R Notebook

Today is Feb 5th and we are flipping!

1:4 # create a sequence

## [1] 1 2 3 4
-2:2

## [1] -2 -1 0 1 2
exp(-2:2)

## [1] 0.1353353 0.3678794 1.0000000 2.7182818 7.3890561

1:4+exp(-2:2)

## Warning in 1:4 + exp(-2:2): longer object length is not a multiple of

## shorter object length
## [1] 1.135335 2.367879 4.000000 6.718282 8.389056
this is a new chunk
help(pi)
pi

## [1] 3.141593
LETTERS

## [1] "A" "B" "C" "D" "E" "F" "G" "H" "I" "J" "K" "L" "M" "N" "O" "P" "Q"
## [18] "R" "S" "T" "U" "V" "W" "X" "Y" "Z"
pi>10

## [1] FALSE
all together
exp(-2:2) > 5

## [1] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE

sum(exp(-2:2) > 5)

## [1] 1
bigger-or-equal test is “>=”
d <- read.table("http://virgo.unive.it/paolop/papers/grades.txt")
str(d)

## 'data.frame': 167 obs. of 1 variable:

## $ V1: Factor w/ 53 levels "-1","-1.5","0",..: 53 17 41 41 38 22 11 34 33 35 ...
d2 <- read.table("http://virgo.unive.it/paolop/papers/grades.txt",header=T)
str(d2)

## 'data.frame': 166 obs. of 1 variable:

## $ grade: num 16 28.5 28.5 26.5 18.5 13 24 23.5 24.5 3 ...
how to extract the grades from d2? use the dollar operator

1
d2$grade

## [1] 16.0 28.5 28.5 26.5 18.5 13.0 24.0 23.5 24.5 3.0 11.0 16.0 16.5 15.5
## [15] 24.0 22.5 31.0 31.0 18.5 8.5 17.0 18.5 29.0 26.5 14.5 28.5 18.0 31.0
## [29] 13.5 29.0 18.0 25.0 21.0 13.0 12.5 31.0 -1.0 31.0 3.5 24.0 22.0 31.0
## [43] 9.5 26.0 19.5 13.5 9.5 17.0 31.0 26.5 22.0 23.5 19.5 31.0 31.0 26.5
## [57] 28.5 12.5 26.0 28.0 24.5 0.0 16.5 4.5 24.0 28.5 12.0 24.0 29.0 5.0
## [71] 24.0 20.5 4.5 13.0 -1.0 18.5 31.0 15.0 31.0 11.0 5.0 26.0 20.0 29.0
## [85] 18.0 18.0 31.0 7.5 14.0 24.0 19.0 0.0 31.0 26.0 22.0 26.0 10.0 11.5
## [99] 15.5 24.0 24.0 -1.5 26.0 23.5 18.0 23.5 21.0 17.5 5.0 18.0 14.5 8.5
## [113] 10.5 18.5 15.0 16.5 3.0 23.5 13.5 1.5 24.5 21.5 26.5 26.0 14.5 31.0
## [127] 31.0 2.5 3.0 24.0 24.0 15.5 24.0 26.5 28.5 10.0 10.5 29.0 17.5 22.0
## [141] 15.0 12.5 19.5 22.0 10.5 28.5 31.0 28.5 8.5 31.0 18.5 16.5 26.0 13.0
## [155] 27.0 31.0 17.0 22.0 9.0 2.0 5.5 4.5 22.0 26.5 31.0 29.0
sum(d2$grade>=18)

## [1] 100
one more step: how do i extract proper substes of data?
passing_grades <- d2$grade[d2$grade>=18]
passing_grades

## [1] 28.5 28.5 26.5 18.5 24.0 23.5 24.5 24.0 22.5 31.0 31.0 18.5 18.5 29.0
## [15] 26.5 28.5 18.0 31.0 29.0 18.0 25.0 21.0 31.0 31.0 24.0 22.0 31.0 26.0
## [29] 19.5 31.0 26.5 22.0 23.5 19.5 31.0 31.0 26.5 28.5 26.0 28.0 24.5 24.0
## [43] 28.5 24.0 29.0 24.0 20.5 18.5 31.0 31.0 26.0 20.0 29.0 18.0 18.0 31.0
## [57] 24.0 19.0 31.0 26.0 22.0 26.0 24.0 24.0 26.0 23.5 18.0 23.5 21.0 18.0
## [71] 18.5 23.5 24.5 21.5 26.5 26.0 31.0 31.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 26.5 28.5 29.0
## [85] 22.0 19.5 22.0 28.5 31.0 28.5 31.0 18.5 26.0 27.0 31.0 22.0 22.0 26.5
## [99] 31.0 29.0
question: can i extract grades from 22 to 26 included?
bigger22 <- d2$grade>=22
smaller26 <- d2$grade<=26
grades2226 <- d2$grade[bigger22 & smaller26]
grades2226

## [1] 24.0 23.5 24.5 24.0 22.5 25.0 24.0 22.0 26.0 22.0 23.5 26.0 24.5 24.0
## [15] 24.0 24.0 26.0 24.0 26.0 22.0 26.0 24.0 24.0 26.0 23.5 23.5 23.5 24.5
## [29] 26.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 22.0 22.0 26.0 22.0 22.0
how to show a graph?
hist(grades2226)

2
 Histogram of grades2226
12
10
8
Frequency

6
4
2
0

22 23 24 25 26

grades2226
hist(d2$grade)

Histogram of d2$grade
30
25
Frequency

20
15
10
5
0

0 10 20 30

d2$grade
how to use the if sentence? let’s ploat a function y xˆ2
x <- seq(-3,3,length=21)
x

3
## [1] -3.0 -2.7 -2.4 -2.1 -1.8 -1.5 -1.2 -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9
## [15] 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
x <- seq(-3,3,len=21)
x

## [1] -3.0 -2.7 -2.4 -2.1 -1.8 -1.5 -1.2 -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9
## [15] 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
y <- x^2
plot(x,y)
8
6
y

4
2
0

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

x
if(2>3) "ciao" else "miao"

## [1] "miao"
if(c(T,F)) "ciao" else "miao"

## Warning in if (c(T, F)) "ciao" else "miao": the condition has length > 1
## and only the first element will be used
## [1] "ciao"
if(c(F,T)) "ciao" else "miao"

## Warning in if (c(F, T)) "ciao" else "miao": the condition has length > 1
## and only the first element will be used
## [1] "miao"
use a new function when many ifs are to be performed
# ifelse(vb,vt,vf)
ifelse(c(T,F),"ciao","miao")

## [1] "ciao" "miao"

exercise 7

4
tent <- function(x) if(x<0.5) 2*x else 2-2*x
tent(1/4)

## [1] 0.5
tent2 <- function(x) ifelse(x<0.5,2*x,2-2*x)
tent2(1/4)

## [1] 0.5
tent(c(1/4,1/2,3/4))

## Warning in if (x < 0.5) 2 * x else 2 - 2 * x: the condition has length > 1

## and only the first element will be used
## [1] 0.5 1.0 1.5
tent2(c(1/4,1/2,3/4))

## [1] 0.5 1.0 0.5

this was typed after the end of the lecture, when a student asked me about “sumfraction
sumfraction <- function(r,s,t){
num <- r*t+s
den <- t
if(t==0) "errore" else c(num,den)
}
sumfraction(1,2,3)

## [1] 5 3
sumfraction(2,1,0)

## [1] "errore"
what you see below is the standard text filling the template o notebook.
This is an R Markdown Notebook. When you execute code within the notebook, the results appear beneath
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Try executing this chunk by clicking the Run button within the chunk or by placing your cursor inside it and
pressing Cmd+Shift+Enter.
plot(cars)

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dist

60
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0

5 10 15 20 25

speed
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