Na-
tional Academy of Sciences-National Re-
search Council, 159.
Pecknold, D. A., and Schnobrich, W. C. 1969.
Finite-element analysis of skewed shallow
shells. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 95, ST4
(Apr.):715-44.
Peterson, J.; Whitley, R.; and Deaton, J. 1962.
Structural behavior and compressive
strength of circular cylinders with longitu-
dinal stiffening. NASA TN D-1251.
Pfluger, Alf. 1961. Elementary statics of shells.
2 ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Poisson, S. D. 1829. Memoire sur l'equilibre et
Ie mouvement des corps sondes. Paris: Mem.
de l'Acad. Sci. (12), 8.
Popov, E. P., and Medawadowski, S. J., eds.
1981. Concrete shell buckling. ACI Publ.
SP-67:234.
- - - ; Penzien, J.; and Lu, Z. 1964. Finite
element solutions for axisymmetric shells.
Proceedings, ASCE vol. 89, EM5 (Oct.):
199-45.
Powell, G. H. 1966. Interaction of edge beams
with doubly curved shells. Proceedings, ASCE
vol. 92, ST3 Oune):57-75.
Prato, C. A. 1969. Shell finite element method
via Reissener's principle. Intern. J. Solids and
Structures vol. 5, no. 10 (Oct.): 1 119-35.
Prentiss, Louis, W. 1949. Thin concrete arch
roof provides 340' span for hangar. Civil En-
gineering (Feb.).
Proceedings, Conference on Thin Concrete
Shells, Cambridge, MIT, June 21-23,1954.
Candela's two papers are on pp. 5-11 and
91-98.
Proceedings, Second Symposium on Concrete
Shell Roof Construction, July 13, 1957. A.
Aas-Jakobsen, S. Brusletto, J. Holand, and
G. Oxall. Oslo: Teknish Ukeblad, 1958.
Proceedings, Symposium on Shell Research,
Delft, Aug. 30-Sept. 2, 1961. A. M. Haas
and A. L. Bouma. Amsterdam: North-Hoi-
land Publishing Company, 1961.
Proceedings, International Association for Shell
Structures Colloquium on Hanging Roofs,
Paris, 1962. Amsterdam: North-Holland
Publishing Company, 1963.
Proceedings, World Conference on Shell Struc-
tures, San Francisco, 1962. Washington
D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1964.
Proceedings, International Symposium on Shell
Structures in Engineering Practice, Buda-
pest, 1965. International Association for
 Selected Biblioaraphy
Shell Structures. Madrid: Epitestudomenyi
Intazet, vol. 2. 1966.
Pultar, M; Billington, D. P.; and Riera, ]. D.
1967. Folded plates continuous over flexible
supports. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 93, ST5
(Oct.):253 -77.
Rafols,Jose F., and Folguera, Francisco. 1929.
Gauti el gran arquitecto espanol. Barcelons:
Canosa, p. 195. Catalan ed. 1928.
Ramaswamy, G. S. 1968. Design and Construc-
tion of Concrete Shell Roofs. New York:
McGraw-Hili.
Rao, G. S. 1962. Analysis offolded plate roofs
by iteration. Indian Concrete Journal. (Bom-
bay), vol. 36, no. 10 (Oct.):365.
Recommendations for the design of hyperbolic
and other similarly shaped cooling towers.
1977. lASS Working Group no. 3. Brussels.
Recommendations for reinforced concrete
shells and folded plates. 1979. lASS Work-
ing Group no. 5. Madrid. 66 p.
Reinforced concrete cooling tower shells: Prac-
tice and Commentary. 1977. J. ACI, ACI-
ASCE Committee 334, vol. 74 Uan.).
Reissner, H. 1980. Ueber die Spannungsvertei-
lung in Zylindrischen Behalterwanden. Beton
und Eisen vol. 7, no. 6 (Apr. 22):150-55.
Rockey, K. C., and Evans, H. R. 1966. A finite
element solution for folded plate structures.
Space Structures. R. M. Davies, ed. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Rowe, R. E. 1966. Modelling of shells. Pro-
ceedings, Congress, International Association
for Shell Structures, Leningrad, Moscow:
TSNIS, 567 -80.
Rusch, Hubert. 1929. Die neue Grossmarkth-
aIle Leipzig. Beton und Eisen nos. 18, 19, 23,
24:325 ff., 341 ff., 422 ff., 437 ff.
- - - . 1973. Ulrich Finsterwalder zu seinem
funfzigsten Dienstjubilaum, Sein Lebensweg
als Mensch und Ingenieur. Festschrift,
Ulrich Finsterwalder, 50 Jahe Fur Dywidag.
Kaqrlsruhe: Dycherhoff and Widmann,
9-18.
Russell, R. R., and Gerstle, K. H. 1967. Bend-
ing of hyperbolic paraboloid structures. Pro-
ceedings, ASCE vol. 93 ST3 Uune):181-99.
- - - . 1968. Hyperbolic paraboloid struc-
tures on four supports. Proceedings, ASCE,
vol. 94, ST4 (Apr.):995-101O.
Salvadori, Mario G., 1954. Thin shells. Architec-
tural Record Uuly): 173 ff.
- - - .1955. Live load and temperature mo-
ments in shell of rotation built into cylinders.
J. ACI (Oct.).
- - - . 1981. Structural Design in Architecture.
Englewood Cliffs, N.].:Prentice-Hall.
416
Samuely, Felix]. 1958. Folded slab construc-
tion. J. ACI (Oct.).
Schnobrich, W. C.; Mohraz, B.; and Hoebel,].
L. Influence of edge beam properties on the
stress in hyperbolic parabolars. Proceedings,
International Colloquium on Progress of
Shell Structures in the Last Ten Years, Ma-
drid, 1969. Madrid: International Associa-
tion for Shell Structures, 1970.
Scordelis, A. C. 1981. Stability of reinforced
concrete domes and hyperbolic paraboloid
shells. Concrete Shell Buckling. ACI Publ.
SP-67:63-110.
Shaaban, Ahmed, and Ketchum, Milo. 1976.
Design of hipped hypar shells. J. Struct. Div.,
ASCE vol. 102, no. ST-ll (Nov.):2151-61.
Shtaerman, I. la. 1932. Fundamental ideas of
the contemporary theory of domes and
vaults. Trudy Soviet Conference on Con-
crete and Reinforced Concrete.
- - - . 1933. Analysis of a dome as an arch
on an elastic foundation. Proekt. i standart
14:9.
Smith, Baldwin E. 1950. The dome, a study in
the history of ideas. Princeton, N.].: Prince-
ton University Press, 164.
Soare, Mircea. 1959. Membrane theory of con-
oidal shells. Translation of article in Der
Bauingenieur, Cement and Concrete Associa-
tion, London. vol. 33, no. 7 Uuly 1958):
256-65.
- - - . 1962. Application des equations aux
differences finies an cacul des coques. Bu-
charest: Editions de l'Academie de la Repub-
lique Populaire Roumaine; Paris: Editions
Eyrolles.
Sollenberger, N.].; Scanlan, R. H.; and Billing-
ton, D. P. 1980. Wind loading and response
of cooling towers. J. Struct. Div., ASCE
(Mar.).
Starczewski, Jerzy Andrzej. 1990. Luki w Ar-
chitekturze. Warsaw: Arkady.
Stocker,]. 1965. A Review of the Literature of the
Buckling Characteristics of Conical Shells.
D2-23835-1. Seattle, Wash.: Boeing.
Strickland, G., and Loden, W. 1968. A doubly-
curved triangular shell element.
Tedesko, Anton. 1935. Thin concrete shell
roof tested under large unsymmetrical load.
Engineering News-Record (Nov. 7).
- - - . 1937. Shell roof at Hershey. Architec-
tural concrete no. 1 (Apr.):7.
- - - . Z-D shell roof at Hershey. Architec-
tural Concrete vol. 3, no. 1:7 -11.
- - - . Large concrete shell roof covers ice
arena. Engineering News-Record (Apr.
18):505.
- - - . 1939. Thin concrete shell roof for ice
 Selected Biblionraphy
skating arena. Engineering News-Record no. 7
(Feb. 16):212.
- - - . Fire Factory at Natchez. Engineering
News-Record no. 17 (Oct. 26):67.
- - - . Point suppored dome of thin shell
type. Engineering News-Record no. 23
(Dec.):38.
- - - . 1941. Thin concrete shell roof is fea-
ture of Knoxville's exhibition building. Con-
crete no. 2 (Feb.):2.
- - - . Wide span hangars for the U. S.
Navy. Civil Engineering no. 12 (Dec.):697.
- - - . 1946. Construction of wide-span
hangars. J. Western Soc. of Engineers no. 4
(Dec.): 155.
- - - . Construction aspects of thin shell
structures. J. ACI. (Feb.).
- - - . 1954. A shell review-design and
construction experiences. Proceedings, Con-
ference on Thin Concrete Shells, MIT, June
1954.
- - - . Thin shell arch selected for Denver
coliseum. Civil Engineering Ouly).
- - - . 1957. Creative trends in structural
design-thin shells. Proceedings, Third Na-
tional Construction Industry Conference,
Armour Research Foundation, III. Institute
of Technology, December, 1957.
- - - . 1958. Multiple ribless shells. Proceed-
ings, ASCE Joint Conference with Associa-
tion of Bridge and Structural Engineering,
New York, October 1958.
- - - . 1960. Shell at Denver-hyperbolic
paraboloidal structure of wide span. J. ACI
vol. 32, no. 4 (Oct.):403 -12
- - - . 1961. Multiple ribless shells. J. Struc-
tural Div. ASCE vol. 87 (Oct.).
- - - . 1964. The St. Louis air terminal
shells. Proceedings, World Conference on
Shell Structures, San Francisco, 1962. Wash-
ington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences,
469-74.
- - - . ; Nees, L. A.; and Koermer, Marvin
T. 1959. Special facilities for painting air
force planes provided in long-span pre-
stressed concrete hangar. Civil Engineering
(Jan.).
Thompson, I. 1962. Mass production of shells
for the Oakland International Airport. J.
ACI, Proceedings, ASCE vol. 59, no. 7
Ouly):949 - 58.
Thurlimann, B., and Johnston, B. G. 1954.
Analysis and tests of a cylindrical shell roof
model. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 80 (Apr.).
Thurman, A. G., and Herman, G. J. 1962.
Model studies of a concrete hyperbolic para-
boloid. Proceedings, ASCE vol. 88, ST6
(Dec.): 161- 81.
Thurston, G. A., and Holston, A. E., Jr. 1966.
417
Buckling of Cylindrical Shell End Closures by
Internal Pressure. NASA CR-540.
Timoshenko, S. P. 1940. Theory of Plates and
Shells. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- - - , and Woinoswky-Krieger, S. 1959.
Theory of Plates and Shells. 2 ed. New York:
McGraw-HilI.
Torroja, Eduardo. 1936. Obras de hormigon
armado. Estudio de un muro de contencion,
formado por membranes en conoide, utiliz-
able para muelles de atraque. Madrid. 1936.
- - - . 1942. Sulla struttura delle tribune del
nuovo ippodromo di Madrid. Rome.
- - - . 1946. Calculo anelastico de secciones
de harmigon armado. Madrid.
- - - . 1950. Realisations de voutes minces
en Espangne - Resultats obtenus et possibil-
ities futures. Paris.
- - - . 1958. Philosophy of Structures. Los
Angeles.
- - - . The Structures of Eduardo Torroja.
New York: Dodge Corp.
- - - . The Structures of Eduardo Torroja.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
- - - . 1967. Elasticidad. 4 ed. Madrid: Edi-
torial Dossat, S. A.
Tottenham, H. 1958. Approximate solutions to
shell problems. Proceedings, Second Sympo-
sium on Concrete Shell Roof Construction.
Oslo: Teknish Ukeblad.
Trefftz, E. 1935. Ableitung der Schalenbie-
gungsgliechnungen mit dem Castiglianos-
chen Prinzip. Z.A.M.M., 13:2
Van Nice, R. L. 1960. Various papers on hy-
perbolic paraboloidal shells. J. ACI. (Oct.).
- - - . 1963. The structure of St. Sophia.
Architectural Forum (May): 131- 38. Also
Sept. 1964:45-49.
Violet-Le Due, Eugene 1863. Entretiens sur
l'Architecture. Paris: A Morel, 72.
Vlasov, V. Z. 1939. Handbook fur Platten und
Schalen. Moscow.
- - - . 1947. Some new problems on shells
and thin structures. Izv. Akad, Nauk no.
1:27-53. English translation in NACA TM
1204.
- - - . 1958. Allgemeine Schalentheorie und
Ihre Anwendung in der Technik. Berlin:
Akademie-Verla GmbH.
Von Sanden, K., and Gunter, K. 1920, 1921.
Uber das Festigkeitproblem querversteifter
Hohlzylinder unter allseitig gleichmassigem
Aussendruck. Werft und Reederei 23:8, 9, 10;
(17) 1921.
Vreedenburgh, C. G. J. 1958-9. The hyper-
bolic paraboloidal shell and its mechanical
properties. The Philips Pavilion at the 1958
 Selected Bibliography
Brussels World Fair. Philips Technical Review
vol. 20, no. 1. Eindhoven, Netherlands:
1958-1959.
Wacker, Rhodes, J. (ed.). 1982. Developments
in thin-walled structures. London: Applied
Science Publishers.
Waling, J. L.; Ziegler, Earl E.; and Kemmer,
Harry G. 1962. Hypar shell construction by
offset wire methods. Proceedings, World
Conference on Shell Structures. Oct. 1-4,
1962, San Francisco. Washington D.C.: Na-
tional Academy of Sciences-National Re-
search Council Publication 1187:453.
Waller, J. H. de W., and Aston, A. C. 1953.
Corrugated concrete shell roofs. Proceedings,
Institution of Civil Engineers vol. 2, part 3
(Aug.):153-82.
Wang, L. R. L. 1966. Effects of edge restraint
on the stability of spherical caps. J. American
Institute ofAeronautics and Astronautics vol. 4,
no. 4 (Apr.):718-19.
Wayss, G. A. 1887. Das System Monier. Berlin.
Pp. 33-34 and 117 -26.
Wells, J. G. 1958. Reinforced concrete struc-
tures: flat slabs and concrete shell roofs.
M.A. thesis, School of Architecture, Univer-
sity of California.
Wempner, G; Oden,J. T.; and Kross, D. 1968.
Finite-element analysis of thin-shells. Pro-
ceedings, ASCE vol. 94, EM6 (Dec.):1273.
Whitney, Charles S. 1950. Wide spanning mon-
olithic arches in North America. 1. Airplane
hangars in the United States. 11. Coliseum,
exposition palace in Quebec, Canada. La
Technique des Travaux (Sept.-Oct.).
- - - . 1953. Reinforced concrete thin shell
structures. J. ACI (Feb.).
- - - ; Anderson, Boyd G.; and Birnbaum,
Harold. 1959. Reinforced concrete folded
plate construction. Structural Division, Pro-
ceedings, ASCE vol. 85, ST8 (Oct.):15-43.
Winter, G., and Pei, M. 1947. Hipped plate
construction. J. ACI vol. 43 Oan.).
Wissler, H. 1916. Festigkeitberechnung von
Ringflachen. Zurich: Promotions-arbeit.
Yitzhaki, David. 1959. The design of prismatic
and cylindrical shell roofs. Amsterdam:
North-Holland Publishing Company.
418
and Reiss, Max. 1962. Analysis of
folded plates. J. Struct. Div., ASCE vol. 88
(Oct.).
Zabrowski, Robert. 1949. Hangars are what
you make them. Airports and Air Carriers
(Feb.).
- - - . 1951. Thin shell arch hockey stadium
for Quebec built in ten months. Civil Engi-
neering (Oct.)
- - - ,and Gruenwald, Ott. 1944 Monolithic
concrete seaplane hangars, unique design
used by East Coast Naval Air Station. Civil
Engineering no. 8 (Aug.).
- - - . 1954. A review of special aspects. Pro-
ceedings, Conference on Thin Concrete
Shells, MIT, June.
Zalewsky, Waclaw. 1957. Niektore nowe kon-
strukcje Iupinowe w budownictwie przemys-
lowym w Polsce. Inzynieria i Budownictwo no.
3:116 ff.
- - - . 1959. Vorgefertigte Stahlbetonkon-
struktion fur eine Textilfabrik in Kalisch.
Bauwelt no. 47:1388 ff.
- - - . North-light shel roofs in Poland. Con-
crete and Constructional Engineering (Apr.).
- - - . Shell and spacial structure shapes ap-
plied in Poland. International Colloquium on
Construction Processes of Shell Structures ..
Paper A-II. Madrid.
- - - . 1960. Hala widowiskowo-sportowa w
Katowicach. In Polish. Inzynieria i Budow-
nictwo no. 4: 154 ff.
- - - . Entwurf fur eine Mehrzweckhalle in
Kattowitz. Bauwelt no. 23:654 ff.
- - . Sports hall. Interbuild (May): 12 ff.
Zeiss-Dywidag. Robert and Schaefer Co. Bull.
138 Oan. 1932).
Zerna, W. 1951. Membrantheorie verallge-
meinerter Rotationsschalen. Ingenieur-Ar-
chive. no. 19:228.
- - - . 1959. Uber eine nichtlineare allge-
meine Theorie der Schalen. Proceedings,
Symposium on Theory of Thin Elastic
Shells, Delft.
Zienkiewicz, O. C. 1967. The Finite Element
Method in Structural and Continuum Me-
chanics. New York: McGraw-HilI.
Index
ACI. See American Concrete Institute
Acoustic wave effects, abstracts of articles on,
361-62
Affaita, Izydor, 74
Agamemnon, Tomb of, Mycenae, Greece, 14
Aghia Parigoritissa, Arta, Greece, 41
Airport hangars
Chicago, 174, 175
Cuatro Vientos, Spain, 149, 150
Marignane, France, 151, 153
Seattle, 192
thin shells as, 193
Albany Mall Meeting Center, Albany, New
York, 193
Albert Hall, Kensington, 298
Alberti, 249
Alessi, Galeazzo, 61
Alfa-Romeo Factory, Milan, 146, 148
Alvarez Ordonez, Joaquin and Fernando, 158
Amati, Carlo, 83
American Concrete Institute (ACI), 221
Ammann and Whitney, 152, 167, 174, 193,
220
Analysis and design
abstracts of articles on, 362 - 64
and ACI building codes, 347- 51
Anisotropy, abstract of article on, 364-65
Anticlastic shells, 115, 118
Antonelli, Alessandro, 82
Apex, displacement at, and computer analysis,
237
Archimedean solids, 306, 307
Architects' Co-Partnership, 149
419
Army Warehouse, Columbus, Ohio, 146, 149
Arslan Jadhib Tomb, Sangbast, Iran, 42, 44
Art and shell structures, 179-82
Artificial Leather Industry building, Coswig,
Germany, 167
Aspidin, Joseph, 122
Astrodome, Houston, Texas, 177, 311-12,
313-16
Austro-Hungarian Bank, Vienna, 298
Auxiliary members, 203-6, 208-9, 210, 211,
214-15,219-20
and ACI building codes, 345, 351
and barrel shells, 261-63, 267 -68
Baba Luqman Mausoleum, Sarakhs, Iran, 48
Balat, A. and Maguet, 299
Ballou, Louis W., 85
Baltard, V., 298
Bank of Montreal, Montreal, 86
Baptistry, Pisa, 57
Baroni, Giorgio, 145, 146
Barrel shells, 21, 26, 99, 130-32, 211
Base, displacement at, and computer analysis,
235-37
Basilica of San Gaudenzio, Novara, 82
Bass, L. 0., 313
Baucher, Lucien-Jacques, 108
Belfry, Cathedral of Ivan the Great, Moscow,
77, 79
Bellushi, Pietro, 163
Bending, abstracts of articles on, 365
Berecci, Bartolomeo, 74
 Index
Berg, Max, 143
Bergman, M., and Associates, 163
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, 68, 69, 73
Binkley Engineering Associates, 316
Bizzos, Tomb of, Ruweha, Syria, 42, 43
Blasting, abstract of article on, 366
Blondel, jacques Fran~ois, 242 -43
B1ondel, jean-Pierre, 108
Blount Brothers, 316
Boat building
and ferrocement, 124, 125-27
and fiber-reinforced plastic, 200
Borromini, Francesco, 61, 65, 68, 69, 73
Boundary members. See Auxiliary members
Bourse du Commerce, Paris, 298
Bouvard, J. A., 299
Bramante, Donato, 62
Bretton Hall, Yorkshire, 298
Brodrick, C., 298
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 58, 60, 61, 62, 72, 103,
214, 241
Bryn Mawr Rubber Factory, Wales, 149
Buckling
abstracts of articles on, 366-70
and ACI building codes, 350
empirical rules for, 243-45
Bulfinch, Charles, 83
Bunning, J. B., 298
Buonarroti, Michelangelo. See Michelangelo
Burgi garden center, Camarino, Switzerland,
170, 173
Bus garage, Dusseldorf, Germany, 156
Byzantine architecture, domes in, 10, 35-41
Cable (tensegrity) domes, 322-24
Cajundome, Lafayette, Louisiana, 302, 321-22
Camelot, de Mailly, and Zehrfuss, 162
Camoletti, Bruno, 168
Camoletti, Pierre, 170, 173
Camoletti House, Geneva, 170, 173
Candela, Felix, 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 162,
168, 186
and construction methodology, 104-5, 124,
343
influence on Isler, 190
and shell design, 123, 129-30, 135, 136,
137,275
and the Sydney Opera House, 175
Cantilevered shells, 134-36, 137
Capitol building, Washington, D.C., 83, 84,
108, 203
da Caprarola, Cola, 62
420
Casa Finlandia Futura, Finland, 201, 202
Castenson, George, 298
Cast iron domes, 83 - 84, 297 - 98
Catalan vault, 100 -1 02
Catenary curves in shell design, 243, 245-46
Cathedral, Pisa, 57
Cathedral of New Norcia, Perth, Australia,
158, 159
Cathedral of St. john the Divine, New York, 86
Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, Moscow,
77, 78
Cathedral of the Dormition, Moscow, 77, 78
Cement, history of, 121-22
Centennial Hall, Breslau, Germany, 143-44
Center for Industries and Technology, Paris,
162, 163
Ceramic domes, 105-6
Chapel near Cuernavaca, Mexico, 157, 158
Chapel of Nuestra Senora de la Soledad, San
jose de Altillo, Mexico, 154, 156
du Chateau, Stephane, 318
Christian architecture, domes in, 10, 34-35
Christiansen, john V., 177, 192
Church, Gracanica, Yugoslavia, 41
Church of Koimisis, Daphni, 40
Church of Mary, Monterrey, Mexico, 149,
151, 153
Church of San Antonio de las Huertas,
Mexico City, 156
Church of San jose Obrero, Monterrey,
Mexico, 162, 164
Church of Santa Monica, Mexico City, 168, 171
Church of St. Barbara, Brooklyn, 86
Church of the Apostles, Athens, 39
Church of the Apostles, Constantinople, 39
Church of the Intercession of the Virgin,
Moscow, 77, 79
Church of the Miraculous Virgin. Mexico,
154
Church of the Nativity of Our Lady, Moscow,
77, 78
Church of the Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, 183
Church of the Transfiguration, Kizbi, Soviet
Union, 79, 80
Ciba-Geigy water purification plant, Prattelin,
Switzerland, 170, 174
Ciba Plant, canopy for, Churubusco, Mexico,
154, 155
Cisterns, domes as, 15
Coal Exchange, London, 298
Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina, 309-10
Composite shells, abstracts of articles on,
370-74
 Index
Computer aided analysis, abstract of article
on, 374
Computer aided design, abstracts of articles
on, 374
Concrete, 26,100,122,176-78,259-60
abstracts of articles on, 375
and boat building, 123-27
and pneumatic forms, 196
"Concrete Shell Buckling" (American
Concrete Institute), 350
"Concrete Thin Shells" (American Concrete
Institute), 344
Conoidal shells, 132 - 34, 195
Considere, 209
Constillares, building in, Spain, 149, 150
Constructivism, 180 - 81
Control of shell structures, abstract of article
on, 375
Corbeled domes, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21
Corrosion, abstracts of articles on, 375 - 76
da Cortona, Pietro, 65, 70
Cosmic Rays Research Laboratory, University
of Mexico, Mexico City, 152, 153
Coyne System, 219
Creep, abstract of article on, 376
Curtis and Davis, 163, 316
Dagit, Henry D., 86
Darb-i Imam, Isfahan, Iran, 49, 50
Dardasht Minarets, Isfahan, Iran, 48
Davazdah Imam Mausoleum, Yazd, Iran, 42, 44
Dean Smith Center, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina, 304, 305
Deaton, Charles, 203
Defects, abstract of article on, 376
Deflection, abstracts of articles on, 376-77
Deformation, abstracts of articles on, 377 - 80
Del POlO, F., Associates, 141
Derizet, Antoine, 70
Design, abstracts of articles on, 380 - 81
Desret, Antonio, 70
Dill, R. E., 215
Dirigible Hangar, Orly Airport, Paris, 144
Dischinger, Franz, 184
Doehring, W. D., 215
Domenig, Gunther, 170
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 42, 43, 107
Domes and shells, abstracts of articles on, 360
Domus Augustana, Rome, 28 - 29
Domus Aurea, Rome, 28-29, 30
Dosio, Giovanni Antonio, 61
Double-shell construction, 58, 59, 214
421
Dow Chemical, 197 - 200
del Duca, Giacomo, 65
Dyckerhoff-Widmann KG, 156, 182
Dywidag System, 219
Earle A. Chiles Center, University of Portland,
Oregon, 110, III
Edge beams. See Auxiliary members
Eero Saarinen and Associates, 167
Eiffel, A. G., 299
Elastic analysis and ACI building codes, 346,
347
Elasticity, abstracts of articles on, 381
Elastoplasticity, abstracts of articles on, 381- 82
Electromagnetic field effects, abstract of
article on, 382
Energy dissipation, abstract of article on, 382
Engineering Index Annual 1989, The
(Engineering Information, Inc.), 359
Eschmann factory, Switzerland, 170
Esquillon, 162
Etruscan domed tombs, 9
Euler's law, 307-8
Evans, Allen, 86
Evolution Museum, Eindhoven, Netherlands,
168, 171
Exhibit Hall, Vienna, 299
Experimental shell design, 182, 190-92
and ACI building codes, 346, 348
thin shell, Jena, Germany, 144, 145
Expo 86, Ontario Pavilion at, Vancouver, 304
Expo 67, U.S. Pavilion at, Montreal, 320
Exposition Building, Turin, 156
Factory for John Rennock and Sons, Haughley
Park, Suffolk, England, 108
Failure, abstract of article on, 382
False domes, 14, 21
Falsework, 89-90, 97,101,109,178
Felix und Regula Church, Zurich, 206
Ferrocement, 124, 125-27, 157
Ferstel, H. von, 298
Fiberglass formwork, 211
Fiber-reinforced plastic shells, 200 - 202
Field House, Montana State College, Bozeman,
108
Filippone, Odette, 108
Fioravanti, Rodolfo, 77
Florentine Zone, Renaissance domes of, 58-61
Folded plates and ACI building codes, 345
Fontana, Carlo, 241, 242
 Index
Fontana, Domenico, 63-65, 72, 242
Fontana's rules for masonry domes, 242
Forest Products Pavilion, Portland, Oregon,
108
Formige,j. C., 299
Formwork, 97,104,145,177
plastic foam for, 197 - 200
pneumatic, 196 - 97
rubber membrane as, 190, 192
wooden, 196,211
Forum Baths, Pompeii, 27
Fougner, N. K., 124
Foundry Building, Milan, 145
Four-gable hyperbolic paraboloids, 278-83
Fowke, F., 298
Fowler, Charles, 298
Fracture, abstracts of articles on, 382-83
Framed domes, 311
Free nodes displacement and computer
analysis, 237
Freyssinet, Eugene, 144, 184, 215
Freyssinet System, 219
Froehlich, Arthur, 174
Fuller, R. Buckminster, 299, 300, 301-2,
318-20,322,323
Funicular polygons, 243, 245-46
Funthaus Church, Vienna, 298
Gabellini, 124
Galla Placidia, Tomb of, Ravenna, 33
Galleria Umberto I, Naples, 299
Galleria Victor Emmanuel II, Milan, 298
Garcia de Quinones, Andres, 76
Gas Station, Deitingen, Switzerland, 170, 172
Gaudi, Antonio, 10, 182, 183
Gaussian curvature, 117
Geiger, David H., 302-3, 304, 305, 323
Geldmeister, Charles, 298
General Motors Technical Institute,
auditorium for, Warren, Michigan, 149,
151
Gensert, R. M., 249
Geodesic domes, 299-300, 301, 302, 318-20
Geometry of shell design, 116, 129-30,305-8
Georgia Tech Structural Design Language
(GT STRUDL), 223
Gesu Church, Rome, 63
Girard Trust Company, Philadelphia, 86
Glass and dome design, 297 - 98
Gonzales Reyna, Jorge, 152
Grand Palais, Louvet, France, 299
Gran Madre di Dio, Rome, 83
422
Great Mosque of the Shah, Isfahan, Iran,
50-51,52
Greek Orthodox Church, Milwaukee, 154, 155
Grid domes, 318
GT STRUDL. See Georgia Tech Structural
Design Language
Guastavino, Rafael, 86
GUM Department Store, Moscow, 299
Gunite method, 146, 163, 195
Gur-e Amir Mausoleum, Samarkand, Soviet
Union, 49, 50
Hadrian Villa, Tivoli, 30, 31
Hardouin-Mansart, Jules, 74
Hardy, L., 299
Harris County Sports Stadium. See Astrodome
Harrison and Abramovitz, 193, 220
Haruniyya Tomb, Tus, Iran, 46, 47
Hayden Planetarium, Manhattan, 145
Heat treatment, abstract of article on, 383
Heins and La Farge, 86
Helmle and Hubert, 86
Hershey Chocolate Company, ice hockey
arena for, Pennsylvania, 192
HipOdromo, Caracas, Venezuela, 174, 176
Hiroshima Peace Center Monument, 181- 82
Hisatok, T., 110
Historical masonry domes, spans of, 87 (table)
Hoechel, Eric, 168
Hoffmann, Claus, 167
Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, 36
Hoop forces in domes, 90 - 96
Hornblower and Marshall, 86
Howells and Stokes, 86
Hoyer, E., 215-16
Huber, Hunt and Nichols, 316
Hunt, Richard Morris, 299
Hyperbolic paraboloids, 195, 211
in art, 180, 181
in Candela's designs, 186
as conoidal surfaces, 132, 133
Gaudi's development of, 183
Hyperboloids, 137-42
H yperstatic domes, 204 - 6, 218 - 19
lASS. See International Association for Shells
and Spatial Structures
Ice houses, domes as, 14 -15
Igloos, 22-23
Illinois State University Arena, Normal,
Illinois, 303, 323
II Redentore, Venice, 71
 Index

Imamzada Sayyid Ishaq Tomb, Saveh, Iran, 46 Kresge Auditorium, Massachusetts Institute of
Imamzada Yahya Mausoleum, Varamin, Iran, Technology, Cambridge, Massachussetts,
46, 47 152,154,193,209
Inelastic analysis and ACI building codes, Kuh-i Banan Tomb, Iran, 48, 49
346, 347
Information Pavilion, Brussels, 108
Institute of Arts and Sciences, Brooklyn, 85 - 86 La Clerecia Church, Salamanca, Spain, 76
Instituto Tecnico de la Construccion y del Lambot, Joseph-Louis, 124
Cemento, Constillares, Spain, 160 - 61 Lamella domes, 210, 311-18
International Association for Shells and Lardy, Pierre, 190
Spatial Structures (lASS), 221- 22 Larrosa, Manuel, 157
International Exhibition Facility, New Lattice wood shells, Nara, Japan, 110
Orleans, 163, 165 Layne, Henry M., 174
International Exhibition of 1958, Phillips Le Corbusier, 159, 168
Pavilion at, Brussels, 158-59, 161 Lederer, F., 318
I Quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books Lenzlenger Sons Company building,
on Architecture) (Palladio), 71 Switzerland, 170
Ironworks foundry, Lohr, Germany, 161-62 Lesage, 122
Islamic dome, Mimar Sinan's contributions to Les Invalides, Paris, 74
the, 53-55 Leuzinger, Hans, 146
Isler, Heinz, 170, 172, 173, 174, 190-92 Lindsay Park Sports Center, Calgary, Alberta,
Isostatic domes, 204-6, 216, 217 -18 304
luvarra, Filippo, 61 Lissitzky, Elieyer, 180
Little Metropole Cathedral, Athens, 41
Lloyd and Morgan, 313
Jabal I Sang, Kerman, Iran, 45, 46 Lombardo, Pietro, 71
Jackson, P. H., 215 Lombardo, Tullio, 71
Jami Mosque, Ardistan, Iran, 44, 45 Long barrel vaults, 131,244-45,269 (table)
Jami Mosque, Ashtarjan, Iran, 46, 47 Lopez Carmona, Fernando, 154, 156, 162, 168
Jami Mosque, Golpaegan, Iran, 44, 45 Lott, H. A., 313
Jami Mosque, Qazvin, Iran, 44, 46 Loudon, John Claudius, 298
Jami Mosque, Saveh, Iran, 50, 51 Lutheran church, Warsaw, 82
Jami Mosque, Varamin, Iran, 48
Jami Mosque, Zavareh, Iran, 44, 45
Jardin d'Hiver, Laeken Royal Park, Brussels, Macalloy System, 219
299 Mackenzie and Moncur, 298
Jefferson, Thomas, 84 Maderno, Carlo, 65
Johns, Slater & Howard, 108 Madison Square Presbyterian Church, New
Johnson, Drake and Piper, 313 York, 86
Madonna di Loreto, Rome, 65, 67, 68
Madonna di San Biagio, Montepulciano, Italy,
Kaiser Aluminum building, Honolulu, 320 63
Kalff, 168 Maeno, T., 110
Kapnikarea Church, Athens, 39 Magnel, G., 215, 219
Karaganda works, Soviet Union, 213 Magni,83
Khaidukov, G. K., 213 Maguire, C. A., and Associates, 165
Kibble, John, 299 Maillart, Robert, 146, 181, 183
Kibble Palace, Botanic Gardens, Glasgow, 298 Mail-processing facilities, Providence, Rhode
Kiewitt, G. R., 313 Island, 165, 166, 167
Kiewittdomes, 311-12, 313-16 Makowsi, Z. S., 313
Kilns, domes as, 14, 15 -16 Manetti, Antonio, 60
Kingdome, Seattle, 176-78, 192, 324 Manufacture, abstracts of articles on, 383-84
Kirsis, Uldis, 249 Marcus, Henri, 313

423
 Index

Market, Agadir, Morocco, 318 Nehrbass, Neil, 302

Market Hall, Algeciras, Spain, 144-45 Nervi, Pier Luigi, 136, 156, 158, 159, 163,
Market Hall, Royan, France, 154 184-85
Mashhad-i Mir Buzurg Shrine, Amul, Iran, and boat design, 125
51,52 and construction strategies, 105, 178, 195
Masonry shells, 21, 22, 83, 89-92, 96-99, and the Sydney Opera House, 175
259-60 Nervi e Bartolli Construction Company, 156,
spans of historical domes, 87 (table) 160
and trussed domes, 297 Network domes, 310-11
Mathematical models, abstracts of articles on, New Corn Exchange, Leeds, 298
384-85 "New Shapes for Shells" (Isler), 190
Matsushita, Fujio, 318 New York University, New York, 85
Mausoleum of Sultan Muhammad Adil Shah, Niccolini Chapel, San Croce, Florence, 61
Bijapur, India, 51, 53 Niemeyer, Oscar, 167
May-D & F Department Store, Denver, Nikken Sekkei Ltd., 325
157 -58, 159 Noise abatement, abstracts of articles on, 385
McDonald Brothers, 85 Nolan, Norman and Nolan, 316
McGuire nuclear power plant, Cornelius, Nondestructive examination, abstract of article
North Carolina, 179 on, 385
McKim, Mead and White, 85, 86 Nonspherical shells, 255, 256- 57 (tables)
McKinley National Memorial, Canton, Ohio, Nuclear reactors, 178-79
86 Nuraghi, 16, 18-20
McSweeney, Ryan and Lee, 163
Medici Chapel, Florence, 63
Mengoni, G., 298 Obata, 142
Mesnager, 209 Oconee nuclear power plant, Seneca, South
Mesopotamia, vaults and domes in, 25 - 26 Carolina, 179
Metal sheathing, 298 Octagonal Roof, Villaverde, Spain, 145, 146
Michelangelo, 63, 64, 65, 214 Odell Associates, 309
Michelozzi, 61 Olympic Games of 1988, buildings for, Seoul,
Mihailescu, Mircea, 187 Korea,303,323,324
Minerva Medica, Rome, 30-32 Opera House, Sydney, Australia, 129, 136,
Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, 320 174-76,184
Model analysis and ACI building codes, 348 Origins of domes, 4 - 5
Mole Antonelliana, Turin, 82 Otto, Frei, 110
de Montferrand, Auguste Ricard, 298 Outdoor shelter, Sancti Spiriti, Spain, 149, 151
Moore, Walter, 313
de la Mora, Enrique, 149, 154, 156, 162, 168
Morisseau, Andre, 154 Paez, A., 141
Mosque of Gawhar Shad, Mashhad, Iran, 49, 50 Palace of the Assembly, Chandigarh, India,
Mouton, William, 302, 320-22 168,171
Muller-Grah, Walter, 182 Palazzetto dello Sport, Rome, 156-57,210,
Murphy and Mackey, 320 211
Mushtaquiyya'Ali Shah, Kerman, Iran, 53 Palazzo dei Congressi, E.U.R., Rome, 146,
Music Pavilion, "Santa Fe" Housing Project, 148 .
Mexico City, 135-36 Palazzo dello Sport, Rome, 159-60, 161
Myers, E. E., 84 Palladio, Andrea, 71, 249
Palmer and Hornbostel, 86
Palm House, Munich, 298
Nagase, T., 110 Palm House at Sefton Park, Liverpool, 298
Naramore, Bain, Brady and Johanson, 177 Pani, Aldo, 135
Nash, John, 298 Pantheon, Paris, 82, 83
Nea Moni Chios, Athens, 40 Pantheon, Rome, 29-30, 89, 102

424
 Index

Paolina Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore, Reichstag, Berlin, 301

Rome, 65 Reinforced concrete, 4, 82, 86, 124, 143,
Parker, 122 193-94
Parsons, John K., and Associates, 109 Residence, Pougny, France, 168, 169
Pazzi Chapel, Florence, 60 Restaurant, Xochimilco, Mexico, 158, 160, 190
Pei, I. M., and Associates, 141, 158 Ribbed shells and ACI building codes, 345
Peller, Miklos, 249 Ricchini, Francesco, 61
Perret, Auguste, 151 Rivergate Exhibition Hall, New Orleans, 192
Pevsner, Antoine, 180, 181 Roberts and Schaefer Company, 141, 158,
Pevsner, Naum, 181 192-93
Physical Education Building, De Kalb, Illinois, Robinson and Associates, 163
193 Rocco, Emanuele, 299
Piacentini, Marcello, 159 Rock-cut tombs, 13 -14
Pierson, James G., 108 Rodchenko, Alexander, 180
Planetarium, St. Louis, Missouri, 142 Rodef Sholem Synagogue, Pittsburgh, 86
Planetarium, Trenton, New Jersey, 212 -13 Roebling System, 219
Plasticity, abstract of article on, 385 Roman architecture, domes and vaults in,
Plastics applications, abstracts of articles on, 26-32
386 Roman Zone, Renaissance domes of, 61-70
Platonic solids, 306, 319 Roof Structures, Inc., 311, 313
Pneumatic domes, 324-25 Rosati, Rosato, 70
Pneumatic forming, 196-97 Rosell, Guillermo, 157
Point supports for domes, 206, 207 Rossman and Partners, 109
Poleni, Giovanni, 241, 243 Rotunda, University of Virginia,
Polygonal domes, 34 - 35 Charlottesville, 84-85
Polyhedra as trussed domes, 305 - 8 Royal Brighton Pavilion, 298
Ponzio, Flaminio, 65 RSG Architects, 110
Porro, Ricardo, 149 Russell, S., Hansehauer, and Schmidt, 299
della Porta, Giacomo, 63 - 65
Portinari Chapel in San Eustogio, Florence, 61
Portland Cement Association, 221 Saarinen, Eero, 149, 152, 175, 186
Posttensioning, 125 - 26, 215, 219 - 20 Saarinen, Eliel, 149
Power station, Grandval, France, 318 Saddle-type hyperbolic paraboloids, 271-77
Pozzolana, 96, 100, 122 Sado, 320
Prader and Cie., 146 Saints Martina and Luca, Rome, 65, 67
Praeger, Kavanagh and Waterbury, 177,313 Salvi, Dioti, 57
Precast shell technology, 195, 211 - 13 San Andrea, Rome, 63
Preload Company, 215 San Andrea al Quirinale, Rome, 69
Pressure effects, abstract of article on, 386 San Andrea della Valle, Rome, 65
Prestressing, 125 - 26, 141-42, 195, 215 -19 San Carlino, Rome, 67 -68,69, 89
Protestant Church, Warsaw, 76 San Carlo, Milan, 83
Pseudoshells, 23-24, 202-3 San Carlo ai Catinari, Rome, 70
San Carlo al Corso, Rome, 70
San Claudio e San Andrea dei Borgognoni,
Qubab structures, 6
Rome, 70
da Sangallo, Antonio, 63
Race Track, Madrid, 146, 147 da Sangallo, Giuliano, 61
Rainaldi, 69 San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 71
Rastrelli, Carlo Bartolomeo, 79 San Giuseppe, Milan, 61
Ravelli, L., 156 San Ivo della Sapienza, Rome, 68, 69
"Recommendations for Concrete Shells and San Lorenzo, Florence, 60
Folded Plates" (International Association San Salvatore, Venice, 71
for Shell and Spatial Structures), 344 San Satiro, Milan, 62

425
 Index
San Sebastiano, Mantua, 61
San Sebastiano, Milan, 61
San Spirito, Florence, 60
Sant' Agnese, Rome, 68
Santa Maria dei Miracoli, Rome, 69-70
Santa Maria dei Miracoli, Venice, 71
Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, 58-60, 72,
89,102,103,214
Santa Maria della Consolazione, Todi, Italy,
62-63
Santa Maria delle Carceri, Prato, Italy, 61
Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 62
Santa Maria di Monte Santo, Rome, 69
Santa Maria in Carignano, Genoa, Italy, 61
Santissimo Nome di Maria, Rome, 70
San Tommaso Villanova, Castel Gandolfo,
Rome, 68
Sarger, Rene, 154
Savvestic, L., 299
Schaarschmidt, F., 167
School addition, Graz-Eggenberg, Austria,
170, 174
School of Plastic Arts, Havana, 149, 152
Schulze, 299
Schwedler, Johann Wilhelm, 300- 301
Schwedler domes, 309 -1 0, 327 - 30
Scott, H. G., 298
Senate and Chamber of Deputies, Brasilia, 167
Sesi, 16, 18
Severud, Fred, Elstadt, and Kruger, 309
Shah Firuz, Tomb of, Sirjan, Iran, 48,49
Shah Mosque, Mashhad, Iran, 49,50
Shell reinforcement and ACI building codes,
351-54
Short barrel vaults, 130, 131,264-66 (tables)
Shrine of Fatima, Qum, Iran, 50, 52
Shrine of Shaykh Ni'Matallah, Mahan, Iran,
49,51
Sicily Company, Geneva, 170, 172
Siegel, C., and R. Wonneberg, 162
Sigismund Chapel, Cracow, Poland, 73-74
Silos, domes as, 14
Silverstein, Edward and Associates, 163, 316
Simon, Louis, 154
Sinan, Mimar, 53-55
Sistine Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore,
Rome, 63
Skilling, Helle, Christiansen and Robertson,
163, 177
Smithsonian Museum, Washington, D.C., 86
Smolny Convent, St. Petersburg, Soviet
Union, 79
Souffiot, Jacques, 82
426
Sound insulation, abstract of article on, 386
Space frames, 116,297,299-300,320-22
Spavento, Giorgio Pietro, 71
Specchie, 20
Spherical shells, dimensions for, 120 (table),
250 (tables), 252-53 (table), 254-55
(table)
Spiral Generation, 197 - 200
Spirex Structures, Inc., 200
Sports building, Northern Arizona University,
Flagstaff, 108 - 9, III
Sports center, Tbilisi, Soviet Union, 213
Sports complex, Chamonix, France, 170, 173
Sports complex, University of Northern
Michigan, Marquette, 110-11
Squinches, 207 - 8
St. Andrew's Cathedral, Kiev, 79-81
St. Antony of Padova Church, Warsaw, 74
St. Augustin, Paris, 298
St. Basil, Moscow, 41
St. Casimir, Warsaw, 74
St. Costanza, Rome, 33
St. Fosca, Torcello, Italy, 41
St. Francis de Sales Church, Philadelphia, 86
St. Front, Perigueux, France, 41
St. George, Salonica, Greece, 33
St. Irene, Constantinople, 39
St. Isaac's Cathedral, St. Petersburg, Soviet
Union, 79
St. Mark's, Venice, 40
St. Mary's Cathedral, San Francisco, 163, 166
St. Mary's Cathedral, Tokyo, 168, 169, 170
St. Paul's, London, 74-76
St. Paul's Chapel, Columbia University, New
York, 86
St. Peter's, Rome, 58, 63-65, 66, 67, 72,
214,242
St. Petersburg Cathedral, St. Petersburg,
Soviet Union, 298
St. Sophia, Constantinople, 36-39, 89, 102
St. Sophia, Novgorod, Soviet Union, 40
St. Theodore, Athens, 40
St. Theodore, Constantinople, 41
St. Theodore Stratelates, Novgorod, Soviet
Union, 77
St. Theodosia, Constantinople, 41
St. Vincent's Chapel, Coyoacan, Mexico,
162-63, 165
St. Vitale, Ravenna, 39
Stabian Baths, Pompeii, 27
Stability, abstracts of articles on, 386-88
State Capitol Building, Boston, 83
State Capitol Building, Denver, 84
 Index
Statical analysis of structures, 300, 301
Steel, abstract of article on, 388
Steel and dome design, 82, 86, 87 (table), 299
Storage shed, Ferrara, Italy, 146
Storrs, John W., 108
Strain, abstracts of articles on, 388 - 89
Stresses, abstracts of articles on, 389 - 93
Structural analysis, abstracts of articles on,
393-96
Structural behavior of shells, 89-90,122-23,
210-11
conoidal domes, 95-96
spherical domes, 90 - 94
thin shells, 143
Structural design, abstracts of articles on, 396
STRUDL II, 327
Stupas, 23-24
Styrofoam, 197 - 200, 202
Suncoast Dome, St. Petersburg, Florida, 303,
323, 324
Superdome, New Orleans, 176, 177, 316, 324
Superga, Turin, 61
Suuronen, Matti, 201
Sverdrup and Parcel, 316
Swimming pool, Draney, France, 318
Swiss National Exhibition, Cement Hall at,
Zurich, 146, 148
Symbolism of domes, 4 - 11
Synclastic shells, 115, 117, 118
Syon House, 298
Tacoma Dome, Tacoma, Washington,
109-10, III
Tacoma Dome Associates, 109-10
Taillibert, R., 170
Taj Mahal, Agra, India, 53, 54
Takenaka Komuten Company, 325
Talayots, 21
Talin, Vladimir Evgrafovitch, 180
Tange, Kenzo, 168, 181
Tedesko, Anton, 146, 185-86, 192
Tempietto in San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 62
Temple of Diana, Baiae, Italy, 27
Temple of Mercury, Baiae, Italy, 28
Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Syria, 32
Temple of Venus, Baiae, Italy, 27
Temple of Vesta, Rome, 30
Tennis center, Heimburg, Switzerland, 170
Tensegrity, 322, 323
Terminal building, St. Louis airport, St. Louis,
Missouri, 152, 154, 155
427
Terminal building for Trans World Airlines,
Kennedy Airport, New York, 149, 152,
167, 168, 169,209
Testing, abstracts of articles on, 396-97
Thatched domes, 21, 22
Theiler, Otto, 170
Theodoric, Tomb of, Ravenna, Italy, 33-34
Theory, abstracts of articles on, 397 -99
"Theory of Bridge Girder Systems"
(Schwedler), 300
Thermae of Agrippa, Rome, 27
Thermae of Caracalla, Rome, 30
Thermae of Diocletian, Rome, 32
Thermal effects, abstracts of articles on, 399
Thermoelasticity, abstracts of articles on,
399-400
Thin shells, 119-20, 135, 143, 193-94
and ACI building codes, 343, 345
computer analysis of, 223-37
experimentation on, 144, 145, 182
and ferrocement, 125
Tibaldi, Pellegrino, 61
Tile domes, 86
Timber Development Association, 108
Timbrel vaulting, 100 -1 02
T.M.P. Associates, 110
Tombs, rock-cut, 13 -14
Tomb Tower, Lajin, Iran, 42, 44
Toroidal shells, 153
Torroja Miret, Eduardo, 141, 144, 145, 146,
149,185,221
Trade fair building, Afghanistan, 320
Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece, 14
Trosch Company factory, Switzerland, 170
Trowbridge and Livingston, 145
Tylman of Gameren, 74
Umbrella-type hyperbolic paraboloids, 283-93
UNESCO building, entrance canopy for, Paris,
136,137
Union Tank Car Company plant, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, 320
Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical
Society, San Diego, 299
University of Illinois, Assembly Hall, Urbana,
193
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 85
Utzon, Jorn, 136, 175
Vacchini, F., 158
Van Buren Magonigk, H., 86
 Index

Vannoni, C., 158 Wooden domes, 86, 88 (table), 106-11,203

Varax wood domes, 110, 111 Wooden formwork, 196
Vault abutments, Blondel's rule for, 242-43 World's Columbian Exposition, administration
Vaulting, 4-5,26,89,99-100,101 building for, New York, 299
Venetian Zone, Renaissance domes, 70-71 World's Fair of 1853, Crystal Palace at, New
Vibrations, abstracts of articles on, 400-405 York,298
Victoria Regia House, Schoneburg Royal World's Fair of 1878, three domes at, Paris,
Botanic Garden, Berlin, 299 299
da Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi, 61, 63 World's Fair of 1889, central dome for, Paris,
Villa Capra (Villa Rotonda), Vicenza, Italy, 71 299
Villa Trissino, Vicenza, Italy, 71 World's Fair of 1900, Palais des Machines,
Viscoelasticity, abstracts of articles on, 405 Paris, 299
Vitellozzi, Annibel, 156 Wren, Christopher, 74
Vitruvius, 249 Wright, Donald R., 197-98
Voit, A. von, 298 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 154
von Emperger's Handbuch (Dischinger), 184 Wrought iron and dome design, 297 -98
Wyatts, 122
Wyss Garden Center, Solo Thurn,
Wada, M., 110 Switzerland, 170, 172
Walter, Thomas Ustick, 83
Water tower, Fedala, Spain, 141-42
Wave effects, abstract of article on, 405
Western Wood Structures, 110, III Yamasaki, Minoru, 152
White, Stanford, 85
Wieskopt and Pickworth, 145
Wilhelma Botanical Garden, Stuttgart, 298 Zanth, Ludwig von, 298
Wilson, Morris, Crain and Anderson, 313 Zimmermann, Hermann, 30 I
Wind effects, abstract of article on, 405 Zimmermann domes, 311
Wind forces, 246 Zug, Szymon Bugumil, 76, 82
 Acknowlednments

With deep appreciation I wish to acknowl-
edge the contribution of my wife, Deborah;
in compiling the manuscript, she helped me
to overcome a limitation derived from the
onset of my visual impairment. Special grati-
tude is extended to my former student and
assistant Escandar Hadijizadeh, who pre-
pared most of the ink drawings, and to the
many others who contributed through tele-
phone discussions and by sending reference
materials. Among them are Dr. Anton Te-
desko, Dr. David Geiger, Dr. Stefan Medwa-
dowski (lASS), Jack Christiansen, Elwin C.
Robison (Kent State University), William
Mouton (Tulane University), Edward Allen
(Yale University), Charles Mitchell and Luz
Aveleyra (UNC, Charlotte), Mohsen Sefat,
Mrs. Felix Candela, D.]. Gross and James T.
Langman (Roberts & Schaefer), David Kulla
(Duke Power), and Donald Wright (Dow
Chemical). I would like to express my sincere
respect for Van Nostrand Reinhold editor
Gene Dallaire and my gratitude for his trust
in my work. I am very grateful to Joy Aqui-
lino, also of Van Nostrand Reinhold, whose
efforts made the completion of this book
possible.

ERRATA

The Publisher regrets that the following lines were omitted

from page xiii: Acknowledgments of
AN INTRODUCTION TO SHELL STRUCTURES:
The Art And Science Of Vaulting by Michele Melaragno.

A special word of appreciation to Professors Jerzy A.

Starczewski and Bruce Moore of the Hammons School
of Architecture at Drury College for their editing of the
final manuscript exclusive of graphics.

xiii