CGE 674

FORMATION EVALUATION

CHAPTER 3
LOG INTERPRETATION

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UiTM, SHAH ALAM
 Log Interpretation Techniques in
3 Clastic Reservoirs
Outline

3.1 Lithology Interpretation

3.2 Porosity Determination
3.3 Water and HC Saturation
Determination
3.4 Cut-off Determination
Objectives

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

- Discuss the quick look log interpretation
- Apply the principles of logging tools to interpret
lithology (GR, SP, N-D, M-N crossplots) and evaluate
fluid contacts from combination of several logs
- Determine shale volume from GR log
- Determine porosity from porosity logs
- Choose the methods for Rw estimation
- Estimate saturation from Resistivity logs
- Determine cut-off criteria to evaluate NTG
 Overview

• Objective of well logging – to determine the properties of the rocks which

are potential sources of HC
• Logs are used to determine specifically:
– Lithology of formation
– Porosity
– Fluid content
– Saturation
• The interpretation process:
– Interpret lithology
– Identify permeable and non-permeable beds on logs
– Determine and divide the beds into zones (water bearing & HC bearing)
– Determine porosity of the zones of interest
– Determine HC saturation of the zones of interest
 3.1 Lithology Interpretation
• In virtually all exploration and appraisal wells, interpretation of the lithology
will be supported by evidence derived from drill cuttings and analysis of
cores.
– Mudlogger and geologist also provide interpretation of the depth at which
formation horizons were penetrated.
• Measurements made by logging tools can be calibrated in terms of the rock
properties (e.g. density) of these specific minerals (clearly identified when
encountered)
• Only one mineral in the formation – a particular log measurement used to
identify that mineral
• Mixture of known minerals – a combination of logs to obtain a good
indication of the mineralogical content and lithology of formation.
• Composition of the rock can be inferred by cross-plotting combinations of
the Density, Neutron and Acoustic log data.
 Lithology Interpretation (cont…)

 Dia-porosity crossplots
 Neutron-Density crossplot
 Sonic-Density crossplot To estimate lithology and porosity
 Sonic-neutron crossplot

 Tri-porosity crossplots φ
 M-N crossplot Only to estimate lithology
 MID crossplot
 Neutron Density Crossplots
• Charts CP-1a and -1b are for SNP neutron versus
density data.
• These charts were constructed for clean, liquid-saturated
formations and boreholes filled with water or water-base
mud.
• The charts should not be used for air-gas-filled
boreholes; in these, the SNP matrix effect is changed.

• Side Wall Neutron (SNP) Porosity Tool

• The Compensated Neutron Tool (CNL)
Neutron-Density
Crossplot

φ
Effect of shales and
gas on lithology from
N-D crossplot
 N-D Crossplots
• The separations between the quartz,
limestone, and dolomite lines indicate
good resolution for these lithologies.
• Also, the most common evaporites (rock
salt, anhydrite) are easily identified.
 N-D Crossplots
• In the example shown, φDls = 15 and φNls = 21.
This defines Point P, lying between the
limestone and dolomite curves and falling near a
line connecting the 18% porosity graduations on
the two curves.
• Assuming a matrix of
limestone and
dolomite and
proportioning the
distance between the
two curves, the point
corresponds to a
volumetric proportion
of about 40%
dolomite and 60%
limestone; porosity is
18%.

Porosity and lithology

determination from FDC
density and CNL neutron logs
in water-filled holes
 EXERCISE 1
1. Analyze the porosity from Neutron-Density crossplot when fresh
mud is used, given ρb = 2.38 g/cm3 and ØSNP = 0.13. Identify the
lithology of formation.

2. Analyze the porosity from Neutron-Density crossplot when salt

mud is used, given ρb = 2.40 g/cm3 and ØSNP = 0.195. Identify the
lithology of formation.

3. Analyze the porosity from Neutron-Density crossplot, given ρb =

2.38 g/cm3 and ØSNP = 0.20 and identify the lithology of formation
for the following mud used:
i) fresh mud
ii) salt mud
 M-N Crossplots
• In more complex mineral mixtures, lithology
interpretation is facilitated by use of the M-N plot.
• These plots combine the data of all three porosity logs to
provide the lithology-dependent quantities M and N.
• M and N are simply the slopes of the individual lithology
lines on the sonic-density and density neutron cross-plot
charts, respectively.
• Thus, M and N are essentially independent of porosity,
and a cross-plot provides lithology identification.
 M-N crossplot
M  0.01 t f  t   b  f
N  Nf  N   b  f 
• For fresh muds, tf = 189μs/ft, ρf = 1g/cc, and φNf = 1. Neutron porosity is in
limestone porosity units. The multiplier 0.01 is used to make the M values
compatible for easy scaling.
• If the matrix parameters (tma, ρma, φNma) for a given mineral are used in
Equation M and N in place of the log values, the M and N values for that mineral
are defined.
• For water-bearing formations, these will plot at definitive points on the M-N plot.
• Based on the matrix and fluid parameters listed in Tables 1a and 1b, M and N
values are shown in Table 2 for several minerals in both fresh mud- and salt mud-
filled holes. (N is computed for the CNL log.)
• Points for a mixture of three minerals will plot within the triangle formed by
connecting the three respective single-mineral points. For example, suppose a rock
mixture exhibits N = 0.59 and M = 0.81. In Figure 8 this point falls within a triangle
defined by the limestone-dolomite-quartz points. It would therefore be
interpreted in most cases as representing a mixture of limestone, dolomite,
and quartz.
• However, it could also be a limestone-quartz-anhydrite mixture, or (less likely) a
dolomite-quartz-gypsum mixture, since the point is also contained in those
triangles.
• The combination selected would depend on the geological probability of its
occurrence in the formation.
M-N
crossplot
Effect of shales on lithology from M-N crossplot
 EXERCISE 2

Identify mineral mixtures from M-N plot if given the

following data:
Δt = 70 μsec/ft, ρb = 2.50 g/cm3, ρma = 2.67 g/cm3,
ØN = 0.20
(assume salt mud is used)
 Permeable and Non-Permeable Zones from Logs
 Permeable zones on a suite of logs can be identified using GR, SP and
Resistivity logs.
 GR log
 Generally used as a depth reference tool
 Primarily used from an interpretation viewpoint to differentiate between shales
and other formation types
 Since shales generally have very low permeability, GR log response can be used
as qualitative way to identify non-permeable zones.
 SP log
 Deflection of the curve from the shale baseline at the permeable zone.
 Deflection depends on the salinity of mud and formation water.
 Rmf < Rw – deflection to the right (+ve SP)
 Rmf > Rw – deflection to the left (-ve SP)
 Rmf = Rw – no deflection (zero SP)
 Resistivity log
 High resistivity readings in permeable zone indicate presence of HC
 Comparison of Resistivity readings from the flushed zone, shallow and deep into
the reservoir give some indication of depth of penetration of borehole fluid and
therefore permeability of formation
 Shale
baseline
ol

Combination of GR,
SP and Resistivity
logs to identify
permeable and non-
permeable zones
Permeable and Non-Permeable Zones from Logs

 Shale volume determination from GR log

GRlog  GRclean
Vshale  (Simple equation)
GRshale  GRclean

Vshale = Shale volume

GRlog = Gamma Ray reading from log
GRclean. = Gamma Ray reading from log (minimum GR)
GRshale = Gamma Ray reading from log (maximum GR)

GRlog  GRclean
IGR  (Advanced equation)
GRshale  GRclean

For Older Rocks; For Tertiary Rocks;


Vshale  0.33 2(2 IGR )  1   
Vshale  0.083 2(3.7 IGR )  1
 EXERCISE 3

• Determine shale volume for the following data:

GRmax = 140 API (from log)

GRmin = 35 API (from log)
GRlog = 65 API (from the zone of interest)

1) Using simple equation

2) Assuming for Older Rocks
3) Assuming for Tertiary Rocks
Identify Water Bearing and HC Bearing Zones
• The nature of the fluids in the permeable formations is determined by
analysis of the porosity logs and resistivity logs.
• Porosity logs – possible to differentiate gas and liquid but not possible
to differentiate between water and oil.
• Resistivity logs – differentiate between HC and water
– Conductivity of gas and oil will be similar whereas resistivity of (salt) water
and HC will be significantly different.
• When invasion occurs, wellbore is coated with a thin film of solids
(filter cake) and formation next to wellbore is “flushed” by the mud
filtrate moving into formation known as “flushed zone”.
– Flushed zone : HC saturation is minimum and all formation water is
removed
• HC bearing formation – HC saturation is reduced in flushed zone
and increases in transition zone until reach original saturation in
undisturbed zone
• Water bearing formation – water saturation between flushed zone
and undisturbed zone would not change but salinity & resistivity may.
Resistivity Profiles from shallow, medium, and deep resistivity logs
in fresh and salt mud systems.
 3.2 Porosity Determination
 Rock porosity is generally determined from the measurements from one, or
a combination of the following logs:
 Acoustic log
 Density log
 Neutron log
 The measurements of neutron, density, and sonic logs depend not only on
porosity, but also on the formation lithology, fluids in the pores, and some
instances, the geometry of the pore structure.
 Accurate porosity determination is more difficult when matrix lithology is
unknown or consists of 2 or more minerals in unknown proportions, effects
of pore fluids, light HC (gas)
 Neutron & density logs respond to total porosity (sum of 1o and 2o
porosity) but sonic log only respond to 1o porosity.
 The most simple environment to determine porosity is a clean water
bearing formation.
 Porosity measured by those porosity logs are influenced by the presence of
HC, shales and carbonates.
1) Porosity Determination from Acoustic Log

tlog  tma
A 
t f  tma
Δtlog – reading of sonic log at particular depth (μs/ft)
Δtma – transit time of the matrix material
Δtf – transit time of drilling fluid (189 μs/ft for freshwater mud,
185 μs/ft for saltwater mud)

Oil zone: corr  A  0.9 Gas zone: corr  A  0.7

 Generally, consolidated and compacted SS have porosity between 15-25%
 Effects of unconsolidated sand, gas, oil, shale???
 EXERCISE 4

1. In a logging operation using acoustic tool, the following data are provided:
Vma = 18000 ft/s
Δtf = 189 μs/ft
a) Identify the matrix and fluid
b) Determine porosity at Δtlog = 68 μs/ft using acoustic log
c) Correct the porosity in oil bearing zone

2. Given the following log data:

Vf = 5400 ft/sec
Vma = 23000 ft/sec
Δtlog = 84 μsec/ft

a) Identify the matrix and drilling fluid used

b) Determine porosity
c) Calculated the corrected porosity if the zone is gas bearing zone
2) Porosity Determination from Density Log

 ma  b
D 
 ma   f
ρb - bulk density read from log (g/cm3)
ρma - matrix density
ρf - fluid density (1.0 g/cm3 for freshwater mud,
1.1 g/cm3 for saltwater mud)

Oil zone: corr  D  0.9 Gas zone: corr  D  0.7

Matrix Density (g/cm3)

Sandstones 2.65
Limestones 2.71
Dolomites 2.87
 EXERCISE 5

• In a logging operation using density tool, the following data are

provided:

ρma = 2.71 g/cm3

ρf = 1.1 g/cm3

a) Identify the matrix and drilling fluid used

b) Determine porosity when ρlog = 2.16 g/cm3 (from zone of interest) using
density log
c) Calculate the corrected porosity if the zone is:
i) Oil bearing zone
ii) Gas bearing zone
 3) Porosity Determination from Neutron Log

 Neutron log is used to identify porous formations and determine porosity,

distinguish gas from oil or water zones.
 When used with other logs, help to identify the lithology.

Effect of HC
 Tool response depends upon the presence of hydrogen (hydrogen index)
 Fresh water – hydrogen index is 1.0
 Most oils have hydrogen index close to 1.0 Too low porosity in zones
containing gas or light oil
 Light oils and gas – lower hydrogen index

Effect of shale to the porosity?

 Two popular methods to correct for gas effect:

D2  N2 ma  b  N

corr  corr 
2 ma
Combination of neutron-density logs, Resistivity and GR logs
 EXERCISE 6
You are given the following log data:
ρb = 2.37 g/cm3 Vf = 5400 ft/sec
ρma = 2.65 g/cm3 GRclean = 54 API
Δt = 78 μsec/ft (in the zone of interest) GRshale = 112 API

1) Identify the matrix and the drilling mud used

2) Determine porosity using acoustic and density methods. Compare the results and
justify for any difference.
3) Determine the fluid content in the zone if the corrected porosity for both acoustic and
density methods are 15.7% and 16.3%, respectively.
4) Using the data given with ØN=0.17, analyze the porosity and lithology from Neutron-
Density crossplot
5) If ØN increase to 0.25 and Δt change to 82 μsec/ft , repeat Q4
6) Analyze the lithology from M-N plot for Q4 and Q5.
7) At a particular depth in a shaly formation, the GR log gives the reading of 80 API.
Determine whether the zone is producible if Vshale cut-off is 55%.
8) For other formation, the logging operation gives an acoustic velocity of 5300 ft/sec in
the fluid and 21000 ft/sec in the matrix.
1) Identify the matrix and drilling fluid used.
2) Determine porosity (density method) using the same data above.
3) Analyze porosity and lithology from N-D crossplot if ØCNL is 0.23.
 POP QUIZ
Given:
GRclean = 54 API  
Vshale  0.083 2(3.7 IGR )  1
GRshale = 120 API

a) At a particular depth in a shaly formation, the GR log gives the reading of 95

API. Assuming for tertiary rocks, determine whether the zone is producible if
Vshale cut-off is 55%.
(6 marks)

b) A logging operation gives acoustic velocity of 5300 ft/sec in the fluid and
21000 ft/sec in the matrix. ρb At that particular depth was found at 2.36
g/cm3 with neutron porosity, ØCNL is 0.24.
1) Identify the matrix and drilling fluid used. (2 marks)
2) Determine porosity from density method. (3 marks)
3) Anlayze porosity and lithology from N-D crossplot. (4 marks)
 3.3 Determination of Saturation
 Electrical resistivity of a formation is a very good indicator of the fluid in the
pore space of that formation.
 Neither oil nor gas conducts electrical current but water does.
 Very rare for a formation to contain no water at all and generally there is
some level of water saturation of the pore space, Sw in all formations.
 Sw – fraction of pore volume occupied by formation water
(1-Sw) – fraction of pore volume occupied by HC.
 Proportion of water & HC in pore space is generally determined from the
levels of resistivity of formations in question.
 Resistivity = f (porosity, salinity of water)
 Most common techniques used to determine saturation
 Direct application of Humble formula
 Resistivity vs Porosity crossplotting (Hingle Plot)
 Rwa Comparison
 Flushed Zone Resistivity Ratio Method
 Sw Determination in Clean Formation
 Based on Archie’s water saturation equation.

Rw = the formation water resistivity m = cementation factor

Rt = the true formation resistivity a = constant
F = the formation resistivity factor

 For Sxo, water saturation in the flushed zone, similar expression:

Rmf = mud filtrate resistivity

Rxo = flushed zone resistivity

 the saturation exponent n is usually taken as 2. Laboratory experiments

have shown that this is a good value for average cases.
 Sw Determination in Clean Formation (cont…)

 The values of a and m are subject to more variation:

 Within their normal range of application, these two ways of expressing the
Humble formula yield quite similar results.
 The accuracy of Archie equation depends on the accuracy of input
parameters: Rw, F and Rt.
 Deep resistivity measurement must be corrected for borehole, bed
thickness and invasion.
 Most appropriate porosity log (sonic, neutron, density, etc) or combination of
porosity and lithology measurements must be used to obtain porosity.
 Finally, Rw value should be verified in as many ways as possible.
Sw Determination in Clean Formation (cont…)
Sw Determination in Clean Formation (cont…)
 Sw Determination in Clean Formation (cont…)

 Combining both equations, Archie saturation equation may be written

 If n and m are equal to 2, and a = 1, then

 For Rw constant, Ø Sw is proportional to 1/√Rt

To emphasize proportionality
between Ø and 1/√Rt

 For 100% water-saturated formation, Sw=1, Rt=Ro. If Ro for water-

saturated formations is plotted on an inverse square-root scale vs Ø, all
points should fall on a straight line given by Ø = √Rw /√Ro
Sw Determination in Clean Formation (cont…)

To determine the hydrocarbon capability:

1) Calculate Sw from Archie at the zone of interest

2) Calculate Sxo for the zone of interest

3) All resistivity values should be converted from surface condition to

the reservoir condition (i.e. Rw and Rmf @ reservoir temperature)

4) Determine Sw/Sxo (Sw/Sxo < 0.7 is commercially viable)

5) Determine (Sxo – Sw) = movable oil saturation (MOS)

 Exercise
Given the following data:
Rw = 0.115 ohm-m, Rmf = 0.35 ohm-m @ 20oC (lab analysis)
Rt = 27 ohm-m
Rxo = 10 ohm-m
ρb = 2.30 g/cm3
ρma = 2.65 g/cm3
BHT @ 3500 m = 98oC

a) With an acoustic velocity in the fluid of 5300 ft/sec, determine water

saturation from Archie relationship if ‘a’=1.35, ‘m’=1.85, ‘n’=2. If the
critical Sw is 40%, comment your answer (use porosity from
density method).
b) Assess the hydrocarbon capability for the reservoir.
Formation Water Resistivity (Rw)

 Geochemical studies of pore waters have shown that in many cases Rw of

formation varies both horizontally and vertically.
 A few aspects should be considered that affect Rw. E.g. in Archie equation,
Rw is a direct multiplier in numerator, thus any increase in Rw results in an
increase in calculated Sw.
 However, Rw is not linearly related to Sw, nor to the salinity (ΔCl) of the
water.
 Formation Water Resistivity (Rw) Approaches

 Rw is not a constant nature.

 Commonly, Rw is measured on a recovered formation water sample.
 Not always a good analysis
 Water has been drawn to the wellbore will have lost pressure and temperature
which can change solubility of some component salts and these may be lost
through precipitation.
 Water may also be contaminated in the wellbore.
 Nearly all formation water analysis show iron present in appreciable
quantities.
 Contaminant introduced by casing and pipe in the wellbore.
 Formation pH may be quite low, however, most waters are oxygenated in
recovery and display pH values closer to 7.0.
 Can change the solubility of components.

 Hence, recovered formation water may not have the same composition
as the formation water in the reservoir.
 Rw from SP
 If the formation resistivity of the formation water is unknown, SP curve can
often be used to calculate Rw. Rw can only be determined from a clean,
thick permeable bed, although corrections can be made for thickness and
other factors.
 Equation for a thick, non-shaly bed is:

 If formation temperature and Rmf at formation temperature are known, SSP

can be determined from log, and Rw can be calculated.
Rw from SP (cont…)

 Rw is found by entering Rwe into Chart SP-2.

 This approach only works in clean water sands, so must be performed on
an adjacent formation to the HC zone, with all the assumptions that
entails.
 Beware of unconformities or faults juxtaposition completely dissimilar
formations.
 Charts SP-3 and SP-4 correct for beds thinner than 10 feet, and their Rt,
adjacent shale Rs, Rxo and di, borehole diameter, dh, and mud Rm.
 Example
A well is drilled into an apparent water bearing formation of moderate
porosity. The drilling fluid is fresh water based and an SP run shows a
deflection of -71 mV (i.e. to the left). Rmf is 0.55 ohm.m at the formation
temperature of 140oF. Determine Rw of the formation.
 Example
A well is drilled into an apparent water bearing formation of moderate
porosity. The drilling fluid is fresh water based and an SP run shows a
deflection of -71 mV (i.e. to the left). Rmf is 0.55 ohm.m at the formation
temperature of 140oF. Determine Rw of the formation from the
relationships:
Chart SP-2
 ANSWER
Rw is determined from the following:

Since Rmfeq = Rmf x 0.85

= 0.55 x 0.85
= 0.468 ohm.m

SSP = -71 = -(61 + 0.133 x 140) log(0.468/ Rweq)

Rweq = 0.468/ 1071/79.62 = 0.468/ 7.79 = 0.06 ohm.m

From SP-2;
Rweq = 0.06 ohm.m, thus Rw = 0.075 ohm.m
 Rw from Rwa
 Rwa is the apparent Rw of a formation.
 Formation may contain filtrate and HC, but Archie relationship is assumed
to solve the equation for Rw.
 In a water-sand, Rwa is the actual formation Rw.

Rt
Rwa 
F
 Rt value is taken from deep resistivity tool, make requisite environmental
corrections then either from known “a” and “m”, or from assumed Archie
values, and a measured porosity, F is computed from general formula
(Humble):
Sandstones: Carbonates:
0.81 1
F
0.62
or F F
 2.15
 2.0  2.0
 In clean water bearing formations, Rt = Ro = F.Rw and Rwa = Rw
 When Rwa deviates to higher values in a zone of known constant Rw, there
is a strong indication that HC are present.
 The Ratio Method

 A Rw method that does not rely on F.

 In invaded zone, which is measured by one of the medium investigations
devices,
K is some constant of invasion.
F  Rmf
Ri  n
K K close to 1.0 – invasion is deep in a fresh-water mud system
Si K < 1.0 – in shallow invasion.

 In the uninvaded zone,

F  Rw
Rt 
Swn
Ri Rmf  K  Sw
n
 If we divide 2nd equation into 1st,

Rt Rw  Si n

 In a water bearing zone, Si = Sw = 100%,

Ri Rmf  K  Ri 
 = constant =  
Rt Rw  Rt  Sw100%
 The Ratio Method

 The equation shows the ratio Ri/Rt is a constant if Rmf, Rw and K remain
constant in the zone of interest (common case). Thus we can solve the
equation for Rw.
 Once a water point is established, this method can be used to establish
saturation in HC bearing zones (“Rocky Mountain Technique” described by
Tixier, 1949)
 Ri 
 
Sw   t 
R This has been used with some
 Ri  success in variable pore-geometry
 
 Rt  Sw100%
 Then a later variant of this equation uses Rxo instead of Ri,
5
  Rxo   8
   
Sw    R t   The key to successful analysis is to compare
 R   results from various approaches
  xo  
  Rt  
 Sw 100% 
 The Pickett Plot

 The basis for this plot is to assume ‘m’ is unknown and that we can use an
Archie relationship.

 The base-ten logarithm of this equation is,

n log Sw  log F  log Rw  log Rt
a
 Reorganizing this for F  and simplify to solve for log Rt,
m
log Rt  m log   log(aRw)  ' n 'log Sw

 At 100% Sw this simplifies further,

log Rt  m log   log(aRw)

 Linear equation in log-log scale, Y = mx + b

 The Pickett Plot (‘m’ derivation)

 Plot Rt vs Ø on a log-log plot will give straight line as long as ‘m’ is constant.
 Slope is ‘m’ and intersection is the product ‘a x Rw’. Where ‘a’ equals unity,
the intersection is Rw.
 ‘m’ can only be verified with core analysis data
 The Pickett Plot (‘m’ derivation)

Rw Picket Plot
100

y = 0.2148x-1.61

10
Resistivity (Rt)

100% Sw
1
50% Sw
25% Sw

0.1

0.01
0.1 1
Total Porosity
 Shaly Sand Analysis

 Laminated shale – does not affect the porosity or permeability of the sand
streaks themselves. But when amount of laminated shale increase and the
amount of porous medium is correspondingly decrease, overall average
effective porosity is reduced in proportion.
 Shaly Sand Analysis (cont…)

 Structural shale – shale exist as grains or nodules in the formation matrix,

usually considered to have properties similar to those of laminated shale
and nearby massive shales. This shale does not affect the porosity, only
affect the formation matrix.
 Dispersed shale – shale is dispersed throughout the sand. dispersed
shale may be in accumulation adhering to or coating to the sand grains, or
may partially fill smaller pore channels. Dispersed shale in pores destroy the
porosity and also reduce permeability of the formation.

 All those forms of shale may occur simultaneously in the same formation.
 Shale Corrected Porosity

 From acoustic log

s 
 t log  tma 
 Vsh   ssh  ssh 
 tsh  tma 
where
t f  tma t f  tma
Δtsh = typical interval transit time of shale beds

 From density log

D 
  ma  log 
 Vsh  D sh
 ma   sh 
where Dsh 
 ma   f ma   f

ρsh = typical density of shale ranging from 2.2 g/cm3 to about 2.65 g/cm3
 Shaly Sand Analysis (Shale Resistivity)

 Normal practice would be to take the Rsh of an adjacent shale. However,

this presupposes porosity, mineralogy and Rw of the shale are the same as
the shaly material in the shaly sand.
 While this may be appropriate in some laminated shale-sand sequences it
might not be true for dispersed clays and some disseminated shale.
 Published values for clay resistivity are from 0.7 – 1.5 ohm-m for
montmorillonite and 1.0 - 3.0 ohm-m for illite at 70oF. These can be
corrected to formation temperature, FT and used instead of adjacent bed
values.

77  ( Rsh @ 77o F )
Rsh @ T f 
Tf
 Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)

 The Poupon equation for laminated shales is a simple flow model in which
the Resistivity, Rt should be

 Solving this for Sw using Archie model and substituting through,

 This model works reasonably where the sand laminae are clean.
 Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)

Simandoux
 It was an attempt to provide a solution that could be achieved graphically or
by computer. It is a total shale equation in the form of:

 A quadratic equation that transforms as follows when ‘m’ and ‘n’ both equal 2,

 When ‘a’ and ‘m’ are not 1 and 2:

 Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)

Indonesian Equation
 Simple Archie relationships would not work in the shaly sands of the
Mahakam Delta and Sumatra. If the Archie ‘m’ and ‘n’ equals 2 are
appropriate then following form can be applied,

 However, this is a simplification and the correct form is as follows

Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)

Given the following data to determine water saturation in shaly sand

(freshwater mud is used during drilling):

GRlog = 65 API Rw = 0.21 ohm-m

GRmin = 43 API ρb = 2.24 g/cm3
ØCNL = 0.21
GRmax = 100 API
n = 1.62
Rsh = 2.7 ohm-m m = 1.61
Rt = 70.8 ohm-m a=1

a) Determine shale volume using simple equation

b) Determine Sw using Archie, Simandoux and indonesian equations.
Compare the saturation values from those equations.
Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)
Waxman Smits and Thomas
 The idea is to derive a shale conduction term that corrects for the
suppression of resistivity.
 The equation was developed from observations of laboratory experiments
and through measurements of CEC of shale bearing samples.

Advantage: when Qv=0, the equation simplifies to Archie equation.

Disadvantage: rely upon a large database of measurements of CEC on core material,
also can only be solved iteratively.
Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)

Dual Water Model

 Started off as an attempt to advance the Waxman Smits model.
 Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)

Dual Water Model (cont…)

Therefore,

We need to look at the equivalent of an Archie relationship;

Rwm is the equivalent Rw of the Dual Waters

Swb is a function of Vcl, proportional to the wetness of the shale. It can be estimated from a nomogram.
Shaly Sand Analysis (Sw Equations)
 When ØN ≥ ØD;

 When ØN < ØD;

 Wet resistivity of the formation under

study is therefore related to total porosity,

 Water saturation is given by

 3.4 Cut-off Determination
Net to Gross Determination
 Net to Gross (NTG) is the ratio of porous rock (net sand thickness) over gross interval
thickness. The few important terms in dealing with NTG is described as below:
– Gross Interval – interval thickness of each reservoir layers.
– Gross Sand - interval satisfying Vshale cut-off criteria.
– Net sand - interval satisfying Vshale and porosity cut-off criteria.
– Net pay - interval satisfying Vshale, porosity and Sw cut-off criteria.

Definition of gross
and net intervals
 Cut-off Parameters

 Cut-off criteria are levels determined by petrophysical analysis to eliminate

nonproductive rock (e.g., 10% porosity is often used as a cut-off in an oil
reservoir – rock with less than 10% porosity is non-productive).
 In order to come out with the NTG, the optimum cut-off values of Vshale and
Ø have to be chosen to minimize the loss of porous rock volume while
removing the non-productive rocks.
 Gross ratio (NTG) usually refers to Net Sand /Gross Interval. As you can
see NTG may be subject to confusion and should therefore always be
defined in usage.
Cut-off Parameters

• Optimum Vshale and porosity cut-off values are determined from HPV
method (Plot of HPV versus Vshale and porosity) for each reservoir layers.
• NTG = Net Sand/Gross Interval of corresponding reservoir unit
Cut-Off Parameters
Cut-Off: Vshale Cut-Off: Porosity

• Plot out Normalised HPV values versus Vshale and Ø for each reservoir layers
• The optimum cut-off values can be read off directly from the plots
Cut-off Parameters

• The cut-offs sensitivity to Vshale and porosity was investigated from a series
of histograms with variation of NTG, pore volume (Phi*h) and HPV
(Phi*h*So).
• NTG, pore volume (Phi*h) and HPV (Phi*h*So) are plotted against Vshale
cut-off and porosity cut-off over a range of values.
• Optimum Vshale cut-off is when the changes in these three values stop after
a certain value of cut-off.
• Optimum porosity cut-off is when the three values start to drop rapidly
• NTG = Net Sand/Gross Interval of corresponding reservoir unit
 Cut-Off Parameters

Senstivity of(NTG,PHI*H,PHI*H*SO) to shale volume cut off (unit 6.0)Gelama Merah-1 sensetivity of (NTG- PHI*H- PHI*H*SO) to porosity cut off unit 9.0 Gelama merah-1st

1.6 1 1.4

1.4

availavle net to cross,pore volume& hydrocarbon volume

1.2
0.8
available pore volume & hydrocarbon volume

1.2
1

precentage net to cross

1
0.6
PHI*H 0.8 N/G
PHI*H*SO PHI*H
0.8 PHI*H*SO
cutoff
N/G 0.6 cut off
0.4
0.6

0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2

0
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
porosity cut off
shale volume cut off

Vshale cut-off Porosity cut-off