Science - Grade 7

Science - Grade 7
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Modules in this course
 Matter
 Living Things and their Environment
 Force, Motion and Energy
 Earth and Space
Matter
15 topics150 questions
Topics under this module
 Introduction to the Scientific Method

 The Scientific Method
 Introduction to Scientific Investigations
 Tools in Scientific Investigation
 Introduction to Scientific Research
 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
 Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions
 Acids and Bases
 Concentration of Solutions
 Molarity
 Molality
 Percent Concentration
 Uses of Acids and Bases
 Classification of Acids and Bases
 The Properties of Metals and Nonmetals
Introduction to the Scientific Method
 Lesson5 chapters
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the steps of the scientific method.
What will you do if your wallet is missing? What are the steps that you will do to find it? How is this scenario related to the scientific method?
Let's find out!
Learn about it!

One day, you notice that your wallet is missing. You search everywhere in your room, but there's no sign of it. You talk to your parents and siblings, but they do not
seem to know where your wallet is. Then you stop and think for a moment as to where it may be.
What are the steps you will take to find the missing wallet?
The scientific method is a series of organized steps that are taken to answer a question or solve a problem. You can apply the scientific method by gathering
information and thinking of possible solutions to the problem.
In the case of a missing wallet, you search out for clues as to where the wallet may be, lay out possible scenarios, and test all the possible answers until you find it.
There are six steps to follow when using the scientific method.
1. Identify the problem. The first step of the scientific method involves asking a question or defining a problem. Answer the question: what do you want to know? An
example would be, "Which type of soil is best for growing mongo plants?" or "Do boys have faster reflexes than girls?"
2. Gather information. Using your senses (sight, touch, smell, hearing, and even taste), gather relevant information to answer the problem.
2. Formulate a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess that may lead to a possible solution to the problem.
3. Test the hypothesis. Perform an experiment to accept or reject the hypothesis.
5. Collect the data. When doing an experiment, record observations and present them in a clear format. The data can be presented in tables and graphs.
6. Draw a conclusion. Analyze the data to draw a rational conclusion. If the hypothesis is true, then the problem is solved. Otherwise, formulate and test other
hypotheses.
Try it!
During the ancient times, the Egyptians believed that frogs are produced from mud. This is because every spring, many frogs appear in the mud near the Nile River.
Given this scenario, use every step of the scientific method to accept or reject the hypothesis regarding the origin of frogs.
What do you think?
What are the characteristics of a valid experiment?
Key Points
 The scientific method is a series of organized steps that are taken to answer a question or solve a problem.
 The six steps of the scientific method are identify the problem, gather information, formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, collect the data, and
draw a conclusion.
The Scientific Method
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to apply the steps in scientific method to different scenarios.
From the previous lesson, you have learned that:
 Scientific method is a series of organized steps that one can use to answer a question or solve a problem.
 The scientific method is composed of the following steps: identifying the problem, gathering information, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis,
collecting data, and drawing a conclusion.
How can you apply these steps in solving problems of your own?
Learn about it!

Aside from the steps of the scientific method, there are some important things you need to know for you to be able to apply the scientific method correctly and
efficiently.
In formulating a hypothesis, keep in mind that:
 To show a cause-and-effect relationship, the hypothesis must explain the cause, while the observation simply states the effect.
 Your hypothesis must be testable. A hypothesis can never be proven right or wrong with absolute certainty because it is impossible to test all conditions. It is
possible that an accepted hypothesis be rejected especially when someone has better equipment and is able to find cases under which your hypothesis does
not turn out acceptable.
Example
You noticed that some plants grow under the shade of some trees, without direct sunlight. Having known this, you want to know if the plants need sunlight to grow.
You can state your hypothesis as:
Plants do not need to be in direct sunlight to grow.
Try It!
Can you think of another hypothesis you can use in the example above?
Learn about it!

In testing your hypothesis, it is important to design an experiment that will lead you to see if the predicted results are achieved. Remember, your experiment does not
prove the hypothesis but rather supports it.
In designing your experiment, you may use two setups to represent the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group is the setup that is exposed
to the conditions of the experiment, while the control group is not. You also look into two variables in doing an experiment. These are the independent variable and
dependent variable. In an experiment, the independent variable is the value manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable relies on the independent
variable.
Finish your experiment by concluding whether the results support your hypothesis, or if it rejects your hypothesis. When you reject your hypothesis, you can write
another hypothesis, and design another experiment to test it .
Example
Given the same hypothesis for the same problem in the previous chapter, the following can be the design of your experiment:
 Gather two plants of the same species, with the same age and size.
 Keep one in the kitchen cabinet away from any sunlight. Keep the other one outside where it is exposed to sunlight.
 Using a ruler, measure the height of the two plants from the soil to the highest part of the plant. Measure the height every day for two to three weeks.
 Organize your data into tables and charts so that it is easier to analyze.
 Make a conclusion.
What do you think?
In the example above, which is the experimental group and which is the control group? Why do you think so? Which is the independent variable and the dependent
variables in the experiment?
What do you think?

What do you think is the importance of the scientific method to scientists performing scientific investigations?
Key Points
 The hypothesis must be testable.
 The experimental group is the setup that is exposed to the conditions of the experiment, while the control group is not.
 In an experiment, the independent variable is the value manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable relies on the independent variable.
Introduction to Scientific Investigations
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the different types of scientific investigations.
In the previous lesson, you have learned how you can use the scientific method to answer scientific questions. When you mastered how to use the scientific method, you
can further your knowledge by performing scientific investigations which may implore the help of the scientific method to answer questions about the world.
What are the different types of investigations and how are these carried out?
Learn about it!

Scientists use multiple research methods to study the natural world. There are three types of scientific investigation that scientists use —descriptive, comparative, and
experimental.
Descriptive Investigation
This type of investigation involves describing and measuring different parts of any natural system. When doing a descriptive investigation, scientists don't ask a lot of
questions. They just observe the system and describe it in words. They may also draw diagrams to represent their observations. This type of investigation can be carried
out without formulating a hypothesis. Researchers using descriptive investigation are able to observe, list, identify, and describe given information or data.
Make sure to use caution, however, when using descriptive investigation. Do not taste or touch anything that might harm you. This type of investigation is good to use
when you're looking at something for the first time. It might lead to observations and questions that you can study using experimental or comparative investigation.
Example
You can use descriptive investigation in identifying and describing the parts and structure of a cell. With the use of a microscope, you can see the different parts of the
cell. You may describe each one by drawing the cell and its various parts such as in the image below.
Try it!
Using descriptive investigation, answer the question below.
What is the weather today?
Learn about it!

Comparative Investigation
When you want to study two or more subjects or conditions, you may use comparative investigation. Comparative investigation involves data collection regarding
different subjects or conditions and comparing them. This is commonly used in identifying the similarities and differences between seemingly related subjects or
conditions. This type of investigation makes full use of the scientific method, from identifying the problem to drawing a conclusion.
This type of investigation is good to use when you want to learn more about how different conditions affect your subject. This kind of study is very important in biology
because biologists use it to learn more about what kinds of conditions organisms thrive in.
Example
An example of this type of investigation is to investigate plants that bloom only at night. To investigate such plants, you can observe their characteristics during the day.
You may draw diagrams to show what you are looking at. And then, you can observe them again at night, and repeat the steps you took in the day. You would then
compare how the plant looks different in those two conditions.
Try it!
Use comparative investigation to answer the following question:
How can you tell apart an alligator from a crocodile?
Learn about it!

Experimental Investigation
In this type of investigation, scientists use the scientific method to manipulate, control, and measure variables to learn more about something. All possible variables are
identified and are held constant, except the variables that are manipulated in the experiment (independent variable). The change that occurs as a consequence of the
manipulation of the independent variable will be seen in the change (or the lack of change) of the dependent variable. These will then show the researcher the
relationship between the variables.
The variables are directly proportional if one variable increases, the other increases, as well. They are inversely proportional if one variable increases while the other
decreases.
Example
You want to know if the length of the string affects the time it takes a pendulum to complete a full swing. You can design your experimental investigation based on the
scientific method.
1. Problem: How does the length of the string affect the time it takes a pendulum to complete a full swing (period)?
2. Gather information: Gather relevant information such as the length of the string and the time it takes for the pendulum to complete a full swing (period).
3. Hypothesis: As the length of the string increases, the period also increases.
4. Experiment: You can vary the length of the string and check how it affects the period of the pendulum. The length of the string is your independent variable and the
period of the pendulum is your dependent variable.
5. Collect the data: Record observations and present them in a clear format. The data can be presented in tables and graphs.
6. Conclusion: As the length of the string of the pendulum increases, the period also increases. Therefore, the length of the string of the pendulum is directly
proportional to its period.
Try it!
Design an experimental investigation to answer the question below.
How does the mass of the pendulum bob affect the period of the pendulum?
What do you think?

What do you think happens next after you draw your conclusions?
Tip
Before starting your investigation, study your questions/problems first so that you can use the best type of investigation.
Key Points
 Descriptive investigation only use observations to identify, describe, and list characteristics of their subjects.
 Comparative investigation involves data collection regarding different subjects or conditions and comparing them.
 In experimental investigation, scientists use the scientific method to manipulate, control, and measure variables to learn more about something.
 The variables are directly proportional if one variable increases, the other increases, as well. They are inversely proportional if one variable increases
while the other decreases.
Tools in Scientific Investigation
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify different scientific tools used in scientific investigations.
To explain how planets move around the sun, you can create a model of the solar system.
Why do you think scientists need to create models?
Learn about it!

Models and Simulations
Science involves using models and simulations to help explain natural phenomena. A model represents the key characteristics of an object or event. It can be a visual
or a mathematical representation. On the other hand, a simulation represents the operation of a process or system over time. The purpose of a simulation is to study the
characteristics of a system by manipulating certain variables that are hard to control in a real system.
For example, a model of a water molecule contains its key characteristics such as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Also, bonds are present between the
atoms, and lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom may also be shown. In contrast, an example of a simulation of water molecules would be a study of these
molecules in the presence of another solvent like ammonia. The simulation could calculate for the bond energies of water molecules as they exhibit hydrogen bonding
with ammonia molecules.
Example
If you want to study more about the solar system, you can build a model or run a simulation.
Your model can be a drawing of the solar system with the planets' distances from the sun and the shape of their orbits according to a certain scale.
On the other hand, your simulation can involve calculations that describe how the solar system formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a small
part of a giant molecular cloud.
Try it!
You want to know how blood circulates around the body. How will your model look like? Can you also use a simulation in your investigation? Describe the possible
design of your simulation.
Learn about it!

Tables, Graphs, and Charts
After experiments are conducted, the data that scientific investigations produce must be analyzed in order to make generalizations and conclusions. Scientists use
tables, graphs, and charts to present their data.
Example
You are studying the changes in the volume of a gas as you increase its pressure at constant temperature and number of moles. You obtained a set of data that can be
organized in a table.
You can also graph the results to see how the two variables are related.
Using the graph, it is easy to see that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant temperature and number of moles.
Example
You can also use charts to present your data.
For example, you measured the composition of air in a certain area. You can present the values on a table.
Then, you can use a pie chart to show the relationship between the whole circle (100%) and the various slices that represent portions of that 100%. In this example,
those portions represent the components of the air.
What do you think?

What is the importance of using the tools in conducting a scientific investigation?
Key Points
 A model is a systematic description of an object or event.
 A simulation represents the operation of a process or system over time.
 Scientists use tables, graphs, and charts to present the data they have observed in their experiments.
Introduction to Scientific Research
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify biases and errors in scientific research.
Do scientists always get the correct answers when doing an experiment?
Learn about it!

Scientific knowledge is developed through observation, interpretation, and synthesis of evidence. However, sometimes researchers tend to be biased. In research, biases
occur when the researcher favors a condition and disregard the concept of fair testing. For example, including women in medical studies was once considered
unnecessary. This is a form of sample bias. The results of male-only studies are useful for men’s health, but they are insufficient to conclude about women’s health.
Scientists are human and can indeed make mistakes!
How are scientific mistakes corrected?
The nature of science, fortunately, is that it is always changing. Once a study is published, others can attempt the same experiment to ensure the results are repeatable.
If the results cannot be replicated, scientists attempt to figure out why. Often such work will help reveal an explanation better than the original one.
If the results are repeatable, scientists will instead build on the original explanation to conduct research towards answering a new, closely related question. Thus,
scientific knowledge usually improves in small increments by collecting new evidence and considering alternative explanations for results. Scientists make mistakes,
but they are excellent at correcting them.
Example
Other biases may relate to the sorts of questions or researchers that receive research funding, conflicts of interest between an organization’s goals and its research, use
of inadequate methodology, or simply the difficulty of giving up one’s personal favorite hypothesis.
Learn about it!

Going Beyond Human Limitations
Technology, commonly defined as the application of science, plays an important role in science by expanding the observations that people make and the amount of
information one can process. One example of a technology which allowed the development of an entire field of scientific knowledge is the the invention of the
microscope.
In 1665, Robert Hooke looked at slices of cork under a microscope. He found empty walled compartments in the nonliving tissue and named them cells. Nine years
later, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope to examine a drop of water and began to identify many single-celled organisms. Based on the work of many scientists
using microscopes, Henri Dutrochet proposed the cell theory in 1824. The theory holds that cells are the basic building blocks of living organisms, and that all living
organisms consist of cells and cellular products. Today, cell biology is a research area employing thousands of researchers worldwide. Hadn't the microscope been
invented, these scientists wouldn't have any means to carry out their investigations.
Example
Another technological advancement is the invention of the transistor. A transistor is a device which is used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power. The invention of the transistor paved way to other inventions like the transistor radio, amplifiers, telephones, and computers which made people's lives easier.
What do you think?

If you are a scientist and you know that you made an error in your investigation, how will you correct it?
Key Points
 Scientific knowledge is developed through observation, interpretation, and synthesis of evidence.
 Scientific knowledge may also sometimes be biased.
 Scientists also make mistakes.
 Technology is the application of science.
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to differentiate elements, compounds, and mixtures.
Matter can be classified as pure substances and mixtures. Pure substances can be further classified into elements and compounds.
What are elements, compounds, and mixtures?
Learn about it!

Element
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down further either by physical or chemical means. It is made up of only one kind of atom.
Each element's atoms are unique to that element. So if there are two elements, X and Y, then these two would have different types of atoms.
At present, there are 118 elements that have been identified. 94 are naturally-occurring elements while the remaining 24 are synthetic.
Example
Carbon (C), oxygen (O), and magnesium (Mg) are all examples of elements. You can check the Periodic Table of Elements for a complete list of elements and their
properties.
Explore!
Elements cannot be broken down using chemical methods. However, they can be changed into other elements through nuclear reactions. Research about the different
types of nuclear reactions that change the identity of the elements. What is the importance of studying these types of reactions?
Learn about it!

Compound
A compound is a substance that can be broken down into its constituent elements only by chemical means. It is a combination of two or more elements bound by
chemical bonds. For example, elements X and Y may combine to form to a compound. If one atom of element X forms a compound with two atoms of element Y, then
the resulting compound is XY2.
A compound always contains the same ratio of its constituent elements. For example, one molecule of water always contains one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
hydrogen.
The properties of a compound are different from its constituent elements. For example sodium is a reactive metal while chlorine is a poisonous gas. However, when
they combine, a safe and stable sodium chloride, (table salt) is formed.
Example
Water (H2O), Ammonia (NH3), and table salt (NaCl) are examples of compounds.
Try it!
Which of the following is a compound?
1. air
1. oxygen
1. sugar
1. rubbing alcohol
Learn about it!

Mixture
A mixture forms when two or more elements or compounds are mixed but are not combined chemically. Therefore, no new chemical bonds are formed when a mixture
is prepared. For example, elements X and Y may combine to form a mixture, but these elements would not be linked in a bond.
Each of the constituents of a mixture retains its characteristic properties.They can be separated by physical methods such as distillation, dialysis, electrophoresis and
chromatography. These methods are based on the difference in the boiling point, size, solubility, density and electrical charge of the components.
There are two kinds of mixtures, namely, heterogeneous mixtures and homogeneous mixtures. A homogeneous mixture is characterized by having a single phase
while a heterogeneous mixture has more than one phase.
Example
Heterogeneous mixtures: sand and water, iron fillings and sand
Homogeneous mixtures: air, mineral water, orange juice
Try it!
Classify the following mixtures as homogeneous or heterogeneous.
1. sand and oil

1. sugar and water
1. sand and alcohol
1. fruit salad
1. orange juice
1. rubbing alcohol
What do you think?

How can you measure the amount of substances in a mixture?
Key Points
 An element is made up of only one kind of atom.
 Two or more elements combine together to form a compound.
 Two or more elements or compounds are mixed without combining chemically to form a mixture.
 A homogeneous mixture is characterized by having a single phase while a heterogeneous mixture has more than one phase.
Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe a solution and its components.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that exist in a single phase.
What are the components of a solution?
Learn about it!

Everything in a solution is evenly spread out and mixed. Hence, the properties of a solution are the same throughout.
The substance that is being dissolved is the solute and the substance that dissolves the solute is called the solvent. Usually, the solute is present in smaller amounts than
the solvent. For example, in salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent.
"Like dissolves Like"
The general rule of a solution is, 'like dissolves like', which means polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents while nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar solvents.
Example
Water dissolves salt because water is a polar solvent and salt is a polar solute.The nonpolar solute dichloromethane is soluble in the nonpolar solvent carbon
tetrachloride.
However, dichloromethane will not dissolve in a polar solvent like water.
Learn about it!

Properties of a solution
 The particle size of solute is between 0 to 100 nm.

 The solute and solvent cannot be separated by filtration.
 The solute never settle on standing.
 Light will pass through the solution unchanged.
Which are not solutions?
Colloids and suspensions are mixtures, but they are not solutions.
The particle size of solute in a colloid is between 100 and 1000 nm. Like solutions, these particles do not settle on standing, and they cannot be separated by filtration.
However, colloids exhibit brownian motion, which is the random movement of particles suspended in liquid or gas. Examples of colloids are shaving cream, fog, and
smoke.
The particle size in a suspension is over 1000 nm. They settle on standing, and they can be separated by filtration. Their concentration is not uniform throughout.
Examples of suspension include muddy water and paint.
Examples
Solutions are not always solids dissolved in liquids. They can also be formed by any combination of solids, liquids, and gases.
Gas-Gas: oxygen and nitrogen in air
Gas-Liquid: carbon dioxide in soda
Gas-Solid: hydrogen in palladium
Liquid-Liquid: Acetic acid in water (vinegar)
Liquid-Solid: mercury and silver (dental filling)
Solid-Liquid: sugar in water
Solid-Solid: alloy of copper and zinc
Learn about it!

Solubility is defined as the amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of the solution at any a given temperature. If less than 0.1 g of the solute is dissolved in 100
mL of the solution, it is said to be insoluble or sparingly soluble.
Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions
A solution is said to be unsaturated when more solute can be dissolved in solution.
A solution is said to be saturated when no more solute can be dissolved at the current temperature. The dissolved solute is in equilibrium with the undissolved solute.
A solution that contains more of the solute than normally exists for a saturated solution at a particular temperature is said to be supersaturated. Supersaturated
solutions can be formed by adding more solute to a saturated solution and heating it to dissolve all solute. The resulting supersaturated solution is unstable, and when it
is disturbed, the excess solute crystallizes out and the solution becomes saturated.
What do you think?

What are examples of solutions you use every day?
Key Points
 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures that occur in a single phase.
 Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes and nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes but polar solvents cannot dissolve nonpolar solutes.
 Solutions are different from colloids and suspensions in terms of particle size and ways of separating the components.
Acids and Bases
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the characteristics of acids and bases.
What are acids and bases? How are they different from one another?
Learn about it!

Two important chemical compounds are acids and bases. Most people are familiar with acids and bases because they are a part of many commonly used household and
industrial compounds.
Acids
Acids are commonly characterized by their sour taste. They often react with some metals to form hydrogen gas.They also react with bases to form water and salt. To
know if a substance is an acid, you can use a blue litmus paper. An acid turns blue litmus paper to red. You can also use pH to determine if a substance is acidic.
Acids have a pH level of less than 7 in the pH scale.
Example
Common acids are acetic acid (vinegar), ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), and sulfuric acid.
Learn about it!

Bases are substances characterized by their bitter taste and slippery texture. Bases, when made to react with some metals, produces hydroxide ions (OH -). They have a
pH level of above 7 and turns red litmus paper to blue.
Examples
Common bases are sodium hydroxide (drain and oven cleaners), magnesium hydroxide used for antacids and laxatives, and potassium hydroxide (soft soap).
Try it!
Identify if the following substances are acids or bases.
 baking soda
 vinegar
 calcium hydroxide
 muriatic acid
What do you think?

How are acids and bases classified and how does this classification affect acid-base reactions?
Key Points
 Acids commonly are characterized by their sour taste. They turn blue litmus paper to red, and they have pH less than 7. - Bases are substances characterized
by their bitter taste and slippery texture. They turn red litmus paper to blue, and they have pH greater than 7.
Concentration of Solutions
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to differentiate the different units of expressing the concentration of solution.
Have you ever drank an orange juice and found it too sweet? To adjust the taste, you could have added water to dilute it. By adding water, you changed the
concentration of the orange juice solution.
What is concentration? What are the different ways of expressing the concentration of solutions?
Learn about it!

Two solutions can have the same compounds or solutes and solvents but they behave differently from each other because the proportions of solutes to solvents are
different. Their proportions are described as concentration.
Concentration of solution describes the amount of solute dissolved in a specific amount of solvent. It can be described qualitatively using the terms concentrated or
diluted. A concentrated solution contains greater amount of solute than a diluted one.
Although qualitative descriptions such as concentrated and dilute can be useful, solutions are often described quantitatively. Quantitative descriptions of the
concentration include percent concentration (by mass or by volume), molarity, and molality.
Percent by Mass
The percent by mass is the ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution expressed as percent.
Percent by mass=mass of solutemass of solution×100
Percent by Volume
The percent by volume is the ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution expressed as percent.
Percent by volume=volume of solutevolume of solution×100
Example
Cologne, eau de toilette, and perfume are the common names of fragrances. The difference among these fragrances is the concentration of the essential oil in percent by
volume.
Cologne is the most diluted fragrance, with about 2 to 5% essential oils. Eau de toilette has about 5 to 15% oil. Perfume is the most concentrated of all the fragrance
options so it is also the most expensive. It has about 15 to 40% essential oils.
What do you think?
Will the number of moles of solute change when the solution is diluted? How about the number of moles of solvent?
Key Points
 Concentration of solution describes the amount of solute dissolved in a specific amount of solvent. It can be described qualitatively using the terms
concentrated or diluted.
 Quantitative descriptions of the concentration include percent concentration (by mass or by volume), molarity, and molality.
Molarity
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the concentration of a solution by calculating its molarity.
Concentration of solutions can be expressed in terms of molarity.
How do you calculate the molarity of a solution?
Learn about it!

Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. It can be calculated using the equation below.
Molarity=molesofsoluteVolumeofsolution(L)
The SI unit for molarity is molar, M. One molar is equivalent to 1 mol/L.
For example, a 5.00 M (5.00 molar) solution has 5.00 mol of solute in every 1 liter solution.
What is the molarity of a sodium chloride solution having 0.80 mol NaCl in 0.50 L of solution?
How can the formula be used?
Learn about it!
How to Do
Try it!
Try it! Solution

Molality
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to calculate for the concentration of solutions using molality.
Concentration of solutions can be expressed in terms of molality.
How do you calculate the molality of a solution?
Learn about it!
Example
Gary is given 4.37 mol of NaCl which he combines with 0.50 kg of water in a beaker.
What is the molality of the solution?

Try it!
Paul mixed 3.5 moles of sugar in 1200 g of water.
What is the molality of the solution?
Try it! Solution
Key Point
Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved per kilogram of solvent. Its unit is molal, m, which is equivalent to mol/kg.
Percent Concentration
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to calculate the percent composition of solutions.
Concentration of solutions can be expressed in terms of percent by mass or by volume.
How do you calculate the percent concentration of a solution?
Learn about it!

Percent concentration refers to the ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of solution expressed as percent. The amounts of solute and solution can be expressed in
terms of mass or volume.
Percent by Mass
The percent by mass is the ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution expressed as percent.
Percent by Volume
The percent by volume is the ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution expressed as percent.
Note that the mass of the solution is the combined mass of the solute and the solvent. In the same way, the volume of the solution is the combined volume of the solute
and solvent.
Example
Tom needs to prepare a solution needed for tomorrow's experiment. In the instruction, he needs to mix 0.50 g of
potassium sulfate to 15 g of water.
What is the percent concentration by mass of this solution?
Step 1: Identify the given.
Step 2: Determine what is asked.
percent by mass
Step 3: Calculate the percent by mass of the solution.

Example
Mila mixes 3.5 mL HCl with 60 mL water.
What is the percent concentration by volume of the solution Mila prepared?
What do you think?

Joe wants to make a 5.0% solution (percent by mass) of potassium iodide using 0.377 g of the substance.
What mass of water is needed to make the solution?
Tip
In calculating the percent concentration, make sure that the units of the amounts of solute and solution are the same.
Key Point
Percent concentration refers to the ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of solution expressed as percent. The amounts of solute and solution can be expressed in
terms of mass or volume.
Percent by mass=mass of solutemass of solution×100
Uses of Acids and Bases
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to enumerate the different uses of acids and bases.
In the previous lesson, you have learned about the properties of acids and bases. In this lesson, you will relate their properties to their uses.
What are the uses of acids and bases?
Learn about it!

Learn about it!
Try it!
Ammonia is a common base with many industrial and household uses. Using the internet, research and list five uses of ammonia. What do you
think?
What are the acids and bases you use at home?
Key Points
 Acids are characterized by their sour taste and ability to turn blue litmus red. They have pH of less than 7.
 Strong acids are often used as cleaning agents while weak acids are often found in sour food.
 Bases are bitter-tasting and have a slippery feel. They turn red litmus blue, and their pH is greater than 7.
 Strong bases are commonly used as cleaning agents and acid neutralizers while weak bases are often used as food ingredients.
Classification of Acids and Bases
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different types of acids and bases.
In the previous lesson, you have learned about the characteristics of acids and bases. In this lesson, you will learn the different types of acids and bases.
How are acids and bases classified?
Learn about it!

Theories of Acids and Bases
There were several theories proposed to explain the concepts of acids and bases. Examples of these theories include the Arrhenius theory and the Bronsted-Lowry
theory.
Learn about it!

Acids can be classified based on their strengths.
Try it!
Classify the following as strong acid, weak acid, strong base, or weak base.
 hydrochloric acid
 sodium bicarbonate
 perchloric acid
 lithium hydroxide
 acetic acid
 lithium bicarbonate
 citric acid
 sodium hydroxide
What do you think?

What happens when strong acids and bases react?
Key Points
The Properties of Metals and Nonmetals
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe some properties of metals and nonmetals.
Elements can be classified as metals and nonmetals.
What are the properties of metals? How about the nonmetals?
Learn about it!

What are Metals?
Metals are hard, shiny, opaque materials. They have particles that are held together by strong metallic bonds. They are strong and durable. They are also good
conductors of electricity because of the free flowing electrons.
Most of the elements in the periodic table are metals. All of them are solid except for mercury, which is a liquid. Common examples of metals include gold, platinum,
copper, and aluminum. They are often used in electronic devices, medical implants, and construction supplies.
Properties of Metals
 Metals are lustrous or shiny. They are often used in making cutlery because their luster makes cutlery appear more attractive.
 Metals are malleable. Malleability is a property that makes a material capable of being flattened or bent into different shapes.
 Metals are ductile. Ductility is a property that makes a material capable of being cut into wires.
 Metals have high conductivity. They allow electricity and heat pass through easily. For example, copper is a metal used in electrical wires because it is a
cheap but excellent electrical conductor.
 Metals are sonorous. They create a loud sound when struck.
 Some metals are magnetic. They can be magnetized or attracted by a magnet. Metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt are magnetic.
Example
Silver and gold are metals used for jewelries because they are malleable and lustrous.
Learn about it!

What are nonmetals?
As their name implies, nonmetals have properties different from those of metals. They have no metallic luster. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. In
addition, they are brittle, and they cannot be hammered into sheets or rolled into wires. Examples of nonmetal include helium, selenium, radon, sulfur, and phosphorus.
Properties of Nonmetals
 Nonmetals are brittle. They easily crack or break.

 Nonmetals are good insulators of heat and electricity. The rubber and plastic used in handles of pliers and cooking pans help prevent heat and electricity to
pass through.
 Nonmetals are nonsonorous. They give a dull sound when hit.
Example
Living organisms are composed primarily of nonmetals such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
What do you think?

Why is platinum considered as a precious metal? What properties does it have?
Key Points
 Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile, and sonorous. They are excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
 Some metals are magnetic. They can be magnetized or attracted by a magnet.
 Nonmetals are brittle and nonsonorous. They are good insulators of heat and electricity.
Living Things and their Environment

 Parts of a Microscope
 Levels of Biological Organization
 Plant Cells and Animal Cells
 Viruses versus Cells
 Cell: Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life
 Beneficial and Harmful Microorganisms
 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
 Components of an Ecosystem
 Ecological Relationships
 Abiotic Factors and Ecosystems
 Interactions Among Populations
Parts of a Microscope
 Questions
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the parts of a compound microscope and describe their functions.
A compound microscope, also called light microscope, enlarges or magnifies the image of a material or organism. It is called compound because it has two systems of
lenses needed for magnification.
What are the parts of a compound microscope? How does each part function?
Learn about it!

Parts of a Compound Microscope
Below are the different parts of the microscope and their functions.
 The eyepiece, or ocular, is the lens the microscope user looks through to see the specimen. The standard eyepiece lens magnifies the image 10X.
 The objectives or objective lenses are the lenses closest to the specimen. It is a very important part of the compound microscope. The compound
microscope may have three to four objective lenses.
 The diopter adjustment knob is used to change the focus on one of the eyepiece if there is any difference in vision between your eyes. This knob is
available if there are two eyepiece lenses in the compound microscope.
 The body tube connects the eyepiece to the objective lens.
 The arm supports the body tube of the microscope. It connects the base of the compound microscope to the body tube.
 The coarse adjustment knob brings the specimen into general focus.
 The fine adjustment knob improves focus and increases the detail of the specimen.
 The revolving nosepiece houses the objective lenses. The user rotates this to select which objective lens will be used.
 The stage is the platform where you place your slide.
 The stage clips, which are made of metals, hold the slide in place.
 The stage height adjustment is a set of knobs which move the stage in different directions, such as left, right, up, and down.
 The aperture is a hole in the middle of the stage. It allows light from the light source or illuminator to reach the specimen.
 The illuminator or a steady light source provides the light needed for the specimen to be seen under the microscope.
 The iris diaphragm controls the amount of light that reaches the specimen.
 The condenser focuses light from the light source onto the specimen.
 The base supports the microscope. It is where the illuminator is positioned.
The Specimen in a Slide

The specimen is the material or organism that is being examined. The specimen can be bacteria, plant and animal cells, and even human cells and tissues.
Most specimens are mounted or placed on slides. This is not a part of the microscope but is essential when using a microscope. Slides are flat rectangles of thin glass.
When you place a specimen on the slide, a cover slip is placed above the specimen.
Try it!
Research on the invention of the microscope. Who invented the microscope and how did it evolve to the microscope scientists use at present?
What do you think?

What are the steps in using a microscope?
Key Points
 A compound microscope, also called the light microscope, enlarges or magnifies the image of a material or organism.
 The parts of the compound microscope includes the eyepiece, objective lenses, diopter adjustment, body tube, arm, coarse adjustment, fine
adjustment, revolving nosepiece, stage, stage clips, stage height adjustment , aperture, illuminator, switch, iris diaphragm, condenser, and base.
Levels of Biological Organization
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the different levels of biological organization from the cell to the biosphere.
What makes up living things? What is a community? What is a biosphere?
Learn about it!

Organisms are highly organized and structured. The structure of these organisms can be examined in a hierarchical manner, from the smallest to the largest level. The
following are the levels of biological organization.
Cell
A cell is the basic unit of life. It has two kinds: the plant cell and the animal cell. Plant cells have a rigid cell wall while animal cells are protected by flexible cell
membranes. Cells combine to make tissues.
Tissue
A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to carry out a certain task. A collection of tissues is called an organ.
Organ
An organ is a system of tissues grouped together on a larger scale to perform a common function. Examples of organs in animals are the lungs, stomach, and heart.
Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. Roots, stems, and leaves are organs found in plants.
Organ System
An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of organs that work together to perform related bodily functions. For example, the respiratory system is
comprised of the lungs, air passages, and respiratory muscles. These organs work together so the human body will breathe in oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
Organism
An organism is an individual living identity. An organism can be single-celled such as bacteria or amoebae. It can also be a complex multicellular organism that has
organs and organ systems. A human being, for example, is a multicellular organism.
Population
A population is a group of organisms of the same species living within a particular area. For example, a forest may include many coconut trees. All of these coconut
trees represent a population of coconut trees in the forest. In animals, a pride of lions is an example of a population.
Note that it is possible for different populations to live in the same area.
Community
A community is the sum of populations living within a certain area. The population of coconut trees together with the populations of guava trees, acacia trees, and all
other species in that area are part of the community.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is made up of all the living things, as well as all the nonliving parts of the environment. Rocks, water, air, and soil are part of an ecosystem. Examples of
an ecosystem include pond ecosystem and estuary ecosystem.
Biosphere
At the highest level of organization, the biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems. It includes every plant, animal, human, microorganism, and the nonliving things such as
land, water, and atmosphere.
Example
The figure below depicts the different levels of biological organization.
Explore!
Imagine if the world has no order. Probably the world will be in chaos; in the streets, schools, and even in your homes. Order is important for each part to function as a
whole. Without it, all organizations, from the lowest up to the most complex of it, including the biological organization, will collapse.
Try it!
Try to put a spoonful of sugar in your table. After a few hours, go back and see what happened to the sugar. Did you observe a colony of ants as they, one by one, take
one grain of sugar? When you take a closer look as to where they would be headed, you'll see the ant-hill. This is where the queen resides. What do you think will
happen if the ants will not go with the colony as they search for food? Do you think they will be able to go back to their ant-hill alone? What is the connection of how
ants look for food to biological organization in general?
What do you think?

What would happen to an ecosystem if there is no diversity of the population of organisms in it?
Key Point
The different levels of biological organization are: cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
Plant Cells and Animal Cells
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to differentiate plant and animal cells according to the presence or absence of certain organelles.
The cell is the basic unit of life and can be categorized as plant and animal cells.
What are the characteristics of plant and animal cells?
Learn about it!

Cells have many parts with different tasks for their proper functioning including organelles.
A plant cell is encased in a rigid cell wall while an animal cell is protected by flexible cell membranes.
Aside from this, chloroplasts and large vacuoles are organelles which are present only in plant cells but not in animal cells.
The diagram below shows the difference between an animal cell and a plant cell:
These organelles have specific functions summarized in the following table:
Key Point
Plant and animal cells have similar or the same organelles but only plant cells have cell walls, large vacuoles, and chloroplasts.
Viruses versus Cells
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to distinguish a virus from a cell.
*Cells are the fundamental and simplest unit of life. All living organisms are made up of cells, and these cells can reproduce through cell division. *
Learn about it!
 Viruses are microorganisms that are similar to living cells but are not considered alive because they do not conform with the cell theory and they cannot
reproduce on their own.
 They can only reproduce when they are within the cells but in the process cause disastrous results to the host cells.
 Viruses are chemicals and segments of RNA and DNA wrapped with a protein coat called capsid instead of the cell membrane. The capsid is used in
binding with the host cell's surface.
 They are much smaller than cells.
 They do not metabolize because they do not contain any organelles.
In summary, viruses differ from cells based on the following characteristics:
Examples
Viruses are of different shapes depending on the type of virus.
Learn about it!

Viruses harm their host cell in the following steps:
1. Entering the cell. The cell does not recognize that the virus is harmful because it behaves like that of an ordinary cell.
2. Duplicating itself inside the cell.
3. The cell then explodes releasing thousand of brand new virus particles that can harm nearby cells.
Examples
The following are some of the most common examples of viruses with their effects:
1. Dengue fever virus causes flu-like symptoms but the infection can causes death in some cases.
2. Rhinovirus causes common cold.
3. Foot and mouth disease causes high fever and blisters in livestock.
4. Mimivirus may be linked to some form of pneumonia.
Viruses can be prevented through vaccination. Vaccination is done by injecting a dead or weakened form of the virus into the body to help the body get used to fighting
off this type of virus.
Key Points
 **Viruses** are microorganisms that are similar to living cells but are not considered alive because they do not conform with the cell theory and they cannot
reproduce on their own.
 Viruses can cause disastrous effects to its host cells and can be in various shapes.
Cell: Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain why the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms.
In 1665, Robert Hooke was the one who first discovered a cell by observing very thin slices of cork under a coarse, compound microscope.
Learn about it!

A cell is the smallest and the most basic form of life. It is where living organisms conduct self-sustaining biological processes.
The cell theory states that:
 All living organisms are made up of cells.

 New cells are created from preexisting cells which divide into two.
 Cells are the most basic building units of life.
Modern equipment and research have further explained the cell theory and have added the following concepts:
 Energy flow, like metabolism, occurs within cells.
 Cells contain hereditary information that is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
 All cells are the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.
 All known living things are made up of one or more cells.
 Some organisms are made up of only one cell and they are known as unicellular organisms.
 Everyday activities of organisms are determined by the total activity of each cell.
Organisms which are made up of one cell are called unicellular cells while organisms which have many cells are called multicellular cells.
Types of Cells
1. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria and archaea are examples of prokaryotes.
2. Eukaryotes have nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes have organized chromosomes which store genetic material.
Keypoints
 Living organisms are made up of cells which are the basic structural and functional unit of organisms.
 Cells can be prokaryotes or eukaryotes.
 Prokaryotes do not have true nuclei.
 Eukaryotes have nuclei and membrane-bound organelles.
Learn about it!

Microorganisms can be harmless, beneficial or harmful.
Beneficial Microorganisms
Beneficial microorganisms help in the following:
 Digestion of food in the human digestive system. These microorganisms are called microflora. Microflora produces vitamin K which is needed for normal
blood clotting.
 Filtering water to make the water potable. In a water treatment facility, water is filtered through sand and stone to remove dirt from it. After this, the water is
exposed to living bacteria that feed on and destroy harmful bacteria which may be left in the water.
 Recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere and is needed to sustain life
however, they are not readily available for use. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen into usable forms.
 Decomposition of dead organisms. Bacteria, fungi, molds, protozoa, and saprophytic organisms feed on decaying organic matter and bring nutrients back
into the environment.
 Cleaning up of oil spills and soil and water pollutants.
 Converting toxic organic material into a form that is safe to be discharged into the environment like in sewage systems
 Attacking bacteria which are harmful to humans such as antibiotics. Antibiotics are produced by fungi and bacteria. Penicillin is one of the most well known
antibiotics.
 Production of medicines such as insulin that help people with diabetes. Insulin is made out of E. coli bacteria.
 Production of alcoholic beverages and acidic dairy products in a process called fermentation.
Harmful Microorganisms
Harmful microorganisms are also called pathogens. These are microorganisms that can have adverse effects on other living organisms such as:
 Viruses like colds, flu, chickenpox, and warts. To help our bodies fight off viruses, vaccinations are given to us. Vaccines put a small amount of a certain
microorganism into our body to make our bodies get used to destroying it.
 Bacteria in your mouth. These bacteria feed on left-over food in your mouth and in the process produce acid that makes teeth soft that can lead to cavities.
 Fungi that causes ringworm. Ringworm is a contagious skin disease that appears in small circular patches and is itchy. Athlete's foot is the most common
form of ringworm.
Key Point
Microorganisms are essential for different life processes, however, there are microorganisms that can be harmful to other living organisms.
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to differentiate sexual and asexual reproduction.
All living things can reproduce. Plants, animals, and humans produce offspring to ensure the survival of their species.
Reproduction can be classified into two broad categories, namely asexual and sexual reproduction.
What is the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction?

Learn about it!
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves one parent organism. This type of reproduction produces an offspring that is identical to its parent.
Some of the advantages of asexual reproduction is time efficiency. There is no need for an organism to search for a mate. Also, less energy is needed to reproduce. One
disadvantage of this type, however, is that there is no variation in its offspring. If the organism has a disease, the offspring will definitely have the disease too.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents, a male and a female. It produces an offspring that carries the characteristics from both parents.
One advantage of sexual reproduction is the variation in organisms. The offspring produced are unique from each other. However, one disadvantage of this type of
reproduction is that it requires more energy since two organisms are involved.
Examples
 Living things that reproduce asexually include yeast, hydra, sea anemone, jellyfish, and spider plants.
 Living things that reproduce sexually include flowering plants, mammals, birds, and humans.
Try it!
Research five organisms for each type of reproduction.
What do you think?

What do you think will happen if humans can reproduce asexually?
Key Points
 Asexual reproduction involves one parent organism. It produces an offspring that is identical to its parent.
 Sexual reproduction involves two parents, a male and a female. It produces an offspring that carries characteristics from both parents.
Components of an Ecosystem
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to differentiate biotic from abiotic components of an ecosystem.
What makes up an ecosystem?
Learn about it!

The biosphere is composed of several ecosystems.
An ecosystem is composed of living organisms that interact with each other and with the non-living factors in their environment.
An ecosystem has two components: biotic and abiotic components.
Biotic components are the living things that live in an ecosystem while abiotic components are the non-living chemical and physical parts of an ecosystem that affect
the living organisms.
Biotic Components
The living organisms can be classified according to their roles in the ecosystem: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Producers are organisms that can make their own food through photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce their own food by using the energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the air, and water from the soil.
Consumers are organisms that feed on other organisms to obtain nutrients for survival.
 Herbivores are consumers that feed on plants.

 Carnivores are consumers that feed on meat.
 Omnivores are consumers that feed on both plants and meat.
Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, are organisms that break down the remains of dead plants and animals and bring nutrients back to the environment making
them available again to living organisms.
Abiotic Components include chemical and physical parts of the ecosystem that affect living organisms and the functioning of a certain ecosystem.
Abiotic components include climatic factors such as light, temperature, precipitation, wind, and humidity. Soil nutrients, soil moisture, and soil pH, and topography also
affect living organisms.
Key Points
 An ecosystem is composed of biotic and abiotic factors that interact with each other.
 Biotic components are the living things that live in an ecosystem.
 Abiotic components are the non-living chemical and physical parts of an ecosystem that affect the living organisms.
Ecological Relationships
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe different ecological relationships found in an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things working together. The living things or organisms in an ecosystem occupy a certain niche.
A niche is the space where an organism lives. It is where the organism finds its needs and interacts with other living things.
What are the different ecological relationships that exist in an ecosystem?
Learn about it!

Competition
When two organisms or populations compete or fight for the same resource or territory, a competition occurs.
 Consumptive or exploitative competition is when they compete for a resource, such as water or food. For example, lions and hyenas compete for same
food, such as deer.
 Interference competition happens when they compete for a territory.
 Pre-emptive competition is when they compete for a new territory by trying to arrive there first.
Predation
Predation happens when an organism eats another organism. The organism that eats is called the predator while the one that is eaten is called the prey.
Commensalism
Commensalism happens when one of the organisms interacting, benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed. For example, barnacles grow on whales.
Barnacles benefit from the whale, which serve as their protection. Through the whale, barnacles gain mobility and are able to evade predators. On the other hand, the
whale is not helped nor harmed by the barnacles.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship wherein an organism benefits while the other organism in the relationship is harmed. The organism that is harmed is called the host while
the one that benefits is called the parasite.
Parasites can be of two types, ectoparasites or endoparasites.
 Ectoparasites, such as leech, tick, or flea, live outside or on the surface of the host.
 Endoparasites, such as intestinal worms, live inside the host.
Mutualism
Mutualism happens when both organisms benefit from the relationship. The things gained by each organism are often different.
There are three types of mutualism, namely obligate, facultative, and diffusive mutualism.
 Obligate mutualism is when one organism cannot survive without the other organism.
 Facultative mutualism occurs when one organism can still grow and survive on its own under some conditions.
 Diffusive mutualism happens when one organism can live with more than one partner.
Examples
Competition: Populations of species in an ecosystem compete for the same food.
Predation: Frogs eat smaller insects, such as bugs, flies, and mosquitoes.
Commensalism: Phoretic mites attach themselves to insects, such as flies, as means of transportation.
Parasitism: Fleas feed on animals' blood. They thrive on animals' fur.
Mutualism: Flowering plant produces nectar, which attracts animals, such as bees. The bees feed on the nectar while facilitating pollination.
Try it!
Research two examples of each type of ecological relationship.
What do you think?

Why is there diversity of animals and plants in an ecosystem?
Key Points
 The ecological relationships in an ecosystem are competition, predation, commensalism, parasitism, and mutualism.
 Competition happens when two organisms or populations compete or fight for the same resource or territory, a competition occurs.
 Predation happens when an organism eats another organism.
 Commensalism happens when one of the organisms interacting, benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed.
 Parasitism is a relationship wherein an organism benefits while the other organism in the relationship is harmed.
 Mutualism happens when both organisms benefit from the relationship. The things gained by each organism are often different.
Abiotic Factors and Ecosystems
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to predict the effects of the different changes in abiotic factors on the ecosystem.
From your previous lesson, abiotic factors are the non-living components of an ecosystem which include climatic factors such as light, temperature, precipitation, wind,
and humidity. Soil nutrients, soil moisture, soil pH, and topography also affect living organisms.
For the aquatic ecosystems, the substrate type, water depth, nutrient levels, temperature, salinity, and water flow are the considered important.
Learn about it!

The abiotic factors are continually subjected to changes brought about by erosion, weather, ocean currents, volcanic events, and even human activities.
Changes in these factors can cause problems for living organisms because these changes can alter their feeding habits, population size, range, and rates of growth.
Sometimes these changes can cause complete extinction of a species or a formation of new species through adaptation.
Limited Freshwater
 All organisms need water to survive.

 Animals with special adaptations can survive with little supply of freshwater.
 Less animals will survive in an environment with little supply of freshwater.
Examples
 Rain forests have plenty supply of water everyday that is why there is a large number of organisms that live here.
 Deserts receive very little rainfall that is why there is a few number of organisms that live here compared with rain forests.
Limited Sunlight
 When a greater the amount of sunlight reaches the surface of the earth throughout the year, it means that the environment will be warmer.
 Enough amount of sunlight means there will be enough energy available for plants to grow and more energy sources for animals in that ecosystem.
Examples
 Tropical forests receive a lot of sunlight making them warm and have huge amount of plants and animals.
 Tundra biome, located at the poles, receive less amount of sunlight through the year making them so much colder and has few amount of plants and animals.
Learn about it!

Limited Temperature
 Many organisms cannot survive in very cold environments.

 Colder places have fewer variety of animals living there.
Examples
 The leaves of deciduous trees fall off when it is very cold.
 The needle-like leaves of conifer trees can survive in cold or freezing weather.
 Polar bears have thick layers of fat to help them survive on the arctic tundra
Poor Soil Composition
 Soil provides nutrients for plants to grow.

 Environments with poor soil cannot sustain more variety of living organisms.
Examples
 Tundra and desert biomes have poor soil that is why less plants and animals live there
 Forests have good soil that is why a greater variety of living organisms can survive in the forests.
Environmental pollution also indicates changes in the abiotic factors.
Environmental pollution is the contamination of the physical and biological components of the ecosystem that adversely affects the normal environmental processes.
The three major types of environmental pollution are air, water, and soil pollution.
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials into the atmosphere.
This type of pollution can:
 disrupt biogeochemical processes which are necessary to sustain life such as the carbon-oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles;
 deplete the ozone layer in the stratosphere. The ozone layer absorbs UV radiation from the sun that can cause skin burns and other skin diseases and and;
 increase the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which alters the average temperature of the Earth.
Water pollution happens when pollutants are discharged, either directly or indirectly, into water bodies.
Contamination in bodies of water can:
 destroy aquatic habitats and marine animals;

 affect precipitation rate due to oil spills;
 cause water-borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, and dysentery;
 lead to the rapid growth of algae which causes aquatic animals to die due to lack of oxygen and;
 hinder the cycle of water in the environment.
Soil pollution is caused by the introduction of man-made chemicals into the soil. It is commonly caused by industrial activities, agricultural chemicals, and improper
waste disposal.
Soil pollution can result to:
 groundwater contamination;
 the soil emitting foul odor;
 reduction of the fertility of the soil due to waste on a landfill and;
 diseases such as cancer due to carcinogenic chemicals.
Key Points
 Changes in abiotic factors can affect the types, number, and variety of living organisms that can survive in an ecosystem or biome.
 Some of these changes include limited freshwater, sunlight, and temperature. Poor soil composition and environmental pollution also affect our environment.
Interactions Among Populations
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to predict the effect of changes in one population on other populations in the ecosystem.
Population is a group of organisms of the same species that interbreed and live in the same place at the same time.
Learn about it!

A community is a group of different populations of different species living together in the same place.
The members of the community have different roles to play, and there exist different relationships among populations.
These relationships can be depicted through a food web. A food web is an illustration of which organisms feeds on other organisms. It is the interconnection of food
chains.
If changes occur in one population, the other populations that depend on them will also be affected.
Example
One example of a food web is a grasshopper that feeds on wheat. If the grasshopper is removed, the population of wheat will increase. On the other hand, the population
of the lizard and the hawk that feed on grasshopper will decrease if they cannot find an alternative food source. If a population of birds only feed and depend on
grasshoppers for food, this population of birds may decrease.
Another example is the harelip sucker fish. In the 19th century, this fish used to feed on snails but when waste and topsoil started piling up in the rivers where these fish
live, the snail population declined. According to the US Geological Survey, this must be the reason why the harelip sucker fish became extinct.
Key Point
Populations that interact in a community affect each other. They can benefit or harm each other.
Force, Motion and Energy

 Distance vs. Displacement

 Acceleration
 Velocity - Time Graphs
 Types of Waves
 Speed of a Wave
 Characteristics of Sound
 Human Sound Production
 Audible and Inaudible Sounds
 Properties of Light
 Visible Light Color Spectrum
 The Nature of Light
 Methods of Heat Transfer
 Electrostatic Charging
 Importance of Grounding
Distance vs. Displacement
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the motion of objects in terms of distance or displacement.
What is the difference between distance and displacement?
Learn about it!

Distance is the total path length that the object traveled while displacement is the measure of an object's change in position.
Distance is a scalar quantity which means it can be described by its magnitude and unit. On the other hand, displacement is a vector quantity which means it can be
described by its magnitude, unit, and direction.
To get the distance traveled by an object, you have to get the sum of all the path lengths that the object covered. In contrast, to get the displacement of the object, you
have to measure the change in the object's position using a straight line.
Example
Refer to the figure below. An object moves from Start and returns, following the path indicated in the figure.
The distance traveled by the object is the sum of all the distances covered by the object. This means that the distance traveled by the object is:
distance=6cm+4cm+6cm+4cm=20cm
The object's displacement, on the other hand, is not equal to its distance. Since the object returned to its original position (Start), there is no change in the object's
position. Thus, the displacement of the object is equal to zero.
Try it!
Marie walks to school every morning. If the path from her house to her school is a straight path with a length of 300 m, what is her distance? What about her
displacement?
What do you think?

Can the displacement of an object be greater than its distance? Why?
Key Points
 Distance is the total path length that the object traveled.
 Displacement is the measure of an object's change in position.
 To get the distance traveled by an object, you just have to get the sum of all the path lengths the object covered.
 To get the displacement of the object, you have to measure the change in the object's position using a straight line.
Acceleration
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to describe the motion of an object in terms of acceleration.
Velocity is a term defined as the rate of an object's change in position. It is a vector quantity which means it is described with both magnitude and direction.
Learn about it!
Try it!
A car accelerates to the right at a rate of 4m/s2. If the car started from rest, what is the car's velocity after 24 s?
Try it! Solution
What do you think?

What is the acceleration of a falling object neglecting air resistance?
Tips
In solving for unknown quantities, remember to:
 check the consistency of units; and

 isolate the unknown quantity on one side of the equation before substituting the given.
Key Points
Velocity - Time Graphs
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to create and interpret a visual representation of the motion of objects such as tape charts and motion graphs.
Building on knowledge of displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs are useful in physics because they allow us to figure out displacement, velocity, and
acceleration from a single graph.
Learn about it!

Velocity-time graphs can describe the motion of an object. They depict time (t) on the x-axis and velocity (v) on the y-axis.
Constant Velocity
Acceleration is the change in velocity over a specific amount of time. It has an SI unit of m/s2.
Let us say that a car moves at a constant velocity. This implies that the car has zero acceleration because there is no change in the velocity over time. It is depicted as a
horizontal line in the velocity-time graph.
Changing Velocity
Now, let us consider an object moving with a changing velocity. If the velocity increases, then we have a positive value of acceleration, and the object speeds up.
The diagram below depicts positive acceleration in a velocity-time graph.
On the other hand, if the change in the velocity is negative, then the object is slowing down. An example of a resulting graph is shown below.
Importance of a Slope
The notion of a slope is important in calculating the acceleration from a velocity–time graph.
In a velocity-time graph, if the acceleration is zero, then the slope is also zero, which is depicted as a horizontal line. When the acceleration is positive, then the slope is
also positive, which is depicted as an upward sloping line. Finally, when the acceleration is negative, then the slope is also negative, which is depicted as a downward
sloping line.
The figure below shows an object that is moving with a negative velocity indicated by its position along the negative part of the y-axis and increasingly negative
acceleration indicated by the decreasing slope of the graph.
If the line of the velocity-time graph is located in the negative region of the graph, that means that the object is moving in a reverse direction along its path.
Instantaneous Acceleration
Beyond average acceleration, we can also calculate the instantaneous acceleration by taking the slope of a tangent to the velocity-time curve at a given time. In
mathematical terms:
ainstantaneous=ΔvtangentΔttangent
In the figure above, we can see an example of how to determine the instantaneous acceleration at t = 16 s. When we draw the tangent line to the curve at this time point
(16 s), we will find two points on the tangent line and use them to calculate its slope:
Instantaneous acceleration is always considered a constant value for this purpose.
earn about it!

Displacement of an Object
A velocity–time graph can also reveal the displacement of the object that is in motion. The total displacement is the average velocity multiplied by the length of time
that the average velocity has sustained. Mathematically, this is:
In a graph, the total displacement of the moving object is the same as the area between the curve or line and the x-axis. A typical example is shown in the figure below.
Here we can see that the object has an increasing velocity as time passes. The average velocity of the object over the five seconds in the graph is 25 m/s [(50 m/s - 0
m/sec)/2 = 25 m/s ]. Multiplying the average velocity by the time measured (5 s) yields a total displacement of 125 m.
A velocity-time graph may have other shapes such as curves or trapezoids, depending on the object's changes in velocity, but in all situations, the area under the line (or
over it if the velocity is negative) indicates the total displacement.
Key Point
Velocity-time graphs can describe the motion of an object.
Types of Waves
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to differentiate transverse from longitudinal waves, and mechanical from electromagnetic waves.
Waves are disturbances in space and time.
What are the different types of waves?
Learn about it!

Waves can be classified according to their ability to propagate.
Types of Waves According to Their Ability to Propagate
 Electromagnetic (EM) waves are waves that do not need a medium to propagate. EM waves travel at 3x108m/s.
 Mechanical waves are waves that need a medium to propagate. The speed of mechanical waves varies depending on the medium used.
Examples
 There is an array of electromagnetic waves such as gamma rays, x-rays, and microwaves.
 Some examples of mechanical waves include earthquake waves, water waves, and sound waves.
Waves can also be classified based on the direction of their propagation.
Types of Waves According to the Direction of Their Propagation
 Transverse waves are waves wherein the oscillation is perpendicular (at ninety degrees) to the direction of the wave motion or wave propagation.
 Longitudinal waves are waves where the oscillation is parallel (in the same direction) to the direction of the wave motion or wave propagation.
Example
Water waves are examples of transverse waves while sound waves are an example of longitudinal waves.
Try it!
Research other examples of:
1. longitudinal waves
2. transverse waves
3. mechanical waves
4. electromagnetic waves
What do you think?
Can a longitudinal wave be also a transverse or longitudinal wave? Explain.
Key Points
 Waves are disturbances in time and space.
 Waves can be classified according to the ability to propagate and the direction of propagation.
 Waves can be electromagnetic, mechanical, transverse, and longitudinal.
Speed of a Wave
 Questions
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to relate wavelength and frequency of waves and the characteristics of waves.
Waves are disturbances in space and time. Some of the characteristics of waves include:
1. Period - the time it takes for a wave to complete one wave cycle.
1. Frequency - the number of wave cycles per period.
1. Wavelength - the distance between two identical points in a wave.
Learn about it!
Try it!
What is the wavelength of a wave traveling 350 m/s with a frequency of 560 Hz?
Try it! Solution
What do you think?

What is the relationship between the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
Tips
In solving for unknown quantities, remember to:
 check the consistency of units; and

 isolate the unknown quantity on one side of the equation before substituting the given.
Key Points
 Wave speed is defined as the product of the wavelength and the frequency of the wave.
 Mathematically, the wave speed can be computed using the equation v=λf.
Characteristics of Sound
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the characteristics of sound using the concepts of wavelength, velocity, and amplitude.
What are the characteristics of a sound?
Learn about it!

Sound is a mechanical wave as a result of the back and forth movement of the particles of the medium through which the sound is moving.
As a mechanical wave, sound needs a medium in order to carry energy from one place to another. When a sound wave travels through air, the movement or vibrations
of the particles are longitudinal.
The amplitude of a longitudinal wave is the distance where particles vibrate from their equilibrium or normal, middle position.
The amplitude of a sound wave is directly proportional to the loudness of the perceived sound which means that the greater the amplitude of the sound wave that
reaches your ear, the greater the loudness.
The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between successive compressions or rarefactions.
Learn about it!
The speed of a sound wave describes how fast the disturbance is passed from one particle to another.
Mathematically, speed of sound refers to the distance that the disturbance travels per unit of time:
The denser the matter where the sound is traveling through, the better the sound energy is conducted, that is,
more sound goes further. The closer the particles are together, the easier it is for the sound wave to travel.
Hence, sound travels fastest in solids and travels slowest in gases.
The speed of sound in air depends mostly in air temperature. At normal atmospheric pressure, the speed of a
sound wave through dry air is represented by the following equation:
where T is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius.
Try it!
What is the speed of sound in the air with a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius?
Try it! Solution
Step 1: Identify the given: 20 degrees Celsius
Step 2: Using the formula of the speed of a wave, substitute the given value. Thus,
Therefore, the speed of the wave is 343 m/s.
Key Points
 Sound waves are mechanical waves which require a medium to travel.
 Sound waves are also longitudinal waves.
 The amplitude of a wave is the distance that particles vibrate from their equilibrium position.
 The wavelength of a wave is the distance between compressions and rarefactions.
 The speed of a sound wave varies on the type of material it travels through, and its speed in air depends mostly on air temperature.
Human Sound Production
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain sound production in the human voice box, and how pitch, loudness, and quality of sound vary from one person to
another.
Sound is produced when the particles of an object or a material vibrate.
Learn about it!

Sound production in humans happens in the larynx or the voice box located in the neck. When the air passes through the vocal cords, the cords vibrate and produce
sound waves in the pharynx, nose, and mouth.
Properties of Sound
1. Pitch is the highness or lowness of sound. It is directly proportional to the sound waves' frequency. The greater the frequency of the sound wave, the higher is the
pitch.
2. Loudness or intensity of sound is directly proportional to the sound waves' amplitude. The greater the amplitude of the sound, the louder the sound that reaches the
human ears.
Loudness is measured in decibel (dB) unit.
3. Timbre or tone quality distinguishes two different sounds. It helps in identifying what or who produced the sound.
One person's voice produces a sound that differs from another person because of the differences in the shape of their air cavities, throat, mouth, and nose.
The human ear hears a sound by doing the following:

1. Directs the sound waves into the hearing part of the ear. This is done by the pinna which is the outer part of the ear.
2. Senses the fluctuations in air pressure. This is done by a thin, cone-shaped piece of skin known as the eardrum. It is located between the ear canal and the middle
ear. The sound is amplified by the ossicles, three tiny bones in the middle ear which include the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.
3. Translates fluctuations into electrical signals that can be understood by the brain. This is done by the cochlea which is a spiral cavity in the inner ear.
Key Points
 Human sound is produced by the vibrations in the voice box as air passes through it and then through the pharynx, mouth, and nose.
 Pitch is the highness or lowness of sound. It is directly proportional to the sound waves' frequency.
 Loudness or intensity of sound is directly proportional to the sound waves' amplitude.
 Timbre or tone quality distinguishes two different sounds.
Audible and Inaudible Sounds
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe how organisms produce, transmit, and receive sound of various frequencies (infrasonic, audible, and ultrasonic
sounds).
Different sound frequencies are produced, transmitted, and received by different organisms.
Learn about it!

Animals communicate by producing sound with frequencies that can be heard by other animals but not by humans.
Audible and Inaudible Sounds
Humans can hear sound waves with frequencies that range from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. This is the range for audible sounds. Sound frequencies which are beyond or
outside this range are inaudible to humans.
Example
The figure below shows the range of sound frequencies which different animals can hear compared with the human's hearing range:
Learn about it!

Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Waves
Sound frequencies lower than 20 Hz are infrasonic waves, and frequencies higher than 20 000 Hz are ultrasonic waves.
Examples
 Bats produce ultrasonic frequencies to locate food sources and to navigate. They can also detect ultrasonic waves.
 Ultrasonic waves can be used for:
o communications between ships

o welding plastics
o analyzing fetal activity inside the womb
o cleaning hidden parts of an instrument
o determining the depth of a sea
- Infrasonic waves are produced by the vibration of the Earth during an earthquake.
- Animals such as elephants, rhinoceros, and whales use infrasonic waves for communication.
Key Points
 Humans can hear sound waves with frequencies that range from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. This is the range for audible sounds.
 Sound frequencies which are beyond or outside this range are inaudible to humans.
 Infrasonic waves have frequencies lower than 20 Hz.
 Ultrasonic waves have frequencies higher than 20 000 Hz.
Properties of Light
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the different properties of light.
Light is an electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye and is a form of radiant energy.
Learn about it!

Properties of Light
Light, as a wave, exhibits the following properties:
1. Reflection is the bouncing off of light as it hits an opaque or non-transparent object.
Law of reflection states that the angle of incidence, θi, is equal to the angle of reflection, θr; Thus, θi=θr.
Take note that the incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal line all lie in the same plane.
2. Refraction is the bending of light as it travels from one transparent medium to another.
When light travels from a medium with a lesser optical density, such as air, to a medium with a higher optical density, such as water, its speed decreases; thus, the
refracted ray bends toward the normal line as seen in the illustration below.
When light travels from a medium with higher optical density, such as water, to a medium with lesser optical density, such as air, its speed increases; thus, the refracted
ray bends away from the normal line as seen in the illustration below.
3. Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes around an edge or a small slit. The amount of bending depends on the light's wavelength and the size of the opening.
The smaller the opening, the greater is the bending.
4. Polarization is the process of changing unpolarized light into polarized light. Light that travels in more than one plane is called unpolarized light. When unpolarized
light passes through polarized filters, it starts to travel in a single plane or becomes polarized.
When a vertical polarized filter is used, light waves projected horizontally are not allowed to pass through. When a horizontal polarized filter is used, light waves
projected vertically are not allowed to pass through.
5. Interference of light happens when two light waves interact with each other, and the resulting wave is the sum of the two individual waves.
 Constructive interference occurs when two crests or two troughs of two light waves meet. When light passes through two narrow slits, constructive
interference results in bright lines when projected on a screen.
 Destructive interference occurs when a crest and a trough of two light waves meet. When light passes through two narrow slits, destructive interference
results in dark lines when projected on a screen.
Key Point
Light, as a wave, exhibits the following properties: reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarization, and interference.
Visible Light Color Spectrum
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to relate characteristics of light such as color and intensity to frequency and wavelength.
Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum which also includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Learn about it!

The colors of the visible light correspond to different frequencies. These colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. You can observe these colors every
time you see a rainbow.
Red has the longest wavelength corresponding to low frequency. Violet, on the other hand, has the shortest wavelength corresponding to high frequency.
Also, the higher the frequency of a wave the greater the energy it carries or its intensity.
Key Points
 Visible light color spectrum includes red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
 The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency of a wave.
 The higher the frequency, the greater the energy the wave carries.
Learn about it!

The two most common models used in describing light are the wave model and particle model.
Wave Model of Light
In 1801, Thomas Young conducted an experiment in wherein a narrow beam of red light passed through two small openings, and light was projected on a screen on the
other side of the openings.
It was observed that light produced a striped pattern or an interference pattern of light and dark bands on the screen.
According to this experiment, it was postulated that:
 Light is a transverse wave that can be described by its amplitude, wavelength, and frequency.
 Light is an electromagnetic wave because it is consist of changing electric and magnetic field.
 Light can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted.
Particle Model of Light
When it was postulated that light is a wave, some experiments involving light yielded to answers or observations which cannot be explained by the wave model of light.
In the 1900's, physicists found that in some experiments, dim blue light can cause electrons to fly off a metal's surface but a red light cannot. This phenomenon is
known as photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons from a metal surface when light strikes the surface.
According to the wave model of light, bright light has more energy than dim light because bright light has greater amplitude than dim light. This means that it should be
the red light that can cause electrons to fly off a metal's surface, not the blue light.
Scientists proposed a new model of light which is the particle model. This model postulates that:
 Light is contained in individual particles called photons.

 Photons of different colors of light carry different amount of energy. Blue light carries more energy than red light that is why blue light can cause electrons
to fly off a metal surface.
 Photons are considered particles but do not have mass.
 Photons contain only energy and this energy is located in a specific area.
 A beam of light is actually a stream of photons. The greater the photons the brighter the light appears.
Scientists accept both of these models and say that light has a dual nature which means it behaves both as a wave and as a particle.
Key Points
 Light is a form of energy that travels in straight line paths called light rays.
 The two most common models used in describing light are the wave model and particle model.
 In 1801, Thomas Young conducted an experiment that showed the nature of light as a wave.
 The wave model of light explains that light is a transverse wave; light is an electromagnetic wave; and light can be reflected, refracted, and diffused.
 The particle model postulates that light is contained in individual particles called photons, and these photons carry energy.
 Light has a dual nature which means that it behaves both as a wave and as a particle.
The Nature of Light
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to infer that light travels in straight line path.
Light is a form of energy that behaves in unexpected ways as shown in experiments done by scientists for many years. Also, light travels in straight line paths called
light rays.
Learn about it!

The two most common models used in describing light are the wave model and particle model.
Wave Model of Light
In 1801, Thomas Young conducted an experiment in wherein a narrow beam of red light passed through two small openings, and light was projected on a screen on the
other side of the openings.
It was observed that light produced a striped pattern or an interference pattern of light and dark bands on the screen.
According to this experiment, it was postulated that:
 Light is a transverse wave that can be described by its amplitude, wavelength, and frequency.
 Light is an electromagnetic wave because it is consist of changing electric and magnetic field.
 Light can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted.
Particle Model of Light
When it was postulated that light is a wave, some experiments involving light yielded to answers or observations which cannot be explained by the wave model of light.
In the 1900's, physicists found that in some experiments, dim blue light can cause electrons to fly off a metal's surface but a red light cannot. This phenomenon is
known as photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons from a metal surface when light strikes the surface.
According to the wave model of light, bright light has more energy than dim light because bright light has greater amplitude than dim light. This means that it should be
the red light that can cause electrons to fly off a metal's surface, not the blue light.
Scientists proposed a new model of light which is the particle model. This model postulates that:
 Light is contained in individual particles called photons.

 Photons of different colors of light carry different amount of energy. Blue light carries more energy than red light that is why blue light can cause electrons
to fly off a metal surface.
 Photons are considered particles but do not have mass.
 Photons contain only energy and this energy is located in a specific area.
 A beam of light is actually a stream of photons. The greater the photons the brighter the light appears.
Scientists accept both of these models and say that light has a dual nature which means it behaves both as a wave and as a particle.
Key Points
 Light is a form of energy that travels in straight line paths called light rays.
 The two most common models used in describing light are the wave model and particle model.
 In 1801, Thomas Young conducted an experiment that showed the nature of light as a wave.
 The wave model of light explains that light is a transverse wave; light is an electromagnetic wave; and light can be reflected, refracted, and diffused.
 The particle model postulates that light is contained in individual particles called photons, and these photons carry energy.
 Light has a dual nature which means that it behaves both as a wave and as a particle.
Methods of Heat Transfer
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to infer the conditions necessary for heat transfer to occur.
Heat is energy that is transferred from one object to another.
Learn about it!

Heat can only be transferred if there is a difference in temperature of two or more interacting objects or systems. It is transferred from the higher temperature object to
the lower temperature object.
If the interacting objects reach the same temperature, they are in thermal equilibrium. When thermal equilibrium is reached, heat will no longer be transferred.
Heat can be transferred through conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction is the transfer of heat between two objects that are in thermal contact with each other by the vibration of particles without the particles actually moving
from their position.
Conduction is typically most important in solids. All substances have particles (molecules and atoms) which move and vibrate. How fast they move and vibrate is
dependent on how much kinetic energy they have. The more kinetic energy they have, the faster they move.
When the moving particles of an object come into physical contact with the particles of another object or substance, they bump into each other, transferring their kinetic
energy. When the particle that received the energy vibrates, it bumps into more particles within its own object, passing that energy further along.
Some materials are better at conducting heat than other materials. Materials that allow heat to easily move through them are called conductors and materials that
impede the heat transferring process are called insulators.
Metals tend to be very good conductors while materials such as glass, wood, plastics, and ceramics tend to be very good insulators.
Example
An everyday example of conduction is a spoon in a hot cup of coffee. Since the spoon has a lower temperature than the coffee, heat energy is transferred from the coffee
to the spoon, so the spoon will heat up as the coffee cools down.
Because the coffee is hot, its particles are moving fast and have a lot of kinetic energy. As the particles in the coffee bump into the spoon particles, the energy is
transferred to the spoon. When the spoon and coffee reach the same temperature, conduction stops.
Convection is the primary form of heat transfer in gases and liquids and is sometimes also called convective heat transfer.
The movement of convection is driven by variations in density. As heated particles expand they become buoyant and rise. However, as they rise their heat is transferred.
As the heated particles cool, they sink back down along the sides because they cannot sink through a denser liquid below.
Example
Nearly all weather systems involve convection cells in the atmosphere. Just like in liquids, when the warm air rises, the air pressure is lowered resulting in a low-
pressure zone.
This low pressure creates wind as rising air sucks in the air around it. Air travels along the top of the troposphere and becomes cooler. The air becomes denser and sinks
back down to the earth, creating a high-pressure zone.
Convection and rising air can also come from fire, sun -warmed land and water, oceanic currents, sea wind formation, atmospheric circulation, updrafts, and mountain
winds which are all affected by convection processes. Mantle convection drives plate tectonics, and outer core convection helps to generate the earth's magnetic field.
Learn about it!

Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are capable of traveling through a vacuum that is why radiation is the only
form of heat transfer that can occur through empty space at a distance.
Electromagnetic waves exist in different frequencies broken to specific regions called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Hotter objects radiate shorter wavelength and higher frequency radiation.

Examples
 The energy from the Sun reaches the Earth through radiation.
 When you put your hand near a candle flame but not actually touch the flame, you can feel the warmth because the energy from the flame is transferred by
radiation.
Key Points
 Heat is transferred due to differences in temperature between interacting objects.
 Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.
Electrostatic Charging
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the different types of charging processes.
What happens when you rub a plastic comb to your hair and bring it near to pieces of paper?
Learn about it!

When you rub a plastic comb to your hair and bring it near to pieces of paper, they would be attracted to the plastic comb and would stick to it. This would happen
because the comb was charged when it was brushed on your hair. This phenomenon is explained by a branch of physics called electrostatics.
Electrostatics is the area in physics that studies non-moving or slow-moving electric charges. It explores the properties and applications of electricity at rest.
Atoms are the building blocks of matter. It has subatomic particles which are protons, electrons, and neutrons.
 Protons, which are positively charged, can be found in the atom's nucleus together with the neutrally charged neutron.
 Electrons, which are negatively charged, orbit around the nucleus.
These subatomic particles determine the charge of a particle or an object.
 An object which has equal number of protons and electrons is said to be neutral.
 If an object has more electrons than protons, it is negatively charged.
 If an object has more protons than electrons, it is positively charged.
 Two objects which are oppositely charged are attracted to each other and repel each other when they have the same charge.
 An object can be charged when electrons are removed from or added from it.
It is important to note that since the electrons orbit around the nucleus, these are the particles that can be easily transferred between objects.
An object can be charged by friction, conduction, and induction.
Charging by friction is done by rubbing two materials together. In this method, electrons are transferred between the two objects which are rubbed.
Example
When the plastic comb is rubbed in your hair, it gains electrons; thus, the comb becomes negatively charged. In contrast, since your hair loses electrons, it becomes
positively charged.
When you try to place the comb at a distance from your hair after combing, you would observe that your hair sticks to the comb.
Learn about it!

Charging by conduction or charging by contact involves physical contact between a charged object and a neutral object.
Example
When a negatively charged metal rod touches a neutral metal sphere, some electrons will transfer from the metal rod to the neutral sphere. The sphere will then become
charged as a result of its contact with the metal rod.
Charging by induction is a method of charging a neutral object with a charged object without physical contact.
This charging is common to conductors. Conductors are materials whose electrons are free to move.
Example
Charge Polarization
In the diagram below, a positively charged object is brought near a neutral object. The molecules in the neutral object rearrange in a way that the negative charges go to
the side near the positively-charged object.
A negatively charged object is brought near a neutral object as depicted in the figure below. The molecules in the neutral object rearrange in a way that the negative
charges go to the side away from the negative rod.
Tips
Charges can also be polarized. Charge polarization is similar to charging by induction in a way that a charged object charges a neutral object without physical contact.
However, in charge polarization, there is no transfer of electrons between objects but only a rearrangement of the charges within the neutral object. Thus, it is not a
charging process.
Charge polarization is common in insulators. Insulators are materials whose electrons are not free to move.
Key Points
 A neutral object becomes charged when electrons transfer from or to it.
 Charging of objects can be done by friction, conduction, induction, and polarization.
 Charging by friction is done by rubbing two materials together. In this method, electrons are transferred between the two objects
which are rubbed.
 Charging by conduction or charging by contact involves physical touch between a charged object and a neutral object.
 Charging by induction is a method of charging a neutral object with a charged object without physical contact.
 Charge polarization is similar to charging by induction in a way that a charged object charges a neutral object without physical
contact.
Importance of Grounding
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain the importance of earthing and grounding.
From your previous lesson, charging by induction involves a neutral object to be charged by a charged object without physical contact. The
neutral object will gain a net charge by touching the object or grounding.
Learn about it!

Grounding
The build up of excess charges can occur on objects like the appliances at home. This build up can have harmful effects on us like electric
shock.
These excess charges can be removed by grounding. In this process, a charged object is connected to the ground.
A ground is an object that has "unlimited" electrons and is capable of receiving electrons from or transferring electrons to a charged object in
order to balance the charges or neutralize that object and make the object safe.
Examples
One good example of a ground is the Earth. Grounding can be done by connecting one end of the wire to the device and burying the other end
of the wire with exposed metal to the ground. Excess charges move to the ground; thus, neutralizing the object.
Another way of grounding our electrical devices is having a three-pin plug. The additional pin (the pointed one) and the additional hole for it
to provide an alternative path for the excess charges that build up on a device; hence, the device is discharged and safe to use.
Key Point
Grounding is about transferring excess charges to the ground. It is important for us because it prevents electric shocks as stated in most
product manuals.
Earth and Space

 Landmasses and Bodies of Water Surrounding the Philippines

 Earth's Natural Resources
 Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
 The Atmosphere
 Land and Sea Breezes, Monsoons, and Intertropical Convergence Zone
 Effects of Weather Systems in the Philippines
 Unequal Heating of the Earth's Surface
 Seasons in the Philippines
 The Solar Eclipse
 The Lunar Eclipse
Landmasses and Bodies of Water Surrounding the Philippines

 Questions
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to describe the location of the Philippines with respect to the continents and oceans of the world.
Do you know what countries are nearest the Philippines?
Learn about it!

Landmasses Surrounding the Philippines
Examine the location of the Philippines in the map below.
 At the northern part of the Philippines, you can see Taiwan, China, and Korea. You can say that the Asian continent surrounds the
Philippines at the north. Conversely, the Philippines is found in the south of the Asian continent.
 It is mostly water at the east part of the Philippines but when you look closely, you can see Guam and other small islands/territories.
The Philippines is located at west of Guam.
 The Indonesian archipelago (collection of islands) surrounds the Philippines at the south. So, you can also say the Philippines is
found in the north of the Indonesian archipelago.
 The Philippines is located at the east of Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, and Cambodia.
The Bodies of Water Surrounding the Philippines
 Similar with Indonesia, the Philippines is also an archipelago (a group of islands); hence, we are surrounded by different bodies of
water.
 At the north, Luzon Strait surrounds the Philippines. You can state that Philippines is located in the south of Luzon Strait.
 The Philippine Sea and the Pacific Ocean are the major bodies of water found in the east of the Philippines. Hence, in locating the
Philippines, it is found at the west of Philippine sea and the Pacific Ocean.
 At south, Celebes Sea surrounds the Philippines. You can say that the Philippines is found in the north of Celebes sea.
 The Indian Ocean and the South China Sea surround the Philippines at its west. In other words, Philippines is located at east of
Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
Key Points
 The Philippines is near the following countries:
o located in the north are Taiwan, China, and Korea;
o located in the east are the small islands and territories including Guam;
o located in the south is the Indonesian archipelago; and
o located in the west are Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia.
 It is surrounded by the following bodies of water:
o located in the north is the Luzon Strait;

o located in the east are the Philippine Sea and the Pacific Ocean;
o located in the south is the Celebes sea; and
o located in the west are the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
Earth's Natural Resources
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will recognize that soil, water, rocks, fossil fuels are Earth materials that people use as resources.
What are the natural resources that can be found on Earth?
Learn about it!

A natural resource is any material that human gathers from nature to be used for his needs and to improve his quality of life. A natural
resource could include soil, water, rocks, and fossil fuels.
Types of Natural Resources
Soil
The soil is the topmost layer of the earth and is a mixture of different materials such as minerals, organic matter, water, air, and living
organisms, including remains of dead living organisms. The mixture of these provides nutrients to plants and other crops which in turn serve
as food for humans.
Water
One of the basic necessities for one to survive is water. The Earth’s surface is composed of 71% water. Water comes from different sources
like surface water and groundwater. Water is used by different sectors like agriculture, industries, household, recreation, and environment for
different purposes.
Rocks
Rock is a hard and naturally occurring material that can be found on the surface of the Earth, under the Earth's surface or under the oceans.
Rocks, like marbles and granite, are gathered for the construction of buildings and homes. These are also used to decorate gardens and other
aesthetic purposes.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels came from the remains of dead organisms called fossils, but usually from plants, that have undergone decomposition for millions
of years. Fossil fuels can be in different forms such as coal, oil, and natural gas. They are used as different sources of energy like electricity
and fuel.
What do you think?

According to the Population Division of United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the world’s population reached 7.2
billion in June 2013. What do you think will happen to Earth’s natural resources if the world’s population increases rapidly every year?
Key Point
Humans provide for their needs and improve their quality of life by using the Earth’s natural resources which include soil, water, rocks, and
fossil fuels.
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
 Questions
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to describe ways of using Earth's resources sustainably.
Man use natural resources to provide for his needs and improve the quality of his life.
Learn about it!

Natural resources can either be renewable or non-renewable.
 Renewable resources are resources which can be replaced over a short period of time
 Non-renewable resources are resources that cannot be easily replaced and take millions of years before it can be replenished.
Most of the natural resources we need and use are non-renewable. With the rapid growth of population, nonrenewable resources are used at a
faster rate. This can lead to the lack of natural resources in the future. To avoid this, people should use resources sustainably or use resources
that do not completely use or destroy the natural resources.
How to save fossil fuels?
Fossil fuels are used for running vehicles, factory machines, and generators. One way that you can conserve these resources is walking if
your destination is just a short distance away instead of riding jeepneys or tricycles. In addition, you can also ride bicycles. These two
activities do not involve gasolines and help you in keeping your body fit.
How to save fertile soil?
Portions of fertile soil may be eroded or be carried by wind or water in other places. As a result, the land may not be effective in growing
crops. One way to conserve this resource is to grow plants in them regularly.
How to save clean water?
We use water in almost all of our activities: taking a shower, cooking, and cleaning. Some ways to conserve water are:
 using a glass of water to rinse your mouth after brushing your teeth instead of leaving the water from the faucet running while
brushing your teeth
 collecting and saving rain water for watering plants and cleaning your backyard
 checking for leaks on your water pipes at home and make sure to fix them
 How to save electricity?
 Our electricity may come from the energy of falling water in dams or from burning fossil fuels. Saving your electricity also
conserves fossil fuels. Turning off lights when not in use and limiting your time in watching TV and surfing the internet are some
ways of conserving electricity and fossil fuels.
 How to save rocks?
 Rocks are actually quarried which involves blowing off mountains. Reusing rocks from a demolished structure can be used in
making surfaces flat.
 How to save metals?
 Metals are mined beneath the Earth. In order to conserve metallic minerals, metals are reused that is why you can sell metal scraps
to the junk shops and the shops send these scrap metals to facilities that recycle metals.
The Atmosphere
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to discuss how energy from the sun interacts with the layers of the atmosphere.
Do you know how the atmosphere protects us from the Sun's harmful rays?
Learn about it!

The atmosphere is a thick layer of gases that cover Earth.
The Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is composed of different layers. Each layer can be distinguished from the other because of its unique characteristics.
Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere closest to the ground. Any change in troposphere causes change in weather. It is
composed of ice, dust, water, and all gases needed by living things. The temperature decreases as altitude increases.
Stratosphere is composed of the protective layer called ozone layer. Aircrafts, such as airplanes and helicopters, can reach up to this layer
only. The temperature increases as altitude increases.
Mesosphere is the layer where the atmosphere is very thin. The temperature decreases as altitude increases. This is where meteors burn up
once they reach the Earth's atmosphere.
Thermosphere is the hottest layer of atmosphere because it is the layer most exposed to ultraviolet rays of Sun. This is where most satellites
orbit because it is so thin. It is where light phenomena such as aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights) occur.
The temperature increases again as altitude increases.
Exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere and its upper layer is where space begins.
Example
Below is the illustration of the different layers of the atmosphere.
When the energy from the Sun reaches the atmosphere, all of the high-energy X-rays are absorbed high in the atmosphere.
The thermosphere, mesosphere, and stratosphere block most of the highest energy UV radiation. The relatively low energy UV radiation
reaches the Earth's surface which can cause sunburn and skin cancer.
Example
The illustration below shows the different types of the energy emitted by the Sun and the types of energy present in a particular layer of the
atmosphere.
The temperature varies in every layer of the atmosphere because
 In the troposphere, the energy that reaches the surface of the Earth warms the ground and warms the air directly above it, and the
higher you go in the air, the temperature decreases.
 In the stratosphere, the temperature rises because of the ozone layer which absorbs most of the UV radiation that warms it.
The same thing happens with most of the upper atmosphere because this is where all high-energy radiation from the Sun is absorbed.
Key Points
 The Earth's atmosphere protects the Earth from harmful radiation from the Sun and at the same time regulates temperature by
trapping heat.
 The layers of the Earth's atmosphere are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
Land and Sea Breezes, Monsoons, and Intertropical Convergence Zone
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to account for the occurrence of land and sea breezes, monsoons, and intertropical convergence
zone (ITCZ).
Do you know how breezes, monsoons, and ITCZ are formed?
Learn about it!

Energy from the sun causes motion of air particles, which results to various atmospheric phenomena.
Land and Sea Breezes
Sea Breeze
The day sea breeze occurs due to the following:
 The land is warmer than water.

 The air above land is also warm and moves upward making the land a low-pressure region (LPR).
 The air above water or the ocean is cold and moves slow making sea surface a high-pressure region (HPR).
 The air moves from high-pressure region to low pressure region. In this case, air moves from the ocean (HPR) towards land (LPR)
and is called sea breeze.
Land Breeze
The night land breeze occurs due to the following (the opposite of what happened during the day):
 The water is warmer than land.

 The air above water is also warm and moves upward making the sea surface a low-pressure region (LPR)
 The air above land is cold and moves slow making the land a high-pressure region (HPR). This time, the air moves from land (HPR)
towards the sea (LPR) and is called land breeze.
Example
The illustrations below depict how the sea breeze and the land breeze are formed.
Monsoons
Monsoons are wind systems. In the Philippines, there are two monsoons that arrive and affect the country's weather, amihan and habagat.
Amihan
Amihan is predominant from October to April which comes from northeast or places which are experiencing winters such as China and
Japan. It is the reason Filipinos experience cold weather at the arrival of Amihan. Amihan is formed when water vapors are picked up from
the ocean before arriving in the Philippines and are deposited to the mountains in the northeastern part of the Philippines. As a result, the
majority of the country experiences little or no rain.
Habagat
Habagat is predominant from April to October. It comes from places in the southwest of the Philippines like the air mass from Australia.
Habagat is formed when water vapors are picked up in the oceans before arriving in the Philippines. On the western part of the Philippines,
there are only a few mountains. As a result, Habagat deposits the water vapor in most areas in the Philippines in the form of heavy rains.
Intertropical Convergence Zone
ITCZ is one of the reasons for raining in the Philippines. It forms because in general, places in or near the equator are warmer compared to
the places far from the equator (in northern and southern hemisphere).
ITCZ is formed due to the following:
 The air in or near the equator are warm and moves upward leaving the areas near equator low-pressure regions.
 At higher latitudes, air is cold and move slow making the high latitudes high-pressure region.
 The air from high latitudes (HPR) move toward the equator (LPR).
 Before the air reaches the equator, it picks up water vapor from the oceans.
 The air from higher latitudes that reaches equator also become warm and move upward together with water vapor. High above the
atmosphere, water vapor becomes clouds.
 After some time, water or clouds will fall back to the ground in the form of rain.
Key Point
Land and sea breezes, monsoons, and intertropical convergence zone account for the weather and the climate of the Philippines.
Effects of Weather Systems in the Philippines
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the effects of certain weather systems in the Philippines.
How is your daily activity affected by the weather changes in the Philippines?
Learn about it!

Weather system changes from time to time due to changes in factors affecting weather. These changes affect us in many different ways.
Typhoons
Most Filipinos are vulnerable to harmful effects of typhoons due to weak building materials and unreliable drainage systems. During a
typhoon, houses are damaged by strong winds. Floods can also happen that can lead to cancellation of classes, diseases, and even deaths.
Monsoons
Farmers welcome monsoons because it will bring water to their crops. However, fishermen do not welcome monsoons because it is difficult
for them to fish during monsoons since the ocean waters tend to be wavy. In addition, Habagat brings heavy rain that has similar harmful
effects with the typhoons.
Hot days
During these times, little rain arrives in the Philippines which results in dying of crops, drying of dams, and warmer temperature. A lot of
people complain about the hotness of the environment and some suffer from heat stroke. Also, some farmers cannot earn money because their
crops have dried up. There is also a threat to water and electrical supply since a dam with low water supply cannot provide water and
electricity.
Cold days
Most people in the Philippines welcome cold weather because it experiences hot days most of the year. So, a period of cold days brings
comfort to most people. People do not sweat a lot and enjoy the days.
Key Point
Weather systems greatly affect our daily lives including the country's economy.
Unequal Heating of the Earth's Surface

 Questions
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, using models, you will be able to relate;
 the tilt of the Earth to the length of daytime;
 the length of daytime to the amount of energy received;
 the position of the Earth in its orbit to the height of the sun in the sky;
 the height of the sun in the sky to the amount of energy received; and
 the latitude of an area to the amount of energy the area receives.
Why do some countries experience four types of seasons while others do not?
Learn about it!

The following are factors that result to unequal heating of the Earth's surface:
1. Earth's rotation around its axis;

2. Earth's revolution around the Sun;
3. Earth's tilting on its axis by 23.5 degrees from the vertical; and
4. Earth as a sphere.
Unequal Heating and Seasons
Solstices
A solstice is an event where the Sun' s excursion reaches the highest or the lowest relative to the Earth's equator.
It has two types based on whether it is the longest day of the year which is the summer solstice and the shortest day of the year which is the
winter solstice. The summer solstice happens in June and the winter solstice happens in December.
The seasons of the year are directly proportional to the solstices.
Summer Solstice
This solstice happens in June to September. Summer solstice indicates the start of summer.
The following are the events that happen during summer solstice in the northern hemisphere:
 Places in the higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere have significant longer days.
 Northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun.
 Northern hemisphere receives direct rays carrying a high amount of heat from the sun.
 Northern hemisphere is warmer.
 Northern hemisphere experiences summer.
The following are the events that happen in the southern hemisphere:
 Places in the higher latitudes in the southern hemisphere have significant longer nights.
 Southern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun.
 Southern hemisphere is colder.
 Southern hemisphere experiences winter.
Winter Solstice
This solstice happens in December to March. Winter solstice marks the onset of winter.
The following are the events that happen during summer solstice in the northern hemisphere:
 Northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun.

 Northern hemisphere is colder.
 Places in higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere have significant longer nights.
 Northern hemisphere experiences winter.
The following are the events that happen in the southern hemisphere:
 Southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun.

 Southern hemisphere receives direct rays carrying high amount of heat from the Sun.
 Southern hemisphere is warmer.
 Places in higher latitudes in the southern hemisphere have significant longer days.
 Southern hemisphere experiences summer.
Equinoxes
An equinox is an event where the plane of Earth's equator passes through the center of the Sun. There are two types of equinox: autumnal
and vernal equinoxes.
Equinoxes are opposite on the either side of the equator. Vernal equinox happens in March and autumnal equinox happens in September .
Vernal Equinox
This equinox happens in March to June. Vernal equinox marks the onset of spring in the northern hemisphere.
 Direct rays of the Sun fall on the equator because no hemisphere is tilted more towards the Sun.
 Northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere experience an equal amount of heat. It means southern hemisphere gets colder and
northern hemisphere gets warmer.
 Southern hemisphere experiences autumn.
Learn about it!

Autumnal Equinox
This equinox happens in September to December. Autumnal equinox marks the onset of autumn in the northern hemisphere.
 Direct rays of the Sun fall on the equator because no hemisphere is more tilted toward the Sun.
 Northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere experience an equal amount of heat. It means northern hemisphere gets colder and
southern hemisphere gets warmer.
 Southern hemisphere experiences spring.
Key Point
The unequal heating of the Earth's surface is due to the Earth's tilt, its revolution around the Sun, its rotation around its axis, and its shape.
Seasons in the Philippines
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to show what causes change in seasons in the Philippines using models.
What type of seasons does the Philippines experience?
Learn about it!

Just like other tropical countries, the Philippines have two seasons: the wet and dry season.
Dry Season
Dry season starts in December and ends in June. It is called the dry season because no or little rainfall occurs. This is because the majority of
the islands in the Philippines are shielded by mountains from northeast winds carrying moisture. The moisture is deposited on mountains in
the form of rain but not the majority of the islands causing these islands to be dry.
Dry season can be further divided into cold dry season and hot dry season.
Cold Dry Season
 During December to February, it is winter in the temperate zones of the northern hemisphere.
 Winds in these areas move toward the Philippines. This wind system is called Amihan. Since this wind system comes from a place
experiencing winter, it carries cold air.
 As a result, the Philippines experience cold or low temperature during these months.
Hot Dry Season
 From March to June, it is no longer winter in the northern hemisphere.

 The Philippines become warmer during these months because no cold air is moving towards it, and the country is near the equator
which receives direct rays from the sun.
 Wet Season
 Wet season starts in June or early July and ends in November. During these months it is rainy in the Philippines.
 Habagat or southwest monsoon carries moisture taken from the ocean which brings rain in the Philippines. Most islands experience
rains because there are mountains that can take moisture from the southwest monsoon. In addition to rain, most typhoons arrive
during these months.
Key Points
 The Philippines, a tropical country, experiences two distinct types of seasons: wet and dry seasons.
 These seasons are caused by different wind systems and the country's location near the equator.
The Solar Eclipse
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how solar eclipse occurs.
Have you seen a solar eclipse? Do you know how it happens?
Learn about it!

The Solar Eclipse
An eclipse happens when the Moon, the Earth, and the Sun are aligned, and one celestial body covers another or one celestial body casts a
shadow on another.
Solar eclipse happens due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis and its revolution around the Sun.
 Rotation is the moving around of an object on its axis. Both the Moon and the Earth rotate on their axes. The Earth’s rotation takes
place for 24 hours while the Moon’s rotation takes place for about 27 days.
 Revolution is the circular movement of an object around another object along a path. The circular path on which the object travels
is called orbit. The Earth revolves around the Sun for 365 ¼ days. Similarly, the Moon revolves around the Earth for about 27 days.
 Types of Solar Eclipse
 The solar eclipse happens when the light from the Sun is blocked by the Moon. It happens when the Moon is in the middle of the
Earth and the Sun as a result of their alignment.
 There are three types of solar eclipse: partial, annular, and total eclipses.
 In partial solar eclipse, the light from the Sun is partially blocked by the Moon. The Moon, the Earth, and the Sun are not perfectly
aligned on a straight line.
 In annular solar eclipse, the light from the Sun is seen on Earth as a “ring of fire”. It only happens during a new moon and when
the Moon is too far from the Earth to completely block the light from the Sun.
 In total solar eclipse, the light from the Sun is completely blocked by the Moon. It happens when the Moon, the Earth, and the Sun
are perfectly aligned forming a straight line.
 The high energy released by the Sun during annular and partial solar eclipse is damaging to the eyes and requires eye protection.
Example
Below is an illustration that depicts the occurrence of a solar eclipse, particularly, a total solar eclipse where the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth
are forming a straight line.
Key Points
 A solar eclipse happens when the light of the Sun is covered by the Moon as observed on Earth.
 Solar eclipse happens due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis and its revolution around the Sun.
 It usually occurs when the Moon is in between the Sun and the Earth.
 There are three types of solar eclipse: partial, annular, and total eclipses.
 In partial solar eclipse, the light from the Sun is partially blocked by the Moon.
 In annular solar eclipse, the light from the Sun is seen on Earth as a “ring of fire”.
 In total solar eclipse, the light from the Sun is completely blocked by the Moon.
The Lunar Eclipse
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how lunar eclipse occurs.
We have learned from the previous lesson that a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in the middle of the Sun and the Earth.
What happens when there is a lunar eclipse?

Learn about it!
The Lunar Eclipse
Lunar eclipse is another common phenomenon that can be easily observed on Earth. Just like in a solar eclipse, the movements of celestial
bodies—rotation and revolution—make eclipses happen.
Lunar eclipse happens when the light from the Sun is blocked by the Earth and the Earth casts its shadow on the Moon. It is most likely to
happen when the Earth is in the middle of the Sun and the Moon.
When Earth blocks the light from Sun, it casts a shadow. Penumbra is the lighter shadow of Earth while umbra is the darker shadow of
Earth.
The position of the Moon along the umbra and the penumbra result to different types of lunar eclipse.
Types of Lunar Eclipse
Penumbral lunar eclipse is difficult to observe. It happens when the Moon is positioned at the Earth’s penumbra. The Earth, the Moon, and
the Sun are not aligned on a straight line.
Umbral lunar eclipse is easy to observe. It happens when some part of the Moon is positioned at the Earth’s penumbra, and the other part is
at the umbra. The Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are not aligned on a straight line.
Total lunar eclipse happens when the Moon is positioned at the Earth’s umbra. The Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are aligned forming a
straight line.
It is viewed darker after a major volcanic eruption. It is easy to observe because it is characterized by the Moon’s red color.
Unlike the solar eclipse (partial and annular solar eclipses), a lunar eclipse can be viewed with the naked eye.
Why does Moon appear red during total lunar eclipse?
The visible light from the Sun, as we perceive it here on Earth, is composed of six colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet). When
the Earth blocks the light from the Sun during total lunar eclipse, the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs the colors leaving red, sometimes orange,
and reflected on the Moon. Thus, the Moon appears red.
Key Points
 A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is in between the Sun and the Moon. The Earth casts its shadow on the Moon.
 When Earth blocks the light from Sun, it casts a shadow. Penumbra is the lighter shadow of Earth while umbra is the darker
shadow of Earth.
 There are different types of lunar eclipse: penumbral, umbral, and total lunar eclipse.
 Penumbral lunar eclipse happens when the Moon is positioned at the Earth’s penumbra.
 Umbral lunar eclipse happens when some part of the Moon is positioned at the Earth’s penumbra, and the other part is at the
umbra.
 Total lunar eclipse happens when the Moon is positioned at the Earth’s umbra.

Science - Grade 7

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Science - Grade 7

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Science - Grade 7

Topics under this module

 Introduction to the Scientific Method

Introduction to the Scientific Method

Let's find out!

Learn about it!

3. Test the hypothesis. Perform an experiment to accept or reject the hypothesis.

The Scientific Method

From the previous lesson, you have learned that:

Learn about it!

In formulating a hypothesis, keep in mind that:

Learn about it!

What do you think?

Introduction to Scientific Investigations

Learn about it!

What is the weather today?

Learn about it!

How can you tell apart an alligator from a crocodile?

Learn about it!

What do you think?

Why do you think scientists need to create models?

Learn about it!

Learn about it!

What do you think?

Introduction to Scientific Research

Do scientists always get the correct answers when doing an experiment?

Learn about it!

How are scientific mistakes corrected?

Learn about it!

What do you think?

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

What are elements, compounds, and mixtures?

Learn about it!

Learn about it!

Learn about it!

Homogeneous mixtures: air, mineral water, orange juice

1. sand and oil

What do you think?

Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

What are the components of a solution?

Learn about it!

"Like dissolves Like"

However, dichloromethane will not dissolve in a polar solvent like water.

Learn about it!

 The particle size of solute is between 0 to 100 nm.

Which are not solutions?

Gas-Gas: oxygen and nitrogen in air

Gas-Liquid: carbon dioxide in soda

Gas-Solid: hydrogen in palladium

Liquid-Liquid: Acetic acid in water (vinegar)

Liquid-Solid: mercury and silver (dental filling)

Solid-Liquid: sugar in water

Solid-Solid: alloy of copper and zinc

Learn about it!

Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions

A solution is said to be unsaturated when more solute can be dissolved in solution.

What do you think?

Acids and Bases

Learn about it!

Learn about it!

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Percent by mass=mass of solutemass of solution×100