Humaira Manzoor

PGDCP

Organization of the nervous system

The nervous system is made of three types of organs: brain, spinal cord, and nerves .brain
and the spinal cord are referred to the central nervous system (CNS). They are along the midline
of the body. The nerves constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS), extending from the brain
and spinal cord to the farthest reaches of the body. Functions of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
are performed by the highly specialized nerve cells they contain.

The nervous system is an organ system that coordinates our actions by transmitting
signals between different parts of our bodies. Central to the functioning of the nervous system is
an extensive network of specialized cells called neurons. Neurons send signals along thin fibers
called axons and communicate with other cells by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters at
cell-cell junctions called synapses.

In most animals, including humans, the nervous system consists of two parts: central and
peripheral. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain, spinal cord, and retina.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of sensory neurons, motor neurons, and
neurons that communicate either between subdivisions of the PNS or connect the PNS to the
CNS.

The nervous system has three functions: sensory input, information processing, and
motor output. PNS, sensory receptor neurons respond to physical stimuli in our environment, like
touch or temperature, and send signals that inform the CNS of the state of the body and the
external environment. Sensory information is then processed by the CNS, predominantly by the
brain. After information is processed, signals return to the PNS by way of motor neurons
to muscles and glands, which respond with a motor output. Central neurons, which in humans
greatly outnumber the sensory and motor neurons, make all of their input and output connections
with other neurons. The connections of these neurons form neural circuits that are responsible for
our perceptions of the world and determine our behavior. Along with neurons, nervous system
relies on the function of other specialized cells called glial cells, or glia, that provide structural
and metabolic support to the nervous system.

Types of Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Human body is made of trillions of cells. Cells of the nervous system, called nerve cells
or neurons, are specialized to carry "messages" through an electrochemical process. Human brain
has approximately 100 billion neurons. To learn how neurons carry messages, read about
the action potential.

Neurons come in many different shapes and sizes. Some of the smallest neurons have cell
bodies that are only 4 microns wide. Some of the biggest neurons have cell bodies that are 100
microns wide.

Neurons are similar to other cells in the body because:

1. Neurons are surrounded by cell membrane.

2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other organelles.
4. Neurons carry out basic cellular processes such as protein synthesis and energy
production.

However, neurons differ from other cells in the body because:

1. Neurons have specialized cell parts called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring

electrical signals to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.
3. Neurons contain some specialized structures (for example, synapses) and chemicals (for
example, neurotransmitters).

The Neuron

One way to classify neurons is by the number of extensions that extend from the neuron's cell
body (soma).

Bipolar neurons have two processes extending from the cell body (examples: retinal cells,
olfactory epithelium cells).

Pseudo unipolar cells (example: dorsal root ganglion cells). Actually, these cells have 2 axons
rather than an axon and dendrite. One axon extends centrally toward the spinal cord; the other
axon extends toward the skin or muscle.

Multipolar neurons have many processes that extend from the cell body. However, each neuron
has only one axon (examples: spinal motor neurons, pyramidal neurons, Purkinje cells).

Neurons can also be classified by the direction that they send information

 Sensory (or afferent) neurons: send information from sensory receptors (e.g., in skin,
eyes, nose, tongue, ears) toward the central nervous system.
 Motor (or efferent) neurons: send information away from the central nervous system to
muscles or glands.
 Interneurons: send information between sensory neurons and motor neurons. Most
interneurons are located in the central nervous system.

There are several differences between axons and dendrites

Axons Dendrites

 Take information away from the cell body
 Smooth Surface
 Generally only 1 axon per cell
 No ribosomes
 Can have myelin
 Branch further from the cell body
 Bring information to the cell body
 Rough Surface (dendritic spines)
 Usually many dendrites per cell
 Have ribosomes
 No myelin insulation
 Branch near the cell body

What is inside of a neuron?

A neuron has many of the same organelles such as mitochondria, cytoplasm and a

nucleus, as other cells in the body.

 Nucleus - contains genetic material (chromosomes) including information for cell

development and synthesis of proteins necessary for cell maintenance and survival.
Covered by a membrane.
 Nucleolus - produces ribosomes necessary for translation of genetic information into
proteins
 Nissl Bodies - groups of ribosomes used for protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - system of tubes for transport of materials within
cytoplasm. Can have ribosomes (rough ER) or no ribosomes (smooth ER). With
ribosomes, the ER is important for protein synthesis.
 Golgi apparatus - membrane-bound structure important in packaging peptides and
proteins (including neurotransmitters) into vesicles.
 Microfilaments/Neurotubules - system of transport for materials within a neuron and
may be used for structural support.
 Mitochondria - produce energy to fuel cellular activities.
 Madiha Qammar

Cells

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Organelles are a specialized cell structure
that has a specific function, it is a cell organ. They perform certain task with the cell. Cells have
many parts and its functions.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is made in clear, thick, jellylike material (cytosol). Organelles found
inside cell membrane.

Cytoskeleton

Made up of filaments and tubules, it helps shape and support the cell. The cytoskeleton is
a network of long fibers. It also helps move things move around in the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Transportation network for the cell moves materials around in the cell. this organelle
helps process molecules created by the cell. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is
endoplasmic reticulum that has ribosome attached. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) is
does not have ribosome attached.

Golgi apparatus

Packages the proteins made by the ribosome so they can be sent out of the cell. Modify
proteins made by the cells.

Lysosome and peroxisomes

It is small and round with a single membrane. It is Breaks down larger food molecules
into smaller molecules. It is Digests old cell parts.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form that the
cell can use. The mitochondria are the main energy source of the cell.

Nucleus
 The nucleus is where the DNA is kept and RNA is transcribed. RNA is moved out of the
nucleus through the nuclear pores. Its control all cell activities. Nuclear Envelope is Controls
what passes in and out of the nucleus.

Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)

Separates the cell from the rest of the environment and helps control what passes in and
out of the cell.

Ribosome

Makes proteins for the cell, can be found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or free in
the cytoplasm.

Gene

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes, who are made up of
DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. Genes are made up of DNA. Each
chromosome contains many genes. Genes carry the information that determines your traits.
Which are features or characteristics that are passed on to you or inherited from your parent.

Two of these 46 chromosomes determine the sex of a person. A girl inherits two X-
chromosomes, one from her mother and one from her father.

How Can the Message Go Wrong?

There are several ways the genetic code can be altered. Sometimes genes are deleted or in
the wrong place on a chromosome, or pieces of genes are swapped between chromosomes. As a
result, the gene may not work or may turn on in the wrong part of the body.

Genetic Influences on Behavior

Nature-nurture problem

Genotype: An organism’s genetic code

Phenotype: The observable physical and behavioral characteristics of the organism

Genetic and environmental influences interact in complex ways to shape our personality

Kinship Studies
 Familial association studies

Twin studies

Identical (MZ) vs. fraternal (DZ) twins

REFRENCES:

Boundless. “Organization of the Nervous System.” Boundless Anatomy and Physiology.

Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 02 Nov. 2015

www.boundless.com physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-
textbook/nervous-tissue-11/overview-of-the-nervous-system-109/organization-of-the-nervous-
system-601-9050/

Boundless. “Organization of the Nervous System.” Boundless Anatomy and Physiology.

Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 02 Nov. 2015

www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology

textbook/nervous-tissue-11/overview-of-the-nervous-system-109/organization-of-the-nervous-
system-601-9050/

Source: Boundless. “Organization of the Nervous System.” Boundless Anatomy and Physiology.

Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 02 Nov. 2015

www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-

Textbook/nervous-tissue-11/overview-of-the-nervous-system-109/organization-of-the-nervous-
system-601-9050/