I.

Collection of Data

Collection of Data
 process of obtaining numerical measurements
 process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcome
Two Sources Of Data
1. Documentary Sources
Published or unpublished reports, statistics, internet, letters, magazines, newspapers,
diaries, etc
a. Primary Data
Data gathered are original
b. Secondary Data
Data is taken from an original source which is computed and compiled.
2. Field Sources
Individuals who have sufficient knowledge and experience regarding the study under
investigation.
Methods Used In Data Collection
1. The Direct Method
referred as interview method
face to face encounter
2. The Indirect Method
questionnaire method
questionnaire-lists of questions
3. The Registration Method
utilizing the existing data/fact/info which is kept systemized by the office concerned
4. The Observation Method
used to collect data pertaining attitudes, behaviour, values, and cultural patterns of the
samples under investigation
Sampling
 Before the collection of data, it is necessary to determine the sample size if the population
is very large.
 Sampling is allowed to save time and money in the collection of data.
 To compute for the sample size, the Slovin formula is use
N
Slovin Formula n=
1+ Ne
Where
n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error
Example:
A researcher wants to know the average income of the families living in Barangay A which
has 2 500 residents. Calculate the sample size that the researcher will need if a 55 margin of
error is allowed.
N
n=
1+ N e 2
2500
n=
1+ ( 2500 )( 0.05 )2

n=344.8
 Sampling Techniques
1. Random Sampling
In this method, all the members of the population have equal chances of being included
in the study. This is applicable if the target population us not classified into different
clusters, sections, level, or classes.
a. Lottery Method
The names of the respondents are written in a small pieces of paper then rolled and
placed in a jar. The respondents who are included in the study are those whose names
are written on the pieces of paper at random from the jar.
b. Use of the Table of Random Numbers
One may devise a way to select the sample using the table of random numbers. For
instance, each member of the target population may be assigned numbers to serve as
codes.
2. Systematic Sampling
a. Stratified Random Sampling
This method is applied when the population is divided into different strata or classes
and each class must be represented in the study.
Example:
Suppose a researcher wants to determine the average income of the families in a
barangay having 3,000 families that distributed in 5 purok. Compute for the sample
size n at 5% margin of error.
N
n=
1+ N e 2

3000
n=
1+ ( 3000 )( 0.05 )2

n=353families
The Required Sample Size from each Purok
Purok Population Percentage N

1 800 27% 0.27 x 353 = 95

2 400 13% 0.13 x 353 = 46

3 500 17% 0.17 x 353 = 60

4 600 20% 0.20 x 353 = 81

5 700 23% 0.23 x 353 = 81

N 3000 100% 353

b. Cluster Sampling
 When the geographical area where the study is too big and the target population is
too large, the cluster sampling technique is appropriate
 In this technique the selection of sample units in not individual but by groups
called clusters. The area is divided into clusters then select a desired number of
clusters at random.
Example:
A doctor wants to make a nationwide study on the correlation between smoking
and death rate. He decides to take the 13 regions of the country which can be
considered as the cluster. If 3 of the 13 clusters or regions are the desired sample
units, the names of the 13 clusters are written on small pieces of paper then pick
the 3 at random by lottery method. All the residents of the selected 3 clusters are
included in the study.
 c. Purposive Sampling
 The respondents of the study are chosen based on their knowledge of the
information required by the researcher.
Example
Suppose a researcher wants to make a historical study about Town A. The target
population is the senior citizen of the town since they are the most reliable person
who know the history of the town.
d. Quota Sampling
This technique is commonly used in opinion polls.
e. Convenience Sampling
 This technique is resorted to by researcher who need the information the fastest
way possible.

Practice
1. A researcher wants to know the study habits of the students of the college of
Physical Therapy of ABC School. Determine the size of the sample units from
each level using 4% margin of error.
Year Level Population Percentage Sample Size

First Year 500

Second Year 200

Third Year 550

Fourth Year 500

Fifth Year 150

Total

II. Organization and Presentation of Data

Frequency distribution
• Frequency distribution is a collection of observations produced by sorting them into
classes and showing their frequencies (or numbers) of occurrences in each class.
• There are three basic types of frequency distribution: categorical, ungrouped and grouped
• The following data give the results of a sample survey. The letters a, b and c represents
the three categories.
A B A A C C A C C C

C B C B B C B B B C

B C C A C C C B C A

• The following data give the results of a sample survey. The letters a, b and c represents
the three categories.
Category Tally Frequency
A IIIII – I 6
B IIIII – IIII 9
C IIIII – IIIII - IIIII 15
SUM = 30
• When observations are sorted into classes of single values, the result is called a frequency
distribution for ungrouped data.
• It is the tabular arrangement of the gathered data by categories plus their corresponding
frequencies and class marks or midpoints.

Definition of Terms
1. Range (R) – the difference between the highest score and the lowest score.
2. Class Interval (k) – a grouping or category defined by a lower limit and an upper
limit.
3. Class Boundaries (CB) – these are also known as the exact limits, and can be
obtained by subtracting 0.5 from the lower limit of an interval and adding 0.5 to the
upper limit interval.
4. Class Mark (x) – is the middle value or the midpoint of a class interval. It is obtained
by getting the average of the lower class limit and the upper class limit.
5. Class Size (i) – is the difference between the upper class boundary and the lower
class boundary of a class interval
6. Relative Frequency (RF) – these are the percentage distribution in every class
interval.
7. Class Frequency – it refers to the number of observations belonging to a class
interval, or the number of items within a category.

Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution

Step 1: Find the range r using the formula
R = highest score – lowest score
Step 2: Compute the number of intervals N by using the formula
n = 1 + 3.3 LOG N
n –number of class intervals
N – population or the total number of observation
Step 3: Compute the class size using this formula
R
i=
n
Step 4: Using the lowest score as the lower limit add I – 1 to it to obtain the desired class
interval.

Step 5: The lower limit of the class interval is obtained by adding the class size of the lower
limit of the first interval then i-1 to the result to btain the higher limit of the second
interval.
Step 6: Repeat step 5 to obtain the third class interval and so on and so forth.
Step 7: When the number of class interval is completed, determine the frequency for each
class interval by counting elements.
Example
Statistics Test Scores of 50 students. Construct a frequency distribution
51 65 68 87 76
56 69 75 89 80
61 66 73 86 79
70 71 54 87 78
68 74 66 88 77
67 73 64 90 77
72 52 67 86 79
74 59 70 89 85
55 63 74 82 84
57 68 72 81 83
1. R = Highest Score – Lowest Score
R = 90 – 51
R = 39
2. k = 8 (desired interval)
3. i = R ÷ k
i = 39 ÷ 8
i = 4.875
i=5
The Frequency Distribution of the Statistics Score of 50 Students
Class Interval f x Class Boundary
LL - UL     Lower Upper
51 - 55 4 53 50.5 55.5
56 - 60 3 58 55.5 60.5
61 - 65 4 63 60.5 65.5
66 - 70 10 68 65.5 70.5
71 - 75 9 73 70.5 75.5
76 - 80 7 78 75.5 80.5
81 - 85 5 83 80.5 85.5
86 - 90 8 88 85.5 90.5
50
 12

10
10
9
8
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4 4
4
3

0
51 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65 66 - 70 71 - 75 76 - 80 81 - 85 86 -90
Class Interval

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Cumulative Frequency Distribution – is a tabular arrangement of data by class intervals
whose frequency is cumulated. In other words, this distribution can be obtained by simply
adding the class frequencies.
Two Kinds of Cumulative Frequency Distribution
1. Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution (<cf) - refers to the distribution whose
frequencies are less than or below the upper class boundary they correspond to.
2. Greater than Cumulative Frequency Distribution (>cf) – refers to the distribution
whose frequencies are greater than or above the lower class boundary they correspond to.
The Frequency Distribution of the Statistics Score of 50 Students
Class Interval f x Class Boundary <cf >cf
LL - UL     Lower Upper    
51 - 55 4 53 50.5 55.5 4 50
56 - 60 3 58 55.5 60.5 7 46
61 - 65 4 63 60.5 65.5 11 43
66 - 70 10 68 65.5 70.5 21 39
71 - 75 9 73 70.5 75.5 30 29
76 - 80 7 78 75.5 80.5 37 20
81 - 85 5 83 80.5 85.5 42 13
86 - 90 8 88 85.5 90.5 50 8
50
Less Than Ogive

60
50
50
42
40 37
30
30
<cf

21
<cf
20
11
10 7
4
0
51 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65 66 - 70 71 - 75 76 - 80 81 - 85 86 - 90
Class Interval
Greater Than Ogive

60

50 50
46
43
40 39

30
>cf

29
>cf
20 20

13
10
8

0
51 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65 66 - 70 71 - 75 76 - 80 81 - 85 86 - 90
Class Interval

Relative Frequency Distribution

The relative frequency distribution is a tabular arrangement of the data showing the proportion
in percent of each frequency. In simple terms, it indicates how many percent the data fall
within each category. The relative frequency for each class interval is obtained by dividing
the class frequency by the total frequency and multiplying the result by 100%.

The Frequency Distribution of the Statistics Scores of 50 Students

Class Interval f x Class Boundary <cf >cf RF%
LL - UL     Lower Upper      
51 - 55 4 53 50.5 55.5 4 50 8
56 - 60 3 58 55.5 60.5 7 46 6
61 - 65 4 63 60.5 65.5 11 43 8
66 - 70 10 68 65.5 70.5 21 39 20
71 - 75 9 73 70.5 75.5 30 29 18
76 - 80 7 78 75.5 80.5 37 20 14
81 - 85 5 83 80.5 85.5 42 13 10
86 - 90 8 88 85.5 90.5 50 8 16

50 100
 25

20 20
18
Relative Frequency

16
15
14

10 10
RF (%)
8 8
6
5

0
51 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65 66 - 70 71 - 75 76 - 80 81 - 85 86 -90
Class Interval

Graphs
• Bar graph
• Usually applied to compare data and to determine which class interval is more common
or frequently appears in the text.
• Line graph
• T o show trends and increase in sales, improvements of scores, rise or fall of temperature
of patients, enrollment of students in certain course, and comparison of population per
year, the line graph is more appropriate to be used than the bar graph.
• Pie chart
• helpful in comparing different parts of a whole at a glance. A circular chart is divided
into sectors and the size of each graph is proportional to the quantity it represent