Experimental and Numerical Analysis for Determining the Mass Flow Rate of Two

Phase Fluid using Laminar Flow Rectangular Channel

Binet Monachan1 , Rijo Jacob Thomas1 , Mathew Skaria1 , Deepak S. 1 , Shafi K. A.1 , S. Kasthurirengan2 ,
A. K. Sahu3 , Haresh Dave3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, T.K.M. College of Engineering, India.
2
Centre for Cryogenic Technology, IISC Bangalore, India.
3
Institute for Plasma Research, Ahmedabad, India.

E-mail: binet.monachan@tkmce.ac.in

Abstract: Two-phase flow is the simultaneous flow of two thermodynamic phases of matter and is very
common in cryogenic fluid flow applications in terms of phase change due to heat in leak from
atmosphere owing to the wide temperature difference. This would be very prominent for cryogenic fluids
that have low boiling point, low cavitation pressure and lower heat of vaporization. Therefore, while
using any cryogenic fluids in applications or even for conducting experiments one have to deal with the
issues associated with two phase flow. The accurate measurements of many quantities will be dependent
on the amount of vapor and its distribution within the flow field. An approach that is often followed to
study such complex flow is by using a model fluid; generally preferred one is the air-water system. In
the method followed in this study narrow rectangular channels forces the incoming flow of the fluid into
stratified flow regime, irrespective of its incoming conditions, thereby the mass flow rate of individual
phases are computed. The experiment is carried out under various flow conditions with different liquid
and vapour flow rates. The growing computational facilities have provided the flexibility for the
development of a strong three dimensional model for characterizing complex two phase flow. Based on
Volume of Fluid (VOF), Continuum Surface Force (CSF) model and High Resolution Interface
Capturing (HRIC) scheme, numerical analysis of air water two-phase flow in a narrow rectangular
channel is done. The simulation results are being validated with the experimental results and shows a fair
correspondence. The influence of phase velocity on flow parameters like void fraction, flow quality and
mass flow rate have been studied. Results showed that the variation in the total mass flow rate of the two
phase system from that of water is found to be well within 20%. This finding would be a favorable
information in diverse systems where two phase flow are encountered.
Keywords: Two-phase flow, Computational Fluid dynamics, Volume fraction, Microgravity, Wall shear
stress

1. Introduction
Any two chemically distinct species or a combination of the gas-solid, gas-liquid or liquid-
liquid of the same fluid can in principle be the two different phases. Such an interactive flow
of two different thermodynamic phases with a common interface is known as two-phase flow.
In-depth knowledge regarding the interaction between the two phases is of utmost importance
as it will help in elucidating the effect of these flow on various applications such as cooling of
superconducting magnets, oil transportation, distillation process and nuclear reactor cooling.
Hence a comprehensive understanding of this flow is essential in designing a safe operational
and security system where the two-phase flow is encountered. This type of flow is prevalent in
cryogenic fluid flow applications in terms of phase change due to heat in leak from atmosphere
owing to the vast temperature difference. It would be very prominent for cryogenic fluids that
have a low boiling point, low cavitation pressure and lower heat of vaporization. The primary
factor which governs the flow behaviour in two-phase flow is the vapour-liquid phase
interaction that varies as the flow velocity of the phases change. Along with phase interaction,
fluid characteristics like viscosity and surface tension plays a prominent role in determining
the behaviour of the flow. The flow characteristics depend on the flow channel orientation,
whether it is horizontal, vertical or inclined at an angle and also depends on the gravitational
force acting on it. Various researches have shown that no correlation or single theory can be
used for predicting the pressure gradient and flow regimes in two-phase flow in pipes
satisfactorily (J. N. Alsheikh, 1970). Both empirical correlation methods and mechanistic
models are still widely used to predict accurately what flow pattern will occur for given input
flow rates, pipe size, and fluid properties (J.M. Mandhane, 1974). Various literature has
presented different methods for this purpose, usually in the form of two-dimensional maps in
which the locations of the boundaries between flow pattern regions are based on empirical
observations. Many of these maps cover a somewhat limited range of fluid properties and pipe
diameters. Consequently, significant discrepancies are often observed between a predicted flow
regime and that actually found in a subsequent test. Due to the complex behaviour of two-phase
gas-liquid or vapour liquid flow, they are mostly studied experimentally. A large number of
empirical correlations were developed for describing the flow, but most of them are only valid
in a specific range of operating conditions. In consideration of the importance and complexity
of the two-phase flows, researchers developed various techniques for identifying different flow
regimes. Table 1 represents the different techniques used for two-phase flow measurement and
characterization.

Table1: Different techniques used for two-phase flow characterization

No Title Description
1 (Das and Pattanayak, Developed a capacitor connected to a multi vibrator for
1995) identifying the flow regimes in a two-phase flow.
2 (Jaworek et al., 2004) Developed a Capacitance probe and Particle Imaging
Velocimetry (PIV) technique for characterizing the flow.
3 (Guilizzoni, 2013) Flow pattern identification by using phase density imaging
using an impedance probe, which interrupts the fluid flow.
4 (Ruixi et al., 2013) Non-intrusive optical method using 𝛾-ray or X-ray for flow
pattern detection and to characterize the two-phase flow.
5 (S. Arunkumar et al., Dielectric sensors were used, where the effective
2015) permittivity of the system changes as void fraction changes.
6 (Talley et al., 2015) Flow visualization technique was used for identifying the
bubble interaction mechanisms and interfacial processes.
7 (S. Arunkumar et al., Infrared sensors were used, where the current across the
2016) receiver helps in two-phase flow measurement.
8 (Kong and Kim, 2016) High speed CCD camera for investigating the effects of gas
flow rate on void fraction, bubble diameter, and velocity.

The growing computer facilities have helped to sort this problem to some extent as it has
provided much flexibility to construct and use large scale computational models to calculate
these complex two-phase flow types (Lun, Calay and Holdo, 1996). Modelling of all liquid-
gas and liquid-vapour flow had significantly helped to verify the flow pattern map presented
in Baker chart (Barron, 1999). The simulation results were validated with the experimental
results obtained from the various flow measuring techniques like PIV, visualization using high-
speed CCD cameras etc. (Schepper, Heynderickx and Marin, 2008). The effect of element type
and the structure of mesh during the simulation was investigated by employing different mesh
structures in the computational domain and was validated against the experimental results. The
result established that a strong dependence exists between the flow behaviour and the mesh
structure. The grid generation issues in CFD modelling was being investigated using the
STAR-CCM+ software package, mainly used for numerical simulation of continuum
mechanics problems (Abdulkadir and Azzopardi, 2010). The effect of gravity on hydrodynamic
characteristics of a horizontal two-phase flow was investigated through the developed of a
three-dimensional model. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) based on the Volume of Fluid
(VOF) approach was used for the development of such a robust model that would define the
flow hydrodynamics vaguely. The different gravity levels used for simulating the two-phase
system with different superficial velocities include 2g (hyper), g (earth), 0.38g (Mars), 0.17g
(Moon), and 10-4 g (microgravity), where g = 9.81m/sec2 (Darzi and Park, 2018).
Characterization of two phase flow is complex as the velocity distribution, mass flow rate and
void fraction of indivudual phases are not easily measurable. At present, there is no single
system that can measure two-phase flow in all of its flow regimes irrespective of incoming
flow conditions. Many methods exist that can measure two phase flow but only under given
specific conditions, and they rarely perform well outside their strict design conditions. As a
result, there is a need for the development of a device that can measure the mass flow in a two-
phase flow, regardless of the incoming flow characteristics. The present work focuses on the
experimental investigation of two phase flow behavior through a narrow rectangular channel.
The aim is to design and test a two phase flow-metering device. The growing computational
facilities have provided the flexibility for the development of a strong three dimensional model
for characterizing the complex two phase flow. Based on Volume of Fluid (VOF), Continuum
Surface Force (CSF) model and High Resolution Interface Capturing (HRIC) scheme,
numerical analysis is being done using ANSYS Fluent ® 14.5 and validated with the
experimental results.

2. Experimental Method

Figure 1: Schematic representation of experimental setup

The experimental facility for measuring the mass flow rate of two phase two phase fluid using
laminar flow rectangular channel is shown in Fig. 1. The setup was designed for the
experimental analysis of air water two phase flow system at room temperature. as it would be
relatively simple, low cost, easy to construct, and would give an idea of how the proposed flow
metering system would respond. In the present study, the air was supplied from a compressor
at a maximum amount of 600 LPM and a pressure of 10 bar. Flow rate of air was measured
using Omega air rotameters with a maximum capacity of 200 LPM and approximately 3%
accuracy was obtained. In order to supply the water, a 0.25 HP centrifugal regenerative pump
having minimum fluctuations and a maximum capacity of 750 LPH was used. Flexible hoses
was also installed at the inlet area to reduce the flow oscillations and vibrations. An Omega
water rotameter with maximum capacity of 10 LPM and approximately 2% accuracy was used
in order to control the water flow rate.
 Figure 2: Rectangular test section for measuring mass flow rate.

The rectangular test section shown in Fig. 2 consist of narrow channels with 1mm width, 74mm
height and 304mm long each. The inlet section is being provided with an end cap for making
provision for the separate entry of air and water. The channel dimension was determined after
considering various factors like flow rates at which the device needs to be operated, fluid used,
system accuracy, method by which the liquid level is measured, and the desired pressure drop
across the system. The channel dimensions were determined on the basis of Reynolds number,
Bond number and the pressure drop. Bond number is a non-dimensional number, which
accounts for the capillary effect of fluid in a channel. It is defined as the ratio of the effect of
gravity on the fluid to the surface tension and can be expressed as shown below.
( 𝜌 −𝜌 )𝑔𝑡 2
𝐵𝑜 = 𝑙 𝑣 (1)
𝜎
Where 𝜌𝑙 is the liquid density, 𝜌𝑣 is the vapor density, g is gravity, t is the channel width, and
σ is the fluid surface tension. Since the flow system is modelled as an open-channel, the viscous
interaction of the fluid with the channel walls is the primary reason for the pressure drop. The
pressure drop across the flow meter is a function of the fluid viscosity, fluid velocity, channel
width, and channel length. Therefore it must be considered for determining the channel length
and width. The experiment was carried out under various flow conditions with water flow rates
ranging from 2 to 5 liters per minute and air flow rate of 2 liters per second. For every flow
condition, the system was allowed to stabilize before the measurements were taken. The height
of the liquid phase was measured for each inlet condition and the values were recorded for
computing the mass flow rate of the phases. In order to measure the height of the liquid phase,
a ruler with measurement increment of 1mm was used. Mass flow rate of both phases could be
computed from the height measured and total mass flow rate can be determined by adding the
individual mass flow rate of the phases.

3. Numerical Method
Depending on the incoming flow conditions the two phase flow may exhibit different flow
regimes and numerical modelling of such flow primarily include three steps, mainly pre-
processing, solution and post-processing. In order to validate the phase behaviour with the
experimental results in terms of mass flow rate, simulation of air water two phase system was
done using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). ANSYS Fluent ® 14.5 was used for the
numerical analysis of air water two phase flow through a narrow rectangular channel. In VOF
multiphase model, the phases share only a single set of conservation equations and the void
fraction of each phase is tracked throughout the computational domain or the control volume
(Schepper, Heynderickx and Marin, 2008). As long as the value of volume fraction of the
phases at any specific location is known, the property associated with it will be calculated as
the volume averaged values. Therefore these variables at any given computational domain will
be determined by its volume fraction contribution (Liu, Chen and Shi, 2012). The governing
equations for multiphase modelling can be represented as:
 𝜕
Conservation of mass: (𝜌) + ∇ . (𝜌𝑈) = ∑𝑘 𝑆𝑘 (2)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
Conservation of momentum: 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌𝑈) + ∇ . (𝜌𝑈𝑈) = −∇ . 𝑝 + ∇ . (𝜇∇𝑈) + 𝜌𝑔 + 𝐹 (3)
Where, 𝜌 is the fluid density, U is fluid velocity, 𝑆𝑘 is the source term for phase k (net rate of
production per unit volume), p is the pressure, 𝜇 is the effective viscosity of the fluids, g is the
gravitational acceleration and F is the external body forces.

Figure 3: Geometry model and quadrilateral mesh

Figure 3 shows the computational grid system of the rectangular channel used for the numerical
analysis of air water two phase system. The geometry model was created in ANSYS design
modeler, which provides unique modeling functions for structural, fluid flow and other types
of analysis. The geometry model chosen for the analysis is a narrow rectangular channel.
Therefore, the flow will behave similar to that of an open channel flow. Meshing of the
geometry model was done by the ICEM CFD meshing tool in ANSYS Fluent ® 14.5. It is
essential to discretize the computational cell into smaller volumes so that the physics of two
phase flow could be properly captured. The effect of discretization in longitudinal direction
and along the cross section was investigated to select the proper size of mesh. Simulations were
carried out by changing the number of division or element size in those direction with volume
fraction of air as the reference parameter for obtaining the optimum mesh. The number of nodes
and elements obtained after mesh independent study were 430967 and 400000 respectively.
Table 2 represent the thermo physical properties of the working fluids and other conditions
used for the simulation of air water two phase flow.

Table 2: Details of solution strategy and boundary conditions used for simulation
No. Title Description
1 Density of water, 𝜌𝑙 (kg/m3) 998
3
2 Density of air, 𝜌𝑔 (kg/m ) 1.225
2
3 Kinematic viscosity of water (m /s) 10-6
4 Kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s) 1.48 x 10-5
5 Surface tension between air and water, 𝜎 (N/m) 0.072
6 Inlet velocity of air (m/s) 6.0
7 Inlet velocity of water (m/s) 0.10 – 0.25
8 Time step size 0.0001

4. Results and discussion

Different flow patterns occurring due to the interaction of the phases in a horizontal channel is
governed by various factors like flow rate of each phase, surface tension, density, viscosity
ratio and the gravitational force acting on the system. In this work, two types of stratified flow
pattern have been identified through the combination of experimental and numerical analysis.
In narrow rectangular channels, the viscous and surface tension forces dominate the inertial
forces; hence, the Reynolds number will be comparatively lower. Therefore, the flow becomes
laminar, and the species transport occurs primarily by molecular diffusion. When the interfacial
tension dominates, the flow becomes dispersed.

4.1 Experimental Analysis

The flow meter consists of tall narrow rectangular channels, which converts the incoming flow
into laminar stratified two-phase flow. As the flow travels down the channel length, a slope
gets developed due to the difference in viscosity of air and water. The wall shear stress caused
mainly because of the frictional effect between fluid and the channel wall also contributes to
the development of slope, downstream. The viscous effect between water and the wall is higher
than that between air and channel wall. Therefore, as the flow develops downstream, a negative
slope gets developed, as shown in Fig. 4. Flow quality defined as the ratio of the mass flow
rate of air to that of the total mass flow rate, is one of the critical factors that describe the two-
phase flow. Starting with a flow quality of zero and increasing, the slope of the air-water
interface is investigated. As the flow quality increases, the slope of the interface decreased and
eventually became a negative slope. It is expected since with the higher flow quality comes a
more significant effect from the vapour phase (air) on the flow.

Figure 4: Stratified two phase flow in a narrow rectangular channel.

8.0
Mass flow rate of water
7.0
Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Total mass flow rate

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Velocity of water (m/s)
Figure 5: Variation of mass flow rate with change in velocity of water at constant air flow.

The significant effect that makes this measurement method possible is the difference in the
viscous effect between the fluid and the channel walls. Since the air has a much lower viscosity
than the water, it will see less resistance as it travels through the channel. As the two phases
travel downstream, a constant slope at the air-water interface is developed. By measuring the
liquid height at different points in the channel, the flow rate is computed. Figure 5 elucidates
the influence of velocity of water on the mass flow rate of water and the total mass flow rate
for an air-water two-phase system. It is clearly observed that the mass flow rate of water
increases as the velocity of water is being increased from 0.10 m/s to 0.20 m/s. Since the air
flow rate is maintained constant throughout the experimental study, there is not much
significant variation in the mass flow rate of air. The mass flow rate of air is found to be 0.27
kg/s throughout the investigation. Therefore, the total mass flow rate also shows the same trend
as that of the mass flow rate of water. When the mass flow rate of water increases with an
increase in the velocity of water, the flow quality decreases. It is expected since there is not
much significant variation in the mass flow rate of air during the experiment. Also, with the
higher flow quality comes a more significant effect from the gaseous phase (air) on the flow.
In Fig. 6 the variation of total mass flow rate with change in flow quality is exhibited. It may
be noted that as the velocity of the water increases the flow quality decreases; hence, the total
mass flow rate increases with decrease in flow quality.
8.0
Total mass flow rate (kg/s)

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0
0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09
Flow Quality
Figure 6: Influence of flow quality on total mass flow rate of the two-phase system.

4.2 Numerical Analysis

0.70
0.65
0.60
Volume fraction

0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35
Velocity of water (m/s)
Figure 7: Variation in volume fraction of air with velocity of water

Numerical analysis is done for various combinations of liquid and gaseous velocity. For such
parametric investigation, the velocity of water is varied from 0.10 m/s to 0.25 m/s at a constant
air velocity of 6.0 m/s. The combination of tall narrow rectangular channels and the velocity
mentioned above forces the incoming flow into laminar stratified flow regime as shown in Fig.
7. As the flow develops, the liquid and gas phase get separated due to the difference in viscosity
and density of both phases. The gravitational field also plays a vital role in the development of
such stratified flow. The viscous force between the liquid and the wall was more than that
between the gas and the wall, and this leads to a negative slope of the liquid level as it travels.
It may be noted that the volume fraction of air decreases with an increase in the velocity of the
liquid phase. Since the velocity of the water increases, the mass flow rate of it increases.
Therefore, more liquid will occupy the volume inside the rectangular channel, thereby reducing
the volume occupied by the gaseous medium. Therefore, the volume fraction of air is reduced
from 0.64 to 0.42 as the velocity of water is varied from 0.10 m/s to 0.25 m/s. Since the
viscosity of the liquid phases is more than that of the gaseous phase, the liquid phases introduce
more friction on the channel walls. The friction force acting on the channel walls due to such
viscous effect of the liquid and gaseous phases is known as wall shear stress. Therefore, the
wall shear stress increases with an increase in the velocity of the liquid phase. Fig. 8 clearly
depicts the relationship between wall shear stress and velocity of water. The dashed line in the
plot represents the trend line that clearly elucidates the direct dependence of wall shear stress
on the velocity of water.
6.00

5.50
Wall shear stress (Pa)

5.00

4.50

4.00

3.50

3.00
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Velocity of water (m/s)
Figure 8: Relationship between wall shear stress and velocity of water.

0.10

0.08
Quality

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
Volume fraction

Figure 9: Dependence of quality on volume fraction

Figure 9 shows the flow quality as a function of the volume fraction of air. The mass flow rate
of both phases influences flow quality. Phase holdup is a prominent factor that effectively
defines the quality of a two-phase flow system. Phase holdup is the fraction of channel volume
occupied by the fluid phase. The location of the interface between the two phases directly
determines the phase holdup, which in turn, depends on the velocity of the two phases. In the
case of stratified flow, both the fluids are in direct contact with the channel walls. Therefore,
the more viscous fluid will flow with a lower average velocity. Hence the liquid holdup
increases with increase in viscosity ratio. It implies that the holdup of a phase is higher if its
relative viscosity is greater. It is expected since the more viscous fluid flows slowly through
the channel. As the velocity of water increases, the liquid holdup increases since there is an
increase in the mass flow rate of water. Whereas, the mass flow rate of air remains constant as
its velocity is not varied from 6 m/s. Therefore, the increase in the mass flow rate of water will
increase the total mass flow rate. Hence thereby reduces the quality of flow with an increase in
the velocity of water.

4.3 Validation of the model with experimental results

14.0
Mass flow rate of water (Experiment)
12.0
Mass flow rate of water (Numerical)
Mass flow rate (kg/s)

10.0 Total mass flow rate (Experiment)

Total mass flow rate (Numerical)
8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Velocity of water (m/s)
Figure 10. Validation of simulation results.

Figure 10 presents the contrast of the mass flow rate of water and the total mass flow rate
between the numerical results and the experimental data. Both the experimental and numerical
results are in close agreement. Different inlet conditions are considered for validation and
suitable prediction of two-phase flow characteristics compared to the experimental results. The
velocity of water chosen for such investigation is ranging from 0.10 m/s to 0.25 m/s. Since the
change in the mass flow rate of air is insignificant, the velocity of air is kept constant at 6 m/s
in all cases. The numerical model accurately elucidates the effect of the velocity of water on
two-phase flow characteristics such as volume fraction, quality, wall shear stress etc. When the
velocity of water increases from 0.20 m/s to 0.25 m/s, there occurs a transition from stratified
smooth flow to stratified wavy flow. The stratified smooth flow pattern is characterized by a
smooth flat undisturbed interface, separating the gas and liquid phases. It is due to the enormous
difference in density of the phases. Stratified wavy flow is equivalent to stratified smooth flow,
but there will be a disturbance at the interface. Such disturbance is due to the occurrence and
propagation of a small wave in the flow direction. Since there is considerable velocity for water,
the water at the interface is pushed by the less dense phase flowing above it. Therefore wavy
pattern occurs at the interface. Closer inspection of the validation graph reveals that at lower
velocity conditions, the simulation results are very much similar to that of experimental data.
But at extreme velocity condition, the deviation is comparatively higher. It is happening due to
the transition of flow from one flow regime to another. The wave develops at the interface and
hence disturbs the smooth flow. In spite of this flow regime transition, the numerical model
matches the experimental data quite well.
5. Conclusions
The growing computational facilities provided flexibility for the development of a robust
model for providing suitable insight into the complex hydrodynamics of two-phase flow. When
the velocity of water increases from 0.10 m/s to 0.25 m/s, the volume fraction of air decreases
from 0.64 to 0.42. Since the liquid phase contributes towards the wall shear stress, it increases
with a decrease in the volume fraction of air or with an increase in the liquid holdup. As the
velocity of water increases, there occurs a transition from stratified smooth flow to stratified
wavy flow. Since the water has considerable velocity, the water at the interface is pushed by
the less dense phase flowing above it. Therefore, wave develops at the interface and starts to
propagate downstream. Since the quality of flow and volume fraction have a direct relationship,
the quality of flow decreases with an increase in the velocity of water at a constant air flow
rate. The experimental analysis of air-water two-phase flow is instigated to extract an idea of
how the proposed flow metering system responds. When the velocity of water is increased from
0.10 m/s to 0.20 m/s, the mass flow rate of water shows an increasing trend. In contrast, the
mass flow rate of air is virtually constant at 0.27 kg/s since the velocity of air is maintained
immutable throughout the experiment.
Consequently, the total mass flow rate also exhibits the same trend as that of the mass flow rate
of water. Since the quality of flow has an inverse relation with the mass flow rate of water, the
flow quality decreases with an increase in the velocity of water. The contrast between the total
mass flow rate of the water and that of the whole two-phase flow is found to be well within
20%. This implication can be favourable in diverse systems where the two-phase flow is
encountered. CFD simulations are performed to investigate the effect of gravitational force on
two-phase flow, at five different gravitational fields. For each gravity condition, the velocity
of air and water is taken as 6 m/s and 0.12 m/s respectively. Due to the vast density difference
between the two phases, the hydrodynamic flow behaviour is significantly influenced by the
gravitational force. Both the experimental and numerical data available at different velocity
conditions of the water are in close agreement. Hence, the numerical model can accurately
describe the effect of the velocity of water on two-phase flow characteristics such as volume
fraction, quality, wall shear stress etc. The results of the room-temperature apparatus showed
a correlation between the slope of the water-air interface and the mass flow-rate, despite the
relatively crude measurement methods. Based on the comparative studies, the method is being
found as a potential candidate for measuring the two-phase flow under cryogenic conditions.

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