Business Research Methodology PDF

Business Research Methodology
Table of Contents
CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH ................................................................4
CHAPTER-2: RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND LITERATURE REVIEW ......................... 10
2.1 Research Proposal ..................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Beginning the Proposal Process ................................................................................ 10
2.3 Common Mistakes to Avoid during Writing Proposal ............................................ 10
2.4 Contents of Research Proposal ................................................................................. 11
2.5 Criteria for Evaluating Research Proposal .............................................................. 11
2.6 Proposal for funded research ................................................................................... 11
2.7 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 11
2.8 Steps in review of literature or four phase of literature review .............................. 12
2.9 Recording the literature: .......................................................................................... 12
2.10 Organizing Library Findings ................................................................................ 12
2.11 The Critical Review ............................................................................................... 13
2.12 Meta-analysis ......................................................................................................... 13
2.13 Evaluating the Contents of the Literature ............................................................ 14
2.14 Secondary Sources ................................................................................................. 14
2.15 Literature search through internet ....................................................................... 14
2.16 Evaluation Criteria for the Literature from Various sources ............................. 14
2.17 How to Write a Research Based Report? ............................................................. 15
CHAPTER-3: MEASUREMENT AND SCALING ............................................................... 16
3.1 Measurement ............................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Scaling ....................................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Factors in selecting appropriate measurement Scales ............................................. 17
3.4 Attitude Measurement .............................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER 4: QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN ......................................................................... 18
4.1 Questionnaire ............................................................................................................ 18
4.2 Questionnaire Design process ................................................................................... 18
4.3 Considerations While Preparing Effective Questionnaire ...................................... 18
CHAPTER-5: SAMPLING .................................................................................................... 19
5.1 Sampling .................................................................................................................... 19
5.2 Sampling Design ........................................................................................................ 19
5.3 The Sampling Process ............................................................................................... 19
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5.4 Types of Samplings ................................................................................................... 19

5.5 Sampling and non-sampling errors .......................................................................... 20
5.6 Central limit theorem................................................................................................ 20
CHAPTER-6: DATA CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................ 21
6.1 Classification of Data ................................................................................................ 21
6.2 Secondary data sources ............................................................................................. 21
6.3 Use of Secondary data ............................................................................................... 21
6.4 Precautions in the Use Of Secondary Data .............................................................. 21
6.5 Advantages of Secondary Data ................................................................................. 21
6.6 Disadvantages of Secondary Data ............................................................................ 21
6.7 Sources of Primary Data ........................................................................................... 21
6.8 Problems in Interview ............................................................................................... 22
6.9 Principles of Interviewing ......................................................................................... 22
6.10 Factors affecting choice of data collection method ............................................... 22
CHAPTER 7: DATA COLLECTION METHODS ............................................................... 23
7.1 Data Collection Methods........................................................................................... 23
7.2 Consideration While Formulating Plan for Data Collection ................................... 23
7.3 Observation ............................................................................................................... 23
7.4 Advantages and limitation of observation methods ................................................. 23
7.5 Classification of survey methods .............................................................................. 24
CHAPTER-8: RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................... 25
8.1 Research design:........................................................................................................ 25
8.2 Features Of Research Design .................................................................................... 25
8.3 Considerations while Designing Research Design ................................................... 25
8.4 Classification of Research Design ............................................................................. 25
8.5 Qualitative Research ................................................................................................. 25
8.6 Features of Qualitative Research ............................................................................. 25
8.7 Assumptions of Qualitative Research ....................................................................... 26
8.8 Types of Qualitative Research .................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER-9: FIELD WORKS AND REPORT FINALIZATION ...................................... 27
9.1 Data preparation ....................................................................................................... 27
9.2 Field work process .................................................................................................... 27
9.3 Research Report ........................................................................................................ 27

9.4 Types of Research Report ......................................................................................... 28

9.5 Procedures for Writing Report ................................................................................ 28
9.6 Considerations while Research Report Writing ...................................................... 28
9.7 Format and Components of Research Report /Thesis ............................................. 28
QUESTION ANSWER ........................................................................................................... 29
1. What is research? ......................................................................................................... 31
2. What are the characteristics of research? ................................................................... 31
3. What are the various types of research? ..................................................................... 31
4. Define Questionnaire. ................................................................................................... 33
5. Considerations in the Formulation of Questionnaire .................................................. 33
6. What are the various types of Questionnaire? ............................................................ 34
7. Define Sampling and discuss major methods of sampling used in research. ............. 34
8. What are the types of Sampling? ................................................................................. 35
9. Write about merit and demerit of sampling. ............................................................... 37
10. Define survey and write about objective, characteristics, kind, advantages and
limitations of survey. ........................................................................................................... 38
11. Define research design and write about purpose, parts, major steps and types, of
research design. ................................................................................................................... 39
12. Write about the research hypothesis. ....................................................................... 40
13. Write about the stage of research. ............................................................................ 41
14. Write about the research problem. .......................................................................... 41

CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1.1 What is Research?
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to
increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested.
 "Re-search" means search again and again until you reach near to the facts.
 To discover facts by scientific methods.
 Original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge.
 One of the ways of collecting and understanding information and finding answers of
particular question.
Systematic and objective investigation on a particular subject or a problem in order to discover

relevant information.
It is a process that involves systematic design, collection, interpretation and reporting of

information needed to solve specific problems.
“Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena."
"Research is an organized, systematic, data based, critical, scientific enquiry or investigation into
specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it.”
“A careful Investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
Knowledge.”
“Systematized effort to gain new Knowledge”.
Research in common parlance (phrase) refers to search of knowledge. Research is thus, an original
contribution to the existing stock of knowledge, for making its advancement.
1.2 What is Social Research?

It is research involving social scientific methods, theories and concepts which can enhance our
understanding of the social processes and problems encountered by individuals and groups in
society.
It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists, economists, political scientists and anthropologists.
It is not just common sense, based on facts without theory, using personal life experience or
perpetuating media myths.
Social research is a scientific process

• It involves the systematic collection of methods to produce knowledge.
• It is objective.
• It can tell you things you do not expect.
• It consists of theory and observation.
• Sometimes called ‘soft sciences’ because their subject matter (humans) are fluid and hard
to measure precisely.

• It is an empirical research – i.e. facts are assumed to exist prior to the theories that explain
them.
1.3 Types of Research

1. Fundamental, Basic or pure research- It is conducted to expand the limits of knowledge. It
doesn't directly involve the solution to a particular, practical problem.
Examples:
• Does work force diversity increase the productivity?
• Are members of highly cohesive work groups more satisfied than members of less cohesive
work groups?
• Training to high aged people is less effective than low aged people?
2. Applied research: - It is conducted when a decision must be taken about a specific real life
problem. It tries to find out the answer of the specific problem.
Examples:
• What kinds of new features Samsung can add in its mobile phones so as to increase its sales
revenue?
• Is it feasible to establish the new branch of Nepal bank limited in Mugu?
• What kinds of new ingredients should CG offer in its noodles (wai-wai) so as to compete
in South Indian market?
1.4 Why people undertake research work?

• To achieve new insights into the problem.
• To discover facts which are existing in the world.
• To solve the unsolved problems and to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
• To serve the society and to get respect.
• To get research degree with its consequential benefits.
1.5 Different Purposes of Research

A. Exploration
 Goal is to generate many ideas.
 Develop tentative theories and conjectures.
 Become familiar with the basic facts, people and concerns involved.
 Formulate questions and refine issues for future research.
 Used when little is written on an issue.
 It is the initial research.
 Usually qualitative research.
B. Description
 Presents a profile of a group or describes a process, mechanism or relationship or presents
basic background information or a context.
E.g.: General Household survey – describes demographic characteristics, economic
factors and social trends.
 Can be used to monitor changes in family structure and household composition.
 Can also be used to gain an insight into the changing social and economic circumstances
of population groups.
 Often survey research.

C. Analysis (or explanation)

 Goes beyond simple description of empirical model to analyse the social phenomena under
investigation.
 It involves theory testing or elaboration of a theory.
 Used mostly in basic research.
D. Generalization and Prediction

 Generalization implies the ability to apply findings from a sample to a larger population.
 Predictive process in research depends very much upon establishing accurate causal
connection.
1.6 Scientific Research Process

a) Realizing the problems: First of all problem should be realized by the researcher to begin the
research. If there is something wrong, research is needed.
 Where do research topics come from?
 What is the idea for a research project?
One of the most common sources of research ideas is the experience of practical problems in
the field.
The Literature Review also helps realizing the problem area. b
The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution
Well begun is half done.
b) Problem identification: Researcher should identify what exactly are the problems or issues
in the situation.
c) Research design/Theoretical framework: The main function of a research design is to

explain how researcher will find answers to the research questions.
 The research design sets out the logic of researcher's inquiry.
 Research design must be valid, workable and manageable.
d) Data collection: Data collection is the primary task of the field work. It is actually an initiation
of the research works. Primary and secondary sources of data can be used in research.
Questionnaire, interview schedules, observation schedules are used in data collection.
e) Analyzing the data: After collection of the data, it has to be tabulated, edited, and analyzed
using various statistical tools. Data can be analyzed in several ways but should use most
appropriate tools to assess the reliability of data.
f) Preparing the report: After analyzing the data, report is prepared in the appropriate format.
g) Refinement of theory or practice: Process of expanding the stock of knowledge is continuous

process. Findings of the previous research may be the starting of the next research.
1.7 Characteristics of Scientific Research

a. Purposiveness: Must have specific purpose. Research without purpose reach nowhere.
b. Testability: Can be tested using several statistical techniques and tools.

c. Replicability: The result of the research work should be same in every attempt if it follows
the scientific procedure. " Higher salary increases the productivity”
d. Objectivity: The more objective the analysis and interpretation of data, the more scientific the
research investigation becomes. Though you might start with some initial subjective values
and beliefs, your interpretation of data should be stripped of personal values and biases.
e. Rigor: Should strictly follow the rules. Should take appropriate carefulness and the degree of
accuracy.
f. Generalizability: Research findings must be applicable in wider range.
1.8 Emerging paradigms in research

A. Positivism
All knowledge is scientific. Knowledge can be pursued by scientific method. The belief of
positivists is that the natural sciences have evolved an approach to research which can be
applied universally and which gives rise better than any other approach to new knowledge and
insights.
The methodological procedures of natural science hence may appropriately be applied as social
science, and its results can be expressed as laws or empirical generalizations similar to those
developed for the natural sciences.
More specifically,
 Social physics
 An objective reality exists that can be measured, analyzed, modeled & replicated
 Regularities and patterns are present
 Social reality can be quantified measured and analyzed systematically
Example: poverty exists and can be measured
B. Empiricism
Key feature of the scientific method is empiricism. The term “empirical” means “Knowledge
based on real world observation or experiment. In other words, by empiricism we mean the
data collected by using our senses, such as sight and hearing. Empiricism seek evidence
through direct experience rather than through reasoning and intuition. Such thing as emotions,
motives, or perceptions are thus not agreeable to empirical research. We can only research the
empirical indicators of such phenomena (such as laughing or particular actions).
• We should only attempt to answer the “answerable” questions.
C. Interpretivism
From the second half of the twentieth century, some of the most prominent social scientists
refuted the claim that scientific method could adequately provide real understanding of the
complex relationships in society and between individuals. It refers to a method or group of
methods. That hold that the social sciences ought to be concerned not simply with quantifying
what actually happened in social phenomena but in providing an interpretation of events and
phenomena in terms of how the people involved perceive and interpret their own experiences.
The philosophy of research explores the cultural and historical interpretations of the social
world.
That means,
 An objective reality does not exist; instead reality is understood differently in different
society as it is interpreted.
 The goal is to understand what meaning people give to reality
 Reality is relative depending on how the group or the person perceives it. Example:
poverty is in the eye of the beholder
D. Constructivism
This philosophy of research believes that meaning does not exist in its own right; rather it is
constructed by human beings as they interact and engage in interpretation. Each one of us
generates our own “rules” and “mental models” which we use to make sense of our
experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous
ideas and experiences. To this view, reality is not a static concept. It changes and is constructed
differently in different times and places. Today, social scientists are of the opinion that reality
and our knowledge of it are socially constructed in that they are a product of particular social,
political, and historical circumstances. For them, observable facts are not objective facts. These
labels merely reflect human attempts to categorize nature. Their meaning changes depending
on how the reality is constructed.
E. Subjectivism
This philosophy emphasizes the subjective elements in experience and accepts that personal
experiences are the foundation for factual knowledge. Subjectivism holds that knowledge is
generated from the mind, without the reference to the reality. How researchers “see” the world
can also influence the research process. Everyone’s mind is different and everyone experiences
events differently.
This philosophy thus believes that gaining knowledge about the world is done through
examination and consideration of own ideas. Hence findings seem more “subjective” in their
interpretation may depend on the approach taken by the attitude of the researcher.
1.9 Business Research

"Business / management research is a systematic and organized investigation conducted to resolve
problematic issues in, or interrelated among, the different areas of management.”
"Business research is a systematic inquiry to provide information to solve the managerial
problems."
• Research that is conducted / used to solve the business problem is called business /
management research.
• It is systematic and objective process of data gathering, recording, and analyzing data to
support on making business decision.
• Business research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and
analysis of the situational factors.
1.10 Objectives of Business Research

 To improve the quality of business decision.
 To innovate new product or find out new market.
 To impart the knowledge of manager to lead the organization in the right direction.
 To save cost, time and resources.
 To achieve the goal of the business.
1.11 Nature of Business and Management Research

 Business and management research advance the knowledge and understanding, and also
address the business issues and practical managerial problem.
 The findings of business and management research might also contain practical implications.
1.12 Types of Management Research

A. Policy research – The development of a foundation of information to be used as a basis for

making plans and decisions that will impact policy (Mason & Bramble, 1989).
B. Managerial research – It is focused on one particular activity, scheme, or project launched
by the management.
C. Action research – It pursues “action” and “knowledge” in an integrated fashion through a
cyclical and participatory process.
D. Evaluation Research-It is oriented towards formal and objective measurement of the extent
which a given action, activity, or program has achieved its original objective.
 Formative Evaluation(process or progress evaluation)
 Summative Evaluation(outcome or impact evaluation)
1.13 Ethics in Business Research

All professions are guided by a code of ethics (conduct) that has evolved over the years to
accommodate the changing philosophy, values, needs and expectations of those who hold a risk in
the professions.
Research organization has some ethical responsibilities towards three stakeholders: participants,
researcher and sponsor organizations.
Ethics is a principal behavior that distinguish between what is good and bad, and right and wrong.
Researchers have to follow the certain rules and guidelines to conduct the research.
Acts and Rules are formal but ethics is more informal.
Ethical Issues and Principles

 Informed Consent
 Respect for privacy
 Confidentiality and anonymity of data
 What is permissible to ask?
 No harm to researcher’s subjects
 No dishonesty or lying in the course of research
 Consequences of publication
 Carefulness
 Legality
 Non-discrimination
 Respect for intellectual property

CHAPTER-2: RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Research Proposal
The research proposal is a road map showing clearly the location from which a journey of research
begins, the destination to be reached and the methods of getting the destination.
The goal of a research proposal is twofold: to present and justify the need to study a research
problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The
design elements and procedures for conducting research are governed by standards of the
predominant discipline in which the problem resides, therefore, the guidelines for research
proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals
contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for
the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology
for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and
a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.
Purpose of Research Proposal:
 To provide information
 To prepare plan
 To justify rational
 To form base for contract
 To remind
 To inform research methodology
2.2 Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing most college-level academic papers, research proposals are generally organized
the same way throughout most social science disciplines. The text of proposals generally vary in
length between ten and thirty-five pages, followed by the list of references. However, before begin,
a good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:
 What do I want to study?
 Why is the topic important?
 How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
 What problems will it help solve?
 How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
 What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?
In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and
demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving
your readers feeling like, "Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"
2.3 Common Mistakes to Avoid during Writing Proposal

 Failure to be concise: A research proposal must be focused and not be "all over the map" or
separate into on unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose.
 Failure to cite landmark works in literature review: Proposals should be grounded in
foundational research that lays a foundation for understanding the development and scope of
the issue.
 Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.]: As
with any research paper, proposed study must inform the reader how and in what ways the
study will examine the problem.
 Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research: This
is critical. In many workplace settings, the research proposal is intended to argue for why a
study should be funded.
 Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar: Although a research proposal does not
represent a completed research study, there is still an expectation that it is well-written and
follows the style and rules of good academic writing.
 Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues: Proposal should
focus on only a few key research questions in order to support the argument that the research
needs to be conducted. Minor issues, even if valid, can be mentioned but they should not
dominate the overall narrative.
2.4 Contents of Research Proposal

 Title
 Statement of the problem
 Background of the study
 Theoretical framework
 Statement of Hypothesis
 Definition of Terminologies
 Significance of the study
 Limitation of the study
 Research Methodology
 References
2.5 Criteria for Evaluating Research Proposal

 Rational of the topic
 Objectives
 Literature review and citation
 Research methodology and data collection
 Logical analysis
 Presentation
2.6 Proposal for funded research

Include the following details in the proposal for the funded Research
 Budget
 Research staff and their qualification
 Instruments
 Time frame
2.7 Literature Review

"Literature" means the published or unpublished, printed or audio visual, books or reports and
other relevant materials that is consulted by researchers to understand and investigate research
problem.
Literature review: Literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers. It is a summary and analysis of current knowledge about
particular topic or area of inquiry.

Need and Significance of Literature Review

Review of literature helps the researchers in many ways, some of them are as follows:
 To find out existing stock of knowledge in the proposed research area.
 To find out what others has been done/written in the same subject.
 To find out theories developed in the subject.
 To know the approach taken by other researchers.
 To find out areas of agreement and disagreement.
 To find out gap that can fill through the proposed research.
 To avoid needless duplication in the subject.
 To save time and resources (to protect from the unnecessary waste of time).
 To make clarity and focus to research problem.
 To improve methodology.
 To broaden knowledge of researcher.
2.8 Steps in review of literature or four phase of literature review

 Locating the literature: (Encyclopedia, Card, Computer Catalogues, Journal Index,
International bibliographies)
 Obtaining the literature: (from Libraries, Online sources, CD ROM Sources, Other sources)
(Literature search will be an early activity. Despite this early start, it is usually necessary to
continue searching throughout the research project.)
While obtaining literature remember:
Assessing relevance: Remember to make notes about the relevance of each item as you read
it and the reasons why you came to your conclusion.
Assessing sufficiency: One clue that you have read enough is, when further searching provides
mainly references to items you already have read. Also, check with your instructor.
 Reading the literature: (Efficient and selective Reading, Keeping Track of References,
Noting your reference, developing a structure). (As you read each item, you need to ask
yourself how it contributes to your research question and objectives and make notes with this
focus. You should take photocopies of the sources, but also you need to record; bibliographic
details, brief summary of content and supplementary information)
 Analyzing/critical review of the literature: Criteria of Review, Content Analysis, Critical
Review, Style and Tone, Meta-analysis)
2.9 Recording the literature:

Books: Author(s) name & surname, year of publication, title and subtitle of book, edition, place
of publication, publisher
Journal: Author(s) name & surname, year of publication, title of article, title of journal, volume,
issue, page numbers
This will help to locate the relevant items. This can be done by explaining each record with the
key words used to locate the item and the abstract. It will also help to maintain consistency in
searches.
Some other information may also be worth recording; like ISBN number, class number, quotations,
where it was found, the tertiary resource used, evaluative comments, and when the item was
consulted.
2.10 Organizing Library Findings

 Huge collection of relevant materials in unorganized form creates confusion.
 All relevant collection should be kept in an organized way.

 Organizing the library means grouping and sub grouping of all relevant reading materials in a
systematic way.
 Should prepare a bibliography of all consulted literature.
2.11 The Critical Review

The purpose of the critical review is:
 To help refine research question and objectives
 To highlight research possibilities that have been overlooked till that time
 To help avoid simply repeating work that has been done already
In writing critical review one need:

 To include the key academic theories within chosen area
 To demonstrate that knowledge of chosen area is up to date
 To show how research relates to previously published research
 Through clear referencing, to enable those reading project report to find the original work
one cite.
The structure of critical review:

Three common structures are:
 A single chapter
 A series of chapters
 Throughout the project report as you discuss various issues.
2.12 Meta-analysis
Meta-analysis is the statistical synthesis (Fusion) of the data from separate but similar
(comparable) studies to a quantitative summary of the pooled results.
In this analysis, several studies are lumped together and analyzed as if they were the results of one
large study.
Steps in Meta-Analysis
 Identifying relevant variables
 Locating and searching relevant research to review
 Doing the meta-analysis
Techniques:
1. Comparing Studies
Significance Testing
Effect-size Estimation
2. Combining Studies
Significance Testing
Effect-size Estimation
Drawbacks of Meta-Analysis
 Assessing the quality of the research reviewed
 Putting everything together creates problems
 Combining and comparing studies using different methods.
 Practical problems
2.13 Evaluating the Contents of the Literature

A. Evaluating the Introduction
 Has the author correctly represented the results from previous research?
 Does the author clearly state the purpose of the study?
 Do the hypotheses logically follow from the stated research problems and the theoretical
framework?
 Are the hypotheses clearly stated and, more important, are they testable?
B. Evaluating the Methods Section

 Who served as participants in the study? Also look at the size of the sample. Was it enough
to allow an adequate test of any hypotheses stated in the introduction?
 Does the design of the study allow an adequate test of hypotheses stated in the introduction?
 Are there any flaws in materials or procedures used that might affect the validity of the
study?
C. Evaluating the Result Section

 Which effects are statistically significant?
 Are the differences reported large or small?
 Were the appropriate statistics used?
 Do the text, tables, and figures match?
D. Evaluating the Discussion Section

 Do the author’s conclusions follow from the results reported?
 Does the author offer speculations concerning the results?
 How well do the findings of the study mesh with previous research and existing theory?
 Does the author point the way to directions for future research in the area?
2.14 Secondary Sources

 Newspapers
 Books
 Journals
 Subsequent publication of primary publication
2.15 Literature search through internet

Literature search through the internet is the development of the post–electronic revolution. The
internet is a worldwide network of computers that can provide access to a vast range of literature.
Most researchers involved in business research today initiate the process by going online.
However, a word of caution is necessary. Unless you properly identify the need of literature and
databases, the search may be futile and expensive. Therefore, you must determine what you are
looking for in a specific site. The risk involved is also in the area of reliability and validity of the
information. The need to check the validity of data applies even greater force to online sources.
2.16 Evaluation Criteria for the Literature from Various sources

Accuracy or • Is the information provided based on proven facts?
credibility • Is it published in a scholarly or peer-reviewed publication?

• Have you found similar information in a scholarly or peer-reviewed

publication?
Author or • Who is the author?
authority • Is she or he affiliated with a reputable university or organization? What is
the author’s educational background or experience? What is their area of
expertise?
• Has the author published in scholarly or peer reviewed publications? Does
the author/Web master provide contact information?
Coverage or • Does the information covered meet your information needs? Is the
relevance coverage basic or comprehensive?
• Is there an “About Us” link that explains subject coverage? How relevant
is it to your research interests?
Currency • When was the information published? When the Web site was last updated.
• Is timeliness important to your information need?
Objectivity or • How objective or biased is the information?
bias • What do you know about who is publishing this information? Is there a
political, social or commercial agenda?
• Does the information try to inform or persuade?
• How balanced is the presentation on opposing perspectives?
• What is the tone of language used (angry, sarcastic, balanced, and
educated)?
Sources or • Is there a list of references or works cited?
documentation • Is there information provided to support statements of fact?
• Can you contact the author or Web master to ask for, and receive, the
sources used?
Publication • How well designed is the Web site?
and Web site • Is the information clearly focused? How easy to use it?
design • How easy is it to find information within the publication or Web site?
• Are the bibliographies/ references and links accurate, current, credible and
relevant? Are the contact addresses for the author(s) and Web master(s)
available from the site?
2.17 How to Write a Research Based Report?

 Break Down the task: Determine what is expected and break down it to different structure.
 Develop the first Copy: Apply section headings to assist with draft plan. Create a thesis
statement, which specifies the overall goal of the paper. Write down everything you have
already learned regarding the topic in the corresponding sections.
 Investigate: The first and second steps will direct the procedure of investigation. It might be
necessary to research report topics that are similar to yours in order to get as much information
as possible. Do not forget to have correct reference details for absolutely all sources you can
use in the paper later. The research will take a lot of your time, approximately as much as the
writing part. However, if done properly, it will make the writing process a lot easier and faster.
 Make rough copy of the body
 Draft the additional Material
 Draw up the preliminary Information
 Proof read and edit Paper

CHAPTER-3: MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

3.1 Measurement
Measurement is the method of turning the series of qualitative facts into a quantitative series. It is
the equipment of providing numbers to objects or events according to rule. It is research consists
of assigning numbers to empirical events, objects or properties or activities in compliance with a
set of rules.
Importance of Measurement:
 Helps to identify variables
 Helps to measure
 Helps to scientific test
 Helps to increase reliability of research
3.2 Scaling
Scaling is an activity of creating continuous values for the objects as per the importance of
measured characteristics they possess.
Types of Scale (Four levels of data measurement):

a) Nominal scale:
The first level of measurement is nominal level of measurement. In this level of measurement,
the numbers in the variable are used only to classify the data. In this level of measurement,
words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used. Suppose there are data about people
belonging to three different gender categories. In this case, the person belonging to the female
gender could be classified as F, the person belonging to the male gender could be classified as
M, and transgendered classified as T. This type of assigning classification is nominal level of
measurement.
b) Ordinal scale:
The second level of measurement is the ordinal level of measurement. This level of
measurement depicts some ordered relationship among the variable’s observations. Suppose
a student scores the highest grade of 100 in the class. In this case, he would be assigned the
first rank. Then, another classmate scores the second highest grade of 92; she would be
assigned the second rank. A third student scores 81 and he would be assigned the third rank,
and so on. The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of the measurements.
c) Interval scale:
The third level of measurement is the interval level of measurement. The interval level of
measurement not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the
distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval
to high interval. Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know both the order and the
exact differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius
temperature because the difference between each value is the same. For example, the difference
between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70
degrees.

Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical analysis on these data sets opens up.
For example, central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; standard deviation
can also be calculated.
d) Ratio scale:
Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to data measurement scales because they
tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an
absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be
applied. At the risk of repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies to ratio
scales, plus ratio scales have a clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables
include height, weight, and duration.
Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis. These
variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios). Central tendency
can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion, such as standard deviation
and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio scales.
3.3 Factors in selecting appropriate measurement Scales

 Validity
 Reliability
 Practicability
3.4 Attitude Measurement

A reaction made by a person over any event, product or other thing that is known as attitude. Social
science researchers have developed various scales for the measurement of attitude of the people.
Such measurement is known as attitude measurement.
Attitude Scales Commonly Used In Business Research
a. Likert scale: In its final form, the Likert scale is a five (or seven) point scale which is used to
allow the individual to express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement.
(Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Undecided, Agree, Strongly Agree) (Always, Often, Sometimes,
Rarely, Never) (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor, Very Poor) etc.
b. Graphic rating scale:
c. Itemized rating scale: The Itemized Rating Scale is an Ordinal Scale that has a brief
description or numbers associated with each category, ordered in terms of scale positions. The
respondents are asked to select the category that best describes the stimulus object being rated.
d. Rank order rating scale: A Rank Order scale gives the respondent a set of items and asks
them to put the items in some form of order. The measure of 'order' can include such as
preference, importance, liking, effectiveness and so on. The order is often a simple ordinal
structure (A is higher than B). It can also be done by relative position (A scores 10 whilst B
scores 6).
e. Semantic differential scale: The semantic differential scale is a seven-point rating scale with
the extreme points having the semantic meaning. The scale is used to measure the meaning or
semantics of words, especially the bi-polar adjectives (such as “evil” or “good”, “warm” or
“cold”) to derive the respondent’s attitude towards the stimulus object.
f. Other simple scales:

CHAPTER 4: QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

4.1 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents. Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written
interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, computer or post. Questionnaires
provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from
a large sample of people. Data can be collected relatively quickly because the researcher would
not need to be present when the questionnaires were completed. This is useful for large populations
when interviews would be impractical. However, a problem with questionnaire is that respondents
may lie due to social desirability. Most people want to present a positive image of themselves and
so may lie or bend the truth to look good, e.g., pupils would exaggerate revision duration.
Questionnaires can be an effective means of measuring the behavior, attitudes, preferences,
opinions and, intentions of relatively large numbers of subjects more cheaply and quickly than
other methods. An important distinction is between open-ended and closed questions. Often a
questionnaire uses both open and closed questions to collect data. This is beneficial as it means
both quantitative and qualitative data can be obtained.
Closed questions structure the answer by only allowing responses which fit into pre-decided
categories. Data that can be placed into a category is called nominal data. The category can be
restricted to as few as two options, i.e., dichotomous (e.g., 'yes' or 'no,' 'male' or 'female'), or include
quite complex lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose.
Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words. Open-ended questions
enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as they like in their own words. For example:
“can you tell me how happy you feel right now?”
Contents/Components of Questionnaire
 Part incorporating explanatory information
 Main part
 Part incorporating personal information
4.2 Questionnaire Design process

 Plan what to measure
 Formulate questions to obtain the needed information
 Decide on the order and working of questions and its layout.
 Use a small sample; test the questionnaire to check omissions and ambiguity.
 Correct the questionnaire and finalize the questionnaire
4.3 Considerations While Preparing Effective Questionnaire

 Physical appearance
 Need of information
 Type or forms of questions
 Length
 Wording
 Sequence

CHAPTER-5: SAMPLING
5.1 Sampling
Sampling is some elements of population which helps to draw conclusions about the entire
population. It is a process of selecting sub-set of the population by the study of which a researcher
would be able to draw conclusions that would be generalizable to the populations. A statistical
sample is small picture or cross section of the entire group or aggregates from which sample is
taken, the entire group from which sample is chosen is known as the population or universe.
Reasons for Sample
 Lowers cost
 Provides greater accuracy
 Helps to greater speed of data collection
 Inaccessible population
5.2 Sampling Design

Sampling design refers to the technique or the procedure that the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample. While selecting sampling design, the researcher must consider to
the following points:
 The sampling frame
 Technique of selection of sample
 Sample size
 Selecting medium to contact
5.3 The Sampling Process

 Define the population
 Specify the sampling frame
 Specify sampling unit
 Determination of sample size (n)
 Preparation of plan for sampling
 Select the sample
5.4 Types of Samplings

A. Random sampling methods (Probability Sampling Methods): Random sampling is a
procedure for sampling from a population in which (a) the selection of a sample unit is based
on chance and (b) every element of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being
selected.
a. Simple random sampling: By using the random number generator technique, the
researcher draws a sample from the population called simple random sampling. Simple
random samplings are of two types. One is when samples are drawn with replacements,
and the second is when samples are drawn without replacements.
b. Systematic sampling: In this type of sampling method, a researcher starts from a random
point and selects every nth subject in the sampling frame. In this method, there is a danger
of order bias.
c. Stratified sampling: In stratified simple random sampling, a proportion from strata of the
population is selected using simple random sampling. For example, a fixed proportion is
taken from every class from a school.
d. Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling occurs when a random sample is drawn from certain
aggregation geographical groups.
B. Non random sampling methods: Non-random sampling is widely used in qualitative research.
Random sampling is too costly in qualitative research. The following are non-random sampling
methods:
a) Purposive or judgmental sampling:
b) Quota sampling: This method is similar to the availability sampling method, but with the
constraint that the sample is drawn proportionally by strata.
c) Convenience sampling
d) Self-selecting sampling
e) Snow ball sampling: Snowball sampling is where research participants recruit other
participants for a test or study. It is used where potential participants are hard to find. It’s
called snowball sampling because (in theory) once you have the ball rolling, it picks up
more “snow” along the way and becomes larger and larger. Snowball sampling is a non-
probability sampling method. It doesn’t have the probability involved, with say, simple
random sampling (where the odds are the same for any particular participant being chosen).
Rather, the researchers used their own judgment to choose participants.
5.5 Sampling and non-sampling errors

Sampling error: The errors arises due to estimating population parameters only by selecting few
units (sample) is called sampling error.
Methods of minimizing sampling errors
 Increase sample size
 Cross check
 Unbiased sampling
 Appropriate sampling design
 Clear questionnaire
Non-sampling errors: Errors which are incurred from other sources than selection of sample are
known as non-sampling errors.
Major non-sampling errors
 Error of poor sampling design
 Over and under coverage
 Misinterpretation of questions
 Processing errors
 Respondent related errors
 Errors of researcher
 Measuring errors
5.6 Central limit theorem

The Central Limit Theorem states that the sampling distribution of the sample means approaches
a normal distribution as the sample size gets larger — no matter what the shape of the population
distribution. This fact holds especially true for sample sizes over 30. All this is saying is that as
you take more samples, especially large ones, your graph of the sample means will look more
like a normal distribution.

CHAPTER-6: DATA CLASSIFICATION

6.1 Classification of Data
a. Secondary Data and Primary Data
b. Qualitative Data and Quantitative Data
6.2 Secondary data sources

 Published sources: (Government reports and publications, Publication of semi-government
organizations, Reports and publications of international organizations, Private publications)
 Unpublished sources
 Computerized database
6.3 Use of Secondary data

 For reliability
 Supplement data
 Use for reference purpose
 For comparison
 For resolving the problem
 For collecting primary data
6.4 Precautions in the Use Of Secondary Data

 Suitability
 Adequacy
 Reliability
6.5 Advantages of Secondary Data

 Easy to generalize
 Helps to cross check
 Quick
 Cheap
 Reliability
6.6 Disadvantages of Secondary Data

a) Determination of reliability of secondary data is very difficult.
b) Limitations of secondary data are obvious in new research. Thus, the crux of the new
research may not be met.
c) Data may be manipulated by the previous researchers to achieve the research objectives; so,
the reliability of secondary data is questionable.
d) Secondary data does not match the new situations. Results of research conducted in different
situations using same data may not be correct.
e) It is very hard to find out the rationality of the information of data and wrong selection of
data leads to wrong research.
6.7 Sources of Primary Data

i. Interview: (direct personal interview, indirect oral interview) (The interview is conversation
with a purpose and therefore is more than oral exchange of information)

ii. Questionnaire: (A questionnaire is a formal list of questions designed to gather response from
respondents on a given topic, issue or event.)
6.8 Problems in Interview

 Competency of interviewers
 Biasness of interviewer and interviewee
 Contradiction
 Difference in culture
 Level of interviewer and interviewee
6.9 Principles of Interviewing

 Un-biasness
 Relevance
 Welcome
 Flexibility
 Do not be director
 Co-operative
 Sincerity
 Promote
 Control
 Listening
6.10 Factors affecting choice of data collection method

 Subject of research
 Resource and time
 Condition of study area and sample
 Nature of research design
 Capacity of available manpower
 Information recording method

CHAPTER 7: DATA COLLECTION METHODS

7.1 Data Collection Methods
 Interviews
 Questionnaires and surveys
 Observations
 Documents and records
 Focus groups
 Oral histories
7.2 Consideration While Formulating Plan for Data Collection

 Objective
 Scope
 Sources of information
 Method of data collection
 Unit of data collection
 Degree of accuracy
7.3 Observation
Observational study usually involve in intensive examination of particular group event of social
process. The researcher does not attempt to influence what happens in any way but aims instead
at an accurate description and analysis of what take place. In an observational study the researcher
actually witness social behaviour in its natural settings.
Types of Observation
• Participants and non-participant observation
• Direct and indirect observation
• Simple and systematic observation
• Subjective and objective observation
• Controlled and uncontrolled observation
• Causal and scientific observation
• Factual and inferential observation
Designing and conducting on observational study

• Defining the content of the study
• Developing data collection plan
• Securing observer and train them
• Launching the study
7.4 Advantages and limitation of observation methods

Advantages of Observation Method
• Simplest Method
• Useful for framing Hypothesis
• Greater Accuracy
• An universal method
• Only appropriate tool for certain cases
• Independent of People’s Willingness to Report
Limitations of Observation
• Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation
• Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at Hand
• Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study
• Lack of Reliability
• Faulty Perception
• Personal Bias of the Observer
• Slow Investigation
• Expensive
• Inadequate Method
• Difficulty in Checking Validity
7.5 Classification of survey methods

Survey is a method of gathering and compiling information from a group of people, more often
known as sample, with an intention of gaining knowledge by organizations, businesses or
institutions. This information or opinion collected from sample, is more often generalization of
what a large population thinks. Surveys provide important or critical information in the form of
meaningful data which is further used by businesses or organization to make informed and sound
decisions.
Types of survey based on deployment methods:
a. Online surveys: One of the most popular types of survey is online survey. With technology
advancing many folds with each passing day, online survey is becoming more popular. This
survey consists of survey questions that can be easily deployed to the respondents online via
email or they can simply access the survey if they have an internet connection. These surveys
are easy to design and simple to deploy. Respondents are given ample time and space to
respondent to answer these surveys and so researchers can expect unbiased responses. They
are less expensive as compared to traditional surveys and data can be collected and analyzed
quickly.
b. Paper surveys: As the name suggests, this survey uses the traditional paper and pencil
approach. Many would believe that paper surveys are a thing of past. However, they are quite
handy when it comes to field research and data collection. These surveys can go where
computers, laptops or other handheld devices cannot go. There is a flipside to it too, this
survey type is the most expensive method of data collection. It includes deploying a large
number of human resources along with time and money.
c. Telephonic Surveys: These surveys are conducted usually over telephones. Respondents are
asked questions related to the research topic by researcher. These surveys are time-consuming
and sometimes non-conclusive, as the success of such surveys dependents on how many
people answer the phone and would want to invest their time in answering questions over the
telephone.
d. One-to-One interviews: One-to-one interview helps researchers gather information or data
directly from a respondent. It’s a qualitative research method and depends on the knowledge
and experience of a researcher to frame and ask relevant questions one after the other to collect
meaningful insights from the interview. These interviews can last from 30 minutes up to a
few hours.

CHAPTER-8: RESEARCH DESIGN

8.1 Research design:
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigations conceived so as to obtain
answer of research questions and to control variance. Research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement
and qualities of data.
8.2 Features Of Research Design

 Reliability
 Objectivity
 Validity
 Replicability
 Generalizability
8.3 Considerations while Designing Research Design

 Useful and less costly
 Flexibility
 Reliability
 Simplification of research
 Minimize errors
 Draw appropriate results
8.4 Classification of Research Design

 Exploratory research design
 Historical research design
 Developmental research design
 Causal comparative research design
 Experimental research
 Descriptive research design
 Case study
 Correlational study
 Survey method
 Quasi-experimental research
8.5 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research includes an array of interpretive techniques which seeks to describe, decode,
translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency of certain more or less
naturally occurring phenomena in the social world. Qualitative research is an inquiry process of
understanding based on district methodological tradition of inquiry that explores a social or human
problem. A noted qualitative researcher indicates that qualitative research is ideal if you want to
extract feelings, emotions, motivations, perceptions, consumer language or self-describe behavior.
8.6 Features of Qualitative Research
 Interpretive
 Selection of sample
 Data collection
 Based on qualitative facts

 Change in research design
 Assumption
8.7 Assumptions of Qualitative Research

 Research keeps holistic approach
 Research is descriptive
 Research involves field work
 Research incorporates emergent design
 Primarily concerned with process rather than outcomes
 The process of research is inductive
 Research is subjective
8.8 Types of Qualitative Research

 Historical study
 Grounded theory
 Case study
 Ethnography
 Participative research

CHAPTER-9: FIELD WORKS AND REPORT

FINALIZATION
9.1 Data preparation
Data preparation is the process of cleaning and transforming raw data prior to processing and
analysis. It is an important step prior to processing and often involves reformatting data, making
corrections to data and the combining of data sets to enrich data. Data preparation is often a
lengthy undertaking for data professionals or business users, but it is essential as a prerequisite to
put data in context in order to turn it into insights and eliminate bias resulting from poor data
quality.
For example, the data preparation process usually includes standardizing data formats, enriching
source data, and/or removing outliers.
Data preparation steps:

 Gather data
 Discover and assess data
 Clean and validate data
 Transform and enrich data
 Store data
9.2 Field work process

 Project Selection – choose a topic and site
 Research Design – inductive or deductive? Description hypothesis.
 Site selection and techniques to collect data. Mixed methods? Team project?
 Data Collection – build rapport, give gifts
 Fieldwork – interviews, questionnaires, pictures, audio, video, life, history, texts,
mapping, field notes, journaling (for possible culture shock)
 Data Analysis – Content Analysis, Patterns
 Draw Conclusion – explain why?
 Write Ethnography – publish
Techniques of Field works

 Interviews
 Questionnaires - field notes, journal writing
 Watching and asking - tape recording, photography, video
 Life history
 Texts/historical sources
 Team projects
9.3 Research Report

A descriptive statement is made after the completion of research work with specific objectives
including work procedures and results. Such descriptive statement is known as research report.
Research report presents the research findings and procedures to the concerned parties in
scientific, systematic and well managed way.
Important of research Report

• Provide information
• Forms the base for article

• Measure validity and reliability
• Know the difference in knowledge
• Helps to prepare educational materials
• Helps to management decision
9.4 Types of Research Report

• Formal and informal report
• Short and long report
• Technical and popular report
• Internal and external report
• Analytical and informative report
9.5 Procedures for Writing Report

• Preparation of outline
• Time planning
• Management of data
• Start of writing report
• Prepare the first draft
• Put the report for some time
• Review and rewrite
9.6 Considerations while Research Report Writing

• Clear writing
• Coincide with the study objectives
• Put concentration on grammar, spelling and terminology
• Be selective
• Be objective
• Draw conclusions
9.7 Format and Components of Research Report /Thesis

• Title of the Research
• Acknowledgement
• Abstract
• Lists of Tables
• List of Figures
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Research Methodology
• Data Analysis and Major Findings
• Summary and Conclusions
• Bibliography

CHI-SQUARE TEST (X2)

A. Chi-Square Test
The chi-square tests provide hypothesis tests for qualitative data, where you have categorical data
instead of numerical data. Chi squared tests are therefore based on frequencies that the number of
items in the sample falling into each category. The distribution of chi square does not involve any
parameter of the distribution, and hence it is a non-parametric test. The Chi-square statistic denoted
by Greek letter χ2 and read as ki square, measures the difference between the observed frequency
and the expected frequency as follows:
(𝑂−𝐸 )2
X2=∑
𝐸
Where, O = Observed frequency
E = Expected frequency
B. Properties of χ  distribution
The some of the properties of χ  distribution are as follows:
a) The shape of a chi-square distribution curve for various values of degrees of freedom is
different.
b) The shape of a chi-square distribution curve is skewed to the right for small df and becomes
symmetric for large df.
c) The chi-square distribution assumes non negative values only, i.e.,   χ    .
d) The mean of a chi-square distribution is equal to its df and the
standard deviation is equal to √df, i.e., for a chi-square with ν df, the Mean = ν and the
standard deviation is √ν.
C. Conditions for the validity of χ  test

The χ  test is used under the following assumptions or conditions:
a. The sample observations should be independent.
b. The observed frequency should be equal to the expected frequency.
c. The total frequency should be reasonably large, say greater than 50.
d. No theoretical cell frequency should be less than 5.
e. If any theoretical frequency is less than 5, then for the applications of chi-square test, it is
pooled with the preceding or succeeding frequency so that the pooled frequency is more than
5 and finally adjusts for the degree of freedom lost in pooling.
D. Applications of Chi Square ( χ  ) distribution

The χ  -distribution has a number of applications in statistics; some of the
applications are as follows:
a. Test of goodness-of-fit.
b. Test of independence of attribute.
c. Test for population variance.
d. Test for homogeneity.
E. Chi-Square test of goodness of fit

The frequencies obtained from the actual performance of an experiment are called observed
frequencies. In a goodness of fit, we test the null hypothesis that the observed frequencies for an
experiment follow a certain pattern or theoretical distribution. This test is called a goodness of

fit because the hypothesis tested is how good the observed frequencies fit a given distribution.
Karl Pearson, 1900, developed a test for testing the significance of the discrepancy between
experimental values and theoretical values and the procedure for testing the goodness of fit is
summarized as follows:
Step 1: Setting up hypotheses

H0: There is no significant difference between observed and expected frequencies. In other words,
there is good compatibility between theory and experiment, or, experiment supports the
theory.
H1: There is significant difference between observed and expected frequencies. In other words,
there is no compatibility between theory and experiment, or, experiment does not support the
theory
F. Test of independence of attributes

In a test of independence, we test whether two attributes (characteristics) of a given population are
independent or not. For example, we may want to test if there is an association between being a
man or woman and having a preference for watching sports on television. As another example, we
may want to test is there an association gender and habits of smoking. For this, information can be
summarized and presented in two-way classification table which is also called contingency table.
The table below is the  contingency table presenting the distribution 200 persons according to
their gender and smoking habits of the persons.
The procedure for testing the independence of two attributes presented in rc contingency table is
as follows:
Setting up Hypotheses
H: There is no association or relationships between two attributes, i.e., two attributes are
independent.
H: There is association or relationships between two attributes, i.e., two attributes are dependent.

QUESTION ANSWER
1. What is research?
In simple word, we can say research is further search of knowledge. The term research is derived
from French term 'researcher' it means to “see or to find out again”. It is the combination of two
term ‘re’ and 'search'. So research means to search again for new fact or to modify older one in
any branch of knowledge. It is a systematic attempt to seek 'truth' or 'reality' beyond the horizons
of our knowledge.
Redman and Mary define research as ''systematized effort to gain knowledge''.
According to Clifford Woody “Research is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts
or principles, a diligent investigation to ascertain something”.
According to Carter V. Good “Research is the continuous discovery and exploration on
unknown”.
According to D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson
 Manipulation of things, concepts or symbols
 For the purpose of generalization
 To extend, correct or verify knowledge
 Knowledge may be used for constructions of theory or practice of an art
2. What are the characteristics of research?

The Characteristics of research can be summarized as follows:
 It is a systematic investigation
 It is a logical and objective
 It is organized to organize data
 It is pertinent and unhurried
 It requires courage
 It highly purposive
 It applied to the solution of wide range of problem or to find the solution for problem
 It maintains rigorous (severe) standards
 It is carefully recorded and reported
 It develops theory (principle)
 It helps to innovate new idea
 Research gather new knowledge
3. What are the various types of research?

There are various types of research, some of them are action research, experimental, basic research,
analytical research, descriptive search, applied and fundamental research, doctrinal and non-
doctrinal research, historical research, conceptual research, comparative research, survey research,
case study research, case research etc.
a) Action Research:
Action research is focused on the immediate application not development of theory. Its
findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universal
applicability. Action research may be defined as on the spot research which is carried out to
find the solution an immediate problem. It is a simple research, not sophisticated. It is used
for practical purpose or local purpose. It can be carried out with a minimum knowledge and
skill by a researcher.

Main purpose is to find out solution to an immediate problem carrying from day to day
practice. Action is localized research effort. The generalization derived from action research
cannot acquire universal validity.
b) Experimental Research
It is the empirical (experimental) in which variables are manipulated. Experimental Research
is an objective investigation in which researcher tries to find out relationship between
independent variable and dependent variable. Experimental Research is an objective
investigation in which the researcher tries to find out the relationship between independent
and dependent variables. (Cause and effect)
c) Pure or Basic research

It is not concerned with solving any practical problem of policy but with designing and
fashioning tools of analysis and with discovering underlying and if possible universal laws
and theories.
d) Applied or practical research

Applied research is associated with particular project and problem. Such research being of
practical value. It aim is to find a solution for an immediate problem facing a society. Applied
research is thus concerned with actual life. It discovers the what, how and why of actual life.
If sociology has to increase its importance it should lay emphasis upon the applied aspects.
e) Descriptive vs. Analytical research

In these types of research, the researcher's concerned with only what happened and what is
going to be happened. He goes to the field, collects primary data and analysis the data but in
analytical research the researcher does not go to the field; he only goes to the library and
collects secondary data. In analytical research the researcher has to use fact and information
already available and analyze and make critical evaluation of such fact, information
f) Applied vs. Fundamental research
Applied research is related to practical problem. First of all the researcher should have to
select the practical problem and then he conducts research over these problem. But
fundamental research is original or basic in character. It is also known as theoretical research,
because its objective is to discover or enunciate new but broad principles. It can be said that
these types of research and pure and basic research are similar in nature.
g) Conceptual vs. Empirical research

In another word it can be said Doctrinal vs. Non - Doctrinal research. Conceptual research
is solely related with the concept or particular doctrine. Secondary sources of information are
sufficient for this study but in empirical research we should have formulate the hypothesis on
the basis of research problem. Hypothesis is a presumed solution of the problem. After testing
the hypothesis on the basis of collected data, the result maybe right or may be wrong also.
h) Scientific Research:
Science is defined as a systematic organization of knowledge which has two purposes,
a. To improve the quality of life or quality of knowledge or information and
b. Development of explanatory relationship called theories

Science is based on facts, employs the method of analysis, employs hypothesis, free from
emotional bias, and employs objective measurement, quantitative methods in treatment of
data.
According to Kerlinger scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, critical
investigation of hypothetical proposition about the presumed relations among natural
phenomenon. Scientific research is the reasoning process of consciously observing, analyzing,
and conceptualizing, synthesizing, evaluating, problem solving research according to proven
standard like clarity, soundness, and fairness, professionalization on the basis of creative
thinking.
Theory is an assumption or system of assumption which is taken as accepted principles and
rules of procedures based on limited information or knowledge devised to analyze prediction.
Theory is nature of a specified set of phenomena. Scientists are likely to say “there is nothing
as useful as good theory” In every day speech people use theory to mean an assumption, idea.
In scientific research the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive
approaches are referred. Deductive reasoning works from the general to more specific which
is informally called a “top to down” approach. Inductive reasoning works the other way which
moves from specific observation to broader generalization and theories which is informally
called “bottom up” approach.
4. Define Questionnaire.
Questionnaire is an important tool of data collection. It is the systematic schedule or form of
questions. It is an easy and comfortable means to collect the data. The main purpose of questioners
is to collect information from the respondents who are scattered in a vast area and to achieve
success in collecting reliable and dependable data.
Questionnaire is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent
fills by himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of
population from which information is desires. It is one of the most widely used techniques in socio-
legal research.
Questionnaire is a reliable tool of data collection because it is a list of questions for individual or
group of people to get facts, knowledge or personal views of respondent related to the problem to
be solved. In questionnaire questions would be same for all the respondents. The questions are
usually mailed to the respondents who are expected to reply them. It can be sent to a large number
of respondents at the same time. It could cover wider area in the prescribe time.
Questionnaire is considered as an important and effective tool in legal research. It is not time
consuming and it can be sent to a large number of individuals simultaneously. It is less time
consuming and cheaper than other tools of data collection. Through questionnaire tool a researcher
can get more information from more people in short period of time.
5. Considerations in the Formulation of Questionnaire

To get effective result, the following guidelines should be followed during the formulation of
questionnaires;
 Keep the language pitch to the level of the respondent.
 Try to pick words that have the same meaning for everyone.
 Avoid long question.
 Do not generally assume that respondent possesses factual information, or firsthand
opinions.
 Establish the frame of reference you have in mind.

 In forming a question, either suggest all possible alternatives to the respondent or don't
suggest any.
 Protect you respondent's ego
 If you are after unpleasant orientations, give your respondent a chance to express his positive
feelings first so that he is not put in an unfavorable light.
 Decide whether you need a direct question, an indirect question or an indirect followed by
a direct question.
 Decide whether the question should be open or closed.
 Decide whether general or specific questions are needed.
 Avoid ambiguous wording.
 Avoid biased or leading questions
 Phrase questions so that they are not unnecessarily objectionable.
 Decide whether a personal or impersonal question will obtain the better response.
 Questions should be limited to a single idea or a single reference
6. What are the various types of Questionnaire?

The classification of questionnaire has been made in accordance with the tool determined by
researcher;
a. Structured Questionnaires:
Structured questionnaires are those which pose definite, concrete and pre-oriented questions,
they are prepared in advance and not constructed on the spot during the question period.
Additional questions may be asked only when some clarification is needed. The questions are
presented with exactly the same wording and in same order to all respondent. The form or the
question may be either closed or open (inviting free response).
A close form questionnaire is one in which there will be a few alternative answers. They may
be either yes/no type or multiple choice types, from which the respondent has to choose one.
The open end questionnaire is one in which the respondent has his freedom to express in his
own style. Open – end questionnaire is used mainly for intensive studies.
b. Unstructured Questionnaire:
Unstructured questionnaire contains a set of questions which are not structured in advance and
which may be adjusted according to the needs of question period. It aims at collecting the
maximum information.
Unstructured questionnaire is designed to obtain: opinions, viewpoints, attitudes and show the
relationship and interconnection between the data which is used for limited number of studies
e.g. studies of personal experiences, beliefs and attitudes. Unstructured questionnaire is often
used as the interview guide, which is non-directive.
7. Define Sampling and discuss major methods of sampling used in research.

Sampling is the process of selecting small portion of a population or universe as representative of
that population or universe. When field studies are undertaken in practical life, consideration of
time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items.
The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in order to
produce a miniature cross-section. The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a
'sample and the selection process is called 'sampling technique.'
Simply, reaching into the conclusion through the information of small portion of total populat ion
is called sampling method. It is defined differently by different philosophers. According to
P.V.Young: "Sampling is a miniature picture or cross section of the entire group or aggregate
from which sample is taken". Similarly, W.J.Good and P.K.Hatt define sampling as, "A sample, as
the same implies, is smaller representation of a large whole."
The portion or subset from the total population or universe is taken for the sampling is called
sample and the selection process is called sampling.
Sample: A Sample is a collection of items or elements from a population or universe. Hence a
sample only portion or subset of the universe or population. It comprises some observations
selected from the population. For instance, 50 students are drawn from a population of 500 of a
campus; these 50 students form the sample for the study.
Steps of a Sampling Design: Sampling processes has seven steps. According to Tull & Hawking,
these steps are sequential. This is described as follow:
a. Define the Population: In this step, population must be defined in terms of elements; sampling
units, extent and time. If the population is defined incorrectly the result will be meaning less
or misleading.
b. Specify the sampling Frame: A perfect sampling frame is one in which every element of the
population is represented. A sampling frame may be a telephone directory, an employee roster,
a listening from all students in the college or a list of residences in a locality. Maps also serve
frequently as a sample frame to list cites, streets, blocks etc.
c. Specify sampling Unit: The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the
population to be sampled. It may be the element itself or unit containing the elements. The
selection of the sample units is also partially dependent upon the overall design of the project.
d. Selection of the sampling Method: The sampling method is the way the sample units are
selected. There are several methods or techniques of selecting samples.
e. Determination the sample size: The number of the elements of the population to be sampled
is chosen. There are a multitude of factors, both quantitative and qualitative, that must be
addressed when choosing a sample size that will satisfy the research objective.
f. Specify the Sampling Plan: The sampling plan involves the specification of how each of the
decisions made thus far is to be implemented. In this step, the operational procedures for
selection of the sampling units are selected.
g. Select the sample: This is the final step of the sampling Process. This is the actual selection
of the sample elements. This requires a substantial amount of office and field work.
8. What are the types of Sampling?

There are different types of sample designs. On the representation basis, the sample may be
defined as follows:
1. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as 'random sampling' or 'chance
sampling.' Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection. Under this
sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. In
probability sampling, every element in the population has a known nonzero probability of
being selected. A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some
form of random selection. Probability Sampling can be categorized as follows:
a. Simple Random Sampling: This method of sampling is commonly used. In this method,
all items of the population have equal probability of being selected in the sample. For
instance, Lottery is also method of selecting a simple random sample. When the size of the
population is manageable, this method would be suitable.

b. Stratified Sampling: This method of sampling is used when we have to select samples
from heterogeneous populations. If we want to represent different sections of the
population in our study this method of sampling is suitable. This method is also called
proportional sampling. The process for drawing a stratified Sample is:
 Determine the variables to use for stratification.
 Determine the proportionate stratification based on study’s information needs and
risks.
 Divide the sampling frame into separate for each stratum.
 Randomize the elements within each stratum’s sampling.
 Follow random or systematic procedures to draw the sample.
c. Cluster Sampling: This method can be combined with stratified procedures to ensure a
representative sample. This sampling method is widely used in conducting "area surveys"
or "opinion surveys". The basis of cluster sampling is the geographical location. Cluster
Sampling is appropriate when random sampling is not possible. The main advantage of
cluster sampling is that it is less time consuming. In cluster sampling, we follow following
steps:
 Divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries).
 Randomly sample clusters.
 Measure all units within sampled clusters.
d. Systematic Sampling: When population is very large, at that time it becomes very difficult
to do sampling. So the right alternative is Systematic Sampling. In this sampling,
population is ordered in some pattern with some characteristics being invested. It is not
necessary to number all the population members from 1 to N but only to know the values
of N, the population size. This method involves the random selection of the first item and
then each item will be selected in each nth interval. This is simples and most widely used
method of drawing a sample. The interval ‘n’ is fixed by dividing the population by sample
size. To draw systematic sample we have to follow the following procedure:
 List the total number of units in the population.
 Decide the sample size.
 Calculate the sampling ratio. (K=total population size divided by size of the desired
sample).
 Identify the random start.
 Draw a sample by choosing every Kth entry.
2. Non Probability Sampling: Non- probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does
not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being
included in the sample. The main difference between probability and non-probability sampling
is that non probability sampling does not involve in random selection where as probability
sampling does. The methods of non-probability sampling are as follows:
a. Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling refers to samples selected not by judgment
or probability techniques but because the elements in a fraction of the population can be
reached conveniently. There is no attempt made to have a representative sample. Selection
of sampling units is totally based on the convenience of the researcher. When both time
and money are seriously limited, convenience samples are widely used. Although
convenient sampling is not very scientific, it is perfectly valid in exploratory research or in
pre test phase of a study where there is need to get only an approximation of the actual
value. This method is quick, convenient and less expensive. In this method, the selection
of sample is based on the convenience of researcher.
b. Quota sampling: In quota sampling, the population is divided into a number of segments
and the researcher arbitrarily selects a quota of sample items from each segment. The main
purpose of this sampling method is to develop a sample that is a replica of the population
of interest. There are two types of quota sampling: Proportional Quota sampling and Non-
proportional Quota Sampling. Three steps operation is done in quota sampling:
 Deciding how many segments the population will be divided into
 Deciding what percentage of the ample items should be from each segment
 Actually selecting the sample items.
c. Judgment sampling: Judgmental samples are selected from the population through
researcher’s intuition or on some other subjective basis. The selection of the sample is
deliberate and purposive, it is not random. Sample representative ness is highly dependent
upon the good judgment of the researcher. In judgment sampling, subjects are selected on
the basis of their experience in the subject investigated. The result of such sample can not
be generalized.
d. Snowball sampling: The design is widely used in applications where respondents are
difficult to identify and are best located through referral networks. Individuals are
discovered and are selected for study. This group is then used to locate others who possess
similar characteristics and who, in turn, identify others. The “snowball” gather subjects as
it rolls along. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach
populations that are inaccessible or hard to find. This sampling is particularly used to study
drug cultures, teenage gang activities, power elites, community relations, political
activities, insider trading and other applications where respondents are difficult to identify
and contact. The main problem in this sampling is making initial contacts.
 The procedures followed in snowball sampling are as follows:
 Make contact with one or two cases in the population
 Ask these new cases to identify further cases
 Ask these new cases to identify further new cases.
 Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is as large as is manageable.
9. Write about merit and demerit of sampling.

A. The merit or advantage of sampling method can be presented as follows:
a. Sampling can be highly accurate, if done with care.
b. Surveying an entire population would take much longer than a sample study, and time is
often very important. This method saves time, money and energy. Human and financial
resources are considerably saved.
c. It becomes possible to cover wide areas and to manage that within reasonably short time.
d. It is possible to scrutinize the whole information through a small sample.
e. This method helps to save resources because through this method research can be
conducted within limited resources.
f. In this method more attention is paid to the problem to be studies since human energies
and financial resources are limited, therefore, when there are concentrated on a sample
obviously more attention is paid and more interest is taken as compared with a situation
where the universe in wide and practically unmanageable.
g. The researcher does not offend as many people and those who are offended have less
chance to organize in their common interest because no respondent knows the identity of
other respondents who have been asked the same question.
B. Disadvantages:
a. The researcher should be skilful; otherwise this method can bring wrong result.
b. Results obtained with the help of sampling method can be helpful only when sample is
properly selected and there are no personal prejudices and biases while picking up the
sample but in practice, sample have prejudice and biases, if there is biasness the results
would be wrong or misleading.
c. Sample is considered as representative of the total population but in practice, it is
impossible to pick up two similar samples.
d. There is more chance of errors because the universe or population is small.
e. Social problem, approach of each and every individual even in the same area is not uniform.
So it is quite unsafe to apply the results of a sample to the study as a whole and draw
conclusion for the whole population. Therefore, there is very danger that some wrong
conclusions may be derived.
In spite of all these defects, sampling method for investigating social problems is being very much
preferred; particularly when numbers of units covered in the study are many and it will not be
possible to approach them all. It is helpful to collect basis fact and it is used where census in not
impossible. It is very useful when the units of the study are alike and there are no variations in
their characteristics, though while investigating social problems.
10. Define survey and write about objective, characteristics, kind, advantages and limitations
of survey.
The word, survey means to look or to oversee. According to P.V Young social survey is
concern with;
 The formulation of a constructive program of social reform
 Amelioration of current conditions of a social pathological nature
 These conditions can be measured and compared with situation which can be
accepted as model
Mark Abram says a social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected
about the social aspect of a community’s composition and activity.
Objective of the survey: The objectives of survey are as follows:
 To study of social problem
 Test of hypothesis through the collection of data
 Description and Explanation of a phenomena
 Utilitarian and practical
 Data collection regarding social problem
Characteristics of survey: The characteristics of survey are as follows:
 It is confined with the specific study
 It deals with a representative sample of the population
 It seeks responses directly from the respondent
 It usually involves many respondents
 It is concluded in the natural setting
Kind of survey: The kinds of survey are as follows:
 General and specific survey

 Regular and ad hoc survey
 Preliminary and final survey
 Census and Sample survey
General and Specific survey: A survey is conducted for collecting general
information about any population, institution or phenomena without any particular
object or hypothesis.
Specific survey: Specific survey is conducted for specific problems or for testing the
validity of some theory or hypothesis.
Regular and ad hoc survey: Some surveys are regular in nature and must repeat
after regular intervals. Ad hoc survey is undertaken once for all.
Preliminary and final survey: A preliminary survey in generally known as pilot
study and it is the ancestor of the final survey.
Census and sample survey: In census survey every single unit in the universe is to be
contacted and information collected from them. In sample survey only a small part of
population is taken as representative of the whole and survey is conducted among the
sample
Type of survey
 Interview survey
 Questionnaire survey
 Telephone survey
 Group survey
 Panel survey
Advantages of survey
 Constructive plan can be made for the development of the society.
 It helps to solve the problems.
 It gives basis to build the foundation for the completion of a research project
 It helps to gathered well organized information on a particular problem.
 It is more reliable.
 Researcher may come in direct contact with respondents.
Disadvantage/ Limitations of survey
 The main drawback of survey is that it involves a large amount of money.
 It takes times.
 Data collected through the survey is not always reliable.
 It may include sampling error.
 It does not take into account the historical perspective.
 It emphasizes only immediate problem.
11. Define research design and write about purpose, parts, major steps and types, of research
design.
Pauline V. Young, “A research design is a plan of action, a plan for collecting and analyzing
the data in an economic, efficient and relevant manner.”
Purpose of Research Design:
Kerlirger observed the research design has two basic purposes.
1. To provide answer to research question.
2. To control variance (disagreement)
Variance means the difference between two or more variables. For the purpose
of making control of variance “MAX – MIN – CON” formula can be applied. It means
maximize systematic variance, minimize error variance and control extraneous
variance. Extraneous means unnecessary variable, beyond the dependent and
independent variables.
Parts of Research Design

According to C.R. Kothari, there are four types of parts of design.
1. Sampling design – methods of collecting
2. Observational design – tool of collecting primary data
3. Statistical design – How many items to be observed
4. Operational design – How you will operate above mentioned design.
Major Steps of Research Design

1. Decide on a general topic
2. Review the relevant prior literature
3. Scope of the investigation
4. Objectives of the study
5. Formulation of hypothesis
6. Selection of the sample
7. Data collection
8. Analysis and interpretation of data
9. Verification of results
10. Operational Designing
a. Time budgeting
b. Cost estimation
c. Organizational framework
d. Universe (Geographical areas to be covered by the study)
Types of Research Design

1. Exploratory or Formulative studies to gain familiarity with the phenomena or to
achieve new insight into it often to develop hypothesis.
2. Descriptive studies – to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
situation or group of individual.
3. Design of Diagnostic studies – to determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
4. Experimental studies – to test a hypothesis suggesting a causal relationship
between variables.
12. Write about the research hypothesis.

Hypothesis is formulated only in empirical or non-doctrinal research. Hypothesis is a tentative
solution of research problem. In another word Hypothesis is a reduced form of problem.
K.D. Belley states that “A hypothesis is a propositions that is stated in testable form and that
predicts a particular relationship between two or more variables.”

According to F.N. Kerlinger “A hypothesis is a conjectural (guessing) statement of the relation

between two or more variables. Hypothesizes are always declarative sentence form and they
revoke either generally or specially two or more variables.”
Criteria for good Hypothesis

1. Hypothesis is statement relating to show variables relationship.
2. Hypothesis carry clear implications for testing started variables.
Importance of Hypothesis
1. Hypothesis is the working instruments of theory.
2. Hypothesis can be tested and shown to be probably true or probably false.
3. Hypothesis is a powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge.
13. Write about the stage of research.

Every research begins with a question or a problem of some sort. The aim of research is to discover
answers to meaningful questions through the application of scientific procedures. There are five
major steps in research. These are;
1. Choosing the research problem and stating the hypothesis
2. Formulating the research design
3. Collecting the data
4. Coding and analysis the data
5. Interpreting the results so as to test the hypothesis
In addition to these steps, there may be other more practical demands as per the scientific
requirements of the study. For the instances, the budget must be planned, funds must be obtained
and administered, personnel must be allocated and in some cases specially trained, the setting
within which the data are to be collected must be explored and the co-operation of the people
sought.
14. Write about the research problem.

It is an old and wise saying that “a problem well put is half solved. A problem is an interrogative
sentence or statement that asks questions which variables can solve the problem.
The criteria of problem
1. Problem must be question form
2. Problem must concern relation between two or more variables
3. Must try to mention in problem which solved empirically.
“Specificity” and “clarity” two major quality
Various factor which effects directly or indirectly while choosing problem

1. Familiarity of researcher with the topic
2. Importance of research in the particular time being.
3. Availability of material – (data, information)
4. Researcher’s value, (Personal Value)
5. Researcher’s social, political and business paradigms
6. The nature of research (what type of research you have to go conduct)
7. The response, researcher might receive after the completion of his/her research or how
people will be benefited from your working.
8. Time and finance

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5.4 Types of Samplings ................................................................................................... 19

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9.4 Types of Research Report ......................................................................................... 28

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CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Systematic and objective investigation on a particular subject or a problem in order to discover

It is a process that involves systematic design, collection, interpretation and reporting of

“Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical

“Systematized effort to gain new Knowledge”.

1.2 What is Social Research?

Social research is a scientific process

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1.3 Types of Research

1.4 Why people undertake research work?

1.5 Different Purposes of Research

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C. Analysis (or explanation)

D. Generalization and Prediction

1.6 Scientific Research Process

c) Research design/Theoretical framework: The main function of a research design is to

g) Refinement of theory or practice: Process of expanding the stock of knowledge is continuous

1.7 Characteristics of Scientific Research

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1.8 Emerging paradigms in research

1.9 Business Research

1.10 Objectives of Business Research

1.11 Nature of Business and Management Research

1.12 Types of Management Research

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A. Policy research – The development of a foundation of information to be used as a basis for

1.13 Ethics in Business Research

Ethical Issues and Principles

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CHAPTER-2: RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND

2.2 Beginning the Proposal Process

2.3 Common Mistakes to Avoid during Writing Proposal

2.4 Contents of Research Proposal

2.5 Criteria for Evaluating Research Proposal

2.6 Proposal for funded research

2.7 Literature Review

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Need and Significance of Literature Review

2.8 Steps in review of literature or four phase of literature review

2.9 Recording the literature:

2.10 Organizing Library Findings

 All relevant collection should be kept in an organized way.

2.11 The Critical Review

In writing critical review one need:

The structure of critical review:

2.13 Evaluating the Contents of the Literature

B. Evaluating the Methods Section

C. Evaluating the Result Section

D. Evaluating the Discussion Section

2.14 Secondary Sources

2.15 Literature search through internet

2.16 Evaluation Criteria for the Literature from Various sources

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• Have you found similar information in a scholarly or peer-reviewed

2.17 How to Write a Research Based Report?

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CHAPTER-3: MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

Types of Scale (Four levels of data measurement):