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Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In order that the investigators in different parts of the country and different parts of
world may compare the results of their experiments on a consistent basis, it is necessary
to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time, temperature and electrical,
quantities. The National Bureau of Standards has the primary responsibility for
maintaining these standard in the United States. In India, Indian Standard Institute (ISI),
New Delhi has taken the responsibility for maintaining all the standard measurements.
To monitor the standard of measurements, the same Institute issues instructions to put
ISI mark on measuring instruments and items so that these may be compared with
non-standard ones.
In the measurement system, the quantity to be measured, in the direct method, is
compared directly against a standard of same kind of quantity. The magnitude of
quantity being measured is expressed in terms of a chosen unit for the standard and a
numerical multiplier. A length can be measured in terms of meter and a numerical
constant. Thus, a 10 meter length means a length ten times greater than a meter. Thus, by
the means of standard, it is possible to provide means of establishing and maintaining the
magnitudes of the various units. The simplest kind of standard is a physical object
having desired property. This standard can be used as a basis of comparison.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
understand the importance of standard in the measurement systems,
explain the sources and causes of errors in the measurements, and
perform the analysis of experimental data to find the accuracy, precision
and the general validity of the experimental results. 5
Metrology and
Instrumentation 1.2 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR
CLASSIFICATION
The standards of measurements are very useful for calibration of measuring instruments.
They help in minimizing the error in the measurement systems. On the basis of the
accuracy of measurement the standards can be classified as primary standards and
secondary standards.
1.2.1 Primary Standard
A primary standard quantity will have only one value and it is fixed. An instrument
which is used to measure the value of primary standard quantity is called primary
standard instrument. It gives the accurate value of the quantity being measured. No pre-
calibration is required for this instrument. It is used to calibrate the instruments having
less accuracy. By comparing the readings of the two instruments, the accuracy of the
second instrument can be determined.
1.2.2 Secondary Standard
The value of the secondary standard quantity is less accurate than primary standard one.
It is obtained by comparing with primary standard. For measurement of a quantity using
secondary standard instrument, pre-calibration is required. Without calibration, the result
given by this instrument is meaningless. Calibration of a secondary standard is made by
comparing the results with a primary standard instrument or with an instrument having
high accuracy or with a known input source. In practical fields, secondary standard
instruments and devices are widely used. Using calibration charts, the error in the
measurement of these devices can be reduced.
SAQ 2
(a) The SI unit for heat generation is W/m3. Derive a factor to convert to
B t u/h – ft3.
(b) Pressure is measured in unit lbf/m2 in the English system of units. Derive
the factors to convert to units of N/m2 (Pa) and kgf-m2.
(c) One gallon equal 231 in3. Derive a conversion factor to convert automobile
fuel economy from miles/gallon to kilometer/litre.
(d) Derive a factor to convert density from g/cm3 to kg/m3.
10
SAQ 3 Standard of
Measurements
(a) Derive a factor to convert volume flow rate from cm3/s to gal/min.
(b) How do you convert degree Kelvin to degrees Rankine?
(c) A unit for specific heat in the SI system is kJ/kgoK. Derive a factor to
convert it to B t u/1bmoF and to kcal/gmoK.
(d) Derive a factor to convert flow rate lit/hr to m3/sec.
(e) The thermal conductivity of a metal is 0.2 cal/cm-s-oC. Find its value in SI
unit.
1.10 SUMMARY
On the basis of the accuracy of measurement, the standard can be classified into two
categories, viz. Primary standard and Secondary standard.
The meter is considered as one of the fundamental units upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, the other systems of length are based.
The kilogram is considered as fundamental unit upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, other systems of mass are based.
The standard units of time are established in terms of known frequencies of oscillation of
certain devices. The fundamental unit of time is second.
Both Farenheit (oF) and Celsius (oC) scales are widely used for measurement of
temperature. The absolute Farenheit scale is called Rankine (oR) scale and absolute
Celsius has been designated as the Kelvin (K) scale. The relationship between these
scales is as follows :
K = oC + 273.15
o
R = oF + 459.67
In mechanical systems, the fundamental units in SI system are meter, Newton, kilogram-
mass, second, and joule.
International units of electrical systems are ohm, ampere, volt and watt.
The SI unit of luminous intensity of light is Candela (Cd) and the SI unit of amount of
substance is mole (mol).
44.24 ft-pound/min.m3
44.24
B.T.U./min.m3
778
1
3.4118 B.T.U/h-ft 3
35.314
= 0.0966 BTU/h-ft3
(b) P 1 Ibf/m2
1
1 Ibf in 2
1550
1 1
4
N/m2
1.45 10 1550
4.45 N/m2
1
P Ibf / inch 2
1550
14.42
kg f / cm2
1550
9.174 10 3 kgf / cm2
9.174 10 3
6
kg f / m2
10
12 9174 kg f /cm2
(c) F 1 miles / gallons Standard of
Measurements
1.609 km
231 in 3
6.965 10 3
km / cm3
1
0.0610
6.965 0.610 km/ litre
4.08 km / litre .
(d) D 1 g / cm3
10 3
6
kg/m3 103 kg /m3
10
SAQ 3
(a) Q 1 cm3 / s
10 3
1 litre / min.
60
60 10 3 0.2642 gallon / min.
0.0158 gallon / min.
(b) K = o C + 273.18
o
R = o F + 459.67
o
F = o C + 32.00
o
R = o C + 32 459.67
K 273.18 + 32 + 459.67
= K + 218.51
(c) C = 1 kJ / kg o K
1 10 3
= kcal / gm o K
4.2
= 0.238 10 3 kcal / gm o K
3.968 103 1
= 0.238 10 3 Bt u / lbm o F
2.205 33.8
= 0.01267 Bt u / lbm o F .
(d) Q 1 lit/hr
1000 cm3
3600 sec
1000
m3 / sec
10 3600
6
14