be about to = собираться сделать
be after = пытаться поймать,
преследовать
be down with / go down with =
болеть
be for = быть за (be against = быть
против)
be in for = находиться в ожидании
чего-то неприятного
be off = отсутствовать в школе/ на
работе
be on = быть показаным в кино, на
ТВ
be out = 1) быть не модным 2)
перестать гореть
be over = окончиться
be through with = покончить с (с
отношениями, работой)
be up to = 1) быть в состоянии что-л
сделать 2) затевать что-л
break down = 1) сломать, разбить
(о механизмах) 2) потерять
контроль над чувствами 3)
провалиться 4) разделить на
(главы, категории)
break in = вломиться
break into = 1) вломиться 2)
прервать
break off = завершить отношения /
соглашение
break out = внезапно начать
(войну)
break through = наступление
(несмотря на сопротивление),
пробиваться, прорываться
break to = сообщить плохие
новости в мягкой форме
break up = 1) остановка работы на
время каникул (о школе и т.д.); 2)
прекратить отношения
bring about = быть причиной,
вызывать что-л
bring back = вызывать
воспоминания
bring down = привести к
падению/провалу
bring forward = переносить (дату и
время события на более ранний
срок)
bring in = приносить прибыль
bring on = вызывать что-л
неприятное, навлекать
bring out = выпускать (на рынок)
bring round = 1) приводить в
чувства = bring to ; 2) убеждать =
bring over (to)
bring up = 1) воспитывать детей; 2)
упомянуть, начать тему
call for = требовать, нуждаться
call in = прийти, заглянуть
call off = отменять
call on sb = нанести оффициальный
визит
call out = вызывать, призывать на
помощь
call up = призывать в армию
be carried away = быть увлечённым
carry off = вынести трудности
carry on (with) = продолжать
carry out = проводить эксперимент
carry through = довести до конца
come across = случайно встретить,
наткнуться
come by = получать, доставать
come down to = быть переданным
по наследству
come down with/go down with =
заболеть
come into = унаследовать
come off = иметь успех
come out = 1) начинать цвести; 2)
быть напечатанным; 3) выводить
(пятна)
come round = 1) навестить; 2)
прийти в сознание
come to = составлять сумму (счёт
составил ..)
come up = 1) быть упомянутым; 2)
возникать, случаться (такая
возможность случается редко)
come up to = 1) подходить,
приближаться; 2) соответствовать
come up with = найти
ответ/решение
cut across = срезать путь
cut back (on) = cut down on =
сокращать (расходы,
производство)
cut in = 1) подрезать другой
автомобиль; 2) перебивать
cut into =перебивать
cut off = 1) разъединять, отключать
(электричество); 2) изолировать
(местность)
cut out =пропускать,не вкл во что-л
be cut out for/to be = подходить
(на профессию/должность)
cut up = нарезать на мелкие
кусочки
do away with = отменять,
упразднять (страны отменили
смертную казнь - capital
abolishment)
do down = унижать оскорблять
do in = убить
do up = застёгивать (куртку)
do with = хотеть
do without = обходиться без
draw back = 1) брать слово назад,
не желать выполнять обещание =
pull back; 2) отступить назад
draw in = pull in = прибыть на
станцию (о поезде..)
draw out = 1) подбадривать; 2)
снять деньги с банковского счёта
draw up = 1) остановиться (о
машине); 2) написать, составить
(список, завещание will)
fall apart = разваливаться
fall back on = обратиться к чему-
л/кому-л за помощью, если другие
планы провалились
fall behind = отстать
fall for = 1) влюбиться; 2) быть
обманутым
fall in = разрушаться
fall in with = согласиться с
fall into = 1) делиться на
(категории); 2) начать, войти в
состояние (в поезде я
разговорился с ..)
fall on = 1) атаковать; 2) есть с
жадностью
fall out (with) = ссориться
fall through = провалиться (планы
провалились)
get across = чётко изложить,
донести, передавать
get along = продолжать, несмотря
на трудности
get along with = get on with = быть
в дружеских отношениях
get at = иметь в виду,
подразумевать
get away with = легко отделаться,
оставаться безнаказанным
get back = вернуть что-л себе
get down = 1) глотать с трудом; 2)
приводить в уныние, угнетать
get down to = приняться,
приступить к чему-л
get on = 1) садиться в трансп ср-во;
2) добиться успехов
get out = (о новости) стать
известной
get over = оправиться от
get round = bring round = убедить
get round to = найти время, чтобы
что-л сделать
get through = 1) закончить; 2)
переживать трудные времена
get through to = дозвониться
get up = вставать с постели
give away = 1) раскрыть секрет; 2)
отдать бесплатно
give back = вернуть
give in = сдаться
give off = выделять/испускать
(запах, тепло)
give out = 1) закончиться; 2)
распространять, раздавать
give up = 1) отказаться от
привычки; 2) сдаваться
go after = преследовать
go ahead = позволено случиться
(хотя несколько членов
отсутствовали, заседание совета
прошло по плану)
go away = пройти, утихнуть
go back on = нарушить
обещание/договор
go by = основывать свои идеи на
go for = 1) атаковать; 2) подать
заявку (на работу)
go in for = принять участие
go off = 1) взорваться (о бомбе); 2)
зазвонить (о бомбе); 3)
испортиться (о пище)
go on = 1) продолжать = carry on; 2)
случаться
go out = погаснуть (про огонь)
go over = 1) изучить детально = go
through;2) повторить
go round = 1) быть в достаточном
кол-ве для всех; 2) распространять
(идеи, болезни)
go through = 1) пережить; 2)
успешно завершиться; 3) обсудить
подробно
go up = расти (о цене)
go with = подходить (про одежду)
go without = обходиться без
hold back = 1) сдерживать (слёзы,
смех); 2) сомневаться
hold in = сдерживать (гнев)
hold off = держать на расстоянии
(полиции сдерживала толпу)hold
on = ждать (висеть на проводе)
hold out = 1) длиться,
продержаться; 2) упорствовать,
продолжать
hold to = придерживаться,
соблюдать
hold up = 1) задерживаться; 2)
использовать насилие с целью
грабежа
keep after = продолжать
преследование
keep away (from) = держаться
подальше
keep back = скрывать, утаивать
keep down = сдерживать рост (цен)
keep in = выгнать из помещения
(как наказание)
keep off = держаться подальше,
избегать
keep on = продолжать несмотря на
трудности
keep out = не допускать
keep up (with) = не отставать от
keep up with = продолжать
получать инф, оставаться в теме
let down = 1) удлинить (take up =
укоротить) про одежду; 2)
разочаровать
let in (to) = позволить войти
let off = не наказывать
let on = раскрыть секрет
let out = 1) выпустить, освободить;
2) сделать больше (take in =
уменьшить) про одежду
let up = ослабеть (ветер)
look after = заботиться о
look back (on) = оглядываться
назад, вспоминать
look down on = презирать (look up
to = равняться на, восхищаться)
look forward to = предвкушать,
ждать с нетерпением
look in on sb = нанеси короткий
визит
look into = изучать, расследовать
look on = наблюдать
look out = быть осторожным
(Осторожно!)
look out for = высматривать,
разыскивать
look over = тщательно изучить
look round = осматривать
местность
look through = быстро просмотреть
look up = отыскивать (информ)
be made for = идеально подходить
make for = направляться/идти
куда-л
make out = 1) разобрать,
разглядеть; 2) выписать (чек),
заполнить
make over = передать владение
make up = 1) сочинить, выдумать;
2) краситься; 3) помириться
make up for = компенсировать
make up one's mind = принимать
решение
pass away = умереть
pass off as = притвориться кем-
л/чем-л
pass out = потерять сознание
pay back = 1) вернуть деньги; 2)
отомстить
pay down = оплатить часть цены, а
остальное потом
pay for = получить наказание
pay off = расплатиться перед
увольнением
pay up = рассчитаться, выплатить
(долг)
pull down = снести
pull in = прибыть (pull out =
отправляться) о поезде
pull oneself together = взять чувства
под контроль
pull through =преуспеть, несмотря
на трудности
pull up = остановить(ся)
put aside/by = откладывать
(деньги)
put across = чётко изложить,
донести
put away = 1) складывать (игрушки
в шкаф); 2) посадить в тюрьму/псих
больницу
put down = 1) записать = take
down; 2) подавить насильственно
(восстание rebellion)
put down to = приписывать,
связывать, объяснять
put forward = предложить
put off = откладывать
put on = 1) одеться; 2) набрать вес;
3) ставить (представление)
put out = 1) тушить огонь; 2)
причинить неприятности
be put out = быть раздраженной
put through = соединить с (по
телефону)
put up = 1) возвести, построить; 2)
предложение гостеприимства; 3)
показать/представить в
общественном месте (развесить
плакаты)
put up with = терпеть, мириться
run across/into = случайно
наткнуться
run after = преследовать, догонять,
охотиться
run away with = украсть
run down = 1) сбить транспортным
ср-вом = run over; 2) говорить
плохо о
run in = I can't go any faster; I’m
running the car in.
run off = делать копии /
ксерокопировать
run out of = ничего не осталось (о
припасах)
run through = 1) израсходовать; 2)
прорепетировать, быстро
проверить/повторить
run up = накапливать
run up against = столкнуться (с
трудностями)
see about = позаботиться о чём-л
see off = провести (на
поезд/самолёт)
see out = проводить (к двери)
see over = осмотреть местность
see through = не быть обманутым
(He was such a poor liar that they
saw through him at once)
set about = приступить к, начать
set aside = 1) save for a special
purpose; 2)отложить на некоторое
время = set by
set back = 1) переводить стрелки
часов назад; 2) препятствовать,
мешать
set in = (of weather) start and seem
likely to continue
set off/out = начать путешествие,
отправиться
set on = атаковать, натравить
(собак)
set sb up = подставить
set to = начать усердно работать
set up = 1) начать бизнес; 2)
установить рекорд
stand by = 1) поддерживать = stand
up for; 2) быть готовым к действию
stand for = 1) представлять,
означать; 2) терпеть
stand in for = временно кого-л
заменять
stand out = выделяться
stand up = 1) встать, подняться на
ноги; 2) продинамить, не
встретиться
stand up to = противостоять
(землетрясению)
take after = быть похожим на
take away = удалять (забрать
грязную посуду)
take back = извиниться
take for = Sorry, I took you for your
brother. I always mix you up.
take in = 1) дать жильё; 2) сузить
(одежду); 3) понять
take off = 1) снять одежду (put on =
одеться); 2) взлетать (о самолёте)
(come down = садиться); 3)
имитировать, подражать; 4) взять
выходные
take on = 1) взять на себя
работу/ответственность; 2) нанять
на работу
take out = 1) удалить The dentist
took out my bad tooth; 2) очистить
от пятен
take over = взять контроль на,
возглавить
take to = 1) взять в привычку; 2)
любить, привязаться к
take up = 1) заняться (хобби, спорт,
работа); 2) занимать
(пространство, время)
be taken aback = сильно удивиться
be taken in = быть обманутым
turn away = не впускать
turn down = 1) отклонить
предложение; 2) уменьшите
громкость (turn up = увеличить
громкость)
turn in = 1) ложитесь спать; 2)
передать полиции
turn off = выкл (turn on = вкл)
turn out = 1) производить,
выпускать; 2) He turned out to be
the one who had stolen the money
turn over = turn to a new page;
change the TV channel
turn to = 1) прийти за
помощью/советом; 2) begin (a way
of life or doing sth)
turn up = 1) неожиданно
появиться; 2) возникнуть
(возможность)
wear away = постепенно исчезать
wear down = ослабить
сопротивление
wear off = постепенно пройдёт
wear out = 1) вымотаться; 2)
использовать до полного износа
work on = производить эффект
work out = 1) найти решение
проблемы путем рассуждения или
расчета; 2) успешно развиваться I
hope things will work out well for
you in your new job
work up = развиваться I’ve been
walking all day so I’ve worked up a
really good appetite
1.Sentence- a grammatical unit of one or more words that expresses an
independent statement, question, request, command, exclamation, etc.
According to their structure, S can be:
 compound and complex Honesty is the best policy. You never know what
you can do till you try
 complete or incomplete When did you arrive? Ready?
 two-member or one-member We are going to the cinema. An old park.
According to their role in the process of communication S are divided into:
declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory S. They express
statements, questions, commands and exclamations respectively.
There are utterances which do not constitute S - non-sentence utterances.
They are: vocatives Charles? “yes-no” utterances, interjections Hi!, different
conversational formulas Thanks.

1.1.The infinitive is a verbal form (a non-finite verb form) which consists of

the base form of the verb with the particle "to".
Syntactic functions:
1. Subject
2. Predicative
3. Object
4. Attribute
5. Am of purpose, of result, of attendant circumstances, of comparison
etc
6. Parenthesis
Predicative constructions:
1. The objective-with-the-infinitive construction (has the function of a
complex object; used after verbs denoting sense perception, mental
activity, declaring, wish, feeling, permision).
2. The subjective infinitive construction (used in Passive voice) He was
thought to be a good man.
3. The for-to-infinitive construction (infinitive is in predicative relation to
a noun/pronoun preceded by the preposition for) He waited for her to
speak.
2.Negation – a grammatical category expressing with the help of various
linguistic means; the fact that the connection between two elements of an
utterance is considered as non-existence. N is act of denying for it indicates
the absence of any form N is a word or a statement that denies refuses,
disagrees.
Types of N:
1. A S is negative when the predicate is negated
2. Particular negation (applying to any other part of the S)
Means of expressing N: negative affixes (less, in), negative words (no one),
broad-negatives (words negative in meaning, but can’t appear negative in
formal –barely, hardly)
Double negatives are sometime possible in standard English, but only if
both negative words have their full meaning and this serves for the sake of
emphasis You’ve no reason not to trust me

2.1.Gerund - a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. It’s
formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.
Syntactic functions:
1. Subject
2. Part of predicate
3. Object
4. Attribute
5. Am of time, of time, of reason, of attendant circumstances, of purpose
Predicative constructions - constructions in which the verbal element
expressed by the gerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element
expressed by a noun or pronoun. The nominal element can be expressed in
different ways:
1.If it denotes a living being it may be expressed (a) by a noun in the genitive
case or by a possessive pronoun Do you mind my smoking? (b) a noun in the
common case.
2. If it denotes a lifeless thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common
case or by a possessive pronoun I said sth about me clock being slow
3. It also can be expressed by a pronoun which has no case distinctions,
such as all, this, that, both, each, something I insist on both of
them coming in time
3.The subject - one of the two main parts of the sentence. It is
independent and usually comes before the predicate.
The subject is expressed by:
A noun in the common case or a nominal phrase with a noun The fog is
thinning A personal pronoun in the nominative case She is very beautiful
Any other noun-pronoun Nothing can be done about it A numeral or a
nominal phrase with a numeral The third was a young man with a dog An
infinitive or an infinitive phrase To understand is to forgive A gerund or a
gerundial phrase Talking mends no holes An infinitive or a gerundial
predicative complex For her to fall asleep in broad daylight was not at all
usual Any word or words used as quotations “And” is a conjunction A
subject clause which makes the whole sentence a complex one What girls of
her sort want is just a wedding ring
According to its grammatical value the Subject is divided into notional
(denotes a person or a non-person) and formal (only a structural element of
the sentence filling the position of the subject). The formal subject it is
impersonal when it is used in sentences describing various states of nature,
things in general, characteristics of the environment, time, distance etc It’s
spring. The formal subject it is introductory if it introduces the notional
subject expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, an infinitive/gerundial phrase, a
predicative complex, or a clause. It was no good coming there again

3.1.Participle I - a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and

adverbial features; formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.
Syntactical functions:
1.Attribute
2. Am of time, of reason, of attendant circumstances, of comparison
3. Part of a compound verbal predicate
4. Predicative
5.parenthesis
Predicative constructions:
1.The objective participial construction (a noun in the common
case/pronoun in the objective case + PI) I saw John playing tennis
2.The nominative absolute participial construction (consists of two
interdependent elements, nominal and adverbial, which are in a predicative
relation) The work being finished, the two girls went into the shop
3.Prepositional absolute participial construction with PI(introduced by the
preposition with) He went into the house with his heart beating fast
4.The predicate - the second main part of the sentence and its organizing
center, as the object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with,
and dependent on. . According to the structure the P can be divided into
simple and compound. Both these types may be either nominal or verbal.
The simple verbal P is expressed by: a) a verb in a synthetic or analytical
form John runs quickly, b) a verb phrase (to have a look, to change one's
mind) Did you have a sleep? The simple nominal P is expressed by a noun,
or an adjective, or a verbal, it does not contain a link verb, as it shows the
incompatibility of the idea expressed by the S and that expressed by the P
He a gentleman! The compound P consists of two parts: (a) a finite verb and
(b) some other part of speech.
Mixed Types :
The compound modal P Don’t think I mean to be unkind
The compound aspect nominal P I began to feel rather hungry
The compound modal aspect P He ought to stop doing nothing

4.1. Participle II - a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival
features.
Syntactical functions:
1. Attribute He answered through the locked door
2. Predicative You seem surprized
3. Am of time He won’t stop arguing until interrupted, of reason, of
condition, of comparison
Predicative constructions:
The objective Participial Construction I heard my wife coming
The Subjective Participial Construction They were heard talking together
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction He sat on the sofa, his legs
crossed
The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction He went out with his
back towards the door
5.Agreement of the Predicative with the Subject
Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other,
for example: a singular S requires a P in the singular, a plural S requires a P
in the plural. But in Modern English there is often a conflict between form
and meaning; in these cases the P does not agree with the S. Rules of
agreement of the P with the S:
1.The P is used in the plural:
a) when there are two or more homogeneous Ss connected by the
conjunction and or asyndetically; b) if the S is expressed by a collective noun
denoting the individuals of the group taken separately (people).
2. The P is used in the singular:
a) when the P-verb precedes a number of S, especially if the sentence begins
with here or there; b) when two homogeneous Ss in the singular are
connected by the conjunctions not only... but (also), neither... nor; either... or,
or, nor; c) when two Ss in the singular are connected by the conjunction as
well as; if a S expressed by a noun is modified by two or more attributes
connected by and, one person/thing/idea is meant; if the S is expressed by a
defining, indefinite, or negative pronoun (each, either; everybody, everyone,
everything, sb, sth, nobody, no one, nothing, neither; etc.); if the S is expressed
by an interrogative pronoun (who, what); if the S is expressed by the
emphatic it; if the S is expressed by a noun in the plural which is the title of a
book, or the name of a newspaper/magazine; if the S is expressed by a noun
in the plural denoting time/measure/distance and represents the amount or
mass as a whole; if the S is expressed by a collective noun denoting a group
or collection of similar individuals taken as a whole (humanity).
3.If the S is expressed by a relative pronoun (who, which, that) the P agrees
with its antecedent.
5.1.Absolute participial constructions
It may be introduced by the preposition with She was siting silent, with her
eyes fixed on the ground
Without a participle:
1.The nominative absolute construction (Breakfast over, he went out)
2.The prepositional Absolute construction (I found him writing ,with his
stick in his hands)
6.The predicative – the notional part of the compound nominal predicate.
Ways of expressing the predicative
A noun in the common case or in the genitive case Miss Sedly’s father was a
merchant. An adjective or an adjective phrase Ellen’s eyes grew angry. A
pronoun It was he. A numeral He was sixty last year. An infinitive (or an
infinitive phrase/construction) His first thought was to run away. A gerund
(or a gerundial phrase or construction) My hobby is dancing and his is
collecting. A participle or a participial phrase The subject seemed strangely
chosen. A prepositional phrase She is on our side. A stative I was wide awake
by this time.
An indivisible group of words It is nine o’clock already. A clause That’s what
has happened.
Semantic characteristics:
According to their semantic characteristics link verbs fall into three groups:
l. Link verbs of being: to be, to feel, to sound, to smell, to taste, to look, to
appear, to seem
2. Link verbs of becoming: to become, to grow, to turn, to get, to make
3. Link verbs of remaining: to remain, to continue, to keep, to stay.
The objective predicative construction functions as a complex object. It
consists of a nominal part and a part which stands in subject-predicate
relations to the first part I saw Nick take your book.

6.1.The Suppositional Mood denotes connection which is supposed to take

place. It’s used after expressions of suggestion, offer, demand, importance,
necessity, etc. I suggest that we should go to the cinema. After the same
expressions we can also use the Present Subjunctive Mood I suggested
that he go to the cinema. The SM is also used in set-phrases How should I
know? After the conjunction lest (=как бы ни) if anxiety, apprehension are
in the main clause I fear lest he should fall ill. In if-clauses which will
correspond to the Rus «если вдруг, случись так, что».
7. The object is a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other
part of the sentence and expressed by a verb, an adj, an adv, a stative
Ways of expressing:
A noun in the common case or a nominal phrase, a substantivized
adjective or participle I saw the boys two hours ago. A noun-pronoun
(personal pronouns are in the objective case, other pronouns are in the
common case, or in the only form they have) I don’t know anybody here. A
numeral or a phrase with a numeral At last he found three of them high up in
the hills. A gerund or a gerundial phrase He insists on coming. An infinitive or
an infinitive phrase She was glad to be walking with him. Various predicative
complexes She felt the child trembling all over. An object clause which makes
the whole sentence a complex one I don’t know what it was.
Types of object:
The direct object is a non-prepositional one that follows transitive verbs,
adj, and completes their meaning I wrote a poem
The indirect object also follows verbs, adj and it may be attached to
intransitive verbs as well as to transitive ones She did not tell anything to
anyone
Complex object. This structure consists of a noun in the common case or
pronouns in the objective case and infinitive I saw them walk along the road.
Position: after the predicate.
7.1.
Clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction so that
(sometimes that or in order that)
The predicate in these clauses is expressed by may or can + infinitive and
the rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case. He opened
the door so that he could hear what the women were saying.
Sometimes the clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction lest
(чтобы... не). In this case should +infinitive is used: I closed the door lest
he should come in.
In adverbial clauses of comparison
In clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions as if or as though
we find: the form of the Present Subjunctive II (or Past Continuous) including
the form were for all the persons to introduce a simultaneous action: She
gazed at him as if he were a stranger.
In Complex Sentences with a Subordinate Clause of Condition
In sentences of real condition we find the Indicative Mood.
They usually refer to the future, so the Future tense is used in
the principal clause and the present tense in the if-clause. If you
continue in this way you'll break your mother's heart.
When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the present or future, the form
of the Past Indefinite is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional
Mood in the principal clause. If he were here I would speak to him.
When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the past, we find the form of
the Past Perfect in the if-clause and the Past Conditional Mood in the
principal clause.If you had invited him he would have already come.
in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession
Complex sentences with a clause of concession introduced by the
conjunction even if or even though are built up on the same pattern as
sentences of unreal condition — the form of the Past Indefinite or the Past
Perfect is used in the subordinate clause and the Conditional Mood, Present
or Past, in the principal clause.
Even if she were here now, she wouldn’t be able to help him.
8. Attribute- a secondary part of the sentence sentence which
characterizes smth
Ways of expressing:
B y ( a ) a d j e c t i v e s or ( b ) a d j e c t i v a l p h r a s e s
By p r o n o u n s or p r o n o m i n a l p h r a s e Here’s some money for you.
By n u m e r a l s , o r d i n a l or c a r d i n a l , which state the number or
order, or serve to identify persons or non-persons, as in:He arrived just
three weeks ago.
By ( a ) n o u n s i n t h e c o m m o n c a s e s i n g u l a r o r ( b )
p r e p o s i t i o n a l n o m i n a l p h r a s e s It happened on a December
evening (декабрьский вечер).
B y n o u n s o r p r o n o u n s i n t h e g e n i t i v e c a s e . He caught the
sound of the children’s voices.
By statives, although these are rarely used as attributes. No man alive would
ever think of such cruelty.
By (a) participles I and II and (b) participial
p h r a s e s .The mild day died in a darkening flush of twilight.
By (a) gerunds, (b) gerundial phrases, or (c)
g e r u n d i a l c o m p l e x e s . Her walking shoes were elegant (shoes which
she wore when walking).
By (a) infinitives, (b) infinitivel phrases, or (c)
c o m p l e x e s ,a) You are the one to blame (who is to blame). b) He looked
around for a weapon to strike his insulter with.c) This is a problem for you to
solve. (which you could/must solve).
B y ( a ) a d v e r b s o r ( b ) a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e s a) No sounds came
from the quarters above.b) Most people living in out of the way places expect
the latest news from home with impatience.
By sentences used as a whole (the so-called
“ q u o t a t i o n n o u n s ” ) . She looked at me with a kind of don’t-touch-me-
or-I’ll-slap-you air.
B y a c l a u s e (then called an attributive clause) which makes the whole
sentence a complex one. Some called me by the name which no one here
knew.
An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal
phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or
sometimes to a clause
Non-detached appositions
Non-detached appositions form one sense group with their headword and
very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one
whole. This is especially true in the case of titles, military ranks, professions,
kinship terms, geographical denotations, etc., used as apposition.Sir Peter,
Mr Brown
Detached appositions
Detached, or loose appositions form separate sense groups and are wider in
their meaning than close appositions: they may give identification,
explanation, etc., especially when referring to pronouns. They may follow
the headword immediately or be separated from it.He actually envied Jolyon
the reputation of succeeding where he, Soames, had failed.
8.1. the use of forms expressing unreality in subj, obj, appositive, predicative
clauses
In subject clauses
1. with expressions of necessity and recommendation it is necessary
(important,
vital, imperative, essential, urgent, advisable, desirable) and expressions of
suggestion, order or decision it is suggested (proposed, re-
quired, demanded, requested, recommended, decided, agreed, deter-
mined, arranged) should + infinitive or the Subjunctive I are used.
"It is necessary that they be careful in the lab," he added
In Object clauses
1. In object clauses after the verb to wish we find the form
of the Present Subjunctive II (or the form were) (it shows that the action of
the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, or
the Past Subjunctive II (it shows that the action of the subordinate clause
precedes that of the principal clause) to express a wish which cannot be
fulfilled or a hardly realizable wish.
e.g. I wish I deserved your compliments. I don't.
2. should + infinitive or the Subjunctive I is used after
expressions of suggestion, order or decision such as to decide, to
demand, to give instructions, to give orders, to insist, to make up
one's mind, to move, to order, to propose, to recommend, to re
quest, to require, to suggest, to urge and also after to arrange, to
be anxious, to be determined, to prefer and to take care.
e.g. Con demanded that Andrew should return to the house with
him to tea.

4. After expressions of fear, such as to be afraid, to be fear

ful, to be frightened, to be in terror, to be nervous, to be terrified,
to be troubled, to fear, to have apprehension, to tremble and others,
we commonly find the Indicative Mood in the object clause. Care
should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of tenses.
e.g. I am afraid nothing has been done ye
in Appositive and Predicative Clauses
in Appositive and which are usually introduced by
the conjunction that But should + infinitive (or rarely the Subjunctive I) is
used after nouns expressing order, suggestion,
wish, agreement and decision, such as agreement, ambition, decision,
demand, desire, order, proposal, recommendation, request, require
ment, suggestion, understanding, wish and some others.
He told me o of his desire that all should be happy as long as it involved
no inconvenience to himself.
In predicative clauses, when the subject of the principal clause is ex-
pressed by one of such nouns as aim, arrangement, condition, de-
cision, idea, plan, proposal, suggestion, wish and some others,
should + infinitive is used in the subordinate clause. The rules of
the sequence of tenses are not observed,
e.g. His desire was that life should fall in with his own limited
but deliberate plans.
His wish was that we should do everything without his help. (predicative
clause)

In predicative clauses after the verbs to sound, to look, to feel Present

Subjunctive II is used to express an action simultaneous with that of the
principle clause, and Past Subjunctive II is used to express an action prior
to that expressed by the main clause.
He sounded as if he were a boss.
He looked as if he had just come back from another country.
9. The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the
sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by a
verb (in a finite or non-finite form), or an adjective, or a stative, or an
adverb.
Ways of expressing:
A n a d v e r b ( s o m e t i m e s p r e c e d e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n ) . Jane
sings beautifully.
A n a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e , w i t h a n a d v e r b a s h e a d w o r d . We
met ten years ago and parted two years later.
A noun, pronoun or numeral preceded by a
p r e p o s i t i o n o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l n o m i n a l p h r a s e . We met in
1975.
A noun without a preposition or a non-prepositional
n o u n p h r a s e , the latter usually containing such words as this, that,
every, last, next.Wait a minute!
A non-finite verb form:
a) a gerund or a gerundial phrase.Remember to open the window before
doing your morning exercises.
b) a n i n f i n i t i v e o r a n i n f i n i t i v e p h r a s e . The problem is too
difficult to solve.
c) a p a r t i c i p l e o r a p a r t i c i p i a l p h r a s e . Sighing, Betty returned
to the kitchen.
A predicative complex:
a) a g e r u n d i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . Are you angry because of my being
late?
b) a f o r - t o - i n f i n i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n . The problem is too difficult
for a child to solve.
c) a n o n - p r e p o s i t i o n a l o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l a b s o l u t e
c o n s t r u c t i o n . The meal over, they went to the fuel store.
An adjective, an adverb, a participle, a noun, a
prepositional phrase, an infinitive, an infinitive or
p a r t i c i p i a l p h r a s e i n t r o d u c e d b y a c o n j u n c t i o n . I’ll come
earlier if necessary.
A C l a u s e ( a s p a r t o f a c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e ) . We stayed at
home because it rained.
Classification :
The adverbial of place, of time, of manner, of cause (reason), of purpose,
of result (consequence), of condition, of concession, of attendant
circumstances, of comparison, of degree, of measure, of exception

9.1. word order

The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order.
Direct word order - is Subject - Predicate - (Object)
Inverted word order .
We distinguish f u l l i n v e r s i o n (when the predicate precedes the
subject, as in Here comes the lady of the house) and p a r t i a l i n v e r s i o n
(when only part of the predicate precedes the subject, as in Happy may you
be!). Some grammarians also distinguish d o u b l e i n v e r s i o n (when
parts of the predicate are placed separately before the subject, as in Hanging
on the wall was a picture).
a) G e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s , p o l i t e r e q u e s t s a n d i n t a g
q u e s t i o n s . Is it really true?
c) T h e r e - s e n t e n c e s w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y n o n - l o c a l
there, followed by one of the verbs denoting
existence, movement, or change of the
s i t u a t i o n . There has been an accident.
d) E x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g wish, despair,
indignation, or other strong emotions.Long live the king!
e) E x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e s w h i c h a r e n e g a t i v e i n f o r m
b u t p o s i t i v e i n m e a n i n g . Have I not watched them! (= I have
watched them.)
f) N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s . Don’t you do it.
2. Inversion is used as a grammatical means of subordination in some
complex sentences joined without connectors:a) I n c o n d i t i o n a l
c l a u s e s . Were you sure of it, you wouldn’t hesitate.
b) I n c o n c e s s i v e c l a u s e s . Proud as he was, he had to consent to our
proposal.
c) I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f a s e n t e n c e o f p r o p o r t i o n a l
a g r e e m e n t The more he thought of it, the less clear was the matter.
3. Inversion is used in sentences beginning with adverbs denoting place.
This usage is traditional, going back to OE norms.Here is another example.
4. Inversion is used in stage directions, although this use is limited to
certain verbs.Enter the King, the Queen.
5. Inversion may be used in sentences indicating whose words or
thoughts are given as direct or indirect speech. These sentences may
introduce, interrupt, or follow the words in direct or indirect speech, or may
be given in parenthesis.“That’s him,” said Tom (Tom said).
6. Inversion is used in statements showing that the remark applies
equally to someone or something else.I am tired. - So am I.
10.Ellipsis In English people often omit words rather than repeating them.
This is called Ellipsis. E is most commonly used to avoid repetition.
E dependent on linguistic context
1.In adverbial finite clauses the whole of the predication or part of it can be
omitted I'm happy if you are (happy)
2.Adverbial non-finite and verbless clauses: the subject and an appropriate
form of be are ellipted in: participle clauses Although (he was) told to stop,
he kept on working and verbless clauses While (he was) at Oxford, he was
active in the dramatic society.
3.Postmodifying clauses or phrases can often be considered reduced relative
clauses: postmodifying participle clauses The man owning that car will be
fined for illegal parking. ('who owns that car'), postmodifying adjective
phrases The men (who were) responsible for the administration of the school
refused to consider the matter, postmodifying prepositional phrases He spoke
to the girl (who was) from New York.
E not dependent on linguistic context
Some types of informal ellipsis are not dependent on the linguistic context
Serves you right = It serves you right. In most cases it is the initial word or
words of a sentence that are ellipted.
E in dialogue may take place under three conditions, which can occur in
various combinations: repetition he second speaker repeats what is said by
the first, expansion the second speaker adds to what is said by the first,
replacement the second speaker replaces what is said by the first with new
material. You can often use E in questions when the context makes it clear
what is meant 'There's someone coming.' − 'Who?' − I don't know. It's too
dark.'. E in agreement You often use ellipsis when you want to show that you
agree with something that has just been said ‘I find that amazing.’ − ‘So do I.’
10.1 Detached parts of the sentence are those secondary parts which
assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence.
A detached adverbial modifier He came in, with a large parcel under his arm
A detached attribute It was a wide white building, one storey high
A detached object She does not change — except her hair
The independent elements of the S are words which are not
grammatically dependent on any part of the S: interjections oh, hallo, good
heavens; direct address Good morning, sweet child! Parenthesis - either
shows the speaker’s attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence
To be sure, Morris had treated her badly of late.