RADIO

 NAVIGATION  1  –  BASIC  RADIO  PRINCIPLES  

BASIC  TERMS   PHASE  DIFFERENCE   MODULATION  TYPE  1  -­‐  KEYING  

     
• Radio  waves  travel  at  the  speed  of  light:   • Can  only  be  measured  when  the  signals  have   • Interrupting  the  carrier  wave  to  give  morse  
o c  =  3  x  108  m/sec   the  same  frequency  (or  wavelength).   code.  
  • Will   temporarily   interrupt   the   nav   aid  
• Frequency  (f)  –  Number  of  complete  cycles   output  in  order  to  tx  the  morse  code.  
per  second.  Measured  in  Hertz  (Hz)  
POLARISATION  
o 1  cycle  per  second  =  1  Hz  
 
o 1  kHz  =  103  Hz   MODULATION  TYPE  2  -­‐  AM  
• The  electrical  and  magnetic  components  of  a  
o 1  MHz  =  106  Hz    
radio   wave   travel   at   right   angle   to   each  
o 1  GHz  =  109  Hz   • AM  =  Amplitude  Modulation  
other  and  in  the  direction  of  propagation.  
  • Amplitude   of   the   carrier   wave   is   varied   in  
• Plane   of   electrical   component  =  plane   of  
• Wavelength  (𝜆)  –  Distance  travelled  in  one   accordance  with  the  audio  signal  amplitude.  
polarisation.  
complete  cycle.  Measured  in  metres.   • Carrier  wave  frequency  is  kept  constant.  
• Transmission   from   vertical   aerial   gives   a  
  • Oldest  method  apart  from  keying.  
vertical   electric   component   and   horizontal  
• Time  period  (𝑻)  –  Time  taken  to  complete   • Small   amplitude   areas   give   a   weak   signal  
magnetic  component.  
once  cycle.  T  =  1  /  f   that   is   prone   to   interference   (especially  
• Transmission   from   horizontal   aerial   gives  
  since  it  operates  in  low  frequency  spectrum)  
horizontal   electrical   component   and   vertical  
• 𝑪 =  𝝀  ×  𝒇   • Modulation  circuit  requires  extra   power   to  
magnetic  component.  
  vary  the  amplitude.  
• In   circular   propagation,   both   components  
• Low  Frequency  =  Long  Wavelength    
spin  about  the  axis  of  advance.  
• High  Frequency  =  Short  Wavelength    

POLAR  DIAGRAMS  
ANTENNA  LENGTH    
  1.  Omnidirectional  
• Ideal  antenna  length  is  ½  the  wavelength.   2.  Directional  (Inc  unwanted  side  lobes)  
• If  not  possible,  then  1/4  ,  1/8  etc  will  do.   • Applies  to  both  Tx  and  Rx  aerials.  

MODULATION  
 
• Modulation   adds   information   to   an  
otherwise  empty  carrier  wave.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  1  –  BASIC  RADIO  PRINCIPLES  

MODULATION  TYPE  3  -­‐  FM   MODULATION  TYPE  4  -­‐  PULSE   FREQUENCY  SPECTRUM  
     
• FM  =  Frequency  Modulation   • Radio  wave  is   switched   on  and  off  at   regular   • Frequency  range  repeats  (kHz  /  MHz  /  GHz)  
• Frequency   of   the   carrier   wave   is   varied   in   intervals,  effectively  forming  pulses  of  radio   o 3  –  30  
accordance  with  the  audio  signal  amplitude.   energy.   o 30  –  300  
• Carrier  wave  amplitude  is  kept  constant.   • Use  in  radar.   o 300  -­‐  3000  
• A  +ve  amplitude  =  higher  frequency   • Transmits  0’s  and  1’s  effectively.    
• A  –ve  amplitude  =  lower  frequency   • Wave-­‐length  can  be  derived  with  𝐶 =  𝜆  ×  𝑓  
   
• FM  TX’s  are  simpler  and  cheaper  than  AM   AM  SIDEBANDS    
• Lower  modulation  power  required    
• Constant  amplitude  =  stronger   • Whenever   a   carrier   is   AM   modulated   by   a  
• VHF  operation  =  almost  static  free   frequency   lower   than   itself,   sidebands   are  
• Horizontally  polarised   so   suffers  less   from   created.  
weather  induced  static  (vertically  polarised)   • Carrier  Wave  =  500  kHz,  Audio  Freq  =  4  kHz  
  o 4  kHz  is  filtered  out.  
• Receivers  are  more  complex.   o 496  kHz  /  500  kHz  /  504  kHz  output  
• Wider  frequency  band  required.   • Passband   is   a   filter   used   to   get   rid   of  
  unwanted  frequencies  so  bandwidth  can   be  
  reduced.  
  • Single   Sideband  (SSB)  –  Often  only  1  of  the  
outputs   is   TX’d.   The   sideband   carries   the  
information  rather  than  the  carrier.  
o With   all   TX   power   focused   on   one  
sideband,  range  is  increased.   EMMISSION  CODES  
• FM  has  many  more  sidebands  than  AM.    
• 1st  =  Type  of  modulation  
• 2nd  =  Nature  of  modulating  signal  
HF  COMMS  &  HF  VOLMET   • 3rd  =  Type  of  information  transmitted  
 
• Use  single  sideband  
• HF  SSB  =  J3E  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  1  –  BASIC  RADIO  PRINCIPLES  
 
REFRACTION   SURFACE  ATTENUATION   ATTENUATION  &  REFRACTION  BY  FREQ  
     
• Radio   waves   are   refracted   when   travelling   • As   a   radio   wave   passes   over   a   surface   it   • Top  Column  =  A  -­‐  RADAR  
obliquely   from   a   medium   of   one   density   loses  energy.    
to  another  of  different  density.   • Higher   frequencies   are   more   susceptible   as  
• Due   to   different   velocities   there   is   a   slight   they  hit  the  surface  more  often.  
change  of  wavelength.  
• Low   to   high   density   =   slows   down   and  
bends  towards  the  normal.   IONOSPHERIC  ATTENUATION  
   
• Types  of  refraction:   • The   ionosphere   and   particles   in   the  
o Coastal    (Land  to  sea.  Flying  higher  or   atmosphere  can  absorb  and  block  a  radio  
moving   beacon   towards   coast   will   wave.  
reduce  effects)  
o Atmospheric   (Density   change   with  
altitude.     ATMOSOHERIC  /  RADAR  ATTENUATION  
o Ionospheric      
• When   radar   energy   strikes   water  
BASIC  RADIO  CIRCUIT  
droplets,   some   energy   is   absorbed   (and  
 
attenuated)  and  some  is  reflected.  
REFLECTION   • Human  Ear:  20  Hz  –  20  kHz  
 
• Radio  waves  bounce  off  a  solid  surface.   DOPPLER  EFFECT  
• If  two  signals  arrive  at  the  same  time  but  out    
of   phase,   there   can   be   fading   /   temporary   • +  VE  Doppler  Shift:  If  the  distance  between  
losses.   the  source  and  the  receiver  is  reducing,   the  
received   frequency   appears   greater   than  
that  transmitted.  
DIFFRACTION   • Occurs   because   more   waves   are   detected  
  than  if  stationary.  
• When  a  radio  wave  passes  a  solid  object,   • -­‐   VE   Doppler   Shift:   Distance   increasing   /  
radio  energy  is  scattered.   frequency  appears  lower.  
• Allows  radio  waves   to   be   received  behind  a   • Actual  wavelength  stays  the  same.  
mountain.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  2  –  PROPOGATION  
   
PROPOGATION   SURFACE  WAVES   SKY  WAVES  AT  NIGHT  
     
• Describes   the   path   of   the   radio   wave   from   • Due  to  diffraction  and  surface  attenuation.   • Changes  at  night:  
the  transmitter  to  receiver.   • Attenuation   slows   the   bottom   of   the   wave,   o D  layer  disappears  
• VLF  /  LF  /  MF  /  HF  Propagation:   giving  it  a  forward   tilt  allowing  it  to  follow   o E  &  F  layer  increase  in  height  
o Surface  Wave   the  curvature  of  the  earth.    
o Sky  Wave   • Attenuation  is   reduced  over   the   sea  (waves   • An   8   MHz   frequency   will   go   higher   in   the  
• VHF  /  UHF  /  SHF  Propagation:   travel  twice  as  far)   atmosphere  at  night  due  to  layers  increasing  
o Direct  Wave   • Lower   frequencies   have   a   longer   range   as   in  height.  
attenuation  is  less.   • In   order   to   avoid   signal   going   out   of   range,  
o Drawbacks   are   low   efficiency   aerials   using  approx.  half  the  frequency  will  cause  it  
DIRECT  WAVE   (not   ½   wavelength),   static   and   to  refract  more  and  stay  in  range.  
  transmitting  power  required.    
• Essentially  ‘line  of  sight’    
• Range  depends  on:    
SKY  WAVES  
o Height  of  Tx  +  Rx  
 
o Power  of  Tx  
o Height  of  intervening  high  ground   • When   radio   signals   are   refracted   by  
  ionosphere   (bent)   sufficiently   to   return   to  
earth.  
𝑴𝒂𝒙  𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆  (𝒏𝒎) =  𝟏. 𝟐𝟑(!𝑯𝑻 +   !𝑯𝑹 )  
• Lower  frequencies  are  refracted  more.    
   
• Range   can   be   reduced   if   required   by   • Ionosphere  is  approx.  50  –  500  km.  
lowering  the  power  of  the  transmitter.  
• 3   layers   to   the   ionosphere.   Higher  
• Space  waves  =  Direct  +  Reflected  +  Sky   frequencies   are   refracted   by   the   higher  
layers   but   anything   VHF   or   greater   passes  
straight  through:  
o F  Layer  –  HF  
o E  Layer  –  LF  /  MF  
o D  Layer  –  VLF  
 
• At  dawn  /  dusk  there  may  be  no  signal   due  
to  re-­‐ionisation.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  2  –  PROPOGATION  
     
SKY  WAVE  TERMINOLOGY   MF  /  LF  SKYWAVES  
   
• Critical   Angle   –   Minimum  angle  at  which  a   • MF   /   LF   gets   attenuated   too   much   during  
radio  wave  will  refract  and  return  to  earth.   the  day  and  there  are  no  skywaves   during  
o Anything  less  =  no  refraction   the  day.  
o Anything  more  =  incr.  skip  distance   • Night  is  fine  as  attenuation  is  less.  
• Skip   Distance   –   Distance   between   o Can  cause  interference  by  night  with  
transmitter  and  the  point  where  the  first  sky   surface  waves  (eg  NDBs)  so  Tx  power  
wave  arrives.   may  be  reduced  at  night.  
• Dead   Space  –   Area   between   the   limit   of   the  
surface  wave  and  the  1st  sky  wave.  
o Mainly  HF  band.   RANGE  OF  SKYWAVES  
o Minimised  with  a  lower  frequency.    
  • Transmitter  Power  
• Quality  of  receiver  
• Frequency  transmitted  
• State  of  ionosphere  

DUCT  PROPOGATION  
 
• Created  by   a   temperature  inversion  and  /  
or   rapid   decrease   in   humidity   with  
height.  
SKY  WAVE  FREQ  INCREASE  
  • Causes   super-­‐refraction   and   VHF   and  
above  can  have  unexpected  ranges.  
• Less  refraction  at  a  higher  frequency.  
o Critical  angle  increases   • Layer  is  normally  no  more  than  1,000  ft  
o Skip  distance  increases  
SIGNAL-­‐TO-­‐NOISE  RATIO  
 
• High  SNR  when  amplitude   of  wanted   signal  
is  greater  than  that  of  the  unwanted  signal.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  3  –  GROUND  DIRECTION  FINDING  

VHF  DIRECTION  FINDING   DIRECTION  FINDING  Q  CODES   VDF  ACCURACY  FACTORS  

     
• GDF   mainly   operates   in   the   VHF   and   UHF   • QDM  –  Magnetic  to  the  station   • Equipment  errors  
bands.   • QDR  –  Magnetic  from  the  station   • Propogation  errors  (reflections,  refraction,  
• Since  UHF  is  rarely  used  in  civil   world,  GDF   o Radials  go  outwards   duct  propogation  etc)  
is   commonly   referred   to   as   VDF   (VHF   • QUJ  –  True  to  the  station   • Site   Errors   (Reflections   from   objects   near  
Direction  Finding).   o True  to  the  union  jack   to  the  receiver)  
• Can   also   operate   in   MF   and   HF   bands   but   • QTE  –  True  from  the  station   • Multipath   Errors   (Reflections  from  objects  
very  rare.   o Cutey  from  ATC   between  aircraft  and  ATC)  
• Crossed  transmission  
VDF  AERIALS   VDF  CLASSES  
           
• Use  either  Adcock  or  Doppler  aerials.   • Class  A:  ±  2  Degrees  (Not  normally  used)  
• Doppler   is   the   most   common   and   the   • Class  B:  ±  5  Degrees  
direction   of   the   incoming   radio   wave   is   • Class  C:  ±  10  Degrees  
calculated  by  the  phase  of  the  Doppler  shift.   • Class  D:  Worse  than  10  Degrees  
• Aerials  are  vertically  polarised.  

FREQUENCY  SPACING   VDF  RANGE  FACTORS  

   
• 25  kHz  =  “Frequencies”   • Line   of   sight   limitations   -­‐   Tx,   Rx   and  
• 8.33  kHz  =  “Channels”   terrain  height.  
• Power  of  transmitter  
• Sensitivity  /  quality  of  receiver  
VDF  PROCEEDURES    
  • Range   may   be   increased   by   duct  
• QDL  –  Series  of  QDMs  are  given.   propagation.  
o Pilot  interpreted   • Range  may  be  decreased  by  sub-­‐refraction  
• QGH   –   Heading  and  heights  are  issued  to  the   (due  to  temperature  and  humidity).  
aircraft  to  maintain  the  published  pattern.  
o ATC  interpreted  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  4  –  AUTOMATIC  DIRECTION  FINDING  

RELATIVE  BEARING   NDB  CHARACTERISTICS   CARDIOID  POLAR  DIAGRAM  

     
• The  ADF  will  measure  the  relative   bearing   • Omnidirectional   • Loop  (Fig  8)  +  Sense  (Circular)  =  Cardioid  
of  an  NBD  from  the  nose  of  the  aircraft.   • Vertically  Polarised   • The   direction   of   zero   signal   strength   will  
• QDM  =  MH  +  RB   • LF  &  MF  Bands  (190  –  1750  kHz)   point  towards  the  NDB.  
• Surface   Wave   Propogation   (Sky   waves   • Due   to   0V,   ident   must   be   performed  
          could  interfere  at  night)   regularly  to  check  NDB  is  still  active.  
ADF  DISPLAYS   • Range:  10  nm  –  500  nm    
  • Power  Range:  25  Watts  –  10  Kilowatts  
• Fixed   RBI   (Relative   Bearing   Indicator)   will   • Ident:  2/3  More  Code  Letters   FIXED  LOOP  THEORY  
require  use  of  mental  maths  to  obtain  QDM.   • N0N  A1A  –  Unmodulated    
• RBI   (With   Moving   Compass   Card)   will   • NON  A2A  –  AM  Modulated   • The   rotating   loop   is   replaced   with   a   pair   of  
show   QDM   when   current   MH   is   set   on   the   fixed  loops  90  degrees  apart.  
display.   • A  electro  magnetic  field  is  set  up.  
• RMI   (Radio   Magnetic   Indicator)   will   LOOP  AERIAL  
always   show   QDM   as   it’s   linked   to   the    
compass.   • Different  orientations   of  the  aerial  will  give   NDB  RANGE  
different  voltage  differentials.    
• Maximum  differential  when  parallel.   • 200  –  500nm  most  common  
• Minimum  differential  when  perpendicular.   • Increase  TX  power  =  Increase  range  
• Increase  frequency  =  Decrease  range  
• NON   A2A   used   power   for   modulation   so   has  
a  lower  range  than  NON  A1A  

ANT  SWITCH  (REC  /  OMNI  /  SENSE)  

 
• Sense  aerial  only  is  used.  
• Needle  should  point  to  90  degrees  
• Once   deselected,   needle   should   point   to  
SENSE  AERIAL   beacon.  
 
• Required  in  order  to   resolve  the  direction  as  
two  positions  can  give  the  same  differential.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  4  –  AUTOMATIC  DIRECTION  FINDING  

BFO  SELECTOR   NDB  ERRORS   MOUNTAIN  /  MULTI  PATH  EFFECT  

   
• Used  to  ident  the  N0N  A1A  (unmodulated)   • Reflection   /   refraction   of  the  signal  in   the  
• NON  A2A  are   amplitude  modulated  with  an   MUTUAL  INFERENCE   mountainous  areas.  
audio  signal  so  no  BFO  required  to  ident.    
  • NDBs  transmitting  on  the  same  or  similar  
• NDB   frequencies   are   outside   the   audio   frequency  can  lead  to  mutual  interference.   COASTAL  REFRACTION  
range   so   an   appropriate   sideband   must   be   • Cannot   use   them   inside   the   overlapping    
created  to  hear  the  ident.   area.   • Aircraft  RBI  points  at  2700  rather  than  2200  
• A  frequency  of  299  kHz  (for  example)  could   • Stick   to   the   published   range   (applicable   to   • When   plotted   on   the   map,   aircraft   appears  
be   mixed   with   an   NDB   of   300   kHz   to   day  only).   ‘closer  to  the  coast’  than  in  reality.  
produce  a  beat  frequency  of  1  kHz.  
NIGHT  EFFECT  
MANUAL  TUNING    
  • Skywaves   from   other   NDBs   by   night   can  
• Another   use   of   the   BFO   is   in   the   manual   cause  interference.  
tuning  of  an  ADF.   • Minimised  by  listening  to  the  BFO  (to  check  
• Required  for  both  N0N  A1A  and  N0N  A2A.   clean  signal)  and  identing.  

ADF  SELECTION  PROCEDURE   STATIC  (PRECIPITATION)   • Minimised   by   flying   higher   or   moving   NDB  
    closer  to  the  coast.  
• Check  aircraft  within  NDB  stated  range   • Dust   and   water   droplet   rub  against   aerial  
• Increase  gain   creating  static.  
• Select  frequency   LACK  OF  FAILURE  WARNING  
• Causes  PD  disruptions.  
• Select  ANT  to  test    
• Must  make  physical  contact  with  aerial.  
• Select  BFO  as  required  **   • 0V   (as   used   in   cardioid)   is   also   present  
• Check  Ident   when   NDB   is   off   or   in   a   cone   of   silence  
• Select  ADF   STATIC  (THUNDERSTORMS)   (above  NDB)  
   
           
**   Even   if   not   required   for   ident   (if   NDB   was   • Nearby   thunderstorms   will   cause   ADF   to  
N0N   A2A),   the   BFO   will   always   produce   a   point  towards  lightning  strikes.  
higher   quality   signal   as   the   loop   aerial   is   • Just  vicinity  (not  direct  contact)  sufficient.  
removed.   It   can   be   used   therefore   to   check  
interference.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  4  –  AUTOMATIC  DIRECTION  FINDING  
             
QUADRANTAL  EFFECT   FINDING  DISTANCE  FROM  NDB  
   
• A   signal   arriving   at   450   to   aircraft   𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑  𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒  (𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑠)  𝑥  𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
structure   will   be   bent   by   the   metal    
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒  𝐼𝑛  𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙
framework  construction.  
• Normally   fixed   internally   so   no   longer   an  
issue.  

DIP  ERROR  
 
• When   in   a   banked   condition,   the   PD   is  
distorted.  
• Needle  will  dip  towards  the  lower  wing.  
• Approx   100   in   a   light   aircraft   although  
varies  from  aircraft  to  aircraft.  

ACCURACY  
 
• NDB  Accuracy:  ±  50  (Day)  
• ADF  Accuracy:  ±  6.90  

NDB  LOCATOR  
 
• A  low  powered  NDB  
• Usually   installed   as   a   supplement   to   ILS   at  
the  sites  of  the  outer  and  middle  markers.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  5  –  VHF  OMNIDIRECTIONAL  RANGE  (VOR)  

VOR  FREQUENCIES   VOR  TYPES   SITE  ERROR  

     
• 108  –  112  MHz:  VOR  &  ILS   • Broadcast  VOR   • Obstacles   near   the   transmitter   cause   radio  
o 40  Channels  Each   o Normally  a  terminal  VOR   waves  to  be  reflected.  
o ILS   Freq   if   first   decimal   digit   is   odd   o Transmit  radial  &  ATIS   • Limacon   pattern   is   disorted   and   amplitude  
(108.10  MHz  &  108.15  for  example)   • TEST  VOR   does  not  rise  /  fall  in  the  predicted  manner.  
• 108  –  118  MHz:  VOR   o Transmits  just  360  radial.  
o 120  Channels   o ±  4  degrees  requires  servicing   CONE  OF  CONFUSION  
 
 
• 50  KHz  spacing                  
• Overhead  VOR  
• Total  VOR  Channels  =  160   RMI  DISPLAY   • Can   result   in   flickering   of   the   ambiguity  
  indicator  (to  /  from  flag)  
• Tail  of  needle  =  QDR   • Possible  failure  flag  (often  prevented)  
EMISSION  TYPE  
o Head  therefore  points  to  QDM  
 
• A9W  
TERMINOLOGY  
• Horizontally  Polarised   CVOR  (CONVENTIONAL  VOR)    
o Less   noise   as   atmosphere   is   vertically    
polarised.   • CDI  =  Course  Deviation  Indicator  
• Signal  1:  Reference  Signal   • OBI  =  Omni  Bearing  Indicator  
• 2  Methods  of  IDENT   o Omni-­‐directional  
o Keyed  AM  morse  code  every  10  secs   • OBS  =  Omni  Bearing  Selector  
o Transmitted  on  a  sub  carrier  
o Voice   o FM  modulated  at  30  Hz  
• Signal  2:  Variphase  Signal  
o Directional   RMI  VS  CDI  
VOR  TYPES   o Transmitted  on  main  carrier  wave    
  o Appears  AM  modulated  at  30  Hz   • RMI  shows  bearing  
• Terminal  (108  –  112  MHz)   o Rotates  at  a  rate  of  1800  rpm   • CDI  shows  displacement  
o Up  to  50  watts   • Reference  +  Variphase  =  Rotating  Limacon  
o 25  –  100  nm   • The   phase   difference   is   measured   when  
o 40  channels   the  voltage  drops  on  the  rotating  limacon.   DISPLACEMENTS  DOTS  
• Enroute  (112  –  118  MHz)   o The   phase   difference   is   equal   to   the    
o Up  to  200  watts   radial  (QDR)   • Each  Dot  =  2  Degree  Displacement  
o 200  nm  (Max  300  nm)   o Zero  phase  difference  when  on  the  360   • The   outside   of   a   centre   circle   if   present  
o 120  channels   degree  radial.   counts  as  one  dot.  
o Does  not  drop  to  zero  like  cardioid.   • Full  Scale  Deflection  =  10  Degrees  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  5  –  VHF  OMNIDIRECTIONAL  RANGE  (VOR)  
                 
DOPPLER  VOR   FAILURE  FLAG   OVERALL  VOR  ACCURACY  
     
• Signal  1:  Reference  Signal   • Receiver  failure   • ±  5  degrees  95%  of  the  time  
o AM  Modulated   • Transmitter  failure   • Worst  case  ±  7.5  degrees  
o Transmitted  on  main  carrier   • Ambiguity  Indicator  Fail  (often  prevented)  
• Signal  2:  Variphase  Signal   • Signal  too  weak  /  out  of  range  
o FM  Modulated   DISTANCE  BETWEEN  VORs  
o Transmitted  on  sub-­‐carrier    
  VOR  MONITOR   • Distance   required   to   ensure   no   conflict  
• The   variphase   signal   is   transmitted   on   50     between  VORs  will  be  range  x2  
different   aerials   in   turn   around   the   • Will  power-­‐off  VOR  or  remove  ident  when:  
reference  signal.   o Bearing  exceeds  ±  1  degree  
VOR  DISTANCE  -­‐  AIRWAYS  
• Doppler   shift   is   used   to   calculate   phase   o Signal  strength  drops  by  15%  or  more  
 
difference.   o VOR  monitor  fails   𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆  𝑶𝒇𝒇
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒌  𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 =     ×  𝟔𝟎  
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆  𝑮𝒐𝒏𝒆
VOR  RANGE  FACTORS    
  • If   VOR   accuracy   is   ±   7.50,   what’s   the   max  
• Transmitter  Power   distance   the   VORs   can   be   apart   assuming  
the  airway  is  10  nm  wide?  
• Line  of  Sight  Limitations  
 
• DOC   5
• Nature  of  Terrain   7.5 =    ×  60  
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  𝐺𝑜𝑛𝑒
DOPPLER  VS  CVOR    
  Distance  Gone  =  40  nm  (Midway  Point)  
VOR  ACCURACY  FACTORS   =>  Max  Distance  is  80  nm  
• A   larger   aerial   is   required   to   reduce   site    
error  in  a  CVOR.   • Site  Error  (Reduced  by  Doppler)  
o Impractical  to  rotate  a  large  aerial   • Propagation  Error   VARIATION  &  VOR  /  ADF  
• Doppler   aerial   is   much   more   accurate   and   o Irregular  terrain  causing  oscillations    
there  is  very  little  site  error.   o Slow  Oscillations  =  Bends   • For  VOR  use  variation  at  VOR  beacon.  
o Rapid  Oscillations  =  Scalloping   • For  ADF  use  variation  at  aircraft.  
o Scallops  cannot  be  followed  
• Airborne  Equipment  Error   GREAT  CIRCLE  
• Interference  Error  (DOC  /  Below  LOS)    
o Irregular  terrain  causing  oscillations   • Flying   along   a   VOR   radial,   you   will   be  
following  a  great  circle  track.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  6  –  ILS  

ILS  CHARACTERISTICS   BACKBEAM   ILS  MARKERS  

     
• A8W   • Can   be   used   to   provide   centreline   • All  markers   transmit   at   75   MHz   but   have  
• Horizontally  Polarised   guidance   after   takeoff   or   during   a   go-­‐ different  pitch.  
• VHF  Band  (108  –  112  MHz  /  Odds)   around.  
• 3  Letter  Morse  Ident   • Backbeam  approaches  are  non-­‐precision  
o No  glideslope  indication  
o Less  accuracy  
LOCALISER   o No  markers  
  o Needle  sense  reversed  
• VHF  Band  
• Located  300m  beyond  end  of  the  runway.                      
• Left  lobe  AM  modulated  at  90  Hz   GLIDESLOPE  
• Right  lobe  AM  modulated  at  150  Hz    
• Difference  in  Depth   of   Modulation   (DDM)   • UHF  Band  (329  –  335  MHz)   OBS  /  COURSE  INDEPENDENT  
determines  position  of  localizer  needle.   • Abeam  TDZ  (300m  from  threshold)    
o Equal  depth  =  centreline   • Offset  120m  from  centerline   • Localiser   needle   will   indicate   deviation   in  
o Linear  increase  in  DDM  from  centreline   • Top  lobe  AM  modulated  at  90  Hz   correct   sense   regardless   of   OBS   /   Course  
• Bottom  lobe  AM  modulated  at  150  Hz   selector  setting.  
• Lateral  Range   • Measures  DDM  rather  than  phase  difference.  
o 80  either  side  of  centerline   • Good  practice  to  set  RWY  QDM  however.  
o Extends  10nm  from  runway  
• Vertical  Range  
o Bottom  of  lobe  at  0.45  x  G/S  Angle   SCALE  DEFLECTION  
o Top  of  lobe  at  1.75  x  G/S  Angle    
• EG/   30   glideslope   extends   to   a   distance   of   • Localiser  
10nm,   80   either   side   of   centreline   with   a   o Each  dot  0.50C  
vertical  coverage  between  1.350  and  5.250   o Full  scale  is  2.50C  
  • Glideslope  
  o Each  dot  0.140C  
  o Full  scale  is  0.70C  
 
• Once  established,  max  ½  scale  deflection.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  6  –  ILS  
                     
FAILURE  INDICATIONS   BENDING  
   
• Localiser  Fail  =  NAV  Flag   • Bending   of   the   localiser   and   glideslope   can  
• Glideslope  Fail  =  G/S  Flag   occur  due  to  other  aircraft  and  vehicles.  
• Critical  Area  established  for  CAT  I  
• Sensitive  Area  established  for  CAT  II  /  III  
ILS  MONITOR  
 
• If   installed,   a   second   transmitter   will   be   ILS  CATs  
brought  online.    
• If  no  second  transmitted:   • CAT  I  =  200  ft  DH  (Guidance  to  200ft)  
o Transmissions  stopped   • CAT  II  =  100  ft  DH  (Guidance  to  50  ft)  
o IDENT  removed   • CAT  III  =  0  ft  DH  
o Maintenance  alerted    
• CAT  II  +  CAT  III  require  autopilots.  

FALSE  GLIDESLOPE  
  RATE  OF  DESCENT  
• The   lower   150   Hz   lobe   is   sometimes    
reflected  from  the  ground.   𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝑹𝑶𝑫 = 𝑮𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆  ×    ×  𝟏𝟎𝟎  
• Approach   is   always   made   from   below   𝟔𝟎
glideslope   to   avoid   intercepting   the   false  
one.  
GLIDESLOPE  HEIGHT  
 
G/S  Height  =  G/S  Angle  x  Range  x  100  

FM  IMMUNITY  
 
• FM   transmission   near   to   108   MHz   may  
interfere  with  ILS  LOC  &  G/S.  
• Can  lead  to  erroneous  localizer  readings  
• Modern  aircraft  are  fitted  with  FM  filters  to  
filter  out  this  interference.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  7  –  MLS  

WHY  MLS?   FREQUENCIES   MULTIPLE  &  VARIED  APPOACH  PATHS  

     
• An   attempt   at   overcoming   the   shortcomings   of   • 5031  –  5091  MHz  (SHF)   • Approach   paths   that   vary   by   600   or   more   from  
the  ILS  which  are:   • 200  Channels  (500  –  699)   the   direction   of   the   associated   runway   can   be  
o Expensive   • Azimuth  and  elevation  use  the  same  frequency.   used.  
o Bending  of  the  beam   • DME   is   on   a   different   frequency   but   frequency   • Allows   for   simultaneous   approaches   to   made  
o Poor  runway  occupancy  during  LVPs   paired.   along   different   paths   (improved   airspace  
  capacity)  
• Whilst   it   was   being   invented   however,   the   GPS   • A   single   MLS   can   be   used   to   cover   multiple  
came  along.   runways.  
PRINCIPLE  OF  OPERATION  (TRSB)  
                         
INSTALLATION  
• Time  Reference  Scanning  Beam  
  CONTINOUS  RANGE  INFORMATION  
• The   difference   between   a   TO   Scan   and   FROM    
Scan  is  calculated  and  the  aircrafts  position  can  
• Co-­‐located  with  a  PDME  (Precision  DME)  
be  determined.  
• A   PDME   failure   would   require   a   straight-­‐in  
• In  the  azimuth  example  below,  there  is  less  of  a  
approach  to  be  flown.  
gap   between   the   TO   and   FROM   scan   when  
furthest  south.  

COVERAGE   OTHER  ADVANTAGES  

   
• Approach   Azimuth:   400   either   side   of   • Simpler  to  install  than  ILS  
centerline  extending  to  20  nm   • Not  sensitive  to  terrain  issues  
• Elevation:  150  to  20,000  ft   • Virtually   immune   from   scalloping   caused   by  
  vehicles  and  other  aircraft.  
• Free  from  weather-­‐induced  error  
• No  false  glide-­‐paths  

MULTIPLE  GLIDE  PATHS   GROUND  –  AIR  DATA  TRANSFER  

   
• No  fixed  glidepath  exists  as  with  an  ILS   • Transmits  timings  of  TO  &  FROM  scan.  
• The   pilot   can   chose   any   glidepath   within   a   • 4  letter  morse  at  10  second  intervals.  
range  of  0.10  -­‐  150   • Transmitter   locations,   airport   information   and  
• Suited  to  a  wide  range  of  aircraft.   performance  levels  can  b e  also  be  transmitted.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  7  –  MLS  
                         
MULTIPLEXING  
 
• Transmitters  transmits  continuously.  
• Receiver  alternates  between  scanning  elevation,  
azimuth,  backbeam,  data  etc.  

ACCURACY  
 
• Stated   accuracy   (95%   of   the   time)   at   200   ft  
above   MLS   datum   for   a   runway   10,000   ft   long  
with  a  30  glideslope.  
 
• Laterally:  ±  50  ft  
• Vertically:  ±12  ft  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  8  –  BASIC  RADAR  PRINCIPLES  
                           
CALCULATING  RANGE   PRI  &  PRF  RELATIONSHIP   MAX  RANGE  
     
• Measuring   the   time   taken   for   a   pulse   of   radio   PRI  =  1  /  PRF   • Determined  b y  the  PRI  
energy  to  return  to  the  antenna  will  allow  us  to     • A   long   recovery   period   is   required   for   a   long  
calculate  the  distance.   PRF  =  1  /  PRI   range   RADAR.   This   ensures   there   is   sufficient  
• Radio  waves  travel  at  a  known  speed  of  3  x  108   time   for   the   pulses   to   return   before  
m/s  (metres  per  second)  or  300  m/μsec  (metres   transmission  begins  again.  
per  m icro-­‐second)   THE  RADAR  CYCLE   • So,  Longer  Range  =  Longer  P RI  
   
• Pulse  of  energy  is  transmitted  for  the  duration   Distance  =  Speed  x  Time  
RADAR  MILE   of  the  pulse  length.    
  • Once   transmitted,   the   transmitted   is   turned   off   Max  Range  =  C  x  PRI  x  ½  
• 12.36  m/μsec   and  the  receiver  is  turned  on.  
• Time   taken   for   transmission   to   travel   1   nm   out   • The  receiver  now  waits  for  the  echo’s  to  return  
and  1  nm  back.   • This  ‘listening  phase’  is  known   as   the   recovery   MIN  RANGE  
period.    
• After   the   PRI   is   reached,   it   is   switches   from   RX   • Determined  b y  the  pulse  length  
RADAR  DEFINITIONS   to  TX  m ode  and  another  pulse  is  sent.   • When   a   target   is   close   to   the   transmitter,   there  
    is   a   risk   it   may   return   the   radar   energy   before  
• Pulse  Length   • Note  that  for  the  majority  of  the  time,  the  radar   the  transmitter  has  switched  to  RX  mode.  
o Duration  of  the  pulse  in  microseconds.   is  listening  for  echoes  rather  than  transmitting.   • So,  Shorter  Range  =  Shorter  Pulse  Length  
  o Pulse  Length  <  PRI    
• Pulse  Width   Distance  =  Speed  x  Time  
o Length  of  the  pulse  in  m etres    
  POWER  &  RANGE   Min  Range  =  C  x  Pulse  Length  x  ½  
• Pulse  Repetition  Interval  (PRI)      
o Time  interval  from  start  of  one  pulse  to  the   • A   normal   transmitter   requires   four   times   the   OR…  
start  of  the  next.   amount  of  power  to  double  the  range  (22).    
  • Since   RADAR   must   travel   there   and   back,   16   Min  Range  =  Pulse  Width  x  ½      
times   the   original   transmitter   power   is  
required  to  double  to  RADAR  range  (24)  

• Pulse  Repetition  Frequency  (PRF)  

o Number  of  pulses  transmitted  per  second.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  8  –  BASIC  RADAR  PRINCIPLES  
                             
RADIAL  RESOLUTION  (PULSE  WIDTH)   WAVELENGTH  CONSIDERATIONS   SYNCRONISITY  
     
• A   large   pulse   width   may   cause   targets   that   are   • Short   wavelength   (high   frequency)   will   be   • Secondary   radar   normally   transmits   its   pulse  
close  together  to  return  as  a  single  contact.   subject  to  greater  attenuation.   once  a  primary  return  has  been  received.  
• EG/   A   pulse   length   of   1   μsec   will   stretch   the   o Suited  for  weather  radar   • Minimises   transmission   time   on   1030   MHz  
target   by   150   metres.   If   another   aircraft   is   within   • Long   wavelength   (low   frequency)   will   be   which  is  the  common  SSR  frequency.  
150  metres  they  will  merge  on  the  display.   subject  to  less  attenuation.  
• A   short   pulse   width   will   therefore   be   o Suited   for   ATC   radar   as   transmission   are  
required  to  improve  radial  resolution.   less  affected  by  cloud  and  precipitation.   MOVING  TARGET  INDICATOR  (MTI)  
 
• Shortening   pulse   width   however   reduces   the  
time  the  target  is  illuminated  by  the  pulse,  thus   • Only   moving   targets   (identified   by   Doppler  
ANTENNA  TYPES  
reducing  the  chance  of  a  good  return.   shift)  are  displayed  on  the  radar  screen.  
 
• Fixed   objects   (buildings   etc)   are   therefore  
• Parabolic  Antenna    -­‐  Old  Type  
filtered  to  reduce  clutter.  
• Phase  Array  Antenna  –  New  Type  
o Requires  less  power  as  arrays  are  powered  
individually  rather  than  all  together  at  once.  
RADAR  APPROACHES  

SECONDARY  RADAR  (SSR)  

SURVEILLANCE  RADAR  APPROACH  (SRA)  
 
SECONDARY  RADAR   • Uses  the  ASR  (Aerodrome  Surveillance  Radar)  
  • Provides  azimuth  information  only  
• Ground  transmitter  requires  less  power   Normally  terminated  2nm  from  touchdown  
AZIMUTH  RESOLUTION  (BEAM  WIDTH)   •
o Signal  only  needs  to  reach  aircraft   “You   are   right   of   the   centerline,   turn   left   two  
  •
  degrees.  At  3  miles  from  touchdown  you  should  
• A   narrow   beam   will   improve   azimuth  
• Small  aerial  can  be  used  on  aircraft   be  passing  1200  feet.  3  miles  now.”  
resolution.  
o Aircraft  emits  omnidirectional  reply  
• A   narrow   beam   can   be   produced   with   higher  
 
frequencies.   However,   a   big   antenna   is  
• Echoes  Eliminated   PRECISION  APPROACH  RADAR  (PAR)  
required   to   achieve   a   higher   frequency   which  
o Only  target  replied  are  accepted    
will  require  a  lot  more  power.  
  • Utilises  a  scanning  beam  
• Ground  transmitter  requires  less  power   • Provides   both   azimuth   and   glideslope  
o Signal  only  needs  to  reach  aircraft   information.  
  • Both   SRA   &   PAR   are   normally   military  
• Reply   strength   independent   of   target   approaches  and  only  used  by  civil  traffic  in  case  
reflection  properties.   of  emergency.  
 
• Replies  can  be  coded  with  additional  info  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  8  –  BASIC  RADAR  PRINCIPLES  
                               
OTHER  RADAR  TYPES  

SURFACE  MOVEMENT  RADAR  

 
• Allows  control  of  aircraft   and   vehicles  moving  
on  apron,  taxiways  and  runways.  
• Operates  in  the  SHF  band.  
o EHF  was  blocked  by  precipitation.  

ADS  
 
• Automatic  Dependent  Surveillance  
• Aircraft   identifies   its   position   using   GPS   then  
transmits  this  to  ATC.  
• Useful   for   areas   without   radar   coverage   /  
obstructions.  

Radar  Type   Usage   Range   Wavelength   RPM   Pulse  Length  

Long  Range   Airways   250  nm   50  cm  

Terminal   DEP  /  ARR   75  nm   25  cm    

Aerodrome  Surveillance  
Vectoring   25  nm   10  cm    
Radar  (ASR)  +  SRA  
PAR   Precision  Appr   10  nm   3  cm   Scanning  

SMR   Surface  MVT   2.5  nm   3  cm   Highest  

 
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  9  –  AIRBORNE  WEATHER  RADAR  
                                 
OPERATION  PRINCIPLE   FALSE  ALLEY   GAIN  CONTROL  
     
• Uses   primary   RADAR  to  detect  reflection  from   • When   TS   is   present   behind   • Gain   controls   the   amplification   of   the   radar  
water  droplets.   another   cloud,   radar   echoes.  
• Whilst   the   wavelength   would   ideally   be   ½   the   attenuation   can   cause   no   • Gain   amplifies   input   signals   whereas   volume  
average   water   droplet   size,   this   would   create   a   return   from   the   clouds   amplifies  output  signals.  
very   high   frequency   and   attenuation   would   be   behind.    
too  great.  A  compromise  is  therefore  used.     • It  is  manually  adjusted  when  in  MAP  mode.  
• Can  create  the  impression  of  a   • AUTO   is   selected   when   in   WX   mode  in  order  
false   alley   on   the   radar   to  allow  the  STC  to  function.  
AWR  FACTS   display.  
 
• Frequency:  9.75  GHz  (SHF)  
STC  (AUTO  GAIN)  
• Wavelength:  3  cm  
 
• Beam  Width  =  3.50  à  50   STABILISER  (STAB)  FUNCTION  
• Sensitivity  Time  Control  
 
• Active  when  in  WX  mode  and  gain  on  AUTO.  
• With   STAB   ON,   the   antenna   is   stabilised   in    
ANTENNA  TYPE   pitch  and  roll  by  gyros.  
  • Without   STC,   clouds   which   are   closer   will  
• Without   STAB,   the   radar   could   overscan   (miss   appear   stronger   than   those   further   away   (due  
• A  phased  array  antenna  is  used.   the  cloud)  in  a  climb  for  example.  
• The   narrow   beam   required   can   be   produced   radar   attenuation)   even   though   the   intensity  
without   requiring   a   large   antenna   and   high   may  be  the  same.  
power  consumption.   • Applies   less   gain   to   closer   returns   in   order   to  
• Phased  array  also  produces  less  side  lobes.   pain  a  more  accurate  picture.  
• Operates  to  a  range  of  60  nm.  

AWR  COLOURS  
  TILT  
• Green  /  Yellow  /  Red  /  Magenta    
• Colour  gradient  indicates  turbulence   • Tilt  is  ±  1 50  
WX  MODE  &  WX/  TURB  MODE   • Scanning   too   low   can   cause   reflected   ground  
  return  to  mix  with  weather  return.  
• With   WX/TURB   mode,   the   doppler   function   is   • Scanning  too  high  could  lead  to  overscanning.  
activated  and  turbulence  detection  is  available.  
• High  P RF  is  used  so  range  is  reduced  to  about  
50  nm.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  9  –  AIRBORNE  WEATHER  RADAR  
                                   
MAP  MODE  
 
• New   aircraft   =   Beam   shape   unchanged,   STC  
deactivated  and  gain  used  manually  to  highlight  
terrain  features.  
 
• Older  aircraft  use  a  cosecant  fan  shaped  beam  
• More   power   is   deflected   to   the   ground   further  
away  to  provide  a  uniform  picture.  

CALCULATING  HEIGHT  OF  CLOUDS  

 
• Use  the  1  –  60  rule  
 
• Range  40  nm  
• Cloud  just  disappears  when  60  up  tilt  is  set  
• STAB  –  ON  
• Beam  Width  50  
• FL  120  
 
• Height  of  cloud  =  14,000  ft  +  12,000  ft  =  FL260  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  10  –  SECONDARY  SURVEILLANCE  RADAR  
                                     
OPERATION  PRINCIPLE   SQUITTER   REPLY  PROCESS  
     
• Primary  radar  identifies  that  a  target  is  present   • As  well  as  replying  to  SSR  interrogation,  aircraft   • The   aircraft   will   transmit   2   framing   pulses  
• Secondary   radar   then   interrogates   the   target   to   will   send   out   information   every   second   for   use   20.3  μsec  apart.  
obtain  more  information.   by  other  aircraft  in  TCAS.   • In   between   these,   are   information   pulses  
o The   amount   and   type   of   additional   which   supply   ATC   with   the   required  
information   obtained   depends  on   the   SSR   information.  
mode  in  use.   INTERROGATION  PROCESS   • This   process   is   called   pulse   position  
  modulation.  
• By  altering  the  PRI  between  Pulse  1  and  Pulse  3,    
OPERATION  PRINCIPLE   the  transmitter  can  interrogate  either  Mode  A  or   • If  IDENT  is  sent,  it  will  transmit  for  20   seconds  
  Mode  C.   after  the  second  framing  pulse.  
• Primary  radar  identifies  a  target  is  present   • By  using  these  fixed  PRI’s,  there  is  less  likely  to  
o Provides   ATC   with   target   return   and   trend   be  confusion  from  interference  as  the  aircraft  is  
information.   only  listening  to  the  expected  PRIs.  
   
• Secondary   radar   interrogates   the   target   to   • Mode  A  (Transponder  Code)  =  8  μsec  
obtain  more  information.   • Mode  C  (Pressure  Altitude)  =  21  μsec  
o The   amount   and   type   of   additional  
information   obtained   depends  on   the   SSR  
mode  in  use.  
o SSR   will   use   primary   radar   principles   to  
SPECIAL  CODES  
additionally   derive   the   aircraft  
 
groundspeed  
• 7700  –  General  Emergency  
• 7600  –  Radio  Failure  
• 7500  –  Unlawful  Interference  
SSR  FREQUENCIES  
 
 
• 2000  –  Entering  airspace  from  non  SSR  region  
• Transmits  on  1030  MHz  
• 7000  –  General  Conspicuity  
• Receives  aircraft  replies  on  1090  MHz    

TRANSPONDER  COMBINATIONS  
 
• There  are  84  =  4096  squawk  code  combinations  
available.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  10  –  SECONDARY  SURVEILLANCE  RADAR  

MODE  C  ACCURACY   SIDE-­‐LOBE  SUPPRESION   AIRCRAFT  IDENTIFICATION  

     
• Pressure   altitude   is   transmitted   which   is   based   • To   allow   aircraft   to   distinguish   between   the   • Aircraft  are  identified  by  the  following  means:  
on  1013  hPa.   main   lobe   and   side   lobes,   a   second   pulse   is   • 24-­‐Bit  ICAO  Aircraft  Address  (AA)  
• The  height  transmitted  to  ATC  could  be  up  to  50   transmitted  between  P1  and  P3.   o Hard  coded  into  the  transponder  
ft   different   from   the   actual   altitude   due   to   • P2  is  sent  out  omnidirectionally   • Aircraft  Identification  
rounding  during  transmission.     o Flight  N o  /  Aircraft  Registration  
• EASA   allows   a   max   discrepancy   of   300   ft   • If   the   amplitude   of   P2   >   P1   o Incorrect   entry   is   the   biggest   problem  
between  reported  level  and  readout.   the   aircraft   can   tell   it   is   with  mode  S  
picking   up   a   side   lobe   and   • Squawk  Code  
will  not  reply.  
SSR  DISADVANTAGES    
  • If   the   amplitude   of   P1   >   P2,   MODE  S  ALL-­‐CALL  
• Garbling   the   aircraft   will   reply   as   it   is    
o Replies   of   2   aircraft   in   close   proximity   genuinely  being  interrogated.   • Ground  station  sends  out  an  all-­‐call  periodically  
overlap  and  result  in  random  readouts.   in   order   to   check   for   new   aircraft   entering   its  
• Fruiting   airspace.  
o Aircraft  transmit  omnidirectional    
o Radar   picking   up   the   wrong   reply   since   MODE  S   • P2  pulse  suppresses  Mode  A  /  C  response.  
aircraft   transmit   omnidirectionally   and   on   • P3  is  replaced  by  P6  which  is  a  data-­‐block.  
the  same  frequency.   • The   data-­‐block   will   include   the   ground   stations  
• Antenna  Shielding   MODE  S  ADVANTAGES   IC  code.  
o Aerial   on   bottom   of   aircraft   is   hidden   from     • Side  lobe  suppression  achieved  with  P5  
radar  during  a  turn   • Eliminates  fruiting  and  garbling    
• Ghost  Targets   • Datalink   allows   for   air-­‐air   /   ground-­‐air   /   air-­‐ • On   receiving   the   all-­‐call   for   the   first   time,   an  
o Reflection  from  terrain   ground  data  transmissions   aircraft  will  reply  with  the   IC   code   and   it’s   AA  
• Only  4069  Codes   • Provides  TCAS  enhancements   (aircraft  address).  
• Greater  height  accuracy  (±25  ft)   • Ground   station   then   locks   out   the   aircraft   and  
asks   it   not   to   reply   to   further   all-­‐calls   for   18  
SSR  ADVANTAGES   seconds.  
  INTERROGATOR  CODES  (IC)  
•                  R
Longish        ange  
                 
• No  Clutter   • Each  ground  station  has  an  interrogator  code  
• Reply  gives  range,  bearing,  height  and  speed   • IC  =  II  +  SI  
• Less  power  required    
• Reduced  comms   • II  (Interrogator  Identifier)  =  15  codes  
• SI  (Surveillance  Identifier)  =  63  codes  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  10  –  SECONDARY  SURVEILLANCE  RADAR  
                                         
ROLL-­‐CALL   TRANSPONDER  REPLY  FORMAT  
   
• Once   locked-­‐out,   the   aircraft   will   only   reply   • 25  possible  Mode  S  reply  forms  
to  selective  interrogations.   • Message  consists  of  a  preamble  followed  by  a  
• Inclusion   of   IC   and   AA   in   interrogations   and   data  block.  
replies  reduces  fruiting  and  garbling.  
• Also   prevents   over   interrogating   (minimises  
transmission  time  on  1030  MHz  and  1090  Mhz)   LEVELS  OF  SURVEILLANCE  
 
• Elementary  Surveillance  
MODE  INTERLACE  PATTERNS   o Identifications   used   to   reduce   fruiting   and  
  garbling.  
• 1/3  of  time  is  spent  on  the  all-­‐call    
• 2/3  of  time  is  spent  on  roll-­‐calls.   • Enhanced  Surveillance  
o Additional   downlink   aircraft   parameters  
(DAPs)   are   included   to   provide   current  
state  vector  information:  
INTERMODE  ALL-­‐CALL  
o Groundspeed  
 
o Track  Angle  
• Allows   for   ground   stations   to   elicit   response  
o Turn  Rate  
from   both   mode   A   /   C   aircraft   and   mode   S  
o Roll  Angle  
equipped  aircraft.    
o Vertical  Rate  
 
o Magnetic  Heading  
• P1,  P2  and  P3  as  normal  to  interrogate  Mode  A  /   o IAS  
C  aircraft.  
o Mach  N o  
• P4  pulse  included  at  end  which  is  regognised  by   o True  Track  Angle  
mode  S  aircraft.    
• Long  Pulse  =  Mode  S  Reply  Required   • Future  Developments  
• Short  Pulse  =  Mode  S  Reply  Not  Required   o Aircraft  intention  information  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  11  -­‐  DME  

DME  CHARACTERISTICS   3.  RECEIVER   BEACON  SATURATION  

     
• Vertically  P olarised   • The  receiver  on   the   aircraft  is  tuned  to   the   ±63   • DME   ground   equipment   is   normally   limited   to  
• PON   MHz  frequency  and  picks  up  all  the  replies  from   2700  pulse  pairs  per  second  (pps)  
• UHF  (962  –  1213  MHz)   the  ground  station.   • If   all   aircraft   were   on   search   mode,   only   18  
• 256  Channels   • Amongst   all   the   replies,   it   searches   for   it’s   aircraft   could   interrogate   the   ground   station  
o 126  X  Channels  (12  μsec)   interval  pattern  which  was  transmitted.   simultaneously  (2700  /  150)  
o 126  Y  Channels  (36  μsec)   • Once   a   match   has   been   found,   it   computes   the   • If   all   aircraft   were   on   tracking   mode,   120  
• Typical  Range:  200  nm   range  from  the  station.   aircraft  could  interrogate  simultaneously.  
  • In   practice,   most   aircraft   will   be   on   tracking  
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒  𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 mode  and  a  few  on  search  mode.  
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 =    
FREQUENCIES   12.36  (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑟  𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑒) • Average  capacity  =  100  Aircraft  
 
• Interrogator   (located   in   aircraft)   transmits   on  
the  DME  frequency  between  962  –  1213  MHz.   OVERSATURATION  
MODES    
• Ground   station   replies   with   a   frequency   ±63  
 
MHz  different   • In   the   event   more   than   100   aircraft   try   to  
• Search  Mode   interrogate  the  ground  station,  receiver  gain   is  
o Before  a  ‘lock-­‐on’  has  occurred,  the  aircraft   reduced.  
1.  JITTERED  PRF   searches   out   to   its   max   range   in   order   to  
• This  results  in  the  ground  station  only  listening  
  identify   the   presence   of   the   DME   ground  
to  those  aircraft  closer  to  the  station  which  have  
• Interrogator  transmits  a  series  of  pulses  in  pairs.   station.  
a  higher  priority  than  those  further  away.  
o This  takes  place  at  150  pps  
• The   interval   between   two   pulses   making   a   pair  
o If  15,000  pulses  have  been  sent  and  no  lock-­‐
is  kept  constant.  
on  has  occurred,  it  reduces  to  60  pps   GHOST  FREQUENCY  
• The   interval   between   pairs   of   pulse   however   is  
   
randomly  generated.  
• Tracking  Mode   • Since  civil  pilots  cannot  tune  UHF,  a  ghost   VHF  
o Prevents  fruiting  
o Once   lock   on   has   occurred,   24   –   30   pps   is   frequency  is  displayed  on  the  charts  etc.  
used  to  reduce  load  on  ground  station.   • This   is   frequency   paired   to   the   correct   UHF  
  frequency.  
• Memory  Mode  
o When   signal   drops   out,   memory   mode   is                                              
entered  for  10  seconds.  
o Range  calculated  based  on  last  trend  info  
2.  GROUND  STATION  REPLY   o After   10   seconds   and   no   further   signal,  
  search  mode  is  re-­‐entered.  
• On   the   ±63   MHz   frequency,   the   ground   station  
sends  back  any  pulses  received  after  a  delay   of  
50  μsec  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  11  -­‐  DME  
                                             
CO  LOCATED  IDENTS   ACCURACY  
   
• Co-­‐Located  when  VOR  &  DME  within:   • Best   accuracy   when   flying   directly   TO   /   FROM  
o 2000  ft  (En-­‐Route)   the  beacon.  
o 100  ft  (Terminal)   • Worst  accuracy  when  flying  abeam  the  beacon.  
   
• Idents  of  VOR  and  DME  will  be  the  same   • Old  Beacon  accuracy  (answer  is  ±):  
   
• VOR  idents  every  10  seconds   1.25
0.25  𝑛𝑚 +   !  ×  𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒!  
• DME  idents  every  30  –  40  seconds   100
   
• DME   ident   is   at   a   higher   frequency   of   1350   Hz   • New  beacon  accuracy:  ±  0.2  nm  
(2700/2)    
• DME  is  more  accurate  than  V OR  except  when  
directly  overhead  the  beacon.  
SAME  LOCATION  IDENTS  
 
• When   in   same   location   but   too   far   apart   to   be  
‘co-­‐located’  
 
• Last  letter  of  DME  ident  changed  to  a  Z  

SLANT  RANGE  
 
• A  long  ranges,  slant  range  ~  plan  range  
• When  closer  than  3  x  height    

GROUND  SPEED  AND  TIME  

 
• A   decrease   in   ground   speed   readout   can   be  
expected   when   nearing   the   beacon   at   a  
constant  height.  
• This   is   because   the   change   in   slant   distance  
decreases  closer  to  the  beacon.  
• On  ILS,  you  are  following  a  constant  slant  so  this  
is  not  a  factor.  
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  12  -­‐  RNAV  
                                               
RNAV  TYPES   AUTO  /  MAN  MODE  
   
• Basic  RNAV  (B-­‐RNAV)  –  ±  5  nm  95%  of  time   • In   AUTO,   NAVAIDs   are   selected   and   tuned  
• Precision  (P-­‐RNAV)  -­‐  ±  1  nm  95%  of  time   automatically  based  on  range  /  geometry.  
• Better  to  use  two  navaids  that  intersect  at  900  

ERROR  TYPE  
 
• With  VOR,  the  error  is  a  radial  error.  
• With  RNAV,  the  error  is  a  cross  track  error  

NAVAIDS  USED  
 
• DME  –  DME  most  accurate  
• ADF  not  used  in  RNAV  

5  Dot  Display  
Mode   Full  Scale   1  Dot  
VOR   100   20  
ENR   5  nm   1  nm  
APP   1.25  nm   0.25  nm  
 
2  Dot  Display  
Mode   Full  Scale   1  Dot  
VOR   100   50  
ENR   4  nm   2  nm  
APP   1  nm   0.5  nm  
 
 RADIO  NAVIGATION  13  -­‐  GNSS  

 CONSELLATION   SEGMENTS   FREQUENCIES  

     
• 24  Satellites  (21  Operational  &  3  Spares)   • User   • Satellites  /  Space  Vehicles  (SV)  –  SHF  
• 1  Orbit  –  12  Hrs   • Control   • Users  =  UHF  
• 6  Orbital  Planes  with  max  of  4  per  each  plane   • Space    
• Cross  EQ  at  550  with  600  between  planes.   • Satellites  transmit   on  L1  and  L2  at   the   same  
• Height  of  orbit  –  20200  km   time.  
CONTROL  SEGMENT   • Military   users   can   compare   L1   and   L2   in   order  
  to   calculate   the   depth   of   the   ionosphere   and  
PRINCIPLE  OF  OPERATION   • Manages  performance  of  the  system   obtain  better  accuracy.  
     
• Signal   sent   to   aircraft   which   includes   the   • Provides  NAV  DATA  upload     • L1  =  1575.42  MHz  (Civil  +  Military)  
satellites   position   and   time   the   message   was   o  Almanac  –  Every  24  Hrs   • L2  =  12276.6  MHz  (Military  Only)  
sent.   o  Ephemeris  –  Every  2  Hrs  
• Aircraft   can   then   calculate   it’s   distance   from                                                          
satellite.   • Monitors  satellite  constellation  
• 3  Satellites  required  for  basic  position  fix  

DATABASE  SYNCING  
PSEUDORANGE    
  • A   ground   station   downloads   the   latest   almanac  
• The   aircrafts   receiver   clock   is   inaccurate   in   database   from   the   first   satellite   it   finds   after  
comparison  to  the  satellites  atomic  clock.   being  powered  on.  
• Due   to   this   error,   the   range   obtained   is   termed   • This   gives   it   a   rough   idea   as   to   the   location   of  
psuedorange   other  satellites.  
• This   error   is   minimised   by   use   of   a   fourth   • Once   it   has   located   the   other   satellites,   it   will  
satellite   to   help   obtain   the   correct   timing   download  their  individual  ephemeris  data.  
information.  

IDENT  CODES  
DATABASES  
 
 
• C  /  A  –  Coarse  Acquisition  Code  (Civil)  
• Almanac  –  Positions  of  all  satellites    
• P  –  Precise  Code  (Military)  
• Ephemeris  –  Position  of  individual  satellite