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For Training Purpose Only DETAILED TRAINING
VAR Part 7 - Aircraft Maintenance Basic Cat A

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Date: 25/04/2014
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FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 ATA DOC Page 1

COMMUNICATIONS FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
ATA 23
COMMUNICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
In this unit we will show you the communication systems of modern aircraft. We
can divide the systems into three groups.
The systems for the communication inside and outside the aircraft are called
the interphone and passenger address systems.
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Figure 1 System Overview

INTRODUCTION
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Communication Systems Overview cont.

The radio communication systems are called the VHF system, the HF system,
the SATCOM system and the ACARS system.
Finally two systems are used for accident investigation. These are the voice
recorder and the emergency locator transmitter or ELT in short.
The interphone system allows communication between the cockpit and other
areas of the aircraft, for example for maintenance.
The passenger address system allows the flight and cabin crew to give
announcements to the passengers, for example for flight safety.
The VHF communication system allows communication via radio signals over a
distance of up to 200 nm (nautical miles), for example with Air Traffic Control or
other aircraft.
The HF system allows communication over long distances because HF radio
signals are reflected by the ionosphere of the earth.
The satellite communication system (SATCOM) allows the cockpit crew to
communicate over the whole world. It is also used by any passenger
pay−phone services on board the aircraft.
ACARS stands for aircraft communication, addressing and reporting system. It
allows exchange of information like flight and maintenance data between
aircraft and the ground. It uses VHF, HF or SATCOM for communication with
the ground station.
The cockpit voice recorder system or CVR stores all communications of the
flight crew for later accident or incident investigations.
The emergency locator transmitter, or ELT in short, can help to find the location
of the airplane after an accident.
The main components of the communication systems are located in the
cockpit:
S On the pedestal both pilots are provided with a radio management panel, or
RMP in short, for frequency selection of the radio communication systems
S and an audio control panel, or ACP in short, to select the different systems
for the headphone and microphone.
Additional control functions for the communication systems are located on the
overhead panel and in the cabin.

INTRODUCTION
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Figure 2 Radio Communication Systems

INTRODUCTION
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Communication Systems Overview cont.

The cockpit voice recorder system or CVR stores all communications of the
flight crew for later accident or incident investigations.
The emergency locator transmitter, or ELT in short, can help to find the location
of the airplane after an accident.
The main components of the communication systems are located in the
cockpit:
S On the pedestal both pilots are provided with a radio management panel, or
RMP in short, for frequency selection of the radio communication systems
S and an audio control panel, or ACP in short, to select the different systems
for the headphone and microphone.
Additional control functions for the communication systems are located on the
overhead panel and in the cabin.

INTRODUCTION
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Figure 3 Accident Investigation Systems

INTRODUCTION
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RADIO FREQUENCIES
Any kind of communication needs 2 things. The first is the information you want
to exchange and the second is the carrier of the information.
The carrier could be either paper, like a letter, or a CD-ROM for digital data, or
a wire like a telephone line.
In the aircraft the interphone, the passenger address and the cockpit voice
recorder system use wires as the carrier to transport the information.
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INTRODUCTION
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Figure 4 Radio Frequencies

INTRODUCTION
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Radio Frequencies cont.

All other aircraft communication systems need a wireless carrier to allow
communication during flight.
This carrier is a radio frequency or RF signal.
The radio frequencies that are used in aviation are divided into 8 frequency
bands.
The very low frequency or VLF band ranges up to 30 kHz. This band is only
used in military communication systems as a radio frequency but it is also used
for audio signals.
The low frequency or LF band is between 30 kHz and 300 kHz. It is not used
for aircraft communication systems, but is used by public radio stations and the
ADF navigation system.
The medium frequency or MF band is between 300 kHz and 3000 kHz which
corresponds to 3 MHz. It is not used for aircraft communication systems, but is
used by public radio stations and the ADF navigation system.
The high frequency or HF band is between 3 MHz and 30 MHz. It is used by
the HF communication system and allows communication over long distances.
The very high frequency or VHF band is between 30 MHz and 300 MHz. It is
used by the VHF communication system which allows communication over
distances up to 200 nm (nautical miles). It is also used by navigation systems
like the VOR and ILS.
The ultra high frequency or UHF band is between 300 MHz and 3000 MHz
which corresponds to 3 GHz. This band is only used by military communication
systems and by radar systems like DME, ATC and the GPS navigation system.
The super high frequency or SHF band is between 3 Ghz and 30 Ghz. It is
used by the satellite communication system, and the weather radar and radio
altimeter which belong to the navigation systems.

The extremely high frequency or EHF is between 30 GHz and 300 GHz. It is
not used for communication or navigation systems.

INTRODUCTION
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Radio
Communication
VHF
HF ELT
SATCOM
ACARS
Figure 5 Frequency Bands

INTRODUCTION
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WAVELENGTH
A full wave of an alternating current, also called a cycle, has a certain length in
time called Period T.
You can calculate T as the reciprocal value of the frequency. So the period of a
frequency of 1Hz is 1 second.
When you activate an AC on an endless wire, then the electric force will travel
with the speed of light c which is 300 000 km in 1 second.
This means that the areas with negative polarity and positive polarity travel
with this speed.
The areas with a high concentration of electrons correspond to the negative
peak of the voltage and areas with a low concentration correspond to the
positive peak.
The wavelength is now defined as the distance between two areas of high or
low electron concentration.
For a frequency of 1Hz this distance would be 300 000km because this is the
distance the electrical force can travel in 1 second.
Generally you can calculate lambda by multiplying the period with the speed of
light c or by dividing c by the frequency.
We have added the wavelength to each frequency band. You probably know
that the wavelength is often used to identify a certain frequency band.
For example in a microwave oven the term microwave means that extremely
high frequencies are used.
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INTRODUCTION
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Figure 6 Wavelength
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Wavelength/ALL Page 13
INTRODUCTION
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WAVE PROPAGATION & MODULATION

Wave Propagation
Radio waves travel differently depending on the frequency. This is called the
wave propagation.
High frequencies only travel in a direct line, with the so called sky wave so they
can only be used when transmitter and receiver have contact within a visual
range.
On earth this is possible up to a distance of 200nm.
For SATCOM, which uses the SHF band, you need satellites to allow reception
around the earth.
The lower the frequency, the better the propagation around the world with a
ground wave.
Military systems use this advantage in the VLF and LF band.
In commercial aircraft the HF band is used for communication around the
world. In this band the skywave is partially reflected by the ionosphere and
returns to the ground. Reception quality is not always good because daytime
and selected frequency influence the reflection.
Modulation
To transport information with the radio frequency carrier we must modulate the
carrier frequency with the signal frequency, which is for example the audio
signal. This signal has a frequency in the range of up to 30kHz and is called
audio frequency or AF.
When the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied, this is called amplitude
modulation or AM in short.
When the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, this is called frequency
modulation or FM in short.
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INTRODUCTION
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Figure 7 Wave Propagation & Modulation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Wave Propag&Modulat/ALL Page 15
INTRODUCTION
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AUDIO COMPONENTS
For communication in aircraft we need two general components for nearly all
systems:
Microphones transfer the acoustic information into an electrical signal.
Loudspeakers transfer the electrical signal back into acoustic information.
Different types of microphone are used in the cockpit.
S An area microphone is used by the voice recorder to record the general
cockpit sounds,
S a hand−held microphone is used for announcements to the passengers
S and integrated microphones are contained in the oxygen mask or the
headset. These are then called boomset.
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INTRODUCTION
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Figure 8 Audio Components

INTRODUCTION
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Audio Components cont.

Loudspeakers are used in the cockpit for warning sounds.
Small loudspeaker types are used in headsets and boomsets. Boomsets
contain a combined microphone and loudspeaker.
In the cabin you can find loudspeakers in the ceiling for passenger information
and entertainment programs.
In addition the cabin crew uses telephone type handsets with a small
loudspeaker and microphone for internal communication and passenger
announcements.

INTRODUCTION
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Loadspeaker
Figure 9 Audio Components

INTRODUCTION
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RADIO COMPONENTS
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|Radio Components/ALL Page 20

INTRODUCTION
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Figure 10 Transmitter Components

INTRODUCTION
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Radio Components cont.

A receiver has 3 main components:
S a tuning circuit which selects only one frequency from the total antenna
output. This frequency is selected on the control panel;
S a demodulator which recovers the audio signal from the RF signal;
S an audio amplifier which generates the necessary power for the audio
equipment.

INTRODUCTION
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Figure 11 Receiver Components

INTRODUCTION
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Antennas are needed to receive or transmit the RF carrier.
Aircraft antennas have different sizes and locations. The location depends on
the task of the system and the size depends mainly on the carrier frequency.
This is because an antenna is most effective when its length is a minimum of a
quarter of the wavelength.
The VHF COM frequency range is between 118MHz and 137MHz. This
corresponds to a wavelength between 2.45m and 2.19m Therefore
theoretically the required antenna length should be between 55cm and 64cm.
As this difference is very small we could use a fixed antenna length of about
60cm without losing effectiveness. In modern aircraft you can find VHF
antennas which are shorter than 60cm like this one on the picture. This is
possible because you can lengthen an antenna with electronic components.
This saves weight and reduces the drag.
The frequencies of the HF communication system range from 2MHz to 30MHz.
Therefore the length of the antenna should be between 2.5m and 37.5m. This
big variation does not allow the use of a fixed average length.
The HF antenna, which has for example a length of 2m, must be electronically
lengthened depending on the used frequency.
This is done by an antenna coupler.

INTRODUCTION
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HF
VHF
Figure 12 Antennas
INTRODUCTION
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The connection between the transceiver and the antenna is made by special
feeders called RF lines.
Two different types are used in aircraft.
S The first type is a co−axial cable type which is used for frequencies of up to
3 GHz. It has an inner conductor which carries the RF potential and an
outer conductor which is grounded. A filler material insulates both
conductors from each other.
S The second type are waveguides. These are used above 3 GHz and are
special feeders for radar frequency signals.
All RF lines must only be handled by specially trained personnel according to
the instructions in the maintenance manual.
Note that transport of the radio signals is disturbed by deformations of the
RF−lines.
Water in the RF line and corrosion of the contacts will do the same.

INTRODUCTION
ATA 23
Figure 13 RF Lines
INTRODUCTION
ATA 23
STATIC DISCHARGER
Aircraft are equipped with static dischargers at all sharp trailing edges of the
airframe. In these areas the friction with air during flight generates static
electricity.
This static electricity must continuously be discharged to prevent build−up of
high voltages on the fuselage because this would damage electronic equipment
and disturb reception of radio signals.
The maintenance manual states how many static dischargers must work
properly to guarantee correct operation.
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INTRODUCTION
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Figure 14 Static Dischargers

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 14|Static Discharger/ALL Page 29
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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AUDIO SYSTEMS
AUDIO MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The audio management system controls all functions necessary for crew
communications.
In modern systems a central computer called the audio management unit, or
AMU in short, connects the audio equipment of the captain, the first officer and
a third crew member with the radio communication and navigation systems.
The AMU also allows each crew member to communicate with the other flight
crew members via the flight interphone system.
For communication with the cabin crew the cabin interphone system is used
and for communication with maintenance staff at connections in several areas
of the aircraft the service interphone system is used.
In addition the passenger address system, or PA system in short, allows the
pilots to make announcements to the passengers.
Finally the AMU transfers all relevant signals to the cockpit voice recorder.
Each crew member has an audio control panel, or ACP in short, to select the
necessary communication channel for their own audio equipment.
The panels for the captain and the first officer are located on the pedestal and
the panel for the third crew member is either on the overhead panel or located
on the pedestal. In some aircraft types you can also find a fourth audio control
panel in the cockpit and even one in the avionic compartment.
The audio equipment for each cockpit crew member consists of a headset,
boomset and microphones inside the oxygen mask and in a handheld version.
Note that the oxygen mask microphone has priority over the boomset
microphone when the mask is in use.
To use the boomset again you must first restore the oxygen mask in the
stowage box and reset the oxygen mask flag.
Loudspeakers make the selected audio audible in the whole cockpit. The pilots
can adjust the audio volume with a control knob near the loudspeaker or on the
audio control panel.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Audio Management Sys/ALL Page 30

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Figure 15 Audio Management System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Audio Management Sys/ALL Page 31
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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AUDIO CONTROL PANEL

The ACPs allow a separate selection of reception and transmission channels.
The transmission selection is done by push−buttons. Only one system can be
selected at a time which is shown by a light in the selected push-button.
For the reception selection you must release the corresponding rotating knob
by pressing on it. After the knob is released you can now select the audio
volume. It is possible to select more than one system at the same time.
With a sidetone you can always monitor the transmitted audio with the
reception channel.
For the communication systems you can select the reception and transmission
function but for the navigation systems only reception is possible.
There are 3 VHF transceiver selectors for radio communication, for the left,
center and right systems. In other aircraft they are called systems 1, 2 and 3.
There are 2 HF transceivers for radio communication. These are either the left
and right systems or systems 1 and 2.
The flight interphone knob selects the channel to communicate with the other
flight crew members.
The cabin knob selects the cabin interphone channel to communicate with the
cabin crew.
You can also select the service interphone function when the aircraft is on
ground.
The PA knob selects the passenger address system to allow announcements
to the passengers.
The SATCOM knob selects the satellite communication system to allow
telephone calls.
Audio information from the navigation systems is needed to identify the

selected station by Morse code and to get additional voice information.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|Audio Control Panel/ALL Page 32

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Figure 16 Audio Control Panel 1

AUDIO SYSTEMS
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Audio Control Panel cont.

You can select the VOR or ADF navigation system and the ILS or marker
beacon system.
You can influence the received signals using the filter selector.
When the switch is in the V−position you will only receive the voice information
and in the R-position, which stands for range, you will only receive the
identification code.
In the B-position you receive both audio signals at the same time.
The audio control panel also has a radio transmission or RT switch with 3
positions. The switch position decides whether you transmit or receive audio
with the selected communication system.
In the center position the selected communication system is in the reception
mode, so you can hear the received audio from the system.
The spring-loaded up position selects the transmission mode. This is also
called the push-to-talk or PTT function. You need to activate this switch when
you want to use the microphones in the boomset or oxygen mask. Only the
handheld microphone has its own push-to-talk switch.
In the Interphone position the microphones are permanently connected to the
flight interphone system, so the pilots can talk to each other independently of
the other selections.
All modern audio control panels have basically the same functions. Our
example on the left is used in modern long distance Boeing aircraft and you
can find the panel on the top right on long distance Airbus aircraft.
The audio control panel on the bottom right is used in short distance Boeing
aircraft; therefore it has no switches for the HF and SATCOM systems.
One main difference on the 2 panels on the right is that a voice only
push-button controls the audio filter. Pressing the switch cancels the Morse
code so this corresponds to the V-position of the filter selector on the left panel.
Instead of the radio transmission position of the switch on the audio control
panels the pilot can also use a push-to-talk switch on the control wheel or
sidestick.
On some control wheel switches you can also select the permanent interphone
position.

AUDIO SYSTEMS
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Figure 17 Audio Control Panel 2

AUDIO SYSTEMS
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AUDIO SWITCHING
If there is a malfunction in captain’s or first officer’s transmission or reception
circuits in the AMU or ACP, they can transfer their audio equipment to the
circuits of the third crew member.
This is done with a transfer switch usually located on the overhead panel.
After the transfer the pilot must use the audio control panel of the third crew
member.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Audio Switch/ALL Page 36

AUDIO SYSTEMS
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NORM
CAPT F/O
3 3
Figure 18 Audio Switching

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Audio Switch/ALL Page 37
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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INTERPHONE SYSTEMS
The flight interphone system is used for communication between the cockpit
crew members.
In addition the communication with a mechanic on the ground is possible via a
boomset connection near the nose gear. This is used for example during the
push back from the gate.
When the mechanic wants to communicate with the cockpit, he or she must
press the call push-button near the jack.
This illuminates the mechanic call light (MECH) on the audio control panel
accompanied with a short audio tone.
You can connect your microphone to the flight interphone system by either
selecting the FLT push-button or by switching the radio transmission switch to
the interphone position.
The headphones are connected to the flight interphone system by releasing the
corresponding knob.
The mechanic call is reset automatically after a time limit or the pilot can
manually reset it by selecting a reset push−button.
The attendant light illuminates on the audio control panel when a cabin
attendant wants to communicate with a cockpit crew member. The light is also
accompanied by a short audio tone.
Pushing the cabin push-button connects the microphone to the cabin
interphone system and releasing the knob connects the headphone to the
cabin interphone system.
The reset of the call is again automatic or done by selecting the reset
push-button.
The service interphone system is used primarily by maintenance personnel to
connect the cockpit to various areas inside or outside the aircraft.

It uses the cabin interphone channels of the audio management system, so the
same selections are necessary for the service interphone.
As the service jacks are often located in areas with high moisture and dirt they
are only connected to the interphone system on ground.
This is done either automatically by the air−ground sensing circuit or by a
switch on the overhead panel.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Interphone Sys/ALL Page 38

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Figure 19 Interphone System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Interphone Sys/ALL Page 39
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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PASSENGER ADDRESS INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the passenger address system, or PA System in short, is to
give information to the passengers.
Information can come from the cockpit or cabin crew or from a tape player
used for pre−recorded announcements.
Also, when available, boarding music can be played in the cabin.
Finally the PA system generates chimes as attention getters.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Passenger Address Intro/All Page 40

AUDIO SYSTEMS
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Figure 20 Passenger Address System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Passenger Address Intro/All Page 41
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM

The PA system uses PA amplifiers, which are located in a separate unit or part
of a modern cabin communication systems called, for example, CIDS or
ACESS.
The PA amplifiers give the inputs a different priority to prevent a mixture of the
audio signals.
The highest priority is the input from the cockpit crew and the second priority is
the purser followed by the other cabin crew members. The fourth priority is the
pre−recorded announcements and the least important input is the boarding
music.
The PA system also generates chimes as attention getters. They are not
included in the priority circuit, so they will always sound in addition to other
audio.
A high chime sounds when a passenger calls the cabin crew and a high − low
chime sounds when one cabin crew member calls another crew member or the
cockpit.
A low chime comes on when the Fasten Seatbelt or No Smoking signs are
switched on.
The PA amplifier can increase the audio volume to make sure that all
announcements can be heard clearly by the passengers.
First the output increases when an engine is started, usually detected by the
engine oil pressure switch.
The volume level is further increased when the oxygen masks are released
after a cabin decompression; it is triggered by the 14000ft pressure switch.
To make a PA announcement from the cockpit the pilot must press the PA
push-button on the audio control panel. On some aircraft types this push-button
must be held for the duration of the announcement.

Often there is an additional handset especially for PA announcements. This
bypasses the audio control panel.
All PA audio can be heard by the pilots when the PA knob is released. With this
sidetone the pilot can check that his own announcement is transferred to the
cabin loudspeakers and that cabin crew announcements are not interrupted.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Passenger Address Sys/ALL Page 42

AUDIO SYSTEMS
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Figure 21 PA System
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Passenger Address Sys/ALL Page 43
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER SYSTEM

The cockpit voice recorder, or CVR in short, is a very important component for
evaluation of aircraft incidents or accidents because it keeps a continuous
record of all cockpit crew communications and sounds in the cockpit.
Two different types of voice recorders are presently in use.
The analogue tape recorder stores the last 30 minutes of the flight on an
endless tape. Older recordings are automatically erased.
The digital solid state recorder stores the last 120 minutes of the flight in a
memory. Here previous recordings are also automatically overwritten.
The cockpit voice recorder system usually has the following components:
S the recorder itself which is located near the flight data recorder; usually in
the tail section of the aircraft;
S a control panel usually located on the overhead panel;
S an area microphone which is either located on the control panel or in a
separate location.
On the front of the recorder you can find an underwater locator beacon, ULB in
short.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|CVR System/All Page 44

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ULB
Figure 22 Cockpit Voice Recorder System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|CVR System/All Page 45
AUDIO SYSTEMS
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CVR OPERATION
The cockpit voice recorder has 4 audio inputs. Three inputs come from the
audio management unit and correspond exactly to the audio which the flight
crew hear in their headphones. As all transmissions are also repeated in the
headphones the recording contains the reception and transmission.
The 4th input is the general cockpit sounds from the area microphone.
The voice recorder starts recording automatically when one engine is started or
when the aircraft is in flight at the latest.
The recording stops 5 minutes after shutdown of the last engine on the ground.
With the erase switch on the control panel you can erase the complete
recording when the aircraft is on the ground and the parking brake is set. This
is to keep the privacy of the crew.
You can test the voice recorder by pressing the test push button on the control
panel.
This starts the recorder and it records a test signal on all four channels. In
many aircraft types you need to activate the recorder power with the ground
control switch first.
During the test the pointer in the meter must deflect to the green area or a
status indicator must indicate pass. In modern aircraft the test is usually done
with the central maintenance computer system.
You can monitor a test recording when you connect a set of headphones to the
jack on the panel.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|CVR Operation/All Page 46

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Figure 23 CVP Operation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|CVR Operation/All Page 47
VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
ATA 23

INTRODUCTION
The VHF communication system is used for short distance voice and data
communication with ground stations or other aircraft.
The VHF frequency range for aircraft communication systems is from 118MHz
to 136.975MHz.
Note that the frequency of 121.5MHz is an international emergency frequency
which is used for example by the emergency locator beacon. This frequency
should never be used for transmissions.
The spacing between each communication channel is normally 25kHz which
means that 760 frequencies, also called channels, are available.
In Europe more channels are required in high flight levels; therefore modern
systems use a channel spacing of 8.3kHz which means more than 2000
channels are available.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Intro/ALL Page 48

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Figure 24 VHF Communication System

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SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Modern aircraft have 3 independent VHF systems. Two systems are a
minimum requirement for commercial flights.
System no.1 is normally used for the captain’s voice communication and
system no.2 for the first officer’s voice communications.
The third system is normally used for the ACARS system but it could also be
used for voice communication if one of the other systems fails.
Each VHF communication system has a transceiver in the avionics
compartment and an antenna.
The 3 antennas are installed at different locations on the aircraft fuselage.
Usually you can find the antennas for VHF systems no.1 and no.3 on the upper
fuselage and the antenna for VHF no.2 on the lower fuselage.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|Sys Components/ALL Page 50

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Figure 25 VHF System Components

ATA 23
System Components cont.

The VHF communication systems are controlled by radio management panels,
RMP in short, which allow frequency selections and by audio control panels
which allow audio selections.
The transceiver has both a transmitter and a receiver for either receiving or
transmitting signals.
You can hear a received signal with your audio equipment when you select the
corresponding knob on the ACP and the correct frequency on the RMP.
You must always listen to a selected station first before you start a
transmission to prevent communication interruptions with another aircraft.
To transmit information to the selected station you must push either the radio
transmission switch on the ACP or operate the push−to−talk switch on the
control wheel.
When the transmission works with the normal output power of about 25 W, you
can hear your own voice in the headphones with the sidetone.
A missing sidetone is always an indication for a system failure.

ATA 23
Figure 26 VHF System Components

ATA 23
RADIO MANAGEMENT PANEL

The radio management panel is the component where you make frequency
selections for the VHF and HF radio communication systems.
Each RMP can control any system. The selected system is shown by the light
in the pushbutton.
During normal operation the captain’s panel controls the VHF and HF systems
no.1 and the first officer’s RMP controls VHF and HF systems no.2.
The third RMP is usually used for VHF no.3.
The RMP has 2 frequency windows. The left window is called the active
window. It shows the operating frequency of the selected system.
The other is called the standby window which shows a new selected frequency.
Note that the window shows either ACARS or DATA when you select VHF
system no.3 because no manual frequency selection is necessary for ACARS.
When you press the transfer button on an RMP, the frequencies change
windows. This means that the standby frequency becomes the active
frequency and vice versa.
All RMPs are constantly updated by each other. When you activate a frequency
on one RMP, it is also visible on the other RMPs when the same system is
selected.
On some radio management panels, for example on modern Airbus aircraft,
you can find an area for the frequency selection of navigation systems. This is
only used when normal tuning via the flight management system is not
available.
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Figure 27 Radio Management Panel & Operation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Radio Manage Panel/ALL Page 55
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SYSTEM OPERATION
Let us now see an example of how to establish a connection to a VHF ground
station.
First you must cross−check that the selection for your audio equipment is done
on your audio control panel and that the required VHF communication system
is selected on the radio management panel.
The required frequency is selected by turning the frequency selector knob. This
changes the frequency in the standby window.
After selection of the correct frequency you must activate the frequency for the
VHF system no.1.
Before you transmit your request to the VHF ground station listen to the
reception to make sure that no actual communication is in progress.
You can now start the transmission by activating one of the push−to−talk
switches.
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Figure 28 Radio Management Panel & Operation

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HF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
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INTRODUCTION
The HF communication system is used for long distance communication.
HF communication systems are installed on many long distance aircraft for
world wide communication.
The ionosphere around the world is used as a reflector for the radio signals to
reach areas outside the line of sight. Unfortunately the ionosphere changes its
conditions. For example the intensity of sunlight determines the quality of
reception.
In modern aircraft types the SATCOM system replaces the HF system because
it guarantees a reliable long distance communication.

ATA 23
Figure 29 HF Communication
COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS
HF COMMUNICATION
ATA 23
HF SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Usually 2 independent HF communication systems are installed in long
distance aircraft.
Each system has a transceiver which is located in the avionics compartment
and an antenna which is usually located in the leading edge of the vertical
stabilizer.
On older aircraft types or aircraft with three HF systems you can also find a rod
type antenna at the wing tip.
An antenna coupler is needed to tune the antenna to the selected
HF−frequency.
It is installed near the antenna.
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HF COMMUNICATION
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Figure 30 HF System Components

HF COMMUNICATION
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HF System Components cont.

The HF transceiver has a transmitter and receiver that functions in the same
way as the VHF transceiver. Transmission happens with an output power of
200W to 400W.
The frequency and system selection on the RMP is done in the same way as
for the VHF system.
The HF frequency range is from 2MHz to about 25MHz in steps of 1 or
0.1kHz.
With the AM push-button on the RMP you can select 2 different operational
modes for HF.
When the push-button is pressed the first time, the AM mode is selected. AM
stands for amplitude modulation. This mode transmits the modulated signal via
a carrier.
When the push-button is pressed again, the default SSB mode is selected.
SSB stands for single side band. This mode transmits the modulated signal
without a carrier giving a better transmission efficiency.
With the HF sensitivity selector knob on the RMP you can adjust the sensitivity
of the reception.
Note that some RMP types have a SQL knob instead. Here you can select the
squelch level which is the level for noise suppression.
On older aircraft types you can find a separate HF control panel with the same
control functions as described for the RMP.
The antenna coupler must tune the antenna to the selected HF frequency
before you can start any transmission. Reception is always possible without a
new coupler tuning.
Pressing briefly one of the push−to−talk switches for the first time will start the
tuning.
You can hear a 1kHz tone as long as the tuning lasts. The tuning is very fast in
modern systems but older systems need up to 10 seconds.
When the antenna coupler has completed the tuning, the 1kHz tone stops, and
you can start transmission by pressing the push−to−talk switch a second time.
You can monitor the correct transmission with the sidetone when normal
transmitting power is available.

HF COMMUNICATION
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Old HF Panel
Figure 31 HF System Components

HF COMMUNICATION
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HF SYSTEM OPERATION
You should be able to do the necessary steps to establish HF communication:
With the first step the audio equipment has to be connected to the HF system
no1.
On the audio control panel the audio equipment has to be connected to the
transmission and reception channel of HF no.1.
HF system no.1 has to be selected to AM mode on the RMP.
The selected frequency is now shown in the standby frequency window.
When the frequency is activated, you must first check if this frequency is busy
before you start a transmission.
Let us assume that no communication is in progress, so that you can start
tuning the antenna coupler.
Pressing the radio transmission or push−to−talk switch the first time after a new
frequency selection, tunes the transmitter and the coupler to the new
frequency.
When the tuning tone has stopped, you can start your communication with the
selected ground station.
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Figure 32 HF System Operation

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DATA TRANSMISSION
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DATA TRANSMISSION
ACARS INTRODUCTION
The aircraft communication addressing and reporting system or ACARS in
short, is a datalink communication system which can transfer messages and
data between the aircraft and the ground, for example the airline operation
center and ATC.
It uses the VHF Communication system no.3 or the satellite communication
system depending on the aircraft location.
In some modern aircraft types the HF system can also be used for ACARS.
The data sent by ACARS is received by the ground station of a network
provider which transports the data via its network to the user.
The data transfer in this direction is called the downlink. Consequently the data
transfer from the ground to the aircraft is called the uplink.
ACARS transmits and receives either automatic reports which usually depend
on the flight profile and manual reports which are independent of the flight
profile.
Automatic Reports
The OUT report transmits aircraft information and the time when all aircraft
doors are closed and aircraft movement starts.
The OFF report transmits aircraft information and the time when the aircraft
lifts off detected by the landing gear air-ground switches.
The ON report transmits aircraft information and the time when the aircraft
touches down detected by the landing gear air-ground switches.
The IN report transmits aircraft information and the time when the first aircraft
door is opened.
The estimated time of arrival, or ETA in short, is automatically transmitted
120min, 20min and 7min before arrival.
The aircraft condition monitoring system (ACMS) transmits an engine report
automatically during each flight and whenever an engine problem is detected;
for example an EGT exceedance.
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Figure 33 Acars Overview 1

DATA TRANSMISSION
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ACARS Introduction cont.

Manual Reports
The loadsheet report is an uplink from the ground to the aircraft during take-off
preparation. Manual ACARS reports are started by the pilot, airline ground staff
or ATC.
A call request is transmitted to the aircraft if the ground station wants to
communicate with the flight crew via voice communication. This is used instead
of the old SELCAL system.
ATC will use ACARS in the future air navigation system (FANS) to send
requests to the aircraft, for example: Maintain speed. You will learn more about
FANS in the Navigation unit.
A report request is a downlink when the flight crew requires specific
information. These are, for example, airport or weather data, or information for
the passengers or crew.
Information for the crew or the passengers is an uplink as a response to a
report request. For example it gives information about the departure gates for
transit passengers and the next flight for the crew.
Maintenance reports can be started from the central maintenance computer
system (CMCS) to transmit test results or maintenance reports to the airline
maintenance center.
Manual Reports

DATA TRANSMISSION
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Figure 34 Acars Overview 2

DATA TRANSMISSION
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ACARS OPERATION
A typical ACARS system has a central computer called the management unit,
or MU in short. It is the link between the aircraft components and the VHF, HF
or satellite communication systems.
The VHF communication system no.3, also called the center system, is
activated for voice communication.
ACARS operation is possible with VHF communication system no.3 if you can
read DATA or ACARS in the window of the active frequency. The ACARS MU
automatically selects the required VHF frequency, but does not display it on the
RMP.
ACARS uses the SATCOM or HF system if a VHF ground station is not usable.
This depends on the aircraft position which is provided by the flight
management computer system or IRS.
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Figure 35 ACARS Main Menue

DATA TRANSMISSION
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ACARS Operation cont.

ACARS gets maintenance related data from the central maintenance computer
and the aircraft condition monitoring system. In addition ACARS gets aircraft
status information from several discrete signals, for example door and gear
switches.
The software of the management unit can be updated with the data loader
when required.
ACARS operation is controlled from an MCDU and the printer allows the crew
to get a hardcopy of each report.
The ACARS main menu gives the operator access to different functions.
You can either request reports for an uplink or create reports for a downlink.
The available choices depend on the flight phase; in our example they are from
the pre−flight phase.
You can also write a telex to a ground station or request a voice contact from a
ground station.
Finally you can select a list of all uplink messages and get access to
miscellaneous pages.

DATA TRANSMISSION
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DATA TRANSMISSION
ATA 23

From the miscellaneous page you can select information about the ACARS
frequencies for the different areas of the world.
The OOOI-status pages give information about the OUT, OFF, ON and IN
downlinks and allows checking and editing of the status conditions.
The VHF and satellite statistic pages show how many transmissions and
receptions happened in the past and the parameter page gives access to
coded information.

DATA TRANSMISSION
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DATA TRANSMISSION
ATA 23

From the ACARS maintenance page you can select information about all part
numbers of the system, the ACARS system status and all information about
the status of the VHF and satellite communication system. Finally you can do
different types of system tests.

DATA TRANSMISSION
ATA 23

DATA TRANSMISSION
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SATCOM INTRODUCTION
The satellite communication or SATCOM system has 3 main components. First
the satellites, secondly the aircraft earth stations, abbreviated as AES, and
finally the ground earth station, or GES.
The SATCOM system provides reliable worldwide digital data transfer for
ACARS, cockpit voice and telex communications and passengers voice, telex
and fax communications.
All communication systems can use SATCOM at the same time.
Transmission and reception also work at the same time so that normal
telephone conversation is possible.
SATCOM uses 4 satellites in a geostationary orbit, which means that they are
located about 23 000miles or 36 000km above the earth’s surface. This
provides a coverage between latitudes of 75° north and 75° south.
Over 255 SATCOM ground earth stations worldwide transmit and receive data
to and from the satellites.
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Figure 39 SATCOM Components

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|SATCOM Intro/ALL Page 79
DATA TRANSMISSION
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SATCOM AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS

The aircraft earth station (AES) is the part of the SATCOM system which is
located onboard the aircraft. Its architecture depends on the system
manufacturer and the needs of the airline.
A typical system has a satellite data unit, or SDU in short, a radio frequency
unit, or RFU in short, a high power amplifier, called HPA in short, and a low
noise amplifier and diplexer, abbreviated to LNA / DIP.
Finally it has a beam steering unit, BSU in short, and an antenna.
The satellite data unit is the heart of the SATCOM system and controls all the
connections to other aircraft systems, for example ACARS, pilots audio system
and passenger telephone system.
It stores all satellite positions and frequencies and automatically selects the
nearest satellite depending on the present position of the aircraft.
Different functions and tests can be selected from the MCDU via the SATCOM
menu.
Let us now see briefly how a satellite communication is done. First the SDU
sends the communication data to the RFU. It generates a carrier frequency of
1.6GHz and modulates it with the data.
After amplification in the high power and low noise amplifiers the signal reaches
the BSU and the antenna.
The SATCOM system uses either 1 topmounted or 2 sidemounted antennas on
the upper part of the fuselage.
Both types are high gain antennas with several antenna elements. They
transmit a steerable beam in the direction of the satellite. The beam direction is
controlled by the BSU depending on the aircraft position and heading; therefore
the IRS must be functional if the antennas are to be used.
The high gain antennas allow high data transmission rates which is necessary
for normal SATCOM operation.
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DATA TRANSMISSION
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Figure 40 SATCOM Aircraft Components 1

DATA TRANSMISSION
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SATCOM Aircraft Components cont.

Some systems also use a low gain antenna on top of the fuselage which
transmits a fixed beam. This allows only a low data rate communication, for
example for ACARS, but no voice communication. The advantage of this
antenna type is that it does not need a BSU nor aircraft position data from the
IRS.
Note that the concentrated beam of the SATCOM antennas is high powered so
SATCOM must only be used if no personnel or metal parts are near the
antenna. Refer to the maintenance manual for more detailed information.
A received signal goes from the antenna to the diplexer which separates the
transmission and reception signals.
From the diplexer the data goes via the RFU to the SDU where it is
demodulated and distributed to the related systems.

DATA TRANSMISSION
ATA 23
Figure 41 SATCOM Aircraft Components 2

DATA TRANSMISSION
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EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT)

Emergency locator transmitters, or ELTs in short, help search-and-rescue
crews to find aircraft that accidentally land away from an airport or ditch into
water.
Two different types of ELT are used in aircraft.
S The first type is a fixed transmitter which is installed in the upper aft section
of the aircraft fuselage.
S The second type is portable. It is either a buoyant type, which you can find
near the life rafts in the cabin ceiling or a handheld tranmitter as its modern
replacement.
All ELTs transmit 2 radio signals on international emergency frequencies.
One signal at the VHF frequency of 121.5MHz and the other at the UHF
frequency of 243MHz. Both radio signals are modulated with a swept−tone
signal.
UHF and VHF frequencies can only be received up to a distance of about
200nm, so a rescue crew can only find the aircraft if it is located inside this
range.
Therefore the fixed ELT transmits an additional signal at 406MHz via a small
antenna near the vertical stabilizer. This signal can be received by satellites
and allows worldwide location of aircraft. The signal contains information about
the aircraft type and tail-sign and if available also the last known present
position.
The ELTs are powered by an internal battery for at least 48 hours.
The buoyant type ELT becomes active when the battery comes in contact with
water or when a small pin is removed from the battery.
The fixed ELT is automatically activated when an internal g−switch detects an
acceleration of more than 5G in the longitudinal axis.

The fixed ELT can also be activated manually from a control panel on the
cockpit overhead panel.
All ELTs must never be switched on except in case of emergency because a
transmission will start search and rescue operations immediately.
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DATA TRANSMISSION
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Fixed ELT activation switch

Figure 42 Emergency Locator Transmitter

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|ELT/ALL Page 85
NAVIGATION FUNDAMENTALS
RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Radio navigation systems use the radio signals from ground stations to help
the pilot to navigate the aircraft.
Two systems are used for enroute navigation: First the ADF system which is
the oldest system. ADF stands for automatic direction finder.
Second the VOR system which is the most common system. VOR stands for
VHF omnidirectional range.
A third radio navigation system is the instrument landing system, or ILS in
short, which gives information to land the aircraft in poor visibility.
It has three subsystems:
S first the localizer
S second the glide slope
S and third the marker beacon.
A modern version of the instrument landing system is the microwave landing
system or MLS in short. It has some advantages over the ILS but, so far, it is
not in common use, so we will not discuss it here.
The ADF system has a receiver and antennas and often also a control panel. It
uses radio signals from ground stations to calculate the direction to the station.
This direction is indicated in the cockpit.
The VOR system has a receiver, an antenna and often also a nav control
panel. It uses radio signals from VOR ground stations to calculate the direction
to the station. This information is used for the autopilot and is indicated in the
cockpit.
The localizer system has a receiver, an antenna and often also a control panel.
It uses radio signals from a ground station to calculate the lateral guidance to
the runway centerline. This is used for the autopilot and for indication.
The glide slope system has a receiver and an antenna. It uses radio signals
from a ground station to calculate the descent path to the touchdown point on
the runway for the autopilot and for indication.
The marker beacon system has a receiver and an antenna. It supplies visual
and aural indications when the aircraft passes marker beacon transmitters in a
specific distance to the runway.

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 43 Radio Navigation Systems

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
NAVIGATION CHARTS
In this segment we will give you some general information about radio
navigation.
For this task we will use 2 different types of chart used by the pilots. First we
have a brief look at the ICAO chart. ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation
Organization.
Later we look at the enroute charts that are more commonly used on
commercial flights.
The ICAO chart is used for flying by both Visual Flight Rules and Instrument
Flight Rules.
Visual Flight Rules, or VFR in short, means flying in good weather conditions
and with visual ground references. This is only used by small private aircraft.
Instrument Flight Rules, or IFR in short, means flying without visual ground
references, day and night, or in bad weather conditions. These rules are used
by all commercial flights.
IFR flights need aid from radio navigation systems and their ground stations to
perform a safe and economic flight.
All types of ground stations have their own symbols on the chart. Adjacent to
the symbol is a text box, which contains the name of the station, the frequency
in megahertz and the ident in Morse code.
The ground station for the ADF system, called the non directional beacon or
NDB in short, has a different symbol but with a similar text box. Here the
frequency is given in KHz.
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RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 44 ICAO Chart

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02| NAV Charts/ALL Page 89
RADIO NAVIGATION
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Navigation Charts cont.

This type of chart is used in commercial flights and is called enroute chart. It
shows all types of radio navigation aids and for example flight route lines. It
does not show objects on the ground like roads and so on.
The enroute chart has its own symbols but they are similar to those on the
ICAO chart.
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RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 45 Enroute Chart

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|NAV Charts/ALL Page 91
RADIO NAVIGATION
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BASICS OF NAVIGATION
There are some general items of navigation that we have to look at before we
go into the specific radio navigation systems.
The aircraft has 3 axes. When we speak about different directions it is the
longitudinal axis that is the reference.
You probably also remember from the compass system, that the earth has 2
north poles which unfortunately are not at the same location. One is the
geographical north pole and the direction to this pole is called true north or TN
in short.
The other is the magnetic north pole where the magnetic fieldlines are
gathering. The direction to this pole is called magnetic north or MN in short. In
our example the two directions are 10° apart.
This difference between true and magnetic north is called variation, or var in
short. It can be east or west.
The direction in which the nose of the aircraft is pointing is called heading, or
HDG in short, and is measured clockwise from north.
Because we have 2 north poles we must also have 2 headings dependent on
the reference. One is called true heading, or TH in short and the other
magnetic heading or MH.
This magnetic heading is indicated to the pilot on the compass rose behind the
lubber line, in our example 90°.
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RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 46 General Items of Navigation

RADIO NAVIGATION
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Basics of Navigation cont.

Track, or TK in short, is the direction in which an aircraft is moving over the
earth. It is also measured from true or magnetic north.
If there is no wind the track and the heading are the same.
But if there is wind track is no more the same as heading.
The difference between the two angles is called drift.

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 47 TK or Track
RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Basics of Navigation cont.

Bearing, or BRG in short, is the direction from the aircraft position to an object,
for example a ground station.
It is called relative bearing, or RB in short, if the reference is the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft.
The relative bearing is measured in degrees clockwise from the longitudinal
axis. 0° means that the object is straight ahead of the aircraft.
True bearing, or TB in short, measures from true north and magnetic bearing,
or MB in short, measures from magnetic north.
You can calculate the magnetic bearing when you add the magnetic heading to
the relative bearing.

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 48 Bearing or BRG

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
NAVIGATION SYSTEM TUNING

A radio receiver in your home has to be tuned to the frequency of the
transmitter you want to listen to.
This is also true for the radio navigation receivers. In modern aircraft this can
be done in three different ways.
The normal way is the automatic tuning from the flight management system.
The second way is manual tuning via the FMS by selecting a frequency on the
nav radio page on the MCDU.
Finally manual tuning is always possible with a nav control panel or the radio
management panel as it is called in Airbus aircraft.
The automatic tuning by the FMS is based on the flight plan which the pilot
creates before the take-off.
If a waypoint during the flight is a radio navigation ground station, the frequency
is automatically selected and the navigation data is displayed.
As the flight progresses new stations are automatically tuned.
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Figure 49 Radio Navigation Receiver Tuning

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Tuning/ALL Page 99
RADIO NAVIGATION
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ADF INTRODUCTION
The automatic direction finder, ADF in short, is a radio navigation system that
receives radio signals in the frequency band of 190 to 1750khz from ground
stations.
The ADF receiver calculates the relative bearing and provides it to a radio
magnetic indicator, or RMI in short and to the navigation display.
The ADF system also provides an aural output to the aircraft audio system for
transmitter identification.
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RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 50 ADF System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|ADF Intro/ALL Page 101
RADIO NAVIGATION
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ADF Introduction cont.

Three types of ground stations can be used for ADF navigation.
These are non directional beacons, or NDB in short, used for enroute
navigation and locators which are used for approaches.
These locators are often located with marker beacons, which belong to the
instrument landing system. Locators look similar to NDBs but have lower
output power and a smaller mast.
It is also possible to use public radio stations, if the position of the transmitting
antenna is known.
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Figure 51 Non Directional Beacon

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RADIO NAVIGATION
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ADF COMPONENTS
A typical ADF system has a receiver which is located in the avionics
compartment and antennas which are located on the top of the fuselage, as in
this example, or at the bottom.
As you have seen already the receiver tuning is done either from the FMS or
from the relevant ADF control panel.
The relative bearing signal from the ADF receiver is presented on the
navigation displays and on most aircraft also on a radio magnetic indicator.
With the audio control panel the pilot can select the ADF system to hear the
identification.
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RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 52 Typical ADF System

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RADIO NAVIGATION
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ADF PRINCIPLE
The ADF system receives the electromagnetic waves from the ground station
with 2 antennas.
The loop antenna receives the magnetic part of the wave and delivers the
loop−signal to the ADF receiver.
The sense part of the ADF antenna receives the electric part of the wave and
delivers this as the SENSE signal to the ADF receiver.
The ADF receiver uses both signals to calculate a relative bearing signal and
positions the bearing pointers on the navigation display and the RMI.
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Figure 53 Relative Bearing Indication

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ADF ANTENNAS
You probably know already that turning this receiver type changes the
reception strength.
During a 360° turn you get two areas of minimum reception strength and two
maximums.
So with a loop antenna like in a home receiver you can find the direction to the
station.
A loop antenna receives the magnetic part of the electromagnetic wave. The
signal strength is at maximum when the coil axis is perpendicular to the
direction to the station and is at minimum when the axis is pointing to the
station.
In order to achieve the direction to the station you must turn the antenna back
and forth until you reach maximum signal strength or minimum signal strength.
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Figure 54 Loop Antenna

RADIO NAVIGATION
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ADF Antennas cont.

In the old days the loop antenna on aircraft looked like this and the navigator
turned the loop with a crank while listening to the station.
The loop was mechanically connected to a pointer on a compass rose where
the direction to the station could be read.

RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 55 Older Loop Antenna

RADIO NAVIGATION
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ADF Antennas cont.

As you probably noticed on the video of the loop antenna in the home radio
there are two maximums and two minimums of the signal strength.
This means that with the loop antenna alone the station could be in two
different directions.
This fact is also illustrated with this loop antenna pattern.
This ambiguity problem is removed by using a second antenna called sense
antenna. The sense antenna has a non directional pattern.
If you combine the signals from both antenna types you get a resulting cardioid
shaped pattern with a defined null in only one direction.
The direction to the station is now defined without ambiguity.

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 56 Sense Antenna

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
ADF Antennas cont.

The ADF antenna on modern aircraft has a fixed integrated design and has one
sense and two loop antennas.
The loops are not turnable but consist of two coils wound on a cross shaped
ferrite core. The ADF receiver combines the signals from the 2 coils to
calculate the direction to the station.
The sense antenna is a plate that forms a capacitance with the aircraft
structure.

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 57 Modern ADF Antenna

RADIO NAVIGATION
ATA 34
ADF CONTROL & INDICATION

The ADF System has 2 modes called ADF and antenna. In addition a BFO or
TONE function can be selected.
In the ADF mode the system is fully operational. It calculates the relative
bearing to the station and the station identifier in Morse code can be heard with
the audio system.
In the antenna, or ANT mode, only the sense antenna is active. Therefore you
do not get a relative bearing indication but the identifier is heard more clearly.
This mode is used when the station identifier reception is weak.
The BFO or TONE function is used if a ground station signal is not modulated
with a tone. They transmit the Morse code by interrupting the carrier wave. To
make the code audible, a beat frequency oscillator, BFO in short, inside the
receiver superimposes a tone on the received carrier wave so that the ident
can be heard.
In most modern glass cockpit aircraft the operation of the ADF is normally done
from the MCDU in conjunction with the flight management system.
As an alternate to the automatic tuning from the FMS you can select the
frequency on the NAV RADIO page. To select the ANT mode you must enter
the letter A after the frequency. If the BFO function is desired, enter the letter B
after the frequency.
To hear the ground station ident you must select ADF on the audio control
panel and set the volume control to a comfortable listening level.
The relative bearing to the ground station is presented on the navigation
displays and the radio magnetic indicator, or RMI in short.
If you have 2 ADF systems in the aircraft you can also find 2 pointers on the
navigation display. ADF 1 has a single line pointer and ADF 2 has a double line
pointer. The standard color for ADF is blue.

The pointer disappears if the reception of the tuned ground station signal is too
weak.
A Warning flag appears if a system failure is detected.
It is an amber box around the ADF text on the navigation display. Here a
warning flag is shown for ADF 2.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 16|ADF Cont Ind/ALL Page 116

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Figure 58 ADF Modes

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 16|ADF Cont Ind/ALL Page 117
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ADF OPERATION
The EFIS control panel controls the navigation display in many ways.
Regarding ADF there are 2 switches. The left switch, called ADF−L, controls
the single pointer of the left ADF system which in other aircraft types is called
system no.1.
The other switch called ADF-R controls the double pointer of ADF no.2.
In the VOR position of the switch the bearing pointer is controlled by the VOR
system. In the off position the bearing pointers are erased from the navigation
display.
Bearing and heading information is presented on the RMI as well. Like the
Navigation Display the background compass card represents the aircraft
heading and the pointers show magnetic relative bearing to their respective
ground stations.
The RMI has 2 selector knobs which have the same function as the switches
on the EFIS control panel − they select either ADF or VOR.
As these pointers are always in view they move to the 3 o’clock position when
the signal from the tuned station is too weak, as you can see here for ADF 2.
You can also find ADF warning flags on the RMI and also a warning flag for the
compass system.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 17|ADF Operation/ALL Page 118

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Figure 59 EFIS Control Panel

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 17|ADF Operation/ALL Page 119
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VOR INTRODUCTION
The VOR systems receive, decode and process bearing information from the
transmitted VOR signal.
VOR stands for VHF omnidirectional range, which means that it uses
frequencies in the VHF band and has both omni and directional transmitted
signals.
You can compare the VOR principle with a lighthouse. It has a rotating beam
and a flash light which you can see in all directions. It flashes when the rotating
beam points to magnetic north.
When you measure the time between the flash light and the visibility of the
rotating beam, you can identify the direction to the lighthouse.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 18|VOR Intro/ALL Page 120

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Figure 60 VOR Principle

RADIO NAVIGATION
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VOR Introduction cont.

The VOR ground station also transmits 2 signals. One is the reference signal,
transmitted in all directions, like the flash light of the lighthouse.
The second signal is called the variable signal which corresponds to the
rotating beam of the lighthouse.
Two types of ground stations are used, the conventional VOR, and the doppler
VOR. The doppler VOR is more expensive but has a better performance in
areas with a possibility of signal reflections, like near mountains or high
buildings.

RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 61 VOR Station Signals

RADIO NAVIGATION
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VOR INDICATIONS
The VOR receiver compares the 2 radio signals and, from the difference,
calculates the position of the aircraft relative to the VOR station.
This calculated position is called a radial which, in our example, is 240°.
Note that the radials correspond to the degrees of a compass rose so radial
zero points to magnetic north.
The indication on the radio magnetic indicator in the cockpit shows the radial
on which the aircraft is actually located with the aft end of the bearing pointer,
240° in our example.
This means that the bearing to the station is always the radial plus or minus
180°, in our example it is 60°.
Note that this bearing indication is independent of the heading of the aircraft.
The indication on the RMI is called the automatic VOR mode. It shows, in our
example, that the aircraft nose points to magnetic north − as you know this is
called the heading − and that the aircraft just passes the VOR radial 240, which
means that the station is in the 60° direction.
The actual track of the aircraft depends on the wind, so with the wind from west
it is for example 10° . This is not shown on the RMI.
The automatic VOR indication on the RMI is repeated on the Navigation
Display if the function is selected. You can see that the color for the VOR
indication is green.
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Figure 62 Automatic VOR Mode

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VOR Indications cont.

A second VOR indication on the navigation display requires a pilot action,
therefore it is called manual VOR mode.
It shows the difference between the radial the aircraft is actually located on and
a preselected radial. This difference is called VOR deviation and it is shown by
a moving deviation bar.
The selected radial is called the preselected course, or PSC in short, and is
either selected on the MCDU or on the autoflight control panel as you can see
here.
You will find a similar indication on the horizontal situation indicators, or HSI in
short, on aircraft without an EFIS.

RADIO NAVIGATION
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Figure 63 Manual VOR Mode

RADIO NAVIGATION
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VOR Indications cont.

The indication on this navigation display shows us the following flight situation:
The aircraft has an actual heading of 273° and it is located on the radial 075 so
the bearing to the VOR station is 255°.
The preselected course, or PSC, is 225.
The deviation bar shows full right deflection when the difference between the
actual radial and the selected radial is 10° or more.
This means that one dot of deviation corresponds to a difference of 5° .
Here the difference is 30° because the PSC corresponds to a selected radial of
045 as long as we are flying to the station.
Additional VOR information on the Navigation Display includes station name
and TO or FROM text in the lower right part. Here TO is shown because we
are flying to the station.

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Figure 64 VOR Indications

RADIO NAVIGATION
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VOR COMPONENTS
Commercial aircraft are equipped with 2 systems. Each system has a receiver
which is located in the avionics compartment and which is tuned either
automatically from the FMS or manually from the relevant NAV control panel.
The VOR system also has an antenna which is located on the vertical
stabilizer. You can either find it at the top, as in this example or on the side. If it
is on the side it is called a Flush−type antenna.
The outputs of the VOR receiver go, for display, to the navigation display or
HSI and on most aircraft also to a radio magnetic indicator.
Outputs are also provided to the autopilot and flight director of the autoflight
system and to the FMS for display on the MCDU and, in some systems, also
for position calculation.
The VOR Receiver has also an output to the audio system.
This allows identification of the VOR station by its Morse code.
In addition VOR stations at large airports also transmit spoken traffic
information and weather reports. This is called ATIS, which stands for
automatic terminal information service.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 23|VOR Comp/ALL Page 130

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Figure 65 VOR Systems

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 23|VOR Comp/ALL Page 131
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VOR TEST
Test can be performed in 3 different ways:
S operational test
S ground test
S and system test.
The operational test does not use external test equipment so it can be done by
the pilot or the mechanic.
To do an operational test you select a local VOR or test VOR station and check
that the indications on the navigation display and RMI are correct for the
situation. Then listen to the audio for the station ident or ATIS.
The ground test does not need external test equipment because the VOR
system in all modern aircraft has a built−in self test capability.
You can do the test in 2 different ways − either with the central maintenance
computer system via the MCDU or with a test switch on the VOR receiver in
the avionics compartment. The test result is shown by lamps on the receiver.
Only the system test uses a ramp test set to supply test signals.
You will find detailed instructions for all these tests in the Aircraft Maintenance
Manual.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 24|VOR Test/ALL Page 132

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Figure 66 VOR Test

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 24|VOR Test/ALL Page 133
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INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

The instrument landing system, or ILS in short, provides lateral and vertical
position data necessary to put the aircraft on the runway for approach.
The system uses signals from a localizer and a glide slope transmitter on the
ground.
It provide outputs to the indicators for display and to the FMS and autoflight
system.
The system also has marker beacons, which we will talk about later.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 25|ILS/ALL Page 134

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Figure 67 ILS System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 25|ILS/ALL Page 135
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Instrument Landing System (ILS) cont.

The localizer, or LOC in short, ground station transmits 90Hz and 150Hz
signals for lateral guidance. These 2 signals are radiated to produce 2
directional lobes side by side along the runway centerline.
The left lobe is modulated with a 90Hz signal and the right lobe with 150Hz.
The Localizer ground station uses one of 40 channels in the 108.10 to
111.95MHz frequency range but uses only frequencies with odd tenths.
The transmitter is coupled to an array of directional antennas that radiate the 2
lobes along the runway centerline. The transmitter shed and the antennas are
located at the end of the runway.
An aircraft flying down the centerline would receive a signal with equal levels of
both modulations. This is shown by the centered deviation pointer on the
indicator, here the nav display.
If the aircraft position is left of the centerline, the 90Hz signal predominates
and the localizer deviation pointer deflects to the right, indicating that the
runway centerline is to the right.
One dot on the indicator normally shows a 1° offset on the localizer.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 26|ILS LOC/ALL Page 136

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Figure 68 LOC Signals

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 26|ILS LOC/ALL Page 137
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Instrument Landing System (ILS) cont.

The glide slope ground station transmits 2 lobes to give a descent path to the
touchdown point on the runway.
The upper lobe is modulated with 90Hz and the lower with 150Hz.
The centerline where both signals are equal has a slope of 2.5° to 3°.
The glide slope ground station uses one of 40 channels in the 329.15 to
335.00 MHz frequency range.
The transmitter uses a couple of directional antennas to radiate the two lobes.
The ground station is located beside the runway about 300 m beyond the
threshold.
When an aircraft flies on the glide slope centerline, the glideslope deviation
pointer on the navigation display is centered.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 27|ILS GS/ALL Page 138

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Figure 69 Glide Slope

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 27|ILS GS/ALL Page 139
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ILS COMPONENTS
Commercial aircraft have 2 or even 3 identical ILS installed. Each system has
the following main components:
S antennas
S receivers
S and the outputs to indicators and the autoflight system.
The localizer and glideslope antennas are usually located under the nose
radome.
Due to the different frequency ranges the localizer antenna is the larger and the
glideslope antenna the smaller one.
In some aircraft the VOR antenna is also used for the localizer system,
because of the same frequency range.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 28|ILS Comp/ALL Page 140

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Figure 70 ILS Components

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 28|ILS Comp/ALL Page 141
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ILS TUNING
What you have learned already about receiver tuning is also true for the ILS
receiver, but with one difference. The ILS receiver has 2 receivers:
S one for localizer
S and one for glide slope.
On the approach chart you can only see information on the localizer frequency.
You see no information about the glide slope frequency.
But for each of the 40 localizer channels there is a paired glide slope channel
as shown in the table.
When the pilot selects an ILS frequency from the chart, the localizer receiver is
directly tuned.
In parallel the ILS frequency is translated to the paired glide slope frequency as
shown in the table and the glide slope receiver is automatically tuned to this
channel.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 29|ILS Tuning/ALL Page 142

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Figure 71 ILS Receiver Tuning

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 29|ILS Tuning/ALL Page 143
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ILS INDICATIONS
ILS indications on modern aircraft are shown on the primary flight display and
on the navigation display as well.
ILS deviation output can also be displayed on mechanical indicators like this
standby attitude and ILS indicator and in older aircraft on the HSI and the ADI.
ILS displays on the PFD consist of the tuned frequency or the ground station
identifier if it is received.
The main ILS indications are the localizer and glideslope deviations.
Localizer deviation is normally displayed by a magenta diamond deviation
pointer on a white, four−dot deviation scale.
One dot equals about 1° of deviation from the runway centerline.
Under certain circumstances at the end of the approach, this display can
change to the expanded two−mark deviation scale. One dot now equals about
0.5° of deviation.
Glide slope deviation is displayed by a magenta diamond deviation pointer on a
white, four−dot deviation scale. One dot normally equals 0.35°. This
corresponds to 200 ft of deviation from the glide slope path at the outer marker.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 30|ILS Ind/ALL Page 144

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Figure 72 ILS Indications

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 30|ILS Ind/ALL Page 145
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ILS Indications cont.

In addition to the indications the ILS provides the localizer and glideslope
deviation signals to the autoflight system.
With these 2 signals the autopilot can do an automatic approach and landing
by controlling the aircraft to fly on the beam center.
The autopilot does not need any visibility to do this but the pilot must monitor
the automatic landing and to do this needs to see the runway. How much
visibility the pilot needs depends primarily on the airport and aircraft equipment.
Three poor weather landing categories are defined:
S CAT 1 needs about 800m of the runway in sight, called runway visibility
range, or RVR in short, at a height of 200ft.
S CAT 2 requires about 400m runway visibility at a height of 100ft.
S CAT 3 needs less then 200m runway visibility at a height below100ft.
The exact values depend mainly on the runway and the aircraft type.
When the pilot does not have the runway in sight in the required length, he
must start a go around manoeuvre at the decision height. The decision height
is also called the minimum.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 31|LDG CAT/ALL Page 146

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Figure 73 Landing Categories

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 31|LDG CAT/ALL Page 147
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MARKER BEACON SYSTEM

The marker beacon system, or MB in short, also belongs to the instrument
landing system.
It supplies visual and aural indications when the aircraft flies over marker
beacon transmitters.
Originally 3 marker beacons were defined:
S the outer marker,
S the middle marker
S and the inner marker, but the inner marker is no longer in use.
All marker beacon transmitters use a frequency of 75 MHz.
The outer marker, or OM in short, is located about 7km from the runway.
The transmitted signal is modulated with a 400 Hz tone. It turns on the blue
lamp on the marker beacon panel and it can be heard with the characteristic
Morse code identifier of dashes.
The middle marker, or MM in short, is located about 1000 m from the runway.
The transmitted signal is modulated with a 1300 Hz tone which turns on the
amber lamp on the marker beacon panel and it can be heard with the
characteristic Morse code identifier of dots and dashes.
The aircraft’s height is normally 200 ft when passing the middle marker − this
corresponds to the CAT 1 minimum.
The inner marker, or IM in short, is located about 300 m from the runway.
The transmitted signal is modulated with a 3000 Hz tone which turns on the
white lamp on the marker beacon panel and it can be heard with the
characteristic Morse code identifier of dots.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 32|Marker/ALL Page 148

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Figure 74 Marker Beacon System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 32|Marker/ALL Page 149
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Marker Beacon System cont.

The outer marker is often collocated with a locator ground station for the ADF
as you can see at the airport on the picture below.
The red antenna on this photo is the marker beacon antenna.
The middle marker here is located 0.8 nm or 1100 m from the runway. Note the
red Yagi-antenna pointing upwards.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 33|Marker Syst/ALL Page 150

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Figure 75 Marker Location

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 33|Marker Syst/ALL Page 151
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MARKER BEACON IDENTIFICATION

On modern aircraft the receiver is located as a module inside the VOR receiver
and operates at a fixed frequency of 75MHz.
The canoe-shaped antenna is mounted at the bottom centerline of the aircraft.
The output signals of the marker beacon receiver go to the indicators and the
audio system.
The modulated tone can be heard in the headset or cockpit speaker when
marker is selected on the audio control panel.
Instead of the 3 lights you saw before, the marker indication on modern aircraft
is integrated in the PFD.
Depending on the received modulation the letters OM, MM or IM are displayed.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 34|Marker Ident/ALL Page 152

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Figure 76 Marker System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 34|Marker Ident/ALL Page 153
RADIO ALTIMETER
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RADIO ALTIMETER
RADIO ALTIMETER SYSTEM
The function of the radio altimeter is to measure the vertical distance from the
aircraft to the ground. This distance is called the height, but the term radio
altitude is also used.
The height is only indicated when it is below 2500ft, so the system is mainly
used during take-off, approach and landings.
Therefore the system is also known as the low range radio altimeter system or
LRRA in short.
The radio altitude is measured in the following way:
S First the transmitter part of the transceiver generates a radar signal which is
transmitted to the ground by an antenna.
S The signal is partially reflected on the ground and then after a certain time
received by a second antenna.
S The receiver now calculates the time delay by comparing the transmitted
and received signal.
The result is converted into the height signal for the user.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|RA System/ALL Page 154

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Figure 77 Radio Altimeter Function

RADIO ALTIMETER
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Radio Altimeter System cont.

We will now take a closer look at the radio altimeter system components. The
system is usually double but here we will only show you a single system build
up.
The Transceiver generates a radar signal in the frequency range between 4200
to 4400MHz with a power of about 100mW.
The 2 flush skin type antennas are mounted at the bottom of the fuselage.
They are identical and therefore interchangeable.

RADIO ALTIMETER
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Figure 78 Radio Altimeter System

RADIO ALTIMETER
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RADIO ALTIMETER INDICATIONS

We will now have a look at the output signal of the radio altimeter system.
The height can be indicated to the pilots in different ways, either on
conventional indicators or integrated in the primary flight display.
In addition the signal is delivered to other systems such as the ground
proximity warning system, T−CAS, weather radar and autoflight systems.
Modern glass cockpit aircraft use the PFD for the height indication.
Below 2500ft the height is displayed as a digital number in the lower part of the
attitude indication.
When the height decreases, an analog indication is added to the digital
number. This is a horizontal bar which moves up as the aircraft descends. It
touches the horizon at touch down.
A total loss of the radio altimeter replaces the digital indication by a red ”RA”
label.
In older aircraft types you find an ADI instead of the PFD, but many ADIs also
have a height indication, called the rising runway.
It appears at the bottom of the ADI when the radio altitude decreases below a
certain height and reaches the aircraft symbol at touchdown.
The rising runway is replaced by the RUNWAY flag if there is a radio altimeter
failure.
Classical radio altimeter indicators show the height in analog form, with a
pointer on a scale or with a moving tape behind a fixed aircraft symbol.
When the height is above 2500ft, the pointer hides behind a mask and the tape
shows a black background.
If there is a failure in the RA system a red warning flag comes into view in both
indicator types.
In modern aircraft the radio height is not only indicated − it is also announced
by the radio altitude call-out system using an artificial voice.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|Indications/ALL Page 158

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Figure 79 Radio Altimeter Indication

RADIO ALTIMETER
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DECISION HEIGHT
All radio altimeter systems allow the selection of a decision height.
The decision height, or DH, selection is made by turning a selector knob either
on the instrument or on a remote control panel.
In modern aircraft the decision height is inserted into the MCDU.
The selected decision height is indicated either with a decision height cursor in
the Radio Altimeter indicator or as a numeric indication on the PFD.
When the actual height of the aircraft reaches the selected decision height
during the approach, a voice gives an aural alert.
At the same time the height indication changes from green to amber and the
label DH is added to it.
At this moment the pilot must decide if the visibility is sufficient for a landing, or
if a go-around maneuver must be initiated.
On older and smaller aircraft types the pilots are alerted by a chime and the
illuminated decision height lamp on the indicator when the decision height is
reached.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|DH/ALL Page 160

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Figure 80 Decision Height

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|DH/ALL Page 161
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT
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INTRODUCTION
The distance measuring equipment, or DME in short, operates in a frequency
range of 962 to 1213 MHz and measures the slant distance from the aircraft to
ground station.
The actual distance to the station above the ground therefore depends on the
aircraft altitude and the slant distance to the station.
Die Entfernungsmessanlage (Distance Measuring Equipment, DME) arbeitet im
Frequenzbereich von 962 bis 1213 MHz und misst die Schrägentfernung (Slant
Range) vom Flugzeug zu einer Bodenstation.
Der tatsächliche Abstand zur Station über Grund hängt daher von der
Flughöhe und der Schrägentfernung ab.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|DME Intro/ALL Page 162

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Figure 81 DME Equipment

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Introduction cont.
The DME system measures the distance to the ground station by transmitting a
signal to the groundstation, called the interrogation, and by counting the time it
takes to receive a reply signal. This time is proportional to the distance which is
indicated in nautical miles on a digital readout.

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Figure 82 DME on Maps

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DME TUNING
The DME ground station is either paired with a VOR or a localizer ground
station. Therefore the DME is automatically tuned when you select the
corresponding VHF NAV frequency.
There are different ways to show on a map if there is a DME attached to a
VOR ground station.
Some maps show a channel number which is associated with a VOR. Another
way is to add the letter D in front of the VOR frequency, as we can see on the
map with the Arlanda VOR.
A different example is the AROS VOR which has no attached DME station.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|DME Tuning/ALL Page 166

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Figure 83 DME Ground Station

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|DME Tuning/ALL Page 167
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SYSTEMS COMPONENTS & INDICATION

We will now take a closer look at the DME system components.
The interrogator, which is located in the electronic compartment, generates the
signal for transmission and makes the distance calculation.
The DME antenna transmits the interrogator output signal and receives the
ground station reply signal.
It is located at the bottom of the fuselage. Note that the antenna for the DME
system is identical to the antenna for the ATC Air Traffic Control systems,
because both systems work in the same frequency range.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Syst Comp IND/ALL Page 168

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Figure 84 DME System Components

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Syst Comp IND/ALL Page 169
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System Components & Indication cont.

Finally lets have a look at different DME indications.
On all modern aircraft you can find the DME distance on the RMI.
Aircraft with Electronic displays show the DME distance on the Navigation
display and for a localizer DME also on the Primary Flight Display.
The numeric presentation is replaced by dashes if the DME system does not
get any reply signal. The indication is replaced by an amber DME warning box
or it is completely erased if there is any failure in the DME system detected.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|Syst Comp Ind/ALL Page 170

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Figure 85 DME Indications

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|Syst Comp Ind/ALL Page 171
WEATHER RADAR SYSTEM
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INTRODUCTION
The weather radar or WXR system presents a map type display of the weather
conditions in front of the aircraft.
The system operates on the same principle as an echo. It transmits pulses to a
180° area forward of the aircraft and the objects in this region, like water
droplets, reflect the pulses back.
The weather radar system analyzes the echoes and shows the result on the
navigation display. For example different signal intensity gives different colors.
Additional functions show land contours and even turbulences and windshear
events can be detected.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|WX Intro/ALL Page 172

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Figure 86 WXR System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|WX Intro/ALL Page 173
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SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A typical weather radar system has a transceiver, an antenna and a control
panel.
The output of the system is shown on the navigation display.
The antenna assembly is located in the nose radome and includes the antenna
and the antenna pedestal.
The antenna is moved plus and minus 90° by the azimuth motor.
The elevation scan motor keeps the antenna horizontally independent of the
aircraft attitude.
The stabilization signal for this function comes from the inertial reference
system or vertical gyro.
The motor can also be manually influenced by the tilt knob on the control panel.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 11|Syst Comp/ALL Page 174

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Figure 87 WXR Components

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System Components cont.

Two types of antennae are used to obtain the required narrow beam. They are
the flat plate antenna and the parabolic reflector type antenna.
The flat plate type is more efficient than the parabolic reflector and is therefore
the most common antenna on modern weather radar systems.
Another advantage of the flat plate antenna is that it has less side lobes than
the parabola type. These side lobes would lead to nuisance targets.
The weather radar transceiver generates the radar pulses and analyzes the
echoes.
The pulse power which is send to the antenna varies between 60kW in old
systems and 25W in modern systems.
The energy is guided to the antenna by wave guides. To keep the distance
short, the transceiver is located near the forward pressure bulkhead.

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Figure 88 Different WXR Antennas

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MODES OF OPERATION
On the weather radar control panel we can select different modes of operation.
With the WX mode, which stands for weather mode, you will get the colored
image on the nav display.
Red areas show very heavy rainstorms, yellow is used for intermediate levels
and green for moderate levels.
On the nav display you can also see the location of the poor weather in relation
to the aircraft heading and the distance to the aircraft.
To do this you must select a range on the selector of the EFIS control panel
and calculate the distance to the colored area.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 13|WX Modes/ALL Page 178

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Figure 89 WXR Control Panel

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Modes of Operation cont.

With the next position on the weather radar control panel you can add
turbulence information to the weather mode.
In turbulence the water droplets circulate and therefore also have a movement
in the longitudinal axis.
This means that the frequency of echoes increases when the targets move
towards the aircraft and decreases as the targets move away from the aircraft.
This effect is also called the doppler effect.
The area of turbulences is shown on the display in magenta.
Another mode on the control panel is the map mode. It is used to show echo
information from the ground.
With the tilt knob the pilot adjusts the tilt level of the antenna to get the best
presentation.
A sensitivity adjustment is possible with the gain knob.
Note that the actual mode and tilt selection is always shown on the nav display.

ATA 34
Figure 90 Turbulence Information

ATA 34

Another function of modern weather radar systems is called predictive
windshear, or PWS in short.
A windshear is very dangerous because an aircraft which passes through it,
first gets a strong head wind which changes in a very short time to a tail wind.
When the pilot is not warned early enough and does not correct the increasing
lift during the headwind period, the aircraft will lose lift dramatically during the
tailwind period and probably stall.
The detection of windshear is similar to turbulence, but the radar searches for
patterns in the echoes.
A windshear is detected if the nearest echoes give an increasing frequency and
the echoes further away give a decreasing frequency.
When a windshear is detected, the crew typically gets the following indications:
A windshear symbol, called the icon, is added to the nav display. This display
has red and black bars in the critical area with additional yellow bars which go
from the edges of the symbol to the compass rose. This shows the heading
which the pilot should avoid.
The warning is accompanied by a red windshear message on the PFD and the
ND and an aural warning which depends on the aircraft location.
During approach it sounds: ’Windshear ahead, go around’.

ATA 34
Figure 91 Predictive Windshear

ATA 34

Finally lets have a look at the weather radar system test.
You can do the test by selecting the test function on the control panel or with
the central maintenance computer.
If the test passes, the system displays a test pattern on the ND and the mode
annunciator on the left side shows a test pass message.
If there are any failures in the system, there will be no test pattern and a WXR
fail message is displayed.
In addition the faulty LRU is displayed.

ATA 34
Figure 92 WXR Test

ATA 34

If there is a need to operate a weather radar system on the ground, you must
observe important safety precautions.
This is because the heating and radiation effects of the weather radar are as in
a microwave oven.
Therefore it can be hazardous to life and equipment and can cause an
explosion during aircraft refueling.
You must always observe the precautions stated in the maintenance manual.
For modern systems typically personnel should remain at a distance greater
than about 10 to 15ft.
Refueling aircraft and large metallic objects must have a safety distance of
more than 200 to 300 ft.
Note that the safety area must be 180° in front of the aircraft due to the scan
possibility of the antenna.

ATA 34
Figure 93 Safety Precautions on the Ground

ATC
ATA 34
ATC
ATC TRANSPONDER FUNCTION
The air traffic control system, or ATC in short monitors and controls air traffic.
To do this the system needs information about the position of all aircraft in the
area.
The primary radar of the ground station only gives echoes for each aircraft
similar to the weather radar system, but ATC needs more information to
distinguish between the different aircraft.
Therefore the ground station secondary radar sends interrogation signals to all
aircraft which are responded to by an ATC transponder in the aircraft.
The ATC transponder of civil aircraft types can reply in 3 different modes,
named mode A, mode C and Mode S:
In MODE A the transponder transmits an aircraft identification code which is a
four digit number. The pilot receives this number from ATC via voice
communication and selects it on the ATC control panel.
In MODE C the transponder transmits the barometric altitude of the aircraft,
which it receives from the air data computer.
MODE S is an advanced system which will help ATC to control increasing
traffic in the future and which is needed for the traffic alert and collision
avoidance system, or TCAS in short, which you will see later.
The mode S transponder sends individual messages in reply to selective
interrogations from the ATC ground station and from other aircraft.
The selective interrogation is possible because aircraft that are equipped with
mode S transponders have a unique airframe address code. This code is given
by the authorities during certification of the aircraft and is set on a program
switch module in the avionic compartment.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|ATC XPDR Func/All Page 188

ATC
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Figure 94 Air Traffic Control System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|ATC XPDR Func/All Page 189
ATC
ATA 34
ATC Transponder Function cont.

The air traffic controller receives the following information about each aircraft:
The aircraft position, shown by an aircraft symbol, and the flight track, shown
as a series of dots. These dots are the so called historical plots, which show
the aircraft position at the previous radar scans.
Adjacent to the aircraft symbol the aircraft identification number is shown.
For scheduled commercial flights the ground station automatically transfers the
code to the flight number.
On the ATC screen you can also see the barometric altitude as a flight level
below the aircraft code or flight number.
An arrow after the flight level shows when the aircraft is climbing or
descending.
Finally the aircraft ground speed is shown. This is calculated by the ground
station computer and not reported from the aircraft.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|ATC XPDR Func/ALL Page 190

ATC
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Figure 95 ATC Information

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|ATC XPDR Func/ALL Page 191
ATC
ATA 34
ATC TRANSPONDER SYSTEM

The ATC transponder is located in the avionics compartment. All ATC
transponders worldwide receive the ATC interrogations on a frequency of
1030MHz and reply on 1090MHz .
All ATC transponders have one antenna at the bottom of the aircraft. It is
identical to, and interchangeable with the DME antenna, because they have the
same operating frequency. You can see the 3 identical antennas on the
photograph.
Mode S transponders also have a top antenna to allow communication with the
TCAS of other aircraft at a higher altitude.
The ATC transponder system also has a control panel in the cockpit, which is
also used to control the TCAS.
Commercial aircraft usually have two independent transponders, but only one
works at a time. With a switch the pilot selects the transponder to operate. With
this altitude source switch the pilot selects the air data system which delivers
the barometric altitude signal for MODE C.
The display window shows which transponder system is in use, here no.1, and
the selected identification code given by the ground controller. It can be
between 0000 and 7777, but 3 codes are reserved for special functions.
The pilot can select the identification code which is given by the ATC ground
controller, using these 2 selector knobs.
The ident pushbutton is momentarily pushed by the pilot when ATC ask for
confirmation of aircraft identification. This gives a special position identification,
or SPI, on the ground controller screen.
With the mode selector the pilot can select different modes of operation.
STANDBY means that the transponder is ON but replies are inhibited. This is
the normal mode on the ground.

In the Alt Reporting OFF position the transponder replies only to MODE A or
MODE S interrogations, but the altitude reporting of MODE C is inhibited.
In the XPNDR position the transponder is fully operative and replies to all
interrogations.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|XPDR Syst/ALL Page 192

ATC
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Figure 96 ATC Transponder System

ATC
ATA 34
ATC Transponder System cont.

When you turn the mode switch on the ATC panel out of the standby position,
the transponder will reply to the ATC interrogations.
You must therefore note that 3 identification codes must never be selected on
the ground, because they are emergency codes.
These are: 7500, which identifies a Hijacking, 7600 for radio failure and 7700 if
the aircraft is in an emergency.
A test of the ATC transponder system on the ground can be done by pressing
the test pushbutton on the panel. During this test all components are tested,
but no replies will be transmitted.
As usual you will find all test instructions in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.

ATC
ATA 34
Figure 97 ATC Modes

TCAS
ATA 34
TCAS
INTRODUCTION
The traffic alert and collision avoidance system, or TCAS in short, is designed
to protect the airspace around a TCAS equipped airplane.
The function of TCAS is to determine the range, altitude, bearing and closure
rate of other aircraft which are equipped with an ATC transponder.
TCAS monitors the trajectory of other aircraft to determine if there is any
danger of a collision and provides the pilots with aural and visual advisories for
a vertical avoidance maneuver.
TCAS monitors up to 50 aircraft and puts them into one of four groups:
resolution advisory group, RA in short, traffic alert group, TA in short, proximate
traffic or other traffic.
TCAS forms 2 protected areas around its own aircraft: the resolution advisory
and the traffic alert protected areas.
These areas represent the time until the target will be at the closest point of
approach to the TCAS airplane, CPA in short. This protected area is called the
tau area.
The TA and RA times vary with the altitude. For example at 7000ft the RA time
is 25sec. to CPA and the TA time to CPA is 40sec.
If a target aircraft reaches the TA−TAU−area, TCAS gives an aural traffic
warning.
When the target aircraft reaches the RA−TAU−area, an aural resolution
advisory alert assisted by visual indicators is provided.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|TCAS Intro/ALL Page 196

TCAS
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Figure 98 TCAS
TCAS
ATA 34
Introduction cont.
Aircraft which do not belong to the RA and TA groups are grouped into
Proximate or other traffic.
Proximate traffic means that an aircraft with a relative altitude separation of
less than 1200ft is inside a 6nm (nautical miles) radius of the TCAS aircraft.
Other traffic indicates aircraft at a distance of more than 6nm or that have a
relative altitude separation of more than 1200ft.

TCAS
ATA 34
Figure 99 ALTITUDE SEPARATIONS

TCAS
ATA 34
COMPONENTS
A typical TCAS has the following main components.
A TCAS computer, which is located in the Avionics compartment, two antennas
which are used for transmission and reception, one at the top and one at the
bottom of the aircraft. Finally a combined ATC and TCAS control panel, which
you have already seen in the ATC system.
The TCAS computer communicates via the antennas with the ATC
transponders of other aircraft, so it uses the same two frequencies as the ATC
transponder.
It transmits interrogations on 1030MHz and receives the replys on 1090MHz.
The 2 TCAS antennas consist of 4 electronically controlled elements.
This gives the antenna a directional characteristic so that the computer can
calculate the direction to an intruder.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|Comp/ALL Page 200

TCAS
ATA 34
Figure 100 TCAS Components

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|Comp/ALL Page 201
TCAS
ATA 34
ARCHITECTURE
The TCAS computer also communicates with its own ATC transponders via a
databus.
It also needs information from other aircraft systems, such as the altitude from
the air data computer, the height from the low range radio altimeter and the
heading usually from an inertial reference unit.
To complete the system architecture the TCAS computer also provides output
signals to the indicators like the EFIS displays and to the loudspeakers for
aural alerts.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Architecture/ALL Page 202

TCAS
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Figure 101 TCAS System

TCAS
ATA 34
OPERATION
To detect traffic conflicts TCAS continuously transmits interrogations to other
aircrafts.
The strength of the interrogation pulses are changed in many steps and
therefore called whisper and shout interrogations. This allows TCAS to identify
an intruders characteristics, for example, distance and direction.
When the intruder ATC transponder replys, it is added to a TCAS Roll Call List
so that it can be tracked.
Intruders equipped with a MODE S transponder do not wait for an
interrogation. They transmit permanent signals, called squitter signals, which
contain, for example, their own aircraft address code.
These aircraft are also added to the roll call list.
Using the address code, TCAS can now selectively interrogate the MODE S
transponder of this intruder aircraft and ask for more information.
The TCAS computer now uses the received data to calculate if the other
aircraft is on a possible collision course. If it is, it also calculates traffic
coordination maneuver data.
This data and the position data are sent to the display system and an aural
alert sounds if the warning level is reached.
If the intruder also has TCAS, the 2 TCAS computers communicate with each
other using the MODE S transponders.
Both TCAS computers calculate an escape path which is exchanged and
coordinated. This sets up an air−to−air MODE S data link between the two
aircraft.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Ops/All Page 204

TCAS
ATA 34
Figure 102 TCAS Operation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Ops/All Page 205
TCAS
ATA 34
INDICATIONS
Let us now have a look at the TCAS indications on the navigation display. To
add TCAS indications to the ND display you must press the Traffic, or TFC
push button on the EFIS control panel.
To start the TCAS functions on the ATC/TCAS Control Panel TA ONLY or
TA/RA must be selected.
When the mode selector on the ATC/TCAS control panel is in the TA/RA
position, 4 types of symbols could be displayed on the ND, depending on the
traffic that is currently in the area.
All 4 symbols show an altitude separation between the aircraft, shown in
hundreds of feet. A plus sign indicates if the traffic is above, and a minus sign
indicates if traffic is below our aircraft.
A vertical up−pointing arrow shows if the traffic is climbing, and a
down−pointing arrow shows aircraft descending with a rate more than or equal
to 500ft/min.
TCAS also calculates resolution advisories which you will see later.
Other traffic is shown by a hollow diamond with the altitude, both in white. In
this example the traffic is 1400ft above us at a distance of about 15nm.
Proximate traffic is shown by a solid diamond with the altitude, both in white. In
this example the other aircraft is 900ft below and descending at more than
500ft/min. The distance is about 10nm.
A traffic alert is shown by a solid circle with the altitude, both in amber. In this
example the intruder is 200ft below with a climb rate of more than 500ft/min.
The distance is about 5nm.
A resolution advisory is shown by a solid square with the altitude, both in red.
This intruder is 1000ft below with a vertical speed of less than 500ft/min. The
distance is about 4nm.

TCAS
ATA 34
Figure 103 TCAS Indications

TCAS
ATA 34
Indications cont.
When a traffic advisory (TA) occurs, the aural alert TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC can be
heard in the cockpit. This alert tells the flight crew to monitor the display for
intruder traffic.
During a resolution advisory (RA), 2 types of aural alert are possible.
These are a preventive action RA and a corrective action RA.
The preventive action RA occurs when the present vertical speed achieves a
safe altitude separation from the threat aircraft.
When this happens the aural advisory is MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED −
MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED.
This message tells the flight crew to maintain the recommended vertical speed,
shown in green on the vertical speed indicator.
In the red range there is a high risk of traffic conflict.

TCAS
ATA 34

TCAS
ATA 34
Indications cont.
The corrective action RA occurs when the altitude separation is not safe. Here
we show you 2 examples of aural alert that tell the flight crew to take a
corrective action to avoid a possible collision:
CLIMB, CLIMB means the aircraft must climb with a vertical speed inside the
green area of the indication.
A REDUCE CLIMB aural alert tells the flight crew to reduce the rate of climb.
On the control panel you can find a second TCAS mode which can be
selected, the TA only mode. In this mode, no aural or visual resolution
advisories are calculated.
Additionally, the red symbols are also hidden on the ND.

TCAS
ATA 34

TCAS
ATA 34
TEST
To end this segment on TCAS indications, we will look at the test possibilities.
This example is from a Boeing 737 new generation airplane, but you should
note that testing methods may differ according to aircraft type.
You can start a self-test from the ATC/TCAS control panel or from the TCAS
computer front panel test switch.
If the test is successful, the following indications will be displayed on the
navigation display:
A cyan TCAS TEST message, a red TRAFFIC message and all four different
traffic symbols.
If the test fails, the message TCAS TEST FAIL replaces the TCAS TEST
message and no traffic symbols are shown.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|TCAS Test/ALL Page 212

TCAS
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Figure 106 TCAS Test

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|TCAS Test/ALL Page 213
GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
GLOBAL NAVIGATION
GPS
The global positioning system, or GPS in short, is a satellite−based navigation
system that calculates aircraft position with high accuracy.
It uses 24 primary and 3 spare satellites which orbit about 10900nm above the
earth. Each satellite completes an orbit once every 12 hours.
Each satellite permanently sends signals which include the time of the
transmission.
The GPS unit in the aircraft calculates the travel time of the signal by
comparing the time of the signal reception with the transmission time.
The travel time gives the distance to the satellite, because radio signals travel
at the speed of light.
GPS can calculate the aircraft latitude, longitude and altitude, when the
distance to at least four satellites is available, because it has stored the
location of all satellites in their orbits in its so called almanac.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|GPS/ALL Page 214

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 107 GPS

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
GPS cont.
The GPS offers 2 services:
precision positioning service, PPS, which is only available for military users and
standard positioning service, or SPS in short, which is used in the civilian
sector.
It uses a frequency of 1575.42MHz and has an average accuracy between 15
and 25m.

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 108 GPS Services

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
GPS cont.
The SPS accuracy of 15m is too low to permit GPS landings, but it can be
improved by a differential GPS, or DGPS in short.
DGPS uses a reference station at the airport. It calculates a position error from
the difference between its own accurately known position and the position
which is calculated from the GPS signal.
This position error is transmitted to the aircraft to adjust its own GPS position
by the same position error.
With this method the accuracy can be increased to about 3m.

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 109 DGPS

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
GPS cont.
Now lets take a look at the GPS architecture in the aircraft.
Usually 2 GPSs are installed.
Each GPS has one top−mounted antenna which receives the satellite signals.
The satellite signals are routed to a GPS unit which is, for example, in a
dedicated component near the antennas or inside another component like the
multimode receiver.
The GPS unit processes the signals and sends them primarily to the flight
management system for position calculation.

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 110 GPS Architecture

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
FANS
The current air traffic management system is based on ground navigational
aids, radar and voice communication.
The future air navigation system or FANS in short, uses space based
navigation, such as GPS, and satellite communication, or SATCOM in short, to
enhance the communication between aircraft and air traffic control.
FANS is also known as CNS / ATM which stands for Communication,
Navigation and Surveillance / Air Traffic Management because this describes
what the system does.
FANS uses ACARS datalinks to transfer requests and reports between pilot
and ATC. These are called ’controller pilot datalink’ or CPDL in short. This
decreases the risk of misunderstandings.
FANS also improves the situational awareness for the ATC controllers because
of automatic transmission of flight data important for surveillance.
This is called Automatic Dependent Surveillance, or ADS in short. ADS allows
reduction of the separation between aircraft, so more aircraft can fly in the
same air space and more direct and therefore shorter routes are possible.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|FANS/ALL Page 222

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 111 FANS

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
FANS cont.
Now lets have a look at the FANS system architecture.
For navigation FANS uses the flight management system as the main
navigation system.
A communication management unit or CMU in short, provides a two way
datalink between the communication system and the Flight Management
Computer, for ATC messages and also for Airline operational control or AOC
messages like flight plans and weather.
The cockpit interface to the FANS functions is via the EFIS & ECAM displays,
the printer and the MCDU. On the MCDU the pilot can switch the datalink to
ATC on or off and can inhibit the Automatic Dependent Surveillance or ADS in
short.
A new component is the datalink control and display unit, DCDU in short. Two
DCDUs are located directly above the MCDU and these are used for ATC
messages.
In our example the DCDU screen shows a message from KZAK control who
want the pilot to reduce the aircraft speed.
Two DCDU message lights illuminate on the glareshield whenever a new
message from ATC arrives.

GLOBAL NAVIGATION
ATA 34
Figure 112 FANS System Architecture

NAVIGATION SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
INERTIAL STABILIZED SYSTEMS
ATA 31

INTRODUCTION
You have learned already how the pilot gets the information about aircraft
attitude and heading from corresponding reference systems.
Most aircraft types use a combination of the 2 systems called an inertial
stabilized system or platform.
The advantage of a platform is that it not only provides the attitude and
heading, it can supply all information about aircraft rotations around and
motions along the 3 axes from a single unit.
The rotations around the 3 axes are measured by gyros.
These are called the pitch and roll attitude.
Heading and the angular rates are called pitch, roll and yaw rate.
The movements along the aircraft axes are measured by accelerometers.
They are called the x, y and z accelerations as well as the speeds which are
calculated by a computer from these values.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Intro/All Page 226

ATA 31
Figure 113 Inertial Stabilized System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Intro/All Page 227
ATA 31
GYROS
Three different types of gyro combination are used to measure the aircraft
rotations.
One possibility is a combination of 2 gyros with 3_ of freedom.
One gyro measures the motions around the x and y axes and the second
measures the motion around the z axis.
Some platforms use the combination of a vertical gyro to measure the rotations
around the x and y axes and a directional gyro to measure the rotation around
the z axis.
A second possibility is to use 3 gyros with 2_ of freedom, 1 gyro for each axis.
In these 2 examples the platform can directly provide the output signals.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Gyros/All Page 228

ATA 31
Figure 114 Gyros of Inertial Stabilized Systems

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Gyros/All Page 229
ATA 31
Gyros cont.
A third method is to use 3 rate gyros, 1 for each axis.
You need a computer to calculate the attitude from the rate signals.
The rate gyros can either be mechanical gyros which you can see here or
non−mechanical gyros which are used very often in modern systems.
Different types of non−mechanical rate gyros are in use, but the laser gyro is
the most used.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|Gyros/ALL Page 230

ATA 31
Figure 115 Rate Gyro

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|Gyros/ALL Page 231
ATA 31
LASER GYRO
A laser gyro uses rotating light beams to measure the angular rate.
One light beam rotates clockwise generated by a high voltage between the
cathode and anode 1 and reflected by 3 mirrors.
A second light beam rotates counterclockwise generated by a high voltage
between the cathode and anode 2.
Both light beams have to travel the same distance when the module stays still.
When the module rotates for example clockwise, the beam with the clockwise
direction must travel a larger distance than the beam in the counterclockwise
direction.
With a comparison between the 2 light beams you can detect the difference in
travel time and therefore the rotational speed of the module because they are
proportional.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|Laser/ALL Page 232

ATA 31
Figure 116 Laser Gyro

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|Laser/ALL Page 233
ATA 31
ACCELEROMETER TYPES
The motions along the axes of the aircraft are measured with accelerometers.
Three different types are used by different manufacturers:
S Electrolyte accelerometers,
S the mass and spring accelerometers,
S and the pendulum accelerometers.
In our example all 3 types are sensitive to the same direction of acceleration.
The electrolyte in the glass tube moves with the acceleration.
The result is that the two resistors R1 and R2 are no longer equal.
With an acceleration the mass moves against the spring.
The distance the mass travels depends on the amount of acceleration.
With an acceleration the pendulum moves until the acceleration force is equal
to the force of gravity.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 11|AccTypes/All Page 234

ATA 31
Figure 117 Accelerometer Types

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 11|AccTypes/All Page 235
ATA 31
ACCELEROMETER
The pendulum accelerometer is the preferred type.
It has a mass with a pivot outside the center.
The deflection of the mass is transferred into an electrical signal by a pickup.
One pickup type which is often used is the electromagnetic pickup. It has a
transformer with 2 static excitation windings and 1 moveable output winding.
With an acceleration the mass with the output winding moves and an output
voltage is generated.
The function is the same as in a position sensor called LVDT.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 12|Accelerometer/ALL Page 236

ATA 31
Figure 118 Pendulum Accelerometer

ATA 31
Accelerometer cont.
The direct transformation of the acceleration into an electrical signal has the
disadvantages that the range of acceleration which you can measure
accurately is relatively small and that the travelled distance of the mass is not
proportional to the applied acceleration, which means that it is not linear.
These problems are solved by a torque rebalancing.
Now the deflection is directly transferred into a magnetic force which keeps the
pendulum in its neutral position.
The pendulum makes only very small movements and the current, which
generates the magnetic field, is linear to the acceleration, so it can be used for
the output voltage.

ATA 31
Figure 119 Torque Rebalancing

ATA 31
Accelerometer cont.
Using the linear output data from the accelerometer it is easy to calculate the
ground speed with the integral calculation.
An integral calculation of the speed gives the distance which the aircraft has
travelled and from this also the present position of the aircraft.

ATA 31
Figure 120 Integral Calculation

ATA 31
GIMBAL PLATFORM
Two different types of inertial stabilized systems are used:
S the gimbal platform
S the strap down system.
The gimbal platform system uses a stable element, called the platform.
It carries the gyros, in our example 1 gyro for each axis and the 3
accelerometers.
The platform is always positioned parallel to the earth’s surface independent of
the aircraft attitude.
This is necessary because the accelerometers must measure the aircraft
accelerations without any influences from the earth’s gravity.
The positioning is done by torque motors which receive a signal from the gyros
when they detect a motion.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 15|GimbalPlatform/All Page 242

ATA 31
Figure 121 Gimbal Platform

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 15|GimbalPlatform/All Page 243
ATA 31
PLATFORM STABILIZATION
A platform is also affected by drift and topple.
However, instead of using specific erection circuits, the compensation is done
by the computer.
It calculates the drift and topple rates because it knows the aircraft position and
the characteristics of the earth.
It can also adjust the platform with the torque motors.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 16|PlatformStabi/ALL Page 244

ATA 31
Figure 122 Platform Stabilization

ATA 31
Platform Stabilization cont.

The gimbal platform directly provides the roll and pitch attitude and the platform
heading signal. This is almost the same as the DG heading of the remote
compass system.
These signals come from position sensors which measure the gimbal positions
in respect to the aircraft fuselage.
As this system needs only a low computer performance, but has a very
sensitive mechanism, it is primarily used in older aircraft types.

ATA 31
Figure 123 Gimbal Platform

ATA 31
STRAP DOWN SYSTEM

The strap down system is the modern inertial stabilized system.
Here all components are fixed, or strapped down, to the aircraft structure.
An attitude change of the aircraft also changes the position of all components.
The 3 rate gyros, which are usually laser gyros, measure the rotational speed
around the aircraft axes. The attitude is calculated by the computer using the
data from the rate signals.
The 3 accelerometers are now also affected by the earth’s gravity.
For example during a climb the accelerometer in the x−axis will measure an
acceleration even with constant aircraft speed, because of the effect of the
gravity.
The correction of the signals is done by the computer.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 18|StrapDown/All Page 248

ATA 31
Figure 124 Strap Down System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 18|StrapDown/All Page 249
ATA 31
ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS)

The simplest type of inertial stabilized system is the attitude heading reference
system or AHRS in short.
You can usually find 2 of these systems in smaller aircraft types.
The system has a main unit called AHRU which contains the gyros,
accelerometer and computer.
The unit provides pitch and roll attitude without any other additional inputs.
The magnetic heading is only available when a flux valve provides the signal of
the earth’s magnet field.
In this system the flux valve is called magnetic sensor unit, or MSU in short.
An attitude heading reference system also receives inputs from the air data
computer.
The true airspeed is needed to improve the accuracy of the attitude signals.
The altitude is used to calculate the inertial vertical speed.
Finally inputs from the VOR and DME systems are needed to calculate the
ground speed and the speed and direction of the wind.
The system is automatically operational when the electrical power is available.
The only interface to the operator in the cockpit is a compass system control
unit which has the same function you have learned about in the lesson about
the remote compass system.
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Figure 125 Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS)

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 19|AHRS/All Page 251
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INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS)

The inertial reference system or IRS in short is the standard system in todays
aircraft generation.
It has an inertial reference unit, IRU in short, which contains all the necessary
components.
The gyros are usually non−mechanical gyros, for example laser gyros.
The IRS system has a mode select unit, MSU in short.
On this unit you can find the ON / Off switches for the system.
As you can see from the number of the switches, either 2 or 3 independent
systems are installed in an aircraft.
Some systems also need an inertial sensor display unit or ISDU in short for
data entry and monitoring.
Modern systems do not have an ISDU because all functions are controlled
from the MCDU.
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Figure 126 Inertial Reference System (IRS) I

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 20|IRS/All Page 253
ATA 31
Inertial Reference System (IRS) cont.

The IRU primarily provides the same output signals as an AHRU.
These are
S the attitude,
S heading,
S ground speed,
S wind,
S inertial vertical speed.
It also receives the same inputs from the air data computer.
The IRU has a very powerful computer, so it can calculate the present position
of the aircraft.
For this calculation it needs a 10 minute align phase on the ground.
The computer also knows the magnetic variation. It is stored in memory for all
positions on earth.
Therefore, it does not need a flux valve to calculate the magnetic heading.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 21|IRS/ALL Page 254

ATA 31
Figure 127 IRS II

ATA 31
Inertial Reference System (IRS) cont.

The present position calculation is updated during the whole flight using the
acceleration signals, so it can be used by the lateral navigation of the flight
management system.
This calculation must never be interrupted during flight, therefore the IRS
needs backup electrical power directly from the aircraft battery or from its own
battery unit.
If the calculation was interrupted, the attitude is the only remaining output.
This is selected with the attitude position of the mode switch on the MSU.

ATA 31
Figure 128 IRS III

ATA 31
IRS OPERATION
To be able to operate, the IRS needs a so called align phase.
The alignment is started automatically when you switch the system on, on the
ground.
When you switch on the inertial reference system, it first runs an internal check
of the system including the availability of the DC backup power.
At the same time the alignment starts. This takes approximately 10 minutes to
complete and during that time the align light illuminates.
The remaining align time is shown on the ISDU or on the ECAM displays.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 23|IRSOperation/All Page 258

ATA 31
Figure 129 IRS Operation I

ATA 31
IRS Operation cont.

During the first 5 minutes of the alignment, the IRS performs an activity called
levelling.
During this time the gyro and accelerometer signals are used to align the
system to the actual aircraft position.
The aircraft must not be moved during this phase.
The attitude is available 30s after the start of the alignment.
The heading is available after approximately 5min.

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Figure 130 IRS Operation II

ATA 31
IRS Operation cont.

The last 5min of the alignment are needed to calculate navigation data.
For this the IRU needs the exact aircraft position.
The operator must either insert the aircraft position using the keyboard on the
ISDU or it is transmitted from the FMS after confirmation on the MCDU.
The IRU checks the inserted present position and if it is incorrect the align light
will start flashing.
This means you have to re−enter the position.
When the position is accepted, the IRS is fully operational in the nav mode at
the end of the align phase.

ATA 31
Figure 131 IRS Operation III

ATA 31
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

The inertial navigation system (INS) was the standard navigation system in
long range aircraft before the use of flight management systems.
The system has an inertial navigation unit (INU) as the main component. The
INU contains:
S the gyros
S the accelerometer
S the computer
The system also has a mode select unit (MSU), a control and display unit
(CDU) and a separate battery unit (BU), which provides the DC backup power.
An INS has the same basic functions as an IRS but with an additional
navigation computation.
It calculates the present position of the aircraft, like in the IRS.
In addition it creates a desired flight track from all geographic waypoints of the
flight.
The waypoints must be inserted by the flight crew step by step into the CDU
before the flight.
Here you can see an example for waypoint number 3.
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Figure 132 INS I

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 26|INS/All Page 265
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Inertial Navigation System cont.

The INS always knows if the aircraft is on the desired track or not by
comparing the desired position with the present position.
Any deviation from the desired track is shown on the HSI by the deviation bar.
When the autopilot is switched on, it will keep the aircraft on the desired track
by a steering command signal from the INU.
In our example it would be a fly right command.
Another important item to note is that the INS provides the pitch and roll
attitude but not the magnetic heading.
It provides only a platform heading signal which needs a compass coupler with
a flux valve to generate the magnetic heading.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 27|INS/ALL Page 266

ATA 31
Figure 133 INS II

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 27|INS/ALL Page 267
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ATA 22

INTRODUCTION
The flight management system or FMS in short is a computer system which
reduces pilot workload and improves flight safety and economy.
It calculates an optimum flight track between the departure airport and the
destination airport with the lateral navigation function.
It also calculates the best profile for this flight with the vertical navigation
function. This function is also called performance calculation.
Finally, the FMS calculates the estimated time for each step of the flight.
Therefore, the FMS provides a 4−dimensional navigation calculation.
The FMS has 1 or 2 flight management computers or FMC and communicates
with the pilots via two control and display units, called CDU or MCDU. Long
distance aircraft often have a third CDU in standby.
The FMS sends the calculated data to the EFIS for display and to the autoflight
systems for automatic control.
It also needs many sensors for the required input signals.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|INTRO/ALL Page 268

ATA 22
Figure 134 Flight Management System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|INTRO/ALL Page 269
ATA 22
LATERAL NAVIGATION
You can divide the FMC into 2 parts: The navigation computer which calculates
the data for lateral navigation and the performance computer which calculates
the data for vertical navigation and time.
The navigation computer of the FMC has a nav data base which stores all
necessary navigation data for flight operation. It must be updated every 28
days by maintenance.
From this data base the computer creates a flight plan which gives the desired
position of the aircraft for all steps of the flight.
To get this flight plan the pilot must enter a company route on the CDU.
The company route in our example is HAMLHR1 which stands for a specific
flight plan for a flight from Hamburg to London Heathrow.
The desired position from the flight plan is compared to the present position of
the aircraft.
The result is a position error which is sent to the autopilot and flight director roll
computer as a navigation steering command signal.
The inner loop of the autoflight system uses this signal to command the aircraft
to fly left or right.
The FMC calculates the present position of the aircraft from the signals of
different sensors. These are primarily the GPS and the IRS.
The present position of the aircraft on the ground is given by the IRS but the
starting position must be provided by the FMS during IRS alignment.
During flight, the IRS position is updated by the GPS and if necessary also by
data from navigation radios such as DME, VOR and Localizer.
To do this task efficiently, the radios must be tuned automatically by the FMS.
The general rule is that the FMC always combines the most reliable signals to
calculate a position, which is as accurate as possible.
The present position and flight plan data are also sent to the navigation display.
Here is a typical example of how the FMS data is presented on an EFIS
navigation display. The aircraft symbol shows the present position in relation to
the flight plan and other navigation data.
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ATA 22
Figure 135 Lateral Navigation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|Lateral NAV/ALL Page 271
ATA 22
VERTICAL NAVIGATION
The task of the vertical navigation or performance calculation is to optimise the
vertical profile of the flight during climb, cruise and descent.
For this task the FMC calculates the optimum speed in each phase and the
necessary thrust of the engines, usually calculated as a thrust limit.
All necessary aircraft and engine performance data for this calculation is stored
in a performance database.
The optimum speed of the aircraft depends mainly on the environmental
conditions like air pressure and temperature, which are provided by the air data
computer, and the weight of the aircraft.
The weight is usually calculated by the FMS by adding the fuel weight provided
by the fuel quantity system to the zero fuel weight which has to be entered by
the pilots via the CDU.
The optimum speed is usually the so called ECON SPEED, which gives the
lowest total operating costs for the flight. To calculate this speed the FMC
needs the cost index or cost factor.
The cost index is the relationship between the time related costs of the
operation and the fuel costs. A precalculated value is available for each
selected flight plan, but it can be modified by the pilot on the CDU.
The cost index can vary between 0 and 999 in this aircraft example. The 50 in
our example means that fuel costs are more important than time related costs.
0 would mean that only the fuel costs are important, so the flight is calculated
with minimum fuel consumption and 999 means that only the time costs have
to be used, so the flight is planned with maximum speed.
The optimum speed is sent as a target speed to the autopilot and flight director
pitch channel and to the autothrottle system which also gets the thrust limit
from the flight management computer.

The calculated target speed is shown on the PFD in this example with a
magenta triangle.
You have now seen the basic function of the lateral and vertical navigation of
the FMS.
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ATA 22
Figure 136 Vertical Navigation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|Vertical NAV/ALL Page 273
ATA 22
OPERATION
IDENT Page
We will show you some of the FMS functions that are available on the ground
using a CDU from the 747−400 aircraft.
When electrical power is activated, you get the IDENT page, which gives
information about the aircraft and engine type and the part numbers of the
software.
Next to the part number of the nav data base you find the time period of 28
days for which the active database is valid.
A second database is in standby and must be activated by the pilot at the
transition date, here the 21st October.
One week before the expiry date of both databases, a new database must be
loaded, which will become the new standby data base.
POS INIT Page

The position initialization page is used to send the actual aircraft position to the
Inertial Reference Systems for the alignment.
In this FMS you have 3 choices:
S either the last actual position stored in the FMS
S or the airport position when you enter the departure airport
S or the gate position when you enter the gate number
Let us use the last actual position by selecting line select key one right. Now
the selected position is copied to the scratchpad.
To send the position to the IRS you must click on line select key four right.
Now the position for the alignment is transferred to the IRUs.

All IRSs have started the nav mode when the IRS position is erased from
screen.
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ATA 22
Figure 137 Operation

ATA 22
Operation cont.
ACT ROUTE 1
Usually, the flight plan is created by entering a company route, here
HAMLHR1.
Now the computer knows from the navigation data base that the origin is
Hamburg and the destination is London Heathrow and also all waypoints
between these two airports.
On this page the flight plan starts with the take-off runway and the first
waypoint after take-off.
The remaining waypoints and the destination follow on page 2, which is
selectable with the page pushbuttons on the CDU.
The pilot confirms the data by clicking on the line select key next to ACTIVATE.
Now the flight plan is ready and can be cross−checked using the plan mode of
the navigation display.
PERF INIT PAGE
On the performance initialization page you find the weight data and the cost
index.
In this example the displayed aircraft gross weight is measured with a dual
weight and balance system.
The zero fuel weight is calculated from it by subtracting the fuel weight.
The pilot must enter the zero fuel weight manually if the weight is not
measured.

ATA 22
Figure 138 Operation

ATA 22
DATA LOADING
The FMS navigation database must be updated every 28 days because
navigational data changes frequently.
For example new nav aids or airports are introduced or frequencies and
waypoint location change.
To load the new database, modern aircraft types have an airborne data loader.
Other aircraft use a portable Data Loader.
Finally, in systems with 2 computers a crossloading can transfer data from one
computer to the other.
The airborne data loader, or ADL in short, is used not only to load new software
for the FMC, it can also be used for other aircraft systems, like CMC and
ACARS.
So you must select the required computer to load the data into by using a
control panel, here FMC number 2 is selected.
The data information is stored on one or more 3.5 inch floppydisks.
Note that you must always follow the actual procedure for data loading
described in the relevant chapter of the maintenance manual.
Es müssen immer die aktuellen Vorschriften für das Laden der Daten beachtet
werden, die im entsprechenden Kapitel des Maintenance Manual zu finden
sind.
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ATA 22
Figure 139 Data Loading

NAVIGATION EJAMF
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Gas Turbine Engine
MODULE 15
Data Loading cont.

The portable data loader, or PDL in short, must be connected to a specific plug
in the cockpit and is therefore used exclusively for FMC data loading.
Again you must follow the actual procedures in the maintenance manual.
Crossloading is controlled from the CDU.
From the init ref page, which you can access with the corresponding
pushbutton, you must first select the maintenance page.
This is an example of a FMC page for data crossloading. It appears
automatically when electrical power is switched on if the 2 FMCs detect
different part numbers for the navigation database.
You can read the actual database part number and you can choose if the data
should be transmitted to the other FMC or received from the other FMC.
Again you must follow the actual procedures of the maintenance manual.

NAVIGATION EJAMF
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Gas Turbine Engine
MODULE 15
Figure 140 Data Loading

AUTO FLIGHT FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
AUTOFLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
AFS SUBSYSTEMS
All modern aircraft are equipped with autoflight systems.
Typically, an autoflight system has the following subsystems:
S the autopilot, or AP in short
S the flight director, or FD
S the autothrottle system, usually abbreviated as ATS
S the automatic pitch trim system, also called autotrim
S and the yaw damper system, or YD.
The autotrim and yawdamper subsystems are also called the stability
augmentation system.
The autopilot mainly reduces the workload for the pilot by controlling the flight
automatically. In modern aircraft it also allows automatic landings especially in
poor weather conditions.
The flight director shows the pilot how to fly the aircraft manually. This is done
by flight director command bars in the primary flight display − PFD or attitude
director indicator−ADI.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|AFS Subsystems/ALL Page 282

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
Figure 141 AFS Subsystems 1

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
AFS Subsystems cont.

The autothrottle system reduces the workload for the pilots by controlling the
engine power automatically.
Autotrim maintains pitch stability during all phases of the flight. It usually
adjusts the horizontal stabilizer automatically.
The Yaw Damper improves the dynamic stability of the aircraft during the whole
flight.
Flight envelope protection monitors the operation of all modern autoflight
systems. This prevents any abnormal flight condition during automatic flight.
Today’s commercial aircraft are also equipped with flight management systems.
The FMS does navigation and performance calculations for optimum flight
performance.
In later generation aircraft we find that the FMS is an integrated part of the
autoflight system. This also allows the Flight Envelope Protection to monitor
the FMS operation.

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
Figure 142 AFS Subsystems 2

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
INTEGRATION INTO FLIGHT CONTROLS

You should remember that the aircraft has 3 axes which are called:
S the longitudinal or x−axis
S the vertical or z−axis
S and the lateral or y−axis
The autopilot controls the aircraft attitude directly around 2 axes, by elevator
deflections from the pitch channel and aileron deflections from the roll channel.
Autoland autopilots can also control the aircraft attitude directly around the
vertical axis by rudder deflections from the yaw channel.
The yaw damper controls the rudder to dampen dutch roll oscillations during
the entire flight.
The pitch trim system moves the horizontal stabilizer, to compensate for
changes in the center of gravity and center of lift during flight.
Autothrottle is the only system that can control an aircraft motion along an axis,
called a translatory motion. It generates accelerations in the x−axis by
controlling the engine thrust.
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INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
Figure 143 Aircraft Axes

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
AFS ARCHITECTURE
Typically autoflight systems have the following parts:
S computers for signal calculation
S control panels as the main interface to the computers
S and the outputs to other aircraft systems like flight controls and indicators.
In the analog world of the 1960s all autoflight subsystems consisted of
individual units.
In this system you can find one flight director computer for pitch and one for
roll. They control the command bars in the ADI.
You can also find one autopilot computer for pitch and one for roll to supply the
corresponding flight control surfaces.
To calculate the output signals the autopilot and flight director computers must
compare the pilot inputs from the 2 separated control panels with inputs from
different aircraft sensors.
If required, you can also find in these old autoflight system a yaw damper and
even an autothrottle system with a separate control panel.

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
Figure 144 AFS Architecture

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22
AFS Architecture Cont.

The progress in electronic technology in the early 1970s made it possible to
integrate components.
For example the autopilot and flight director computers were combined and
named flight guidance computers with a common autopilot and flight director
control panel. This integration also allowed the introduction of new functions,
like autoland.
Due to higher safety requirements for these functions all computers were
doubled. Because of these new functions yaw flight guidance computers were
added.
Finally we also find doubled yaw damper systems and autothrottle systems
providing increased reliability and safety.
Control of the autothrottle functions is also integrated into the common control
panel.

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22

After the period of integrated analog autoflight systems, digital technology
entered the avionic branch in the 1980s.
This change from analog systems to digital systems reduced the number of
autoflight components by more than 50%. You can see this reduction in this
example of the A300 components.
For example all autopilot and flight director computers have been integrated to
a single computer unit called flight control computer or FCC in short. This FCC
is doubled or even tripled to reach the safety requirements during autoland.
The yaw damper is still a separate computer or can be integrated into a flight
augmentation computer, FAC in short, which is also responsible for flight
envelope protection.
Finally the autothrottle computer can be integrated into a so called thrust
control computer, or TCC in short, responsible for all automatic engine control
functions.
In these digital aircraft there are more integrated sensors and a new system for
navigation and performance calculation. This system is called the flight
management system, or FMS in short.
In the cockpit, the old electro-mechanical instruments are replaced with
cathode ray tubes or color liquid crystal displays.
For example the primary flight display or PFD has replaced the old ADI.

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22

Since 1990 more integration of autoflight components has became possible
because of the introduction of electronic flight control systems, or EFCS in
short.
This system, which is also known as a fly by wire system, controls all control
surfaces directly. This means that the autoflight system only needs to deliver
digital signals to the EFCS computers.
The autoflight computer is also called FMGEC which stands for flight
management guidance and envelope computer. This modern autoflight
computer, in this example called FMGEC, has an integrated FMS and controls
all autopilot and flight director functions.
The autothrottle function is also integrated into this computer. As the engines
are now controlled by a full authority digital engine control system, FADEC in
short, the autothrottle does not need to move the throttles.
Finally you will find that the yaw damper and trim functions are also integrated
and that the flight envelope protection function monitors the complete
operation.

INTRODUCTION
ATA 22

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT
INNER LOOP
The autopilot controls the aircraft’s flight automatically with basically two
independent channels. One is called the pitch channel and the other the roll
channel.
Each channel controls the attitude of the aircraft with the so called inner loop.
The function of the inner loops is basically identical for both autopilot channels,
so we can discuss them together.
The most important part of the inner loop is the comparison between the actual
attitude of the aircraft and the commanded attitude.
The actual attitude comes from the attitude sensor of the aircraft, which is
either a vertical gyro or the IRU and the commanded attitude comes from
selections made by the pilot or from the outer loop.
The result of the comparison is called the attitude error signal and this drives
basically the flight control surface.
The inner loop also needs a servomotor to move the flight control surfaces.
The servomotor is usually a hydraulic motor, but in some aircraft you can also
find electric or even pneumatic motors.
At higher airspeeds the control surface needs less deflection for a certain
change of attitude. So we need a speed adapter circuit in the inner loop which
uses the indicated airspeed from the air data computer.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Inner Loop/ALL Page 296

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Roll
Figure 148 Auto Pilot Inner Loop

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Inner Loop/ALL Page 297
AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
OUTER LOOP
The commanded attitude for the inner loop comes either from a pilot input,
which you will learn later, or it is generated by the outer loop of the autopilot.
The outer loop controls the aircraft to capture and stabilize a flight path
automatically.
In the outer loop you can also find a comparison between a commanded value,
in this example called the desired path, and the actual flight path.
The result of the comparison is called the path error signal and this is
converted by the autopilot to the attitude command signal for the inner loop.
An example for flight path control of the autopilot roll channel is the heading
function. It calculates a heading error from the selected heading on the
autopilot control panel and the actual heading from the compass system.
Other navigation equipment like the flight management system or the VOR
system deliver a flight pass error signal called the track error.
An example for flight path control in the pitch channel is the altitude function
which generates an altitude error.
The glide path function calculates a glide slope deviation.
The signal from the outer loop into the inner loop has to be limited by an
attitude limiter to prevent dangerous roll or pitch maneuvers.
For flight safety reasons and passenger comfort the roll attitude is limited to
about 30°.
In many aircraft the pilot can reduce the limit to values between 5 and 25° with
a knob located on the autopilot control panel.
For the same safety and comfort reasons the pitch attitude is limited to 25°
nose up and 10° nose down.
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AUTOPILOT
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Figure 149 Autopilot Outer Loop

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|Outer Loop/ALL Page 299
AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
COCKPIT CONTROLS
In older aircraft, like the Boeing 727, you usually find the autopilot control panel
on the pedestal and in modern aircraft it is usually located on the glareshield.
On the autopilot control panels you can find knobs and pushbuttons for the
different modes of operation and switches to activate the autopilot.
These switches are either mechanical levers, called autopilot engage levers, or
pushbuttons which you can find in newer generation aircraft from Boeing and
from Airbus.
On this autopilot control panel you can find one Autopilot engage lever.
The lever has 2 positions.
In the „up“ position the autopilot is connected to the flight controls. You can
read the label servos engaged on the control panel.
This means that the autopilot controls the flight automatically with the
calculated signals from the inner and outer loops.
In the „down“ position the autopilot is disengaged from the servos, as you can
also read on the label.
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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
737−300
A340
747−400
DC8
Figure 150 Autopilot Cockpit Controls

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Cockpit Controls cont.

On the upper autopilot control panel you can find 2 autopilot engage levers.
During normal flight only one autopilot can be used at a time. The left autopilot,
here called autopilot A, is usually used when the captain is the pilot flying and
the right autopilot, here called autopilot B, is used when the first officer or
copilot is the pilot flying.
Both autopilots work together during automatic landings to get a higher safety
level near the ground. You will see this a little bit later.
Both Levers on this panel have 3 positions. The „off“ position means that the
autopilot is not connected to the flight controls.
The command position engages the autopilot for automatic flight, as in our
previous example. Again the calculated signals from the inner and outer loops
are used.
The CWS position in the middle activates the control wheel steering function.
In CWS only the inner loop of the autopilot is active and can control the aircraft
attitude.
The pilot uses the control wheel or column to change the attitude.
On this type of autopilot control panel from the 747 the levers are replaced by
pushbuttons. Lights in the pushbuttons show which autopilot is active.
Two or even 3 autopilots can be active at the same time to get a higher safety
level during landing.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 151 Autopilot Cockpit Controls - B737 / B747

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Autopilot Cockpit Controls Cont.

You can always disengage the autopilot on the control panel by pressing either
the disengage bar or by moving the autopilot lever to off.
Normally the autopilot is disengaged by pressing the red quick disengage
pushbutton, which is located on each control wheel.
Now we look at similar autopilot functions in a fly-by-wire Airbus. Here you can
find pushbuttons to engage the autopilot.
You can engage the autopilot in these aircraft types generally in the same way
as shown before. You have probably recognized that the left autopilot is called
no.1 and has only one pushbutton.
With this pushbutton you activate the autopilot output to the electrical
fly-by-wire system. A CWS push button is not needed in this autopilot system,
because the electrical flight control system performs this function already.
You can disengage this autopilot by pressing the illuminated autopilot push
button a second time or by pressing the red pushbutton on the side stick. This
push button is used as the „Take over push button“ in the electrical flight control
system and as the quick disengage push button for the autopilot.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 152 Autopilot Cockpit Controls

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT ENGAGE INTERLOCK

Generally you can engage an autopilot only when the conditions for its safe
operation are fulfilled.
The circuit which monitors these conditions is called the engage interlock. It
activates the link between the autopilot servomotor and the flight controls by
closing a clutch.
If an engage lever is used, as in our example, it is often blocked in the „OFF“
position, as long as the interlock conditions are not fulfilled. Please note that in
other systems you can move the lever freely.
The engage interlock monitors many inputs with the „AND“ gate. The number
of inputs depends on the aircraft type.
Our example shows the most important inputs that are monitored.
First of all the autopilot needs electrical power. The engage interlock also
checks that no disengage switch is pressed and that no manual trim switch is
activated at the control wheel.
A very important input is if pitch and roll attitude signals are valid. You already
know that the attitude signals come from a vertical gyro or an inertial reference
system, so these systems detect the validity.
All sensor signals which are used for the inner loop are always monitored in the
engage interlock. You can monitor if the attitude is valid or not on the ADI or
PFD.
Another important sensor that must be validated is the air data computer,
because it gives airspeed signals for the speed adaption in the inner loop. If the
ADC is valid, you can also see this on the PFD.
Another monitored system is the Yaw Damper. It must be engaged, because
the autopilot is not able to dampen the dutch roll oscillation.
Hydraulic pressure is monitored if the autopilot servo needs hydraulic power.

Finally the autopilot must be synchronized before engagement. This means
that all output signals of the autopilot must be 0 to prevent sudden surface
deflections at engagements of autopilots.
Now all monitored signals are valid and the lever is free to engage the
autopilot.
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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 153 Autopilot Engage Interlock

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Autopilot Engage Interlock Cont.

Now the autopilot is engaged and the lever is held in this position.
When any input of the „AND“ gate loses the logic 1 status, for example, by
pressing the quick disengage push button on the control wheel, the autopilot
disengages.
Generally the same function is also true for autopilots that use an engage
pushbutton instead of a lever.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
1
Figure 154 Autopilot Engage Interlock

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT DISENGAGE WARNING

When the autopilot disengages, there must be a warning to the pilots to take
over the aircraft control manually.
The autopilot disengage warning consists of a red flashing warning light or a
corresponding message on the primary flight display.
In most aircraft you get also an aural warning.
The warning is always triggered when the engage lever drops to the off
position, independent of the reason.
The autopilot disengage warning can be switched off by a reset signal. This is
always generated by pressing one of the quick disengage pushbuttons on the
control wheel or side stick or if available by pressing on the autopilot „off“
warning light.
Usually, you can cancel the warning when you re−engage the autopilot.
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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 155 Auto Pilot Disengage Warning

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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
INTEGRATION INTO FLIGHT CONTROLS

Smaller or older aircraft use an electrical autopilot servomotor which is directly
connected to the cable system near the control column.
In some smaller aircraft you also find a pneumatic motor instead of an electrical
motor
The servomotor either moves the elevator directly or as in our example, the
mechanical input of a hydraulic power unit.
In parallel the control column is moved. Therefore we call it parallel operation
when the autopilot moves the flight controls.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 156 Intigration into Flight Controls

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Integration into Flight Controls Cont.

A second way of autopilot integration into flight controls is to use an autopilot
hydraulic motor integrated inside the hydraulic power unit.
Here the power unit drives the surface and also the controls in the cockpit via
the control valve input lever.
In this installation we need a component, which is able to convert the electrical
autopilot signals into an proportional hydraulic signal.
Servo or transfer valves are used to convert the electrical signals from the
autopilot into a proportional hydraulic signal which is used in the power unit to
deflect the surface.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 157 Integration into Flight Controls

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22

The third and final integration used in large commercial aircraft is a separate
hydraulic motor that is only used for the autopilot.
This separate hydraulic motor rotates the aft cable quadrant and the input lever
of the hydraulic power unit and the control column.
When the autopilot has 2 or 3 systems, then you can find the corresponding
number of hydraulic servo motors.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 158 Integration into Flight Controls

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22

Aircraft with an electrical flight control system, like the Airbus 340, have this
type of integration into flight controls.
The autopilot output goes to the EFCS computers which controls the hydraulic
power unit.
Whether there is feedback to the controls in the cockpit depends on the
system.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 159 Electrical Flight Controls

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT SERVOMOTOR
The motor receives the signal from the autopilot inner loop and drives the
surface to a proportional position.
But the surface can only move when a clutch between the motor and the flight
controls is closed.
When all conditions from the autopilot interlock are fulfilled you can engage the
autopilot and close an electromagnetic clutch. Now the motor can move the
flight controls.
When the pilot wants to move the controls manually again, he has to open the
clutch by disengaging the autopilot.
If this is not possible because of a failure in the system, the pilot must be able
to override the autopilot.
Therefore in all autopilot systems you can find an override device, here an
adjustable slip clutch.
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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 160 Electrical Autopilot Servo Motor

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Autopilot Servomotor Cont.

Here you can see a different example of autopilot servo motor, a hydraulic
servo.
The autopilot „on“ signal goes to a shut off valve which closes a clutch
hydraulically and the autopilot command signals goes to the servo valve which
controls the hydraulic cylinder.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 161 Hydraulic Autopilot Servo Motor

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
CONTROL WHEEL STEERING

In many aircraft types the autopilot has a control wheel steering function, CWS
in short.
For this function we need force transducers, also called CWS sensors, which
are installed between the cockpit controls and the rest of the flight controls.
Remember that the flight controls are held by the engaged autopilot servo in
the commanded position. This means that the controls cannot be moved
manually with normal force.
When the pilot applies a force of more than 20N against the engaged autopilot
actuator, then the force transducer generates a voltage for the autopilot which
deflects the control surface. This function is comparable to power steering of a
car.
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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 162 Control Wheel Steering

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Control Wheel Steering Cont.

The function of the force transducer is to convert a force to a proportional
voltage. Here you can see 2 examples used in aircraft.
The lower one is called dynamometric rod and the upper one is a so-called
e-pickup.
The e−pickup force sensor works as a transformer and has one primary and 2
secondary coils, which are usually balanced. This gives 0 Volts at the output.
When you apply a force to the e−pickup, the pile bridge moves slightly and
generates an imbalance between the voltage in the 2 secondary coils. This is
used as the output signal.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 163 Force Transducer

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT SAFETY LEVELS

To allow a safe and relaxing flight for the passengers and the pilot, the autopilot
must be protected against wrong command signals.
When the autopilot detects a failure, it disengages and the pilot must take over
control.
During cruise flight when only one roll and one pitch channel are active, it is
possible that a failure happens that cannot be detected by the autopilot itself.
The most dangerous failure is a full surface deflection at the wrong time, called
a hardover.
Therefore the autopilot servos have a limited authority and can only give small
surface deflections. This gives the pilot enough time to take over the controls
before a dangerous situation is reached. This safety level of the autopilot is
called ”FAIL SAFE”.
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AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
FAIL SAFE
Figure 164 Fail Safe

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Autopilot Safety Levels Cont.

During cruise flight even a full nose down command can be recovered because
the altitude is high enough.
But near the ground, for example in automatic landings, the autopilot system
must prevent any hardover signal. This is done for example by adding a
second autopilot system.
The signals of the 2 autopilot channels for the same axis are permanently
compared to each other and when a certain signal difference is exceeded both
autopilots disengage completely.
This system is called a FAIL PASSIVE system.
When a signal difference between two autopilot channels happens, the fail
passive autopilot cannot decide which is the correct signal. Therefore the
complete Autopilot disengages.
In very poor weather conditions it is a problem for the pilot to take over control
immediately. Therefore there must be enough visibility for fail passive
operation.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 165 Fail Passive

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22

When we add a third autopilot, we get a FAIL OPERATIONAL autopilot system.
Now the autopilot can decide which is the wrong signal and can disengage the
autopilot with the failure.
This system can continue to operate after the loss of one autopilot system, but
now with the status of fail passive.
This whole system philosophy for fail passive and fail operational only works if
there is no common failure source for the AP channels. So all the system
components must be fully separated.
Not only sensors and computers must be separated, but also the electrical and
hydraulic power supply and even all electrical wires.

AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 166 Fail Operational

AUTOFLIGHT FUNDAMENTALS
AUTOPILOT
ATA 22

Finally lets have a look at a second example of how we can achieve the
required safety levels.
Instead of having 2 independent autopilots you can also add a second channel
to the single autopilot. The monitor channel is also fully separated and, by
performing the comparison, can detect a wrong signal. This fulfills the fail
passive requirements.
To get fail operational status, this system is doubled by adding a second fully
monitored autopilot. The first failure in this system disengages one autopilot
and leaves the second one with fail passive functionality.

AUTOFLIGHT FUNDAMENTALS
AUTOPILOT
ATA 22
Figure 167 Fail Operational

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
FUNCTION
In the last lesson you learned that the autopilot deflects the aircraft control
surfaces with a servo motor.
The flight director typically uses the same inputs to calculate the output signals.
But the output signals are indicated and show the pilot how to move the control
surfaces manually.
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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Figure 168 Flight Director

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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
DISPLAYS
You always find the flight director indication in the same indicator as the
artificial horizon. This is either in the attitude director indicator, ADI or the
modern replacement called the primary flight display or PFD in short.
The flight director indication usually has 2 command bars. One for roll
commands, called the roll bar and one for pitch commands, this is called the
pitch bar. This information is displayed with reference to the aircraft symbol.
When the flight director roll bar moves to the left, the pilot must move the
control wheel to the left.
Consequently when the flight director roll bar moves to the right, the pilot must
move the control wheel to the right.
When the flight director pitch bar moves up, the pilot must pull the control
column and when the flight director pitch bar moves down the pilot must push
the control column.
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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
PFD
ADI PFD
Figure 169 Flight Directors and Displays

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Displays Cont.
Another method to display the flight director command bars is by using the
V−bar.
The V−bar is a single command bar giving both pitch and roll information at
same time.
Also, the aircraft symbol in the ADI/PFD is replaced by a triangle.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Figure 170 V−Bar Flight Director Display

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Displays Cont.
In some aircraft, the flight director indications appear in a head-up display.
The HUD shows all important flight information needed for take-off and landing.
In this arrangement a projector sends the information to a glass mirror called
the combiner, which is installed in the pilots line of sight during flight.
The combiner glass is transparent and therefore the pilot can see the symbols
and runway at same time.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Figure 171 V−Bar Flight Director Display

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
PHILOSOPHY OF INDICATION
You have already seen that a deflected pitch bar commands the pilot to push or
pull the control column to either correct a pitch attitude error or to correct a
deviation from a vertical flight path, like an altitude error or glideslope error.
When we look at the deflected roll bar of our example, it will indicate either an
attitude error or a lateral flight path error, like a heading error or a deviation
error.
The flight director command bars will be centered whenever the aircraft
maintains the desired attitude or flight path, or when the pilot follows the
directions given by the flight director computer.
Also, the flight director bars are usually centered when the autopilot is active
and controls the flight. This is often used by the pilots to monitor the autopilot
performance.
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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Bars are centered

Figure 172 Philisophy of Indication

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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Philosophy of Indication Cont.

We will now use an example to show you the flight director operation again.
Imagine the aircraft flies below a target altitude.
First the flight director pitch bar commands nose up because the aircraft must
increase the lift to reach a higher altitude
When the pilot pulls the control column, the aircraft pitches up. The pitch bar
centers again when the desired attitude for the climb is reached.
The pitch bar commands nose down when the aircraft approaches the target
altitude to command a reduction in climb rate.
The pitch bar will center again when the target altitude is reached and
maintained.
This completes the necessary pilot action.
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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
1.
2.
4.
3.
Figure 173 Philisophy of Indication

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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
FAILURE ANNUNCIATION
The flight director command bars are only visible on the instrument when the
flight director power is switched on and the flight director computer is valid.
Also the flight director must be switched on by the operator and all necessary
FD signals are valid.
If the flight director is selected to off, the command bars will be retracted out of
view behind a mask in the ADI.
On the PFD the flight director bars are erased from the display.
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FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Figure 174 Failure Annunciation

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Failure Annunciation cont..

When a FD warning flag is displayed in the ADI, this means that the flight
director computer has no electrical power available and/or the computer has a
fault.
The flag in the ADI also appears when there is an indicator failure, for example
when the roll bar is blocked mechanically.
In a PFD the FD flag typically shows a digital data transmission error between
flight director computer and display.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ATA 22
Figure 175 Failure Annunciation

AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT/FLIGHT DIRECTOR MODES

INTRODUCTION
Generally autopilot and flight director use the same modes.
We can structure the modes into the modes for the roll axis called roll modes
and the modes for the pitch axis, called pitch modes.
Some modes influence both axes at the same time, they are called common
modes.
For the autopilot we can differentiate between 2 categories of modes.
Firstly, the basic modes which become active when you engage the autopilot to
control wheel steering or command.
Secondly, the upper modes which must be selected by the pilot, usually from
the control panel. This is only possible when the autopilot is engaged to
command.
The flight director has only upper modes.
The basic modes usually use only the inner loops of the autopilot computer and
this, as you should remember, controls the pitch or roll attitude of the aircraft.
When we engage the autopilot, it usually holds the actual attitude up to the
allowed limits.
To change the attitude, pilots can either use a controller on the panel like the
turn knob or if it is available, the control wheel steering function.
During control wheel steering the autopilot changes the attitude of the aircraft
as long as the pilot applies pressure to the control wheel or column. When the
pilot releases the pressure, the basic mode is engaged again and holds the
actual attitude.
If the roll angle is less than 5°, the autopilot rolls the aircraft to wings level and
keeps the actual heading.

This is called the heading hold mode.

AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
Figure 176 Auto Pilot Modes

AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
MODE SELECTION
The upper modes are primarily selected from the autopilot and flight director
control panel.
For flight director operation you can select nearly all the modes and for the
autopilot when it is engaged in command.
When you have selected a mode for the flight director and later engage the
autopilot to command, the autopilot will automatically activate this mode also.
Mode selection on the panels are done by pressing a pushbutton or by pulling
or pushing rotary knobs.
On older systems you can also find rotary selector switches.
You can find usually the following roll modes in an autoflight system.
The heading select mode allows the pilot to select any desired heading from
the knob on the control panel.
Navigation modes are used to control the track of the aircraft.
In a modern autoflight system this mode is called lateral navigation or L−NAV in
short. It uses steering signals from the flight management computer system.
Other navigation equipment which can be used to follow a track are the INS,
VOR or localizer.
On this panel you can only find a pushbutton for the localizer modes. Other
systems also allow selection of the other nav modes.
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AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
Figure 177 Mode Selection

AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
Mode Selection cont.

The following are the pitch modes in auto flight systems:
There are 2 altitude modes.
First the altitude select or altitude acquire mode, which is used to fly the aircraft
to the altitude cleared by air traffic control and secondly, the altitude hold mode,
which keeps the aircraft at any altitude which is present when the mode is
activated.
You can always find a vertical speed mode, which allows the pilot to select the
desired climb or sink rate in ft/min.
Finally the pitch channel can also control the speed of the aircraft. A nose up
command decreases the speed and nose down increases the speed.
The speed can be controlled in 3 different modes.
First the flight level change mode, which allows the pilot to select a speed or
mach number for the climb or descent to a new flight level.
Second the vertical navigation function where the speed is commanded by the
flight management system.
In older autopilot systems you can only find a speed hold mode, where the
autopilot can hold the speed or mach number which was present at the
moment of activation.
A common mode for roll and pitch is the approach mode because as you
should remember from the navigation lessons it needs 2 ILS beacons, the
glideslope beam which is used for pitch control and localizer beam which is
used for roll control.
The approach phase can be done with the autopilot or flight director but the
following landing phase can be performed only if the autopilot works in fail
operational or fail passive configuration.
A second common mode is not selected from the control panel but with a
switch on the throttles. This switch is called the TOGA switch.
When the TOGA switch is pressed on the ground, the take−off mode is
activated for the flight director. The autopilot must be switched off during
take−off.
During flight this switch is pressed if the pilot has to abort the landing. This
starts the go around mode, which uses the fail operational or fail passive
autopilot, or the flight director.

AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
Figure 178 AP Control Panels

AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
MODE ANNUNCIATION
The mode annunciation for the autopilot and flight director is located in the
pilots range of vision, normally at each pilot instrument panel. It is usually
called Flight Mode Annunciation Panel or FMA in short.
The FMA can be a panel with individual lamps for each mode. Active modes
are shown in green and armed modes are in amber colors. They are selected
but not active at this moment.
Some FMA use LEDs to display the name of the modes with the same color
coding.
Another technique uses small prisms which can change the position to show
different modes.
Glass cockpit aircraft do not have any special FMA panel because the mode
annunciation is integrated into each pilots PFD.
The flight mode annunciation is displayed in the upper part of the PFD. This
area is called Flight Mode Annunciation area.
The flight mode annunciator on the PFD shows the autopilot and flight director
pitch modes, the roll modes and the modes of the autothrust operation.
The first line always shows the engaged or active mode in green color.
The second line shows an armed mode which means the mode is selected but
not active. This mode status is displayed in blue in this Airbus example.
The other indications on the flight mode annunciator of the PFD show the
operational status of the autoflight system. For example in the fourth column
the system capability for an automatic landing is shown. In the final and fifth
column you can see which autopilot, flight director and autothrottle system is
active.
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AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
Figure 179 Mode Annunciation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Mode Annun/ALL Page 359
AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
FLIGHT PROFILE
Each flight has the following flight phases beginning with the take−off.
After reaching an altitude where the engine thrust is reduced (called the thrust
reduction altitude), the climb phase begins.
For most of the flight we are usually in the cruise phase, but before landing we
enter the descent phase and start our approach to the destination airport.
The final segment of the approach is the landing but if we cannot land, what
ever the reason is, we must perform a go-around.
The take−off mode is usually activated by the TOGA switches. The autopilot is
not in use so pilots control the aircraft manually assisted by the flight director
indications, which command the runway heading and take−off speed.
In the climb phase the autopilot pitch channel usually controls the speed of the
aircraft for a safe and economic way to reach the cruise altitude. The roll
channel follows the predetermined flight track usually in the L−nav mode.
The cruise phase is started when the aircraft reaches the cruise altitude. The
autopilot pitch channel works in altitude hold and the roll channel still controls
the aircraft on the calculated track.
In the descent flight phase the autopilot pitch channel uses the speed mode
again to control a safe and economic descent. In roll we still follow the flight
track determined by the FMS or other navigation system.
Near the airport the pilot starts the approach phase by pressing the approach
pushbutton on the control panel. The autopilot uses the localizer and glideslope
signals to control the aircraft on the center of the beam down to the runway.
The landing phase starts about 50ft above the runway. The pitch channel
reduces the sink rate in the flare maneuver and the roll channel still follows the
localizer beam. An autopilot yaw channel is used to assist the roll channel.
A go-around must be initiated when the approach or autoland phase must be

aborted because of poor visibility or problems with aircraft or ground
equipment. When the pilot presses the TOGA switch on the throttles, the
autopilot holds the heading and rotates the aircraft nose up to acquire a safe
climb speed. Autothrottle applies maximum thrust.
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AP/FD MODES
ATA 22
Figure 180 Flight Profiles

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YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
YAW DAMPER
NEED FOR YAW DAMPER
The graphic below shows the dutch roll oscillation.
In this lesson you will learn more about the yaw damper, a system that reduces
this oscillation.
We will look at one complete cycle of the dutch roll oscillation by concentrating
on the yaw motion.
S At the first position the aircraft has a maximum right yaw angle, starting a
yaw rotation to the left.
S At the second position the aircraft has reached the 0 yaw angle, but the yaw
rotation continues until it has reached the maximum left yaw angle where
the aircraft again starts a yawing rotation to the right. This yaw rotation
continues, until we pass the starting position again.
You can see that one dutch roll cycle gives a complete sine wave for the
change in yaw direction. This signal is called the yaw rate signal.
One complete yaw rate cycle needs approximately 4s to give a dutch roll
frequency of 0.25Hz.
The task of the yaw damper is now to deflect the rudder in the direction which
opposes the direction of the yaw motion. When the yaw rate is negative, what
corresponds to a yaw motion to the left, the rudder deflects to the right and
when the yaw rate is positive, the rudder will deflect to the left.
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YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
4.
1. 5.
3.
2.
Figure 181 Yaw Rate Signal

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Need for YD/ALL Page 363
YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
YAW DAMPER CONTROL LOOP

The yaw damper system usually has the following parts:
S a yaw damper computer, calculating the correct rudder deflection
S a yaw damper servo motor, to move the rudder
S and a rate gyro to detect the changes in yaw direction.
You can find the yaw rate gyro in the avionics compartment. It is either a
separate unit or integrated in the yaw damper computer.
Modern aircrafts use the yaw rate signal from the inertial reference unit also
known as the IRU.
The signal from the yaw rate gyro is used to compute the correct dutch roll
compensation.
In some aircraft the yaw rate is also indicated to the pilot by the rate of turn
pointer in the ADI or PFD.
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YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
Figure 182 Yaw Damper System

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|YD Control Loop/ALL Page 365
YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
Yaw Damper Control Loop Cont.

The yaw damper computer also needs a speed adaption circuit to adjust the
rudder deflection to the aircraft speed.
The airspeed signal comes from the air data computer.
Another circuit you normally find in a yaw damper is a band pass filter. This
circuit allows the computer to differentiate between a dutch roll oscillation and a
steady turn.
The yaw rate signal only passes the bandpass filter when it changes in level
with the typical dutch roll frequency of the aircraft, which as you know, is
usually about 0.25Hz.
We will now show you the effect of the bandpass filter during a 90° right turn.
Please compare the output signal from the rate gyro with the output signal from
the bandpass filter.
When the aircraft starts the turn at position 1, the yaw rate gyro detects the
yaw motion.
The bandpass filter will pass this change in signal level to the rudder servo.
The rudder is now deflected against the direction of the turn, because the yaw
damper believes that the change in yaw rate is part of a dutch roll oscillation.
Now the aircraft continues the turn with a constant yaw rate.
Therefore the output of the yaw rate gyro is also constant and the bandpass
filter output goes to 0. This returns the rudder to the neutral position.
At point 4, the new heading has almost been reached, so the yaw rate must
decrease. This means that the yaw rate gyro signal also decreases so that it
can pass the bandpass filter to the yaw damper servo motor.
The rudder is now momentarily deflected in the direction of the turn, because it
will dampen the change in yaw rate as in a dutch roll cycle.
You have seen that the bandpass filter prevents a constant rudder deflection
during turn, but it cannot prevent a short deflection at the beginning and the
end of the turn.
To overcome this problem especially in low speed flights many yaw dampers
have an additional turn coordination circuit. This circuit uses the roll attitude
from the vertical gyro to deflect the rudder in the direction of the turn.
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YAW DAMPER
ATA 22

YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
Yaw Damper Control Loop Cont.

The fact that the reaction of the yaw damper to a yaw rate on the ground is the
same as in flight is used by the pilot to test the yaw damper system before a
flight.
For this task the pilot monitors the rudder position indication during a turn on
the taxiway, for example on the ECAM screen.
When the aircraft starts the right turn at position 1, the indication shows a
rudder deflection to the left.
Maintaining the turn between position 2 and position 3, the rudder is again
centered.
And finally when stopping the turn between position 3 and position 4, the
rudder is deflected to the right to counteract the maneuver.

YAW DAMPER
ATA 22

YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
SERVO MOTOR
The rudder can be deflected by the pilot via the rudder pedals or the rudder
trim function.
The yaw damper, which is usually active throughout the whole flight, must not
disturb the pilot inputs. Therefore the yaw damper signals are always added to
the pilot inputs.
The rudder deflection is always the sum of the yaw damper input and the pilot
input. Therefore the system is also called a series yaw damper.
It is important to know that the yaw damper input is limited to a maximum
deflection of up to 10° to give the pilot the possibility to override a yaw damper
signal.
This graphic on the right part shows you an example of a rudder servo
mechanism.
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YAW DAMPER
ATA 22
Figure 185 Yaw Damper Servo

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Servo Motor/ALL Page 371
PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS

NEED FOR PITCH TRIM
The reason for a pitch trim system in an aircraft is to maintain longitudinal
stability without permanent elevator deflections.
The aerodynamic force of the stabilizer must always compensate the effect of
changes in gravity and lift.
The stabilizer angle must be trimmed for example with any position changes in
the center of gravity and lift.
The trimming of the stabilizer is done by the pilot during manual flight using the
trim switch on the control wheel.
The automatic pitch trim system does the trimming automatically when the
autopilot is engaged.
Some trim functions also work during manual flight.
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PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Manual Trim Switch
Stabilizer Trim Actuator

Figure 186 Pitch Trim

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Need for Pitch Trim Cont.

A Pitch trim system has generally the following subsystems:
S manual trim with the pilot input from the trim switch
S autopilot pitch trim, which works when the autopilot is engaged
S MACH trim, which prevents a tuck-under of the aircraft due to an increase in
MACH number
S alpha trim, which prevents high angle of attack during high speed flights
S and finally speed trim, which provides speed stability during take-off and
go-around.

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Figure 187 Pitch Trim Subsystems

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
AUTOPILOT PITCH TRIM

Autopilot pitch trim is always active when the autopilot is engaged.
A level detector measures any elevator deflection commanded by the autopilot
or measured directly by an elevator position sensor. You can probably imagine
that the effect is the same.
When a certain level of elevator deflection is exceeded for a few seconds, the
trim computer starts the stabilizer trim motor.
The pitch trim motor is either a separate autopilot trim motor or all trim
subsystems use the same motor with one more motor in standby.
The trim system stops the motor again when the autopilot reduces the elevator
position to nearly 0. This happens when the force of the new stabilizer position
is the same as the force of the deflected elevator before.
A manual activation of the trim switches on the control wheel causes the
Autopilot to disconnect, so the trim system reverts back to manual trim.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Pitch Trim/ALL Page 376

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Figure 188 Autopilot Pitch Trim

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Pitch Trim/ALL Page 377
PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
MACH TRIM
The center of lift moves aft as the MACH number increases.
The results is a pitch down effect, which would increase the MACH number. As
this is an unstable condition called tuck under it must be avoided.
This is the task of the MACH trim subsystem. It moves the stabilizer leading
edge down when the MACH number increases.
The air data computer, supplies the MACH number and the trim computer
calculates the necessary trim command which depends on the aerodynamic
characteristic of the aircraft type.
In this example of an Airbus A 310, you can see how much the stabilizer
position must be changed due to the effect of the MACH number.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|MACH Trim/ALL Page 378

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Figure 189 Mach Trim

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|MACH Trim/ALL Page 379
PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
ALPHA TRIM
The alpha trim subsystem is primarily used to decrease the induced drag
during high speed flights.
Alpha trim prevents high pressure differences at the wing tips by limiting the
maximum angle of attack.
The alpha trim subsystem uses angle of attack sensors and compares the
position to the aircraft specific curve.
When the angle of attack exceeds the maximum allowed value, the stabilizer
moves the leading edge up. This corresponds to aircraft nose down, until the
angle of attack is lower than specified by the curve.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Alpha Trim/ALL Page 380

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Figure 190 Alpha Trim

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Alpha Trim/ALL Page 381
PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
SPEED TRIM
The speed trim subsystem provides speed stability during low speed and high
thrust operation, which is used during take-off and go around.
Speed stability means that with increasing airspeed the aircraft must be
trimmed in the nose up direction and with decreasing airspeed in nose down
direction.
For this task speed trim needs the actual airspeed from the air data computer
to detect any speed change. It uses also engine thrust signals to influences the
trim threshold.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Speed Trim/ALL Page 382

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Figure 191 Speed Trim

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Speed Trim/ALL Page 383
PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
TRIM WARNINGS
When a failure in a trim system is detected, usually a second system takes
over automatically. When the remaining system also fails then the pilots must
be alerted to take corrective actions.
When speed, MACH or alpha trim fail, the pilot must be careful during speed
changes and trim manually if necessary.
When the autopilot trim fails, the pilot must be aware of permanently deflected
elevators. The pilot must hold the control column deflected when he
disengages the autopilot to trim manually.
A caution indication like this Autopilot OUT OF TRIM light comes on whenever
the elevator deflection exceeds the trim threshold for a long time − for example
10s.
In modern digital systems all crew alerts are provided by the central warning
system.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Trim Warnings/ALL Page 384

PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS
ATA 22
Figure 192 Trim Warnings

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Trim Warnings/ALL Page 385
AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
AUTO THROTTLE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
The function of an autothrottle system is to automatically control the thrust of
the engines to the required value.
Two different types of system are used.
First the classic autothrottle system which uses a servomotor to adjust the
throttle position and the mechanical linkage to the engines.
The second system is used in modern fly by wire Airbus aircraft. It delivers a
digital signal directly to the FADEC computer of the engine.
There is no automatic movement of the throttles, so this system is also called
the autothrust system.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|ATS Intro/ALL Page 386

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 193 Auto Throttle System

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Introduction cont.
Modern autothrottle systems can be used during the whole flight and are
therefore called full flight regime autothrottle systems. This autothrottle system
controls the engines in one of 2 modes of operation.
One mode is called the thrust mode. It controls either the engine pressure ratio,
EPR or the N1 rotational speed to the desired value. Which one is used
depends on the engine type.
The other mode is the speed mode, which controls the calibrated airspeed of
the aircraft. The desired value comes either from the FMS or can be selected
by the pilot.

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Introduction cont.
During take−off the autothrottle system always uses the thrust mode.
The desired thrust is calculated by a thrust rating computer.
When the engines have reached the take-off thrust, the autothrottle switches
off any command to the throttles. This throttle hold or LOCK OUT function is a
safety feature that prevents any throttle movements in the final phase of the
take−off.

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
USE OF AUTOTHROTTLE
During the climb phase the autothrottle system can work either in the speed or
thrust mode. Which one is used depends primarily on the active autopilot or
flight director pitch mode.
The thrust mode is used whenever the autopilot or flight director controls the
speed, because both systems are not allowed to control the speed at the same
time.
The autothrottle speed mode is used when the autopilot and flight director do
not control the speed.
The cruise phase begins when the cruise flight level is reached and it continues
until the beginning of the descent phase.
During cruise, the autothrottle system always controls the speed of the aircraft.
During the descent phase, the autothrottle system uses the same modes as
during climb.
The autothrottle system controls the thrust when the autopilot flight director
pitch channel operates in a speed mode. During descent, minimum thrust, also
called idle, is used instead of maximum thrust.
The autothrottle system controls the speed if the pitch channel uses any other
signal.
During the approach phase the autothrottle system controls the approach
speed which depends on the flap and landing gear positions.
Usually the approach phase continues with the landing phase at about 50 feet.
During the flare maneuver the autothrottle retards the throttles slowly to the idle
position.
At touch down the autothrottle system is automatically disengaged.
The go around phase is initiated when approach or landing are not possible. As
during take−off we need maximum thrust from the engines, so the auto-throttle
system activates the thrust mode.
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AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 196 Auto Throttle Modes

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Use of ATS/ALL Page 393
AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
MODE SELECTION
The autothrottle modes of operation are selected in different ways depending
on the aircraft type.
The TAKE-OFF / GO AROUND mode can be activated by pressing the TOGA
switch on the throttles, as you have already learned in the lesson of autopilot
flight director modes.
In the autothrust system the pilot must push the throttles forward to the
take−off range to activate this function.
The other modes must be selected from the autoflight control panel.
The speed and thrust mode for the other flight phases can be selected by the
corresponding pushbutton on the autoflight control panels or they are selected
automatically when the autopilot or flight director pitch channel changes its
mode.
The indication of the selected mode is similar to the indication of the other
autoflight modes. In this example the indication is shown on an Airbus primary
flight display.

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 197 Mode Selection

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
AUTOTHROTTLE SIGNALS
A classic autothrottle system has an autothrottle computer, which calculates
the required throttle position for the selected mode, and an electrical servo
motor, which moves the throttles to the calculated value.
A clutch between the servo and the throttle assembly enables the autothrottle
system to drive the throttles without preventing manual inputs from the pilot.
The autothrottle computer has the following circuits:
The autothrottle engage switch which is activated by an engage interlock circuit
which you will see later and a mode selector, which activates the control circuit
of the selected mode.
In the retard mode the throttles drive back with a rate of 1°/s to 4°/s (degrees
per second) so idle thrust is reached after a few seconds.
Maximum thrust is set in the thrust mode during take off, climb and go around.
The command signal in the thrust mode is calculated by a thrust rating
computer. It calculates the difference between the highest actual thrust of all
engines either measured in N1 or EPR with a calculated thrust limit.
In the speed select mode the pilot must select a speed on the control panel.
The selected value is shown on the window on the panel and on the airspeed
indicator.
The speed can be selected either as a calibrated air speed or Mach number
selectable on the panel.
The selected speed is compared to the actual speed from the air data
computer. Any positive difference drives the throttles forward and a negative
difference drives the throttles back.
HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Comp/ATS Signals/ALL Page 396

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 198 Mode Selection 1

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Autothrottle Signals cont.

When the pilot selects the vertical navigation mode, the FMS speed mode
becomes active during cruise.
The function of this speed mode is similar to the speed select mode previously
described, but now the flight management system supplies the target speed for
the autothrottle system.
The ADC still supplies the actual speed. This actual speed is compared to the
FMS target speed and the difference again drives the throttles.
Both speed mode circuits need a protection which stops any forward throttle
movement when the engines reach their thrust limit. This prevents an engine
overboost for example when the pilot selects a large speed increase.

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 199 Mode Selection 2

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
THRUST RATING COMPUTER

The thrust rating computer is either part of the autothrottle computer or the
flight management computer or separate as shown here.
It calculates the thrust limit for the engines for the actual situation. It needs the
total air temperature and the altitude, both supplied by the ADC.
The computer also needs information about the bleed air which is taken from
the engines for air conditioning, anti ice and other pneumatic loads.
The thrust limit of the engines also depends on the actual flight phase − also
called mode.
In modern FMS equipped aircraft the flight phase is selected manually or
automatically by the flight management system.
Older aircraft use a thrust rating panel for the selection. This panel has 6
pushbuttons, a display and a temperature selector.
When you select the take-off mode, maximum thrust is selected.
This highest thrust limit must only be used for up to 5 minutes, because it
produces high stress for the engines and reduces the engine life time.
Flexible take-off or reduced take-off as it is also called, is selected when the
maximum thrust is not required because of low takeoff weights or long
runways.
The thrust limit is reduced by the computer when a reduced takeoff
temperature is selected which is higher then the actual temperature.
Pressing this button selects go around, and gives maximum thrust for a
go−around maneuver. This is also a time limited operation with basically the
same thrust as in the take off mode.
Maximum continuous thrust or MCT is only selected after an engine failure. It
gives the maximum thrust value for the remaining engines without a time limit.
Climb thrust is slightly lower then MCT thrust and is used during the climb
phases of the flight.
Cruise is the lowest thrust limit and therefore gives the lowest stress to the
engines. It is selected when the aircraft has reached level flight and limits the
engine thrust during accelerations.
The thrust rating computer shows the calculated limit on the thrust rating panel
and on the indicator which is used to set engine power, here the N1 indicator.
Usually it is an amber index which shows the limit.
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AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 200 Thrust Rating Computer

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|TRC/ALL Page 401
AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
ENGAGE INTERLOCK
The autothrottle system is activated by an engage interlock circuit, which is
similar to the autopilot engage interlock.
The autothrottle system is switched on at the autoflight control panel either with
a toggle switch or with a pushbutton.
When the autothrottle switch is switched to on, the computer checks the
engage conditions. These engage conditions are for example autothrottle
computer valid and sensors valid.
When all conditions are fulfilled, a latch is set and the autothrottle signals
become active.
The autothrottle is disconnected when you move the switch on the panel to off
or when any condition for autothrottle operation becomes invalid.
The normal way to disconnect the autothrottle is to push either autothrottle
quick disconnect pushbutton. You can find these two switches on the outer side
of the throttle levers.
Any disconnect action switches off the autothrottle signals and a disconnect
caution light alerts the pilot to control the engines manually.
To cancel the alert the pilot must press any of the quick disconnect
pushbuttons.

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 201 Engage Interlock

AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
SERVO MECHANISM
The thrust levers are mechanically linked by cables to the main engine control
unit located on each engine.
When the autothrottle system is engaged, it must control the throttle system
without blocking a manual throttle input from the pilot.
Therefore clutches must be installed between the autothrottle servo motor and
the mechanical linkage. These clutches are either mechanical slip clutches or
they are electrically operated.
When the autothrottle system is engaged, both clutches close and connect the
servomotor with the throttle linkage.
When the pilot wants to move the throttles manually, the corresponding clutch
must open. This task is done by a force transducer which works like the
autopilot CWS sensor.
The force transducer measures the force if the pilot tries to move a throttle
when the auto throttle system is engaged. The transducer supplies a
proportional signal to the autothrottle computer and this opens the
corresponding clutch. When the pilot releases the pressure the clutch closes
again.
The second type of clutch system uses a mechanical slip clutch.
A single autothrottle servo drives a brake drum located in the throttle quadrant,
via a chain.
Typically, because of high friction, the brake shoes of the slip clutch connects
the brake drum to the individual throttle.
If the pilot applies force to a throttle, a small actuator is turned and lifts the
brake shoes from the brake drum so that the brake opens. Now the pilot can
move the throttle easily to the new position.
All other thrust levers are still connected to the brake drum by their brake
shoes.
When the pilot removes the applied force, the actuator returns to the center
position by spring force and the brake closes again.
The autothrottle remains engaged during this process and the movement of all
other throttles is not affected.
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AUTOTHROTTLE
ATA 22
Figure 202 Servo Mechanism

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|Servo Mechanism/B1/B2 Page 405
EJAMF M11.05.02 A E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EJAMF M15.01 FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT) . . . . . . 84
RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NAVIGATION CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . 2 BASICS OF NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
RADIO FREQUENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 NAVIGATION SYSTEM TUNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
WAVELENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ADF INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
WAVE PROPAGATION & MODULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 ADF COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
AUDIO COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ADF PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
RADIO COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ADF ANTENNAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
STATIC DISCHARGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ADF CONTROL & INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
AUDIO SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 ADF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
AUDIO MANAGEMENT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 VOR INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
AUDIO CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 VOR INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
AUDIO SWITCHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 VOR COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
INTERPHONE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 VOR TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
PASSENGER ADDRESS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . 40 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 ILS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 ILS TUNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
CVR OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 ILS INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
MARKER BEACON SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
MARKER BEACON IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 RADIO ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
RADIO MANAGEMENT PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 RADIO ALTIMETER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
SYSTEM OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 RADIO ALTIMETER INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
DECISION HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
HF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
DME TUNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
HF SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
SYSTEMS COMPONENTS & INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . 168
HF SYSTEM OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
DATA TRANSMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
ACARS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 MODES OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
ACARS OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
ATC . . . . . . 188
SATCOM INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
ATC TRANSPONDER FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
SATCOM AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Page i
EJAMF M11.05.02 A E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ATC TRANSPONDER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 INTEGRATION INTO FLIGHT CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . 286
TCAS . . . . . 196 AFS ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 AUTOPILOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 INNER LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 OUTER LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 COCKPIT CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 AUTOPILOT ENGAGE INTERLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 AUTOPILOT DISENGAGE WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
GLOBAL NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 INTEGRATION INTO FLIGHT CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . 312
GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 AUTOPILOT SERVOMOTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
FANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 CONTROL WHEEL STEERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
AUTOPILOT SAFETY LEVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
INERTIAL STABILIZED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 FLIGHT DIRECTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
GYROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
LASER GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
ACCELEROMETER TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 PHILOSOPHY OF INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
ACCELEROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 FAILURE ANNUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
GIMBAL PLATFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 AUTOPILOT/FLIGHT DIRECTOR MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
PLATFORM STABILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
STRAP DOWN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 MODE SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS) 250 MODE ANNUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 FLIGHT PROFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
IRS OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 YAW DAMPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 NEED FOR YAW DAMPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 YAW DAMPER CONTROL LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 SERVO MOTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
LATERAL NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 PITCH TRIM SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
VERTICAL NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 NEED FOR PITCH TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 AUTOPILOT PITCH TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
DATA LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 MACH TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
AUTOFLIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 ALPHA TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 SPEED TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
AFS SUBSYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 TRIM WARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
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AUTO THROTTLE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
USE OF AUTOTHROTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
MODE SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
AUTOTHROTTLE SIGNALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
THRUST RATING COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
ENGAGE INTERLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
SERVO MECHANISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
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Figure 1 System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 ACARS Main Menue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 2 Radio Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 ACARS Main Menue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 3 Accident Investigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 ACARS Main Menue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 4 Radio Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 SATCOM Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 5 Frequency Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 SATCOM Aircraft Components 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 6 Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 SATCOM Aircraft Components 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 7 Wave Propagation & Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Emergency Locator Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 8 Audio Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Radio Navigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 9 Audio Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 ICAO Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 10 Transmitter Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 45 Enroute Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 11 Receiver Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 46 General Items of Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 12 Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 47 TK or Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 13 RF Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 48 Bearing or BRG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 14 Static Dischargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 49 Radio Navigation Receiver Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 15 Audio Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 50 ADF System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 16 Audio Control Panel 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 51 Non Directional Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 17 Audio Control Panel 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 52 Typical ADF System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 18 Audio Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 53 Relative Bearing Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 19 Interphone System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 54 Loop Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 20 Passenger Address System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 55 Older Loop Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 21 PA System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 56 Sense Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 22 Cockpit Voice Recorder System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 57 Modern ADF Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 23 CVP Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 58 ADF Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 24 VHF Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 59 EFIS Control Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 25 VHF System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 60 VOR Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 26 VHF System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 61 VOR Station Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 27 Radio Management Panel & Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 62 Automatic VOR Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 28 Radio Management Panel & Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 63 Manual VOR Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 29 HF Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 64 VOR Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 30 HF System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 65 VOR Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 31 HF System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 66 VOR Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure 32 HF System Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 67 ILS System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 33 Acars Overview 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 68 LOC Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 34 Acars Overview 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 69 Glide Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 35 ACARS Main Menue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 70 ILS Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
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Figure 71 ILS Receiver Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Figure 106 TCAS Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 72 ILS Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Figure 107 GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Figure 73 Landing Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Figure 108 GPS Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 74 Marker Beacon System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Figure 109 DGPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 75 Marker Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 110 GPS Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 76 Marker System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 111 FANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 77 Radio Altimeter Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Figure 112 FANS System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 78 Radio Altimeter System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Figure 113 Inertial Stabilized System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 79 Radio Altimeter Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Figure 114 Gyros of Inertial Stabilized Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 80 Decision Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Figure 115 Rate Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 81 DME Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 116 Laser Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 82 DME on Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 117 Accelerometer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Figure 83 DME Ground Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Figure 118 Pendulum Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 84 DME System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figure 119 Torque Rebalancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 85 DME Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Figure 120 Integral Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 86 WXR System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 121 Gimbal Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 87 WXR Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Figure 122 Platform Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Figure 88 Different WXR Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figure 123 Gimbal Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 89 WXR Control Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Figure 124 Strap Down System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 90 Turbulence Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Figure 125 Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 91 Predictive Windshear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 126 Inertial Reference System (IRS) I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Figure 92 WXR Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Figure 127 IRS II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Figure 93 Safety Precautions on the Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Figure 128 IRS III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Figure 94 Air Traffic Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Figure 129 IRS Operation I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Figure 95 ATC Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Figure 130 IRS Operation II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Figure 96 ATC Transponder System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Figure 131 IRS Operation III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 97 ATC Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Figure 132 INS I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Figure 98 TCAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Figure 133 INS II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Figure 99 ALTITUDE SEPARATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Figure 134 Flight Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 100 TCAS Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Figure 135 Lateral Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 101 TCAS System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Figure 136 Vertical Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 102 TCAS Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Figure 137 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Figure 103 TCAS Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Figure 138 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 104 TCAS Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Figure 139 Data Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Figure 105 TCAS Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Figure 140 Data Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
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Figure 141 AFS Subsystems 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Figure 176 Auto Pilot Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 142 AFS Subsystems 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Figure 177 Mode Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Figure 143 Aircraft Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Figure 178 AP Control Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Figure 144 AFS Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Figure 179 Mode Annunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Figure 145 AFS Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Figure 180 Flight Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Figure 146 AFS Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Figure 181 Yaw Rate Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Figure 147 AFS Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Figure 182 Yaw Damper System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Figure 148 Auto Pilot Inner Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Figure 183 Yaw Rate Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Figure 149 Autopilot Outer Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Figure 184 Yaw Rate Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Figure 150 Autopilot Cockpit Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Figure 185 Yaw Damper Servo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Figure 151 Autopilot Cockpit Controls - B737 / B747 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Figure 186 Pitch Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Figure 152 Autopilot Cockpit Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Figure 187 Pitch Trim Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Figure 153 Autopilot Engage Interlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Figure 189 Autopilot Pitch Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Figure 154 Autopilot Engage Interlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Figure 190 Mach Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Figure 155 Auto Pilot Disengage Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Figure 191 Alpha Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Figure 156 Intigration into Flight Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Figure 192 Speed Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Figure 157 Integration into Flight Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Figure 193 Trim Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Figure 158 Integration into Flight Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Figure 194 Auto Throttle System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 159 Electrical Flight Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Figure 195 Auto Throttle System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Figure 160 Electrical Autopilot Servo Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Figure 196 Auto Throttle System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Figure 161 Hydraulic Autopilot Servo Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Figure 197 Auto Throttle Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Figure 162 Control Wheel Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Figure 198 Mode Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Figure 163 Force Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Figure 199 Mode Selection 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Figure 164 Fail Safe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Figure 200 Mode Selection 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Figure 165 Fail Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Figure 201 Thrust Rating Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 166 Fail Operational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Figure 202 Engage Interlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Figure 167 Fail Operational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Figure 203 Servo Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 168 Flight Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Figure 169 Flight Directors and Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Figure 170 V−Bar Flight Director Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Figure 171 V−Bar Flight Director Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Figure 172 Philisophy of Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 173 Philisophy of Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Figure 174 Failure Annunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Figure 175 Failure Annunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Page iii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Page iv
TABLE OF FIGURES
Page v
TABLE OF FIGURES
Page vi

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For Training Purpose Only DETAILED TRAINING

VAR Part 7 - Aircraft Maintenance Basic Cat A

ATA 23, 34, 31, 22

For training purposes and internal use only.

Lufthansa Technical Training

Tel: +49 (0)40 5070 2520

EJAMF M15.01 FUNDAMENTALS

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 ATA DOC Page 1

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Communica Sys Overv/ALL Page 2

Figure 1 System Overview

Communication Systems Overview cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|Communica Sys Overv/ALL Page 4

Figure 2 Radio Communication Systems

Communication Systems Overview cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|Communica Sys Overv/ALL Page 6

Figure 3 Accident Investigation Systems

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Radio Frequenc/ALL Page 8

Figure 4 Radio Frequencies

Radio Frequencies cont.

altimeter which belong to the navigation systems.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Radio Frequenc/ALL Page 10

Figure 5 Frequency Bands

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Wavelength/ALL Page 12

WAVE PROPAGATION & MODULATION

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Wave Propag&Modulat/ALL Page 14

Figure 7 Wave Propagation & Modulation

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 08|Audio Components/ALL Page 16

Figure 8 Audio Components

Audio Components cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 09|Audio Components/ALL Page 18

Figure 9 Audio Components

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 10|Radio Components/ALL Page 20

Figure 10 Transmitter Components

Radio Components cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 11|Radio Components/ALL Page 22

Figure 11 Receiver Components

Radio Components cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 12|Radio Components/ALL Page 24

Radio Components cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 13|Radio Components/ALL Page 26

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 14|Static Discharger/ALL Page 28

Figure 14 Static Dischargers

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 01|Audio Management Sys/ALL Page 30

Figure 15 Audio Management System

AUDIO CONTROL PANEL

Audio information from the navigation systems is needed to identify the

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 02|Audio Control Panel/ALL Page 32

Figure 16 Audio Control Panel 1

Audio Control Panel cont.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 03|Audio Control Panel/ALL Page 34

Figure 17 Audio Control Panel 2

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 04|Audio Switch/ALL Page 36

Figure 18 Audio Switching

connect the cockpit to various areas inside or outside the aircraft.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 05|Interphone Sys/ALL Page 38

Figure 19 Interphone System

PASSENGER ADDRESS INTRODUCTION

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 06|Passenger Address Intro/All Page 40

Figure 20 Passenger Address System

PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM

must be held for the duration of the announcement.

HAM US/F-4 SaR 01.06.2007 07|Passenger Address Sys/ALL Page 42

COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER SYSTEM