History of computer

Abacus Pascaline Jacquard Loom Analytical Engine

 Abacus is a  Pascaline discovered  Punch cards are known to be  Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of
manual device to by Blaise Pascal between used as early as 1725 for controlling Modern digital computers.
calculating that 1642 and 1644. textile looms.  It was first described in 1837.
consists of beads or  It can perform only  For example, Joseph Marie  The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical
disks that can be addition and subtraction, Jacquard used punch cards to create general-purpose computer designed by English
moved up and down with numbers entered by a self-portrait woven in silk. Mathematician and computer pioneer.
on a series within a human.  The cards were later used to  Analytical Engine had an input (a way of feeding in
wooden frame.  Gottfried Leibnitz store and search for information in numbers), a memory (something to store these numbers
 The abacus improved on Pascal's adding 1832 by Semen Korsakov. while complex calculations were taking place), a processor
doesn’t perform any machine so that it could also  Later in 1890, Herman (the number-cruncher that carried out the calculations), and
automatic operation perform multiplication, Hollerith developed a method for an output (a printing mechanism) Augusta Ada Byron (1815–
it's simply a device for division and calculate machines to record and store 1852) helped Babbage in his work.
helping a human to square roots. information on punch cards to be  She was an enthusiastic mathematician and she
calculate by used for the US census. He later helped to refine Babbage's ideas for making his machine
remember what has formed the company we know as programmable. She is still, sometimes, referred to as the
been counted. IBM. world's first computer programmer
 Computer Generation
First Generation Second Generation (1959- Third Generation (1965-71) Fourth Generation Fifth Generation (1980-
(1946-59) 65) (1971-80) onwards)
Device -Vacuum Tubes. -Transistors. -Integrated Circuits -Integrated Circuits -Integrated Circuits
Used -Punched cards. -Disks for secondary storage - Larger capacity disks - VLSI - ULSI
-Secondary storage for secondary storage - Larger capacity hard - Microprocessors
Disks as inbuilt - Artificial Intelligence
Secondary storage. - Disks for secondary storage
Software -Machine languages, -High-level -Standardization of high-level Operating systems for Internet applications,
Used - Mostly scientific programming languages, programming PCs with Graphical Multimedia, AI
applications - Scientific and languages, User Interface
commercial applications - Unbundling of software from
hardware
Characteristics - Bulky in size, - Faster, smaller, more - Faster, smaller, more reliable - Small, reliable - Portable computers.
Highly unreliable. reliable than first generation than second Generation. - Scientific, - Rapid software development
- Limited commercial Systems. - Scientific, commercial and commercial and possible.
use and costly - Commercial production interactive on-line interactive on-line - Totally general-purpose
was still difficult and costly applications Applications. Machines.
Features - Vacuum tube - Use of transistors - IC used - VLSI technology - ULSI technology
technology - Reliable in comparison to - More reliable in comparison used - Development of true artificial
- Unreliable first generation computers to previous two generations - Very cheap intelligence
- Supported machine - Smaller size as compared - Smaller size - Portable and reliable - Development of Natural
language only to first generation - Generated less heat - Use of PCs language processing
- Very costly computers - Faster - Very small size - Advancement in Parallel
- Generated a lot of - Generated less heat as - Lesser maintenance - Pipeline processing Processing
heat compared to first generation - Costly - No AC required - Advancement in
- Slow input and computers - AC required - Concept of internet Superconductor technology
output devices - Consumed less electricity - Consumed lesser electricity was introduced - More user-friendly interfaces
- Huge size as compared to first - Supported high-level - Great developments with multimedia features
- Need of AC generation language in the fields of - Availability of very powerful
- Non-portable computers networks and compact computers at
- Consumed a lot of - Faster than first generation - Computers became cheaper rates
electricity computers easily available
- Still very costly
- AC required
- Supported machine and
assembly languages
Languages -Mainly batch -Assembly language and -Remote processing, time- -Time sharing, real -VLSI technology became ULSI
Used processing operating high-level programming sharing, multiprogramming time networks, (Ultra Large-scale Integration)
 system was used. languages like FORTRAN, operating system were used. distributed operating technology, resulting in the
Punch cards, paper COBOL were used. -High-level languages System were used. production of microprocessor
tape, and magnetic -The computers used batch (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, -All the high-level chips having ten million
tape was used as processing and PASCAL PL/1, BASIC etc.) were languages like C, C++, electronic
input and output multiprogramming used during this generation DBASE etc., were Components.
devices. operating system used in this - All the high-level languages
-Machine code as the generation. like C and C++, Java, .Net etc.,
programming are used in this generation
Language.
Example vacuum tubes IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC IBM-360 series, Honeywell- DEC 10, STAR 1000, Desktop, Laptop, Chrome book,
ENIAC, EDVAC, 1604, etc. 6000 series, PDP (Personal CRAY-1(Super etc.
UNIVAC, etc. Data Computer), CRAY-X-
Processor), TDC-316, etc. MP (Super
Computer), etc.

Images
 Computer Basics
 Computer word comes from “Compute” Compute means to calculate.
 A Computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic operation at high speed.
 A Computer is also known as a Data processor because it can store, process data.
Data Capture Data Manipulate Data Output Data Information
Characteristics of computer
1) Automatic Operation : Human can assign a job to computer it will work on automatically
without human interventions
2) Speed: computer can perform fast operation speed of computer can measure in
microsecond(10-6), nanosecond (10-9) , and picosecond (10-12)
3) Accuracy : Computer accuracy is very high and the degree of accuracy depend upon the user
input
4) Concentration: Computer can work continuously if human cannot disturb them.
5) Versatility: Capability of performing any task and reduce the steps of any task and make it
easy
6) Long time remembering Information: Computer can store and recall any type of
information using secondary storage devices it can delete or save data as per user
command.
7) No Decision Making System: Computer cannot take any decision without any program until
user cannot install in computer.
8) Computer does not have any feelings: Computer cannot understand human feeling. It can
understand only user input.
 Number System
Number system can be divided in to two types
1) Non Positional number System
2) Positional Number System

1) Non positional Number System: In non-positional number system, each symbol represents
the same value regardless of its position.
For example, I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 and IIIIIIII for 8, etc. Position of symbol is invariant, i.e.
each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the number. The symbols
are simply added to find out the value of a particular number. Since it is very lengthy to write
and difficult to perform arithmetic calculations with such a number system, positional
number system was developed
2) Positional Number system classified as follows
a) Binary Number system
b) Decimal number System
c) Octal Number system
d) Hexadecimal Number system
a) Binary Number system:
- Also known as base 2 number system
- It is a Positional Number System
- It has only two symbols or digits 0 & 1 hence called as 2 base Number system
- Each position of the digit can be represent of base (2) Power
- Computer can only understand binary number
- Example (10101)2
(10101) 2 = (1*24) + (0*23) + (1*22) + (0*21) + (1*20)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= (21)10 (Decimal number)
b) Decimal number System
- Also known as 10 base number system
- It is a positional number system
- It has 10 symbols or digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) hence called as 10 base Number system
- Each position of the digit can be represent of base (10) Power
- We use decimal number system day to day life.
- Example (2586)10
(2586)10 = (2*103) + (5*102) + (8*101) + (6*100)
= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6
= 2586
 c) Octal Number System
- Also known as 8 base number system
- It is a positional number system
- It has 8 symbols or digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) hence called as 8 base Number system
- Maximum value of the digit is (7)
- Each position of the digit can be represent of base (8) Power
- Since there are only 8 digits 3 bits (2 3=8) are sufficient to represent octal number in
any binary
- Example (2057)8
(2057)8 = (2*83) + (0*82)) + (5*81) + (7*80)
= 1024 + 0 + 40 +7
= (1071)10

D) Hexadecimal Number System

- Also known as 16 base number system.
- It is a positional number system.
- It has 10 Numbers and 6 alphabet (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) hence called as 16 base Number
system.
- In hexadecimal (A,B,C,D,E,F) represent following no
- A=10, B=11, C=13, D=14, E=15, F=16.
- Maximum value of the digit is (16)
- Each position of the digit can be represent of base (16) Power
- Example (1AF)16
(1AF)16 = (1*162)+(A*161)+(F*160)
= 1*256 + 10*16 + 15* 1
= 256+160+15
= 43110
Conversion Decimal to Binary
There are a number of ways to convert between decimal and binary. The most common is as follows: Divide the
number by 2, then divide what's left by 2, and so on until there is nothing left (0). Write down the remainder (which
is either 0 or 1) at each division stage. Once there are no more divisions, list the remainder values in reverse order.
This is the binary equivalent.
254 / 2 giving 127 with a remainder of 0
127 / 2 giving 63 with a remainder of 1
63 / 2 giving 31 with a remainder of 1
 31 / 2 giving 15 with a remainder of 1
15 / 2 giving 7 with a remainder of 1
7 / 2 giving 3 with a remainder of 1
3 / 2 giving 1 with a remainder of 1
1 / 2 giving 0 with a remainder of 1

Thus the binary equivalent is 11111110

Conversion Binary to Decimal

Example convert following no (11101)2 In Decimal
11101= (1*24) + (1*23) + (1*22) + (1*21) + (1*20)
= 16 + 8 + 4 + 1
= 24 + 5
= (29)10
Conversion octal to binary conversion
(238)8
2 3 8
2*2 3*2 8*4
2*1 1*2 2*2
1*0 1*0 1*2
1*0
Hence the binary number is (2=10, 3=10, 8=10)

The following examples show the basic rules For Binary Addition
0+0 =0
0+1 =1
 1+0 =1
1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1
Below is the example showing the rules For Binary Subtraction
0-0 =0
0 - 1 = 1 and borrow 1
1-0 =1
1-1 =0
Binary Multiplication rules are illustrated below
0*0 =0
0*1 =0
1*0 =0
1*1 =1

Ones Complement
1's complement is a method of storing negative values. It simply inverts all 0's to 1's and all 1's to 0's.
Original Number Binary value 1's Complement value
7 00000111 11111000

Twos Complement
2's complement is another method of storing negative values. It is obtained by adding 1 to the 1's complement
value.

Original Number Binary value 1's Complement value 2's Complement value
7 00000111 11111000 11111001

Another way of generating a 2's complement number is to start at the least significant bit, and copy down all the
0's till the first 1 is reached. Copy down the first 1, then invert all the remaining bits.
 Unit II
Concept of Information System and Software
INFORMATION GATHERING
 The principal objective of an information system is to provide informational aid to every person in the
organization and hence making him more effective in his working.
 It is therefore necessary to monitor the existing information system, identify its deficiencies and updating it
to improve the organizational performance.
 These task are taken care by system analysts who first collects the information from the system users
through direct dialogue or through written communication.
 The direct dialogue is often referred to as an interview for a written inquiry; the inquirer prepares a detailed
questionnaire and sends it to the information provider, who provides specific replies to the questions.
These two information search methods interview and questionnaire are used in the following ways :

1. Interview
It is the most effective method for collection of information for assessing the functioning of existing system.

Both, the system analyst and the system users, must be fully prepared, and have enough of free time. System analyst must
write down the responses of users during the process of interview.

For getting maximum out of an interview, following factors are important-

A. Selection of persons for interview

All the persons within the system boundaries must be interviewed in an order from top to bottom from the first system activity
toward the last activity.

The analyst must enlist all the persons in the above order and the interviews must be conducted strictly in that
order only so that information integration can be done for system modeling.

B. Interview Methods
The interview of different people has
to be conducted differently depending
upon their levels and
the information content. Before
conducting the interview, the analyst
must ensure the status and
role of the person in the information
system. Accordingly, an ordered list of
questions must be
B. Interview Methods
The interview of different people has to be conducted differently depending upon their levels and the information content.
Before conducting the interview, the analyst must ensure the status and role of the person in the information system.

Accordingly, an ordered list of questions must be framed for the interview. Each interview must start with simple and
convenient questions to encourage the interviewee.

Questions put during an interview are of two type

- closed type-yes/no, suggestive of a reply, and open type.

The sequencing of the question can be-

 Open questions and then closed,

 Open, closed, and the open again,
 Closed and then open,

2. Questionnaire
This method has the advantages of extracting point-to-point information. It saves times of both,the SA and the system users,
as both can work according to their own conveniences.
The questioner technique has the limitation of rigidity and the questions are also prone to different
interpretations by different peoples and hence, extract ambiguous and sometime misleading information.

Problems in information collection for system modeling

Information collection from the users is a tedious and boring task, the common problems in the information received from
various sources are-

1. The information may be ambiguous, incomplete or erroneous

2. The information available is not systematic

3. The information received has some links missing in it,

4. The users of some information are not clear,

5. The System Analyst may not be reaching the real source of information

6. The SA may not be knowing what all is needed

What is a data flow diagram?

 A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of information for any process or system.
 It uses defined symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus short text labels, to show data inputs, outputs, storage
points and the routes between each destination.
 Data flowcharts can range from simple, even hand-drawn process overviews, to in-depth, multi-level DFDs that dig
progressively deeper into how the data is handled.
 They can be used to analyze an existing system or model a new one.
 Like all the best diagrams and charts, a DFD can often visually “say” things that would be hard to explain in words, and
they work for both technical and nontechnical audiences, from developer to CEO.
 That’s why DFDs remain so popular after all these years.
 While they work well for data flow software and systems, they are less applicable nowadays to visualizing interactive,
real-time or database-oriented software or systems.

History of the DFD

Data flow diagrams were popularized in the late 1970s, arising from the book Structured Design, by computing pioneers Ed
Yourdon and Larry Constantine. They based it on the “data flow graph” computation models by David Martin and Gerald
Estrin. The structured design concept took off in the software engineering field, and the DFD method took off with it. It
became more popular in business circles, as it was applied to business analysis, than in academic circles.

Also contributing were two related concepts:

Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD), put forth by Yourdon and Peter Coad to analyze and design an
application or system. Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), a waterfall method to analyze and design
information systems. This rigorous documentation approach contrasts with modern agile approaches such as Scrum and
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM.)

Symbols and Notations Used in DFDs

One main difference in their symbols is that Yourdon-Coad and Yourdon-DeMarco use circles for processes, while Gane and
Sarson use rectangles with rounded corners, sometimes called lozenges. There are other symbol variations in use as well, so
the important thing to keep in mind is to be clear and consistent in the shapes and notations you use to communicate and
collaborate with others.

Using any convention’s DFD rules or guidelines, the symbols depict the four components of data flow diagrams.

External entity: an outside system that sends or receives data, communicating with the system being diagrammed. They are
the sources and destinations of information entering or leaving the system. They might be an outside organization or person, a
computer system or a business system. They are also known as terminators, sources and sinks or actors. They are typically
drawn on the edges of the diagram.

Process: any process that changes the data, producing an output. It might perform computations, or sort data based on logic,
or direct the data flow based on business rules. A short label is used to describe the process, such as “Submit payment.”

Data store: files or repositories that hold information for later use, such as a database table or a membership form. Each data
store receives a simple label, such as “Orders.”

Data flow: the route that data takes between the external entities, processes and data stores. It portrays the interface
between the other components and is shown with arrows, typically labeled with a short data name, like “Billing details.”

DFD rules and tips

 Each process should have at least one input and an output.

  Each data store should have at least one data flow in and one data flow out.
 Data stored in a system must go through a process.
 All processes in a DFD go to another process or a data store.

DFD levels and layers: From context diagrams to pseudo code

A data flow diagram can dive into progressively more detail by using levels and layers, zeroing in on a particular piece. DFD
levels are numbered 0, 1 or 2, and occasionally go to even Level 3 or beyond. The necessary level of detail depends on the
scope of what you are trying to accomplish.

DFD Level 0 is also called a Context Diagram. It’s a basic overview of the whole system or process being analyzed or modeled.
It’s designed to be an at-a-glance view, showing the system as a single high-level process, with its relationship to external
entities. It should be easily understood by a wide audience, including stakeholders, business analysts, data analysts and
developers.

DFD Level 1 provides a more detailed breakout of pieces of the Context Level Diagram. You will highlight the main functions
carried out by the system, as you break down the high-level process of the Context Diagram into its sub processes.
DFD Level 2 then goes one step deeper into parts of Level 1. It may require more text to reach the necessary level of detail
about the system’s functioning.

Examples of how DFDs can be used

Data flow diagrams are well suited for analysis or modeling of various types of systems in different fields.

DFD in software engineering: This is where data flow diagrams got their main start in the 1970s. DFDs can provide a focused
approached to technical development, in which more research is done up front to get to coding.

DFD in business analysis: Business analysts use DFDs to analyze existing systems and find inefficiencies. Diagramming the
process can uncover steps that might otherwise be missed or not fully understood.

DFD in business process re-engineering: DFDs can be used to model a better, more efficient flow of data through a business
process. BPR was pioneered in the 1990s to help organizations cut operational costs, improve customer service and better
compete in the market.

DFD in agile development: DFDs can be used to visualize and understand business and technical requirements and plan the
next steps. They can be a simple yet powerful tool for communication and collaboration to focus rapid development.

DFD in system structures: Any system or process can be analyzed in progressive detail to improve it, on both a technical and
non-technical basis.
 Process
What is a process

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)

HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.

 HTML describes the structure of Web pages using markup

 HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages

 HTML elements are represented by tags

 HTML tags label pieces of content such as "heading", "paragraph", "table", and so on

 All HTML documents consist of nested HTML elements,

Below given example contains four HTML elements:

 Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the content of the page

HTML Documents

All HTML documents must start with a document type declaration: <!DOCTYPE html>.

The HTML document itself begins with <html> and ends with </html>.

The visible part of the HTML document is between <body> and </body>.

Example

<! DOCTYPE html>

<Html>

<Head>

<Title>Page Title</title>

</head>

<Body>

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

</body>

</html>

 The <! DOCTYPE html> declaration defines this document to be HTML5

 The <html> element is the root element of an HTML page

 The <head> element contains Meta information about the document

 The <title> element specifies a title for the document

 The <body> element contains the visible page content

 The <h1> element defines a large heading

 The <p> element defines a paragraph

HTML Tags

HTML tags are element names surrounded by angle brackets:

<Tag name>content goes here...</tag name>

 HTML tags normally come in pairs like <p> and </p>

 The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag

 The end tag is written like the start tag, but with a forward slash inserted before the tag name

 The start tag is also called the opening tag, and the end tag the closing tag.

Web Browsers

The purpose of a web browser (Chrome, IE, Firefox, and Safari) is to read HTML documents and display them.

The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to determine how to display the Document

HTML Page Structure

Below is a visualization of an HTML page structure

Write HTML Using Notepad

There are four steps below to create your first web page with Notepad:

Step 1: Open Notepad (PC)

Open Start > Programs > Accessories > Notepad

Step 2: Write Some HTML

Step 3: Save the HTML Page

Save the file on your computer. Select File > Save as in the Notepad menu.

Name the file "index.htm" and set the encoding to UTF-8 (which is the preferred encoding for HTML files)

Step 4: View the HTML Page in Your Browser

Open the saved HTML file in your favorite browser (double clicks on the file, or right-click – and choose "Open with").

The result will look much like this:

HTML Paragraphs

HTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag:

Example

<p>This is a paragraph.</p>

<p>This is another paragraph.</p>

HTML Links

HTML links are defined with the <a> tag:

Example

<! DOCTYPE html>

<Html>

<Body>

<a href="https://www.w3schools.com">This is a link</a>

</body>

</html>

The link's destination is specified in the href attribute.

Attributes are used to provide additional information about HTML elements.

HTML Images

HTML images are defined with the <img> tag.

The source file (src), alternative text (alt), width, and height are provided as attributes:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<img src="w3schools.jpg" alt="W3Schools.com" width="104" height="142">

</body>

</html>
 Introduction to Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
What is CSS?

 CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets

 CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper, or in other media

 CSS saves a lot of work. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once

 External style sheets are stored in CSS files

Why Use CSS?

CSS is used to define styles for your web pages, including the design, layout and variations in display for different devices and
screen sizes.

CSS Solved a Big Problem:

HTML was NEVER intended to contain tags for formatting a web page!

HTML was created to describe the content of a web page, like:

<h1>This is a heading</h1>

<p>This is a paragraph.</p>

When tags like <font>, and color attributes were added to the HTML 3.2 specification, it started a nightmare for web
developers. Development of large websites, where fonts and color information were added to every single page,
became a long and expensive process.

To solve this problem, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created CSS.

CSS removed the style formatting from the HTML page!

CSS Saves a Lot of Work!

The style definitions are normally saved in external .css files. With an external stylesheet file, you can change the look of an
entire website by changing just one file!

CSS Syntax:

A CSS rule-set consists of a selector and a declaration block:

The selector points to the HTML element you want to style.

The declaration block contains one or more declarations separated by semicolons.

Each declaration includes a CSS property name and a value, separated by a colon.

A CSS declaration always ends with a semicolon, and declaration blocks are surrounded by curly braces.

In the following example all <p> elements will be center-aligned, with a red text color:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p { color: red; text-align: center; }
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello World! </p>
<p> These paragraphs are styled with
CSS. </p>
</body>
</html>
The id Selector
The id selector uses the id attribute of
an HTML element to select a specific
element.
The id of an element should be unique
within a page, so the id selector is used
to select one
unique element!
To select an element with a specific id,
write a hash (#) character, followed by
the id of the
element.
The style rule below will be applied to
the HTML element with id="para1":
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
#para1 { text-align: center; color:
red; }
</style>
</head>
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

p { color: red; text-align: center; }

</style>

</head>

<body>

<p>Hello World! </p>

<p> These paragraphs are styled with CSS. </p>

</body>

</html>

The id Selector (hash (#))

The id selector uses the id attribute of an HTML element to select a specific element.

The id of an element should be unique within a page, so the id selector is used to select one unique element!

To select an element with a specific id, write a hash (#) character, followed by the id of the element.

The style rule below will be applied to the HTML element with id="para1":

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

#para1 { text-align: center; color: red; }

</style>

</head>

<body>

<p id="para1">Hello World!</p>

<p>This paragraph is not affected by the style.</p>

</body>

</html>

The class Selector (.)

The class selector selects elements with a specific class attribute.

To select elements with a specific class, write a period (.) character, followed by the name of the class.

In the example below, all HTML elements with class="center" will be red and center-aligned:

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

.center {text-align: center; color: red;}

</style>

</head>

<body>

<h1 class="center">Red and center-aligned heading</h1>

<p class="center">Red and center-aligned paragraph.</p>

</body>

</html>

External Style Sheet

With an external style sheet, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just one file!

Each page must include a reference to the external style sheet file inside the <link> element. The <link> element goes inside
the <head> section:

Example

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css">

</head>

<body>

<h1>This is a heading</h1>

<p>This is a paragraph.</p>

</body>

</html>

An external style sheet can be written in any text editor.

The file should not contain any html tags.

The style sheet file must be saved with a .css extension.

Here is how the

"mystyle.css" looks:

body {

background-color: lightblue;

h1 {

color: navy;

margin-left: 20px;

Note: Do not add a space between the property value and the unit (such as margin-left: 20 px;).

The correct way is: margin-left: 20px

 Computer Applications in Pharmacy (Unit II)
What is XML?

 XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language

 XML is a markup language much like HTML

 XML was designed to store and transport data

 XML was designed to be self-descriptive

 XML is a W3C Recommendation

Example: This note is a note to Alok from John , stored as XML:

<note>

<to>Alok</to>

<from>John</from>

<heading>Reminder</heading>

<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>

</note>

The XML above is quite self-descriptive:

 It has sender information within <to> tag

 It has receiver information within <from> tag

 It has a heading within <heading> tag

 It has a message body. Within <body> tag

All the tags are defined by the author and not predefined like the HTML tags

The Difference between XML and HTML

XML and HTML were designed with different goals:

 XML was designed to carry data - with focus on what data is

 HTML was designed to display data - with focus on how data looks

 XML tags are not predefined like HTML tags are

XML Does Not Use Predefined Tags

The XML language has no predefined tags.

The tags in the example above (like <to> and <from>) are not defined in any XML standard.

These tags are "invented" by the author of the XML document.

HTML works with predefined tags like <p>, <h1>, <table>, etc.

With XML, the author must define both the tags and the document structure.

XML Separates Data from Presentation

XML does not carry any information about how to be displayed.

The same XML data can be used in many different presentation scenarios.

Because of this, with XML, there is a full separation between data and presentation.

XML is Often a Complement to HTML

In many HTML applications, XML is used to store or transport data, while HTML is used to format and display the same data.

XML Separates Data from HTML

When displaying data in HTML, you should not have to edit the HTML file when the data changes.

With XML, the data can be stored in separate XML files.

With a few lines of JavaScript code, you can read an XML file and update the data content of any HTML page

Web Servers
A web server is a computer or more formally a software application that runs websites. It's a computer program that
distributes web pages as they are demanded.

The basic objective of the web server is to store, process and deliver web pages to the users. This intercommunication is done
using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). These web pages are mostly static content that includes HTML documents, images,
style sheets, test etc

Apart from HTTP, a web server also supports SMTP (Simple Mail transfer Protocol) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol) protocol
for emailing and for file transfer and storage.
When anyone requests for a website by adding the URL or web address on a web browsers (like Chrome or Firefox) address
bar (like www.google.com), the browser sends a request to the Internet for viewing the corresponding web page for that
address.

A Domain Name Server (DNS) converts this URL to an IP Address (For example 192.168.216.345), which in turn
points to a Web Server.

The Web Server is requested to present the content website to the user’s browser. All websites on the Internet have a unique
identifier in terms of an IP address. This Internet Protocol addressis used to communicate between different servers across the
Internet.

These days, Apache server is the most common web server available in the market. Apache is open source software that
handles almost 70 percent of all websites available today. Most of the web-based applications use Apache as their
default Web Server environment. Another web server that is generally available is Internet Information Service
(IIS). IIS is owned by Microsoft.

Database Management System

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software application that provide a set of programs to organize,
create, delete, update, and manipulate data in a database.

There are mainly four methods to organize data in a database.

1. Hierarchical

2. Network

3. Relational

4. Object Oriented
In a hierarchical database, the data elements are linked in the form of an inverted tree structure with the root at the top, and
the branches formed below. There is a parent-child relationship among the data elements of a hierarchical database.

A parent data element is the one that has one or more subordinate data elements. The data elements that are below a parent
data elements are its children data elements.

For example, let us take the example of a hierarchical database of an organization’s employees.

Employees are categorized by the department in which they work, and within a department, they are categorized by their job
function, such as manager, engineers, technicians, and support staff.

A Network database structure is an extension of the hierarchical database structure.

In this model also, the data elements of a database are organized in the form of parent-child relationships, and

All the types of relationships among the data elements must be determined when the database is first designed.

In a network database, however, a child data element can have more than one parent element or no parent at all. This
database permit the extraction of needed information by beginning from any data element in the database structure, instead
of starting from the root data element.

For example,

Network database which maintains the relationships among the courses offered and the students enrolled for each course in a
college. As can be seen from the example, the parent and child elements can have many-to-many relationships in a network
database structure. That is, each student may be enrolled for several courses, and each course may have a
number of students enrolled for it.

With this database structure, it is possible to easily produce both a course-wise students report (a report showing all students
enrolled for each course) and a student-wise courses report (a report showing all courses taken by each student)
In a relational database, the data elements are organized in the form of multiple tables with rows and columns. Each table
of the database is stored as a separate file. Each table column represent a data field, and each row a data record (all
know as tuple).

The data in one table is related to data in another table with a common field.

For example,

a sample library database is comprised of three tables. The first table contains the data of library members, the second table
contains the data of borrowed books, and the third table contains the data of books in the library.

Each new member is assigned a membership number and issued a library card with this number on it. The member’s name,
address, and membership number are added in member data table.

When a member borrows a book, the membership number of the borrower, the book’s ISBN number (which serves as a
unique identification number for a book), and the due date for returning the book are added to the second table.

The first and second tables are related by the ‘Membership No.’ common field, and the second and third tables are related by
the “Book No.” common field.

Now let us assume that the librarian wants a report of overdue books as of 10-11-2001, and wants the list to contain the
borrower’s details and the book’s details for each overdue book. To produce such a report, the database search routine will
first search for the due date field in the borrowed book data table to surface the three over dues books. The database
management system will then use the ‘Membership No’ filed to cross-reference the book’s details of each overdue book from
the member’s data table, and the ‘Book No.’ field to cross-reference the book’s details of each overdue book from the book
data table. The final report thus produced, would look something like the one shown in figure
is SQL?
 SQL stands for Structured Query
Language
 SQL lets you access and manipulate
databases
 SQL is an ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) standard
What Can SQL do?
 SQL can execute queries against a
database
 SQL can retrieve data from a
database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a
database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a
database
 SQL can create stored procedures in
a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables,
procedures, and views
A database most often contains one or
more tables. Each table is identified by
a name (e.g.
"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables
contain records (rows) with data.
For example, a sample database table
“Customers” is shown below:
Customer
ID Customer Name
Contact
Name Address City
Postal
Code Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste
Maria
Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2
Ana Trujillo
Emparedados y
helados Ana Trujillo
Avda. de la
Constitución 2222
México
D.F. 5021 Mexico
3
Antonio Moreno
Taquería
Antonio
Moreno Mataderos 2312
México
D.F. 5023 Mexico
4 Around the Horn
Thomas
Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London
WA1
1DP UK
5 Berglunds snabbköp
Christina
Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå
S-958
22 Sweden
Table Customers
What is SQL?
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language

 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases

 SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database

 SQL can retrieve data from a database

 SQL can insert records in a database

 SQL can update records in a database

 SQL can delete records from a database

 SQL can create new databases

 SQL can create new tables in a database

 SQL can create stored procedures in a database

 SQL can create views in a database

 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g.

"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.

For example, a sample database table “Customers” is shown below:

The following SQL statement selects all the records in the "Customers" table:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers;

The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement selects the "Customer Name" and "City" columns from the

"Customers" table:

Example

SELECT Customer Name, City FROM Customers;

SELECT * Example

The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers;

The SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition

WHERE Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table name WHERE condition;

WHERE Clause Example

The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in the

"Customers" table:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Mexico'

Pharmacy Drug Databases:

DrugBank

The DrugBank database is a comprehensive, freely accessible, online database containing information on drugs
and drug targets. As both a bioinformatics and a cheminformatics resource, Drug Bank combines detailed drug (i.e.
chemical, pharmacological and pharmaceutical) data with comprehensive drug target (i.e. sequence, structure, and pathway)
information.

DrugBank is widely used by the drug industry, medicinal chemists, pharmacists, physicians, students and the general public. Its
extensive drug and drug-target data has enabled the discovery and repurposing of a number of existing drugs to treat rare and
newly identified illnesses.

The latest release of the database (version 5.0) contains 9591 drug entries including 2037 FDA-approved small molecule
drugs, 241 FDA-approved biotech (protein/peptide) drugs, 96 Nutraceuticals and over 6000 experimental drugs.
Additionally, 4270 non-redundant protein (i.e. drug target/enzyme/transporter/carrier) sequences are linked to these drug
entries

Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD)

The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD) is a public website maintained by the Department of Biological
Sciences at North Carolina State University; it is a research tool that curates scientific data describing relationships
between chemicals/drugs, genes/proteins, diseases, taxa, phenotypes, GO annotations, pathways, and interaction modules.
CTD is a unique resource where biocurators [6][7] read the scientific literature and manually accurate four types of core data:

1. Chemical-gene interactions

2. Chemical-disease associations

3. Gene-disease associations

4. Chemical-phenotype associations

HOSPITAL AND CLINICAL PHARMACY

Hospital pharmacy is division of hospital which monitors on the receiving and allotment of drugs and medicines and
professional supplies, stores them and dispenses to inpatient, outpatient and may have a manufacturing extension
to manufacture pharmaceuticals and *parenteral in bulk.

Clinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy where pharmacists provide patient care that optimizes the use of
medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention.

Patient record maintenance is vital job in hospitals but with the help of computers, data can be maintained easily and also
updated time to time. Inventory control i.e. purchasing, receiving, warehousing and storage, turnover, and reordering
can be achieved very well by using computers.

Computers can play role like:

1. To detect the items which have reached minimum order level?

2. To prepare list of items to be purchased and their quantities.

3. To prepare purchase orders for vendors and to avoid duplication.

4. To detect the infrequently purchased items for possible return or elimination from pharmacy’s drug supply.

5. To produce periodic summary and purchasing and inventory control statistics.

6. Maintaining patient medical record.

7. Drug information services.

8. Patient monitoring.

Software’s like Microsoft Excel are useful in maintenance of all type of numerical data.

The drug interactions may be screened by using programs like MEDIPHOR (Monitoring and Evaluating of Drug Interactions by
a Pharmacy Oriented Reporting), and PADIS (Pharmacy Automated Drug Interaction Screening); these systems issues
warning when potentially interacting drugs are prescribed for a patient and thus enhance the standard of a pharmacist’s
clinical services

PHARMACOKINETICS AND MATHMATICAL MODEL IN DRUG DESIGN

Pharmacokinetics (PK) describes how the body affects a specific xenobiotic/chemical after administration through
the mechanisms of Absorption, and Distribution, as well as the Metabolic changes of the substance in the body (e.g. by
metabolic enzymes such as cytochrome P450* or glucuronosyltransferase enzymes), and the effects and routes of
Excretion of the metabolites of the drug. These four processes: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination or Excretion are also called ADME
Nearly 40% of drug candidates fail in clinical trials due to poor ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion)
properties. These late-stage failures contribute significantly to the rapidly escalating cost of new drug development. The ability
to detect problematic candidates early can dramatically reduce the amount of wasted time and resources, and streamline
the overall development process.

Accurate prediction of ADME properties prior to expensive experimental procedures, such as HTS, can eliminate
unnecessary testing on compounds that will ultimately fail; ADME prediction can also be used to focus lead
optimization efforts to enhance the desired properties of a given compound. Finally, incorporating ADME predictions
as a part of the development process can generate lead compounds that are more likely to exhibit
satisfactory ADME performances during clinical trials.

The increased speed of computers as well as their storage capacity has led to the development of numerous computer
software programs that now allow for the rapid solution of complicated pharmacokinetic equations and rapid modeling
of pharmacokinetic processes i.e. In-silico pharmacokinetics.

Some software used in. In-silico pharmacokinetics: QikProp, VolSurf, GastroPlus, ALOGPS, OSIRISPropertyExplorer,
SwissADME, Metrabase, PACT-F, TOXNET

Electronic Prescribing (EP) systems

A medical prescription is given by a physician or other qualified health care practitioner generally that govern
the plan of care for an individual patient to purchase a prescription drug from a pharmacist. In recent times, computer-based
medical prescriptions also called Electronic prescribing or e-prescribing (e-Rx) are being used by the physician.

E-prescribing allows a physician, pharmacist, nurse practitioner, or physician assistant to electronically transmit a
new prescription or renewal authorization to a community or mail-order pharmacy. It outlines the ability to send error-free,
accurate, and understandable prescriptions electronically from the healthcare provider to the pharmacy. E-prescribing is
meant to reduce the risks associated with traditional prescription script writing.

It is also one of the major reasons for the push for Electronic Medical Records.

An E-prescribing system must be capable of performing all of the following functions:

1. Patient identification

2. Generating a complete active medication list, possibly incorporating electronic data received from an insurance provider

3. Access to patient historical data

4. Prescribe or add new medication and select the pharmacy where the prescription will be filled.

5. Educational capabilities (e.g., patient education, provider feedback)

Electronic Discharge (ED) systems

Paper based discharge summaries are often illegible, incomplete or received too late for the information to be considered
clinically useful. Electronic discharge summaries can address known deficiencies and improve the continuity of care,
communication and accuracy of data in discharge summaries.

EDischarge solution enables doctors to:

1. Rapidly record all diagnoses, treatments & medications at the point of care.

2. Consultants can review & approve discharge summaries even after the patient has left the hospital.

3. If the consultant sees any omissions or errors, these can be added or corrected to the updated summary filed and sent
to the patient’s physician instantaneously on approval.

Barcode medicine identification and automated dispensing of drugs

Bar code medication administration (BCMA) is a bar code system to prevent medication errors in healthcare settings and to
improve the quality and safety of medication administration. The overall goals of BCMA are to improve accuracy, prevent
errors, and generate online records of medication administration.

One type of bar code used on medication packaging an automated dispensing cabinet (ADC) is a computerized drug
storage device or cabinet designed for hospitals. ADCs allow medications to be stored and dispensed near the point of care
while controlling and tracking drug distribution. They also are called Automated Dispensing Machines (ADMs).
Wrong drug and wrong dose errors are the most common errors associated with ADC use. Look-alike drug names and drug
packages are common variables that lead to selection errors. For example, morphine and hydromorphone are two different
opioid analgesics that frequently get confused.

Mobile technology and Adherence monitoring

Adherence is generally described as the extent to which patients take medications as prescribed by their health care providers.
Adherence to long-term therapy in outpatient setting is required to reduce the prevalence of chronic diseases such as
HIV/AIDS, Diabetes, Tuberculosis and Malaria.

Healthcare providers are using a variety of mobile technologies to help patients take their medications and
remain on a care plan. The consequences of non-adherence can be costly – and deadly.

To remind people to pick up or renew their prescriptions, doctors and pharmacies are using mHealth platforms that send
automated, personalized messages to a patient’s e-mail, smartphone or even a smart watch (patients can program their
own reminders as well).

Digital or smart pillboxes, meanwhile, can keep track of medications, remind a patient to take a medication and
even record and send that data back to caregivers.

Digital or smart pillboxes

 Patient Monitoring System
Patient monitoring can be rigorously defined as “repeated or continuous observations or measurements of the
patient, his or her physiological function, and the function of life support equipment, for the purpose of guiding
management decisions, including when to make therapeutic interventions, and assessment of those interventions” There
are at least five categories of patients who need physiological monitoring:

1. Patients with unstable physiological regulatory systems; for example, a patient whose respiratory system is
suppressed by a drug overdose or anesthesia

2. Patients with a suspected life-threatening condition; for example, a patient who has findings indicating an acute myocardial
infarction (heart attack)

3. Patients at high risk of developing a life-threatening condition; for example, patients immediately after open-
heart surgery or a premature infant whose heart and lungs are not fully developed

4. Patients in a critical physiological state; for example, patients with multiple trauma or septic shock.

5. Mother and baby during the labor and delivery process

Because of these requirements, ICUs have become widely established in hospitals. Such units use computers almost
universally for the following purposes:

1. To acquire physiological data frequently or continuously, such as blood pressure readings

2. To communicate information from data-producing systems to remote locations (e.g. Laboratory and radiology
departments)

3. To store, organize, and report data

4. To integrate and correlate data from multiple sources

5. To provide clinical alerts and advisories based on multiple sources of data

6. To function as a decision-making tool that health professionals may use in planning the care of critically ill patients

7. To measure the severity of illness for patient classification purposes

8. To analyze the outcomes of ICU care in terms of clinical effectiveness and cost effectiveness

Pharmacy Management Information System (PMIS)

Pharmacy Management Information System (PMIS) basically deals with the maintenance of drugs and consumables in the
pharmacy unit. The system will ensure availability of sufficient quantity of drugs and consumable materials for the patient.
This will enhance the efficiency of clinical work; ease the patients’ convenience and process drug prescriptions effectively.

The system will help removing time wasting, saving resources, allow easy access to medicine, as well as bring on more security
on the data compared to manual based system.

Importance of PMIS

1. A good PMIS provides the necessary information to make sound decisions in the pharmaceutical sector.

2. Effective pharmaceutical management requires policy makers, program managers and health care providers to monitor
information related to patient adherence, drug resistance, availability of medicines and laboratory supplies,

3. Patient safety, product registration, product quality, financing and program management etc
UNIT-V
NOTE-1
CHROMATOGRPHY DATA
SYSTEMS
Chromatography is an analytical
method that is used to separate
different chemicals from a
complex mixture.
It is based on the concept of partition
coefficient – if a chemical is applied at
the boundary of two
immiscible liquids, it will distribute
itself between two liquids
CHROMATOGRPHY DATA SYSTEMS
Chromatography is an analytical method that is used to separate different chemicals from a complex mixture.

It is based on the concept of partition coefficient – if a chemical is applied at the boundary of two immiscible liquids, it will
distribute itself between two liquids
For example

If we apply glutamine which is a polar amino acids at the junction of water (polar solvent) and n-octanol (non-polar solvent); its
more amount will be dissolved in water and less in n-octanol. i. e.

C (water) > C (n-octanol)

In chromatography one phase (liquid) is hold by an inert material and termed as stationary phase and another phase
(liquid/gas) is moved over the stationary phase - termed as mobile phase. If a complex mixture is dissolved in mobile phase
and passes through the stationary phase, its individual components will distribute themselves as per their partition coefficient
and therefore get separated with each other.

For example if we have a mixture of three amino acids – leucine, alanine, and glutamine and want to separate them using
paper chromatography. We will take a cellulose paper and saturate it with a polar solvent such as water - water will now act as
stationary phase, and cellulose paper as structure that holds stationary phase.

Apply the mixture of amino acids as dot, and dip in it a non-polar solvent such as acetone which acts as mobile phase.

After some time all the three amino acids will separate with each other because polar amino acid like glutamine will move very
slowly in the a nonpolar mobile phase acetone as it have more affinity for polar stationary phase water whereas nonpolar
amon acid leucine will move very fast in acetone.

more commonly instead of a paper, a glass column is used which is packed with a substance holding stationary phase and a
mixture of analytes that need to be separated is dissolved in mobile phase which is then percolated inside the glass column.
Each analytes that will be eluted out from the column is detected by a detector which is placed just below the column.
Different analytes will elute out at different time point due to their differential affinity for stationary phase – analyte with high
affinity for stationary phase will have high retention-time then the one with low affinity.

A chromatogram is obtained if we plot retention time for each analyte on x-axis and its elution volume on y-axis

Chromatogram showing peaks for two anaytes present in a mixture

Each peak corresponds to a specific chemical that can be identified by its retention time (on x-

axis) and the volume of the chemical in the mixture is estimated by area under the peak.

(Area = ½ Base X Height)

Chromatography software, also known as a Chromatography data system (CDS), collects and

analyzes chromatographic results in the form of chromatograms

These CDS if integrated with a chemical structure drawing system can associate a chemical structure for each peak. The
resulting chromatogram with associated chemical structures carries valuable information for future applications.
 LABORATORY INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A laboratory information management system (LIMS) is software designed to make labs process large quantities of samples for
research and development (R&D), manufacturing, and clinical research more efficient and effective.

The primary purpose of a LIMS is to improve efficiency in lab operations by cutting down on manual tasks. Some common LIMS
features and functions below:

1. Sample management
As samples move from person to person and place to place, it’s easy for them to get lost or mixed up. Accurate, detailed
records are essential to making sure everything gets done and done right. Most LIMSs will record and store information such
as:

1. Who or what the sample was taken from

2. Which researchers/providers are working with it?

3. Where it’s been and where it needs to go next

4. How to store it

5. When it needs to move

2. Workflow (protocol) management

We can use an LIMS to automate workflows for the same reason we should use it to automate Records keeping.
By codifying existing methods and procedures in a LIMS, we can assign decision-making to the software. For example, it can
automatically assign work to scientists and suggest instruments based on preset rules. And instead of looking up what you
need to do with a sample and where it needs to go next, a good LIMS will automatically provide this information

3. Reporting
It’s nice to be able to quickly pull reports that can answer questions such as which instruments get used the most, how long
your sample backlog is, and how long it takes your lab, on average, to process a sample. This kind of data is extremely useful
for data analysis auditing and audit trail

4. EMR/EHR-enabled LIMS

Electronic health records (EHR) is its own type of software, but some LIMSs have HER functionality built-in,
including patient check-in and billing. If EHR software package is not available, a LIMS with this kind of functionality can be a
huge asset for managing a clinical lab.

5. Mobile LIMS

As smart phones become more acceptable in the lab, it will be useful to install a mobile-friendly LIMS in the form of an
installable app will allows monitoring lab activities even from outside the lab.

6. ERP-enabled LIMS

ERP software helps manage inventory, and it can be very helpful to have a LIMS that performs this function. Being able to view
what you have on hand at a glance, getting alerts when supplies are running low, auto-calculation of storage and freezer
capacity, and location management can be extremely useful in a clinical lab